TOPIC 3: COMMUNICATION MODELS

Models of communication help us in understanding the process of

communication.
A model is a graphic representation designed to explain the way a variable
works. It is a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show
the structure or workings of an object, system, or concept.
A model provides a simplified view of complex object, phenomenon, or
process, so that fundamental properties or characteristics can be high-lighted
and examined.
A communication model is a pictorial presentation to show the structure of
communication process in which various component elements are linked.
Arrows are used to depict the transmission of messages from communicator to
receiver.
A model of communication offers a convenient way to think about
communication by providing a graphical checklist of its various elements.
Some of the important models discussed in this section highlight the
complexities of the process of communication.
1. Aristotle’s Model
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was the first to give the earliest basic persuasive
communication model. His explanation includes three communication elements
namely.,
• Speaker
• Speech
• Audience
Aristotle was of the opinion that these three elements are essential for a
meaningful communication and that we can organize our study of communication
process under the three headings: i) the person who speaks, ii) the speech that
he/she produces, and iii) the person who listens.
Aristotle looked at communication from the rhetorical perspective i.e. speaking to
the masses to influence them and thus persuade them. Aristotle
constructed a model with three elements: Speaker-Speech-Audience in which
the basic function of communication was to persuade the other party.
This formed a basis for other earlier communication models.
Though Aristotle’s model was one of the pioneering models, his theory laid
emphasis that persuasive communication as a one-way process transpiring from
the communicator to the receiver. The important role of feedback from the receiver
was not included as a part of process of persuasion.
Thereafter in the twentieth century many more models came up. In the latter part
of the century, the concept of communication changed due to the advent of
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various mass communication media such as newspapers, radio, and television.
2. Lasswell’s Model
Lasswell put forth one of the basic but significant communication models with
social scientific background in 1948.
This model is a basic framework for analyzing one-way communication by asking
five questions: Who, said what, through which channel, to whom, with what
effects?
’Who’ raises the question of identification of the source of the message. 'Says
what ' is the subject of analysis of the message. Communication channel is the
medium through which the message has traveled. ’To whom’ deals with the
characteristics of the receivers and audience and 'what effect' can be seen as
evaluation of the effect of the message. These essentially comprise the basic
components of communication.
This model implied that more than one channel could carry a message. It was
considered an oversimplified model which implied the presence of a communicator
and a purposive message.
This model provides explanation for linear, one-way communication. It gives
importance to the communicator and his message but like in Aristotle’s model, the
element of feedback was not included. However, this model had helped in
improving the understanding about communication among social scientists
engaged in communication theories.
This model was useful in political communication, propaganda and political
symbolism. The model also assumes the communicator wishes to influence the
receiver and, therefore, sees communication as a persuasive process.
This model implied that more than one channel could carry a message. It was
considered an oversimplified model which implied the presence of a communicator
and a persuasive message.
3. Shannon and Weaver Model
Shannon and Weaver (1949) provided a visual mode of communication system in
relation to electronic media popularly referred to as Shannon and Weaver model
of communication or the transmission model of communication as it involves
signal transmission for communication.

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In this model, communication begins with an information source who creates the
message; he transmits it by means of his vocal apparatus which acts as a
transmitter (a telephone speaker in telephone); through the air as the channel with
noise interference (such as a telephone wire and sound waves) to the hearing
mechanism of the person he is communicating with acting as the receiver (such as
telephone receiver) which recreates the message so that another person, a receiver
can receive it.
This model includes the following basic elements:
• An information source, which produces a desired message to be
communicated out of a set of possible messages, written or spoken words,
pictures, music etc.
• A transmitter which converts the message into a signal suitable for the
channel to be used.
• A channel, which carries signals from the transmitter which transfers to the
receiver
• A receiver, a sort of inverse transmitter which transfers the transmitted
signals back into a message, and
• A destination, the final consumer of the message.
This model is important as it introduces the concept of noise. Noise in this model
refers to disturbances in the channel that may interfere with the signals transmitted
and produce different signals.
For instance, while transmitting signals, there is a possibility that some unwanted
disturbances such as sound in the case of radio, telephone called ‘noise’, are also
likely to be added.
This model attempted to explain how to overcome noise and how much redundancy
is necessary so that the receiver can successfully receive the signal and in turn the
right messages.
Important concepts in Shannon and Weaver’s model
Information: The information is viewed as a measure of one’s freedom of choice
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when one selects a message.
Entropy: The information can be measured by entropy i.e one’s degree of freedom
of choice to select a message. The ratio of the actual to the maximum entropy is
called relative entropy.
Redundancy: The amount of information that can be eliminated or added in a
noiseless channel, so that the message would still have meaning.
Channel capacity: The amount of information that can be transmitted per unit of
time. Beyond optimum level of information would lead to errors.
Noise: Any unwanted sound, distortion that may be added into the channel which
are beyond the control of the transmitter or receiver. However, the efficiency of a
communication system can be increased by reducing the noise, or by increasing the
band width or by increasing the signal power.
Coding process: Whenever we produce or receive a message we use codes.
Efficient coding involves best matching the statistical characteristics of the
information source and the channel.
Criticisms
Though the model attempts to explain further the process of communication, it
is a linear, one-way communication model without any emphasis on feedback.

