Module 2.

Protected area planning principles and strategies

INTRODUCTION
Protected areas play an important role in the evolving challenge of
maintaining a sustainable world. Not only do they provide refuges for biological
diversity, but they play an equally significant role in the changing economic
and social basis of local communities and nations. That protected areas are
increasingly becoming a source of tourist revenue is not surprising.
The last 30 to 40 years saw the massive degradation of natural resources
due to population pressure, ill-defined property rights, counter-productive
policies, and other factors (World Bank, 2005). A considerable portion of the
population lives in hinterlands or forested areas that are least nominally under
some form of government protection from commercial exploitation. This
segment of the population is generally poor; some may even be among the
poorest of the poor, as they rely heavily on forest resources for their survival
and livelihood. Non-sustainable exploitation of resources by local residents in
nominally protected areas is one of the factors leading to rapid loss of
biodiversity, a critical component of our life support system.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Resources
(IUCN) defines protected areas as areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated
to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and
associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective
means." These include science and nature reserves, national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries, protected landscapes, wilderness areas, biosphere reserves, and
conservation sites (American Association for Advancement of Science, 1995).

ISSUES AND PROBLEMS IN PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT

Funding for natural resource management Funding has been a

perennial problem for government agencies managing protected areas such as
national parks (Anda, Jr., 2006). With vast areas to cover and protect, the
budget from government is often meager and inadequate. The sight of
dilapidated buildings, poorly maintained park facilities such as water sources,
toilets and electricity; and grassy and unkept grounds is common in many
national parks in the region.
 Entrance fees Another challenge for natural resource managers involves
the mechanisms for setting and collecting reasonable fees. How much is
reasonable" and what should the protected area provide in return? National
park management in Southeast Asia is usually funded by the central or
national government and is supplemented by income from entrance fees (Adis
lsangkura, 2003). Often, the entrance fees charged to users are too low and do
not reflect the true value of the park's recreational benefits. Sometimes, no fees
are collected at all. In the long run, the facilities and services deteriorate and
end up in a very dismal state. As part of sound management, the fees,
therefore, have to be formulated in a rational manner.
The public's willingness to pay Surveys show that some respondents
are not willing to pay because they view the preservation of the park as the
government's responsibility. They believe that government tax revenues should
support the park preservation fund. Others, in addition, do not trust the
organization that will handle the fund (Dang Le Hoa and Nguyen Thi Y Ly,
2007).
Distribution of costs and benefits The issue concerning the
distribution of costs and benefits in protected area management could be a
critical constraint in the sustainable conservation of natural resources (Yazhen
Gong, 2004). When governments conserve protected areas, some opportunity
costs are given up. Opportunity costs are what society (or specific 2 groups)
give up in favor of conservation or protection. In many cases, conservation
restricts local people's access to natural resources, depriving them of goods or
services that could be significant to their livelihood. Affected communities in
protected areas believe that they should be compensated because they have the
traditional territorial rights over portions of these protected areas. However,
they often receive little or no compensation and become increasingly
impoverished and marginalized.
Settlement management options Settlements in protected areas are a
common occurrence in the poor countries of the Southeast Asian region. Many
forested areas, even those on steep slopes, are occupied by subsistence settlers
who are either indigenous to the area or migrants. Attempts have been made in
the post to threat forest occupancy as a social problem with a social solution
(Orapan Nabangchang, 2003). Resettlement has been among the common
solutions resorted to. Resettlement as a management option for communities in
protected areas has its costs and benefits. But these are often overlooked by
natural managers who fail to consider other workable and less expensive
options for managing settlements.
Building up funds for the management of protected areas One major
challenge in protected area management is building up a reliable, sufficient
and sustainable fund to maintain protected areas at necessary quality
standards. Without sustainable financing, many of the new institutional
arrangements for protected area management will remain futile (Anda, Jr.,
2006). Government subsidies alone will not make them work. Protected areas
have economic values that may be tapped to rationalize their use and generate
income that can be plowed back to their management and sustainable
development. Among these are ecotourism, timber and non-timber forest
products, energy resources, and water for domestic and agricultural use. Using
the principle of a market- or incentive-based instrument, fees may be collected
from users of the various goods and services derived from protected areas.
Impose lease and rental fees Building up the protected area management
fund requires the imposition of reasonable lease and rental fees on facilities
such as lodging inns, souvenir shops, visitors' center, food stalls, and tourist
booths in national parks. The Philippine experience indicates that a mean
annual income of about PhP 95,000 per park (USD 1,900) can be generated
from lease proceeds or rentals.
Tap the private sector for investment Private investment through a build-
operate-transfer scheme could help in creating or improving facilities that the
protected areas may lease or rent out in the future. The scheme, however, still
needs to be carefully worked out since it will require stronger capabilities in
terms of establishing partnerships with the private sector.
Secure donations from water users Another way to raise revenue is through
donations from water users. Direct beneficiaries, especially heavy water users
like water districts, irrigation users, hydropower plants, fishermen, and resort
operators may be tapped to contribute to the maintenance of the protected
areas that provide them unreported benefits.
Operate a protected area management system A protected area management
body such as a protected area management board or PAMB should be set up to
take the initiative and oversee the process of generating income for park
development and protection. It does not necessarily mean, however, that the
board should do the task alone. Building up the protected area management
fund will depend on the public's willingness to pay or to contribute a certain
amount.

Managing funds for the preservation of protected areas

Allocate budget appropriately for earning and non-earning protected areas

In the Philippines, more funds should be allocated to earning protected areas.
To deprive them of central government revenue would be a disincentive to local
income generation. But many parks have limited potential to raise funds
because of isolation, limited recreational endowments or other factors. These
areas may have important environmental assets that merit conservation and,
thus, central funding. Budget allocation strategies need to be designed to
provide the proper balance between incentives for local revenue generation and
the provision of public goods that cannot be financed without government
support.
Provide capability strengthening for those managing the fund to improve
fund generation, budget allocation, and staff commitment and performance,
protected area management staff should undergo capability building and
training. The areas of training may include resource assessment and valuation,
fee rating or price setting, billing, collection, budgeting and utilization of the
protected area preservation fund, and protected area financing and accounting.
Capability building will help the management staff make sound decisions
regarding budget allocation, formulate income-generating schemes and craft
conservation strategies for the protected areas.
Adopt a transparent and systematic recording system for revenue
collection and disbursement of the protected area preservation fund
Transparency is the pillar of good natural resource governance. Hence, to
improve the financial feasibility of the protected area preservation fund, specific
implementing guidelines on how revenues from different sources could be
collected and should be issued. These include operational procedures to create
an adequate and transparent revenue collection system as well as a faster
process of releasing funds.

Rationalizing a national park entrance fee system

Determine systematically the entrance fees of national parks As a guiding

principle, national parks that have more recreational offerings should charge
higher entrance fees than those with less.
Impose extra user charges for fragile recreation sites Visitors to special
and fragile recreation sites may be charged extra fees. This mechanism
performs a dual function: it can reduce the number of visitors in these
ecologically-sensitive recreational sites, in effect reducing negative pressure on
the environment, and transfer such charges to high-end consumers who can
afford to pay for such extra fees.
Adopt a similar pricing scheme for local and foreign visitors Charging
foreign visitors higher fees can be justified on the grounds that they do not pay
income tax to the local government and that they tend to be more willing to pay
when visiting a park. However, this may create resentment among foreigners
and can adversely affect the image of the tourism industry of the country in the
long run. If such is the case, other strategies for tapping those with higher
incomes and perhaps the higher willingness of foreigners to pay should be
explored. These may include offering of package tours inside the park and
operating souvenir shops.
Charge a minimal or discounted fee to selected low-income visitors While
new entrance fees increase park revenues, they should not become a burden
for low-income visitors. While a higher entrance fee may be charged to visitors
of the main section of the national park, recreational sites at the foot of a
mountain, for instance, might charge a lower entrance fee, just enough to cover
the operating costs (e.g., garbage collection and toilet clean up).
Do not charge fees for sites that perform a spiritual function In countries
like Thailand, visitors regard a temple with more spiritual than recreational
value. In such cases, no fees should be charged. It is also worth considering if
temples should at all be included in national parks as they do not present
recreational value. It may not be appropriate to put a price for their spiritual
value.
Involve local communities in ecotourism By engaging local communities ¡n
the management of these sensitive ecological areas, ¡t is hoped that incidences
of encroachment in the forest areas will be minimized. This will provide
community members an added incentive in taking care of the environment
since preserving nature would mean more visitors and higher income for them.