Example of how the model works

A telephone conversation
Sender: The sender is the person who has made the call, and wants to tell the
person at the other end of the phone call something important.
Encoder: The telephone turns the person’s voice into a series of binary data
packages that can be sent down the telephone lines.
Channel: The channel is the telephone wires itself.
Noise: Noise may occur if the speaker mumbles, the telephone wires are
interrupted in a storm, or the telephone encoders/decoders are malfunctioning.
Decoder: The telephone that the receiver is holding will turn the binary data
packages it receives back into sounds that replicate the voice of the sender.
Receiver: The receiver will hear the sounds made by the decoder and interpret the
message.
Feedback: The receiver may speak in response, to let the sender know what they
heard or understood.

4. Charles Osgood's Model (1954)

This model does not follow the conventional pattern of communication from source
to channel to receiver.

Osgood in his model showed communication, as a dynamic process in which there

is an interactive relationship between the source and the receiver of the message
where a person may be a source one moment, a receiver the next and again a
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source the following moment. This is particularly true in interpersonal
communication.

An individual engaged in the communication process sends as well as receives

messages and as such encodes, decodes and interprets messages through a
number of feedback mechanisms.

Encoder– Who does encoding or sends the message (message originates)

Decoder– Who receives the message
Interpreter– Person trying to understand (analyse, perceive) or interpret

Osgood stressed the circular nature of communication. He conceived of decoding

and encoding as activities maintained simultaneously by sender and receiver; he
also made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages.

This model was found more applicable in interpersonal communication in which the
source and receiver were physically present. For example, when a teacher teaches,
the learners interact by raising queries, answering questions, etc.

The role of interpretation of the message has also been highlighted in this model for
decoding a message.

5. Schramm’s Model (1954)

Schramm has provided an overview of the elements and processes of

communication to explain how these work in practically all forms of communication -
communication with ourselves, communication with one person or a group of
persons, or communication with a mass audience of thousands and millions of
people.

According to the Schramm’s model, coding and decoding are the two essential
processes of an effective communication.

As per Schramm model of communication, there is a source, who encodes a signal,

and there is a receiver, who decodes the signal.
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The sender and receiver must be tuned together and maximum output from
communication can be achieved based on the common field experience of both the
source-encoder and the decoder-receiver

In this model, Schramm has stressed the importance of feedback and noise which
are considered essential elements of communication process. The feedback refers
to the response that a receiver makes to a source's communication.

Schramm also emphasizes that the communication is incomplete unless and until
the sender receives feedback from the recipient.

Drawing upon the ideas of Shannon and Osgoods, Schramm proceeded from a
simple human communication model to a more complicated one.

Schramm visualized the process of communication as a process of sharing of

experience and commonality of experience of those communicating. It introduced
the concept of shared orientation between sender and receiver.

The circles in this model indicate the accumulated experience of two individuals
engaged in communication. The source can encode and the destination can decode
in terms of the experience.

The sender needs some feedback from the receiver on how the message was
received.

According to Schramm, another form of feedback is getting response from our own
messages i.e., we hear our own voices and correct our mispronunciations. For
example, we can see our own writing and can correct any misspelling or change the
style. Similarly, we can edit our own audio/visual programme before presentation.
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Noise in Schramm’s model is anything that impacts the signal. It is not anything that
the sender has put intentionally into the communication channel but is actual
physical noise which may come from the roadside or the passing of an aeroplane,
or it may emerge from a faulty transmission, a blurred picture in the newspaper or a
much used and faded film on screen.

Another important factor in this model is overlapping fields of experience between

the sender and the receiver.

Field of experience refers to how the experiences, environment and culture can
influence how a sender and receiver interpret a message. It is important in any
communication because each person brings unique factors to the interaction.

When the sender and receiver have the same field of experience, communication is
achieved as both parties send and receive messages.

For a signal to make it successfully to the receiver, it must be within a shared field of
experience. The source can encode and the destination can decode in terms of the
experience.

If the circles do not meet there is an absence of such common experience which
makes the process of communication difficult.

Schramm further elaborated his model by highlighting the frames of reference of the
persons engaged in communication. He took into account the wider social situations
and the relationships of both source and destination.

He maintained that when both have the same kind of situations, the message is
selected, received, and interpreted according to the frames of references in which
noise and feedback play important roles.

He also included the idea of feedback by expressing that communication is

reciprocal, two-way, even though the feedback may be delayed.

The weakness of this model is that while less linear, it still accounts for only bilateral
communication between two parties.

The complex, multiple levels of communication among several sources that may
take place simultaneously, say in a group discussion, is not accounted for.

The linear models of communication held that a message flows only from the
sources to the recipient as for instance from a radio to a listener.

Later on the interactive models were developed which take into account bilateral
(two-way) communication.

Then transactional models of communication were developed. These include the

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components of linear model as well as the interactive ones. It emphasizes both the
content, i.e. what is being communicated and also includes the component of
relationship of the source and the recipient. The message gets more complex as the
communication event (e.g. conversation) progresses.

Example: A teacher and learners will interact more if the content taught is based
upon the experience of the learners and also if the teacher is friendly and has a
good relationship with the learners, there will be more interactions.