Enhancing tourism benefits

The value of a national park rests not only on its tourism and recreational
benefits. Its added value can be derived from its biodiversity and sociocultural
and historical features (Nguyen Thi Hai and Iran Duc Thanh, 1999). A look on
these other public benefits and making them a come on' for a park visit can
help enhance the total value of the park and its revenue collection.
Improve facilities to increase tourism benefits Improved facilities such as
roads, foot trails and confined animal areas increase tourism benefits which in
turn increase consumers' demand and their willingness to pay. Those with
higher education and income levels are usually willing to pay higher fees but
they also expect better facilities and service.
Provide public transport to enhance the park's accessibility As an
alternative to private cars, public transport can lessen the travel cost for
visitors and reduce the environmental impacts from parking lots, roads and
congestion. It would also help make the benefits of tourism more accessible to
low-income families.
Step up protection and conservation efforts Along with facilities
improvement, efforts to protect and conserve resources in the area should be
pursued. Activities like illegal cutting of trees and hunting of birds and wild
animals should be banned. Villagers should be made aware of the concept of
environmental protection. Hence, park and government authorities should
coordinate with each other to come up with environmental awareness and
protection programs. Communication strategies should also be reviewed to
ensure that the approaches that will be and are currently used are appropriate
for intended audiences.
Install social safeguards for affected local communities Some safeguards or
measures should be taken to devise a compensation scheme for local villagers
who lose part of their economic base from the park's use as a tourism site. This
is an important but often neglected aspect. This can be done in a participatory
manner involving the affected individuals or communities. It pays to remember
that an economically displaced or socially disturbed community would always
be a threat to tourism efforts.

Distributing costs and benefits in protected area management

The issue of the costs and benefits distribution in protected area management
could be a critical constraint in the sustainable conservation of natural
resources (Yazhen Gong, 2004; Nguyen The Lan, 2007; Thanakvaro Thyl de
Lopez, et al., 2001). When governments conserve protected areas, some
opportunity costs are given up in favor of conservation. Communities in
protected areas usually loose their access to economic and livelihood activities
due to the imposed restriction. On the other hand, people who do not live in
these protected areas enjoy the benefits of biodiversity and yet often do not
bear any cast for its protection. This inequitable distribution of costs and
benefits poses another challenge in protected area management and needs the
special attention of natural resource managers.
Provide relevant livelihood interventions Establishment of protected areas
should not undermine people's livelihoods. Often, conservation programs are
planned without considering the welfare of local communities. To offset the
cost of forest conservation on the part of local communities, livelihood
interventions should be an integral part of protected area management. 9
Interventions may include production activities and construction of
infrastructure for forest-dependent communities. These would enable local
residents to earn more income from other sources and eventually reduce their
dependence on the forest. In this way, the forest and protected areas will be
conserved more efficiently.
Provide inputs for production training Intervention activities should ensure
an adequate supply of inputs for starting up a livelihood, for instance credit,
seedlings and animal breeds. These should be accompanied by training to
enable the beneficiaries to use the inputs efficiently and effectively.
Compensate communities for their losses Conservation can cause social and
economic dislocation of local communities residing in the park. Proper
compensation should be given to affected local communities because local
support for conservation is important. Without it, it will be hard for the
government and park management to implement conservation programs. If the
local people are not compensated, conflicts are likely to arise.
Explore eco-compensation as an option [co-compensation schemes should
look into redistributing the costs and benefits to stakeholders. This could be
done through payment by the public, who usually pay little or nothing at all for
natural resource conservation, of an eco-value-added tax for biodiversity
conservation programs. The tax collected could then be used to implement
conservation programs.
Involve villagers Community programs must be extended to villages. Villagers'
involvement is essential to the successful control and monitoring of
conservation activities.
Intensify fund build-up and mobilization Marketing efforts for the park must
be intensified. Visitors provide essential revenues for park operations. Entrance
fees should be increased and an environmental trust fund should be set up to
collect donations.
Provide incentives to rangers Rangers must continue to develop their skills
and should receive salary incentives to encourage them to stay at their jobs.
Training seminars would improve staff expertise. Rangers should also be
allowed to cultivate deforested land around their stations to supplement their
wages.
Stop all commercial activities All large-scale commercial activities must be
stopped. Existing park regulations must be enforced to their full extent with
the cooperation of local authorities and other government agencies.
Conduct communication, social mobilization and environmental
education activities It takes a long time to reap the benefits from a
production forest since trees take years to mature and become harvestable.
Communication, advocacy and social mobilization activities are needed to
encourage affected residents to continue growing crops in production forests
while also identifying the most effective model of forest production (Nguyen The
Lan, 2007).
Reconsider resettlement as an option Many of the people living in a reserve
are unwilling to be resettled, even if they are given government support. They
feel a greater sense of security in the protected area in terms of food and
livelihood. They fear that if they are resettled, they would neither get farmland
nor employment. Those who are willing to resettle usually do so because of the
prospect of better education, basic amenities such as roads and electricity and
more employment opportunities.
References
https://scholarworks.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1023&context=soccon_pubs
https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/1c68ff8e-
a38f-4f39-abff-f3039188b7f5/content