Forces & Energy

Energy Transfers & Systems

When a system changes, energy is transferred How energy is transferred:

System- single object or group of objects that you are
• Heating
When heating a pan, energy is transferred into the system
interested in.
by heating thermal energy stores so increases temp
Closed system- the net change in energy is zero. When heating a camping stove, energy is transfers from
When a system changes, some energy is dissipated chemical energy store of it which increases temp
and stored in less useful ways.
• Forces doing work
(Dissipated: spreads out) When an object (system) is lifted work is
Efficiency of transfer: proportional to the total energy being done against gravity
supplied and ends up in useful energy stores. So causes energy transferred to its kinetic & GPS

• Electrical equipment
Sankey diagrams - Use diagrams to show how Electrical devices work by transferring energy between
efficient a transfer is different energy stores
Work done & Power
WORK DONE AND ENERGY Power
If a force moves an object WORK IS DONE and ENERGY
IS TRANSFERRED. How much work is done per second (watts)
Thing applying force needs a source of energy (fuel or
food)
When a force does work, energy is transferred
mechanically from one store to another.

The larger the power of the object, the more work it does per
second

One joule of work is done when a force of one newton

causes an object to move one meter. 1 joule= 1 newton
meter (Nm)
 Forces
FORCES- a push or pull caused by interacting
with something.
• A vector with size and direction (use arrows to represent Free body force diagrams
forces) Shows an isolated body (object/system) with forces acting on it
• The sizes show the relative magnitudes of forces
• Some forces only act when objects touch together – • Direction of arrows show direction of forces
(Contact forces) example: friction between a cars tyre
and the road
• Other forces can act without the objects touching. (Non- Resultant force
contact forces) example: gravitational attraction between Shows the overall force acting on object along any direction
objects like earth and sun is caused by gravitational • If you have many forces acting on object at single point
fields interacting. you can replace it with a single force (as long as it has same effect/force)
which is the resultant force
• Interacting magnetic fields cause attraction or repulsion
between magnetic objects, causing attraction or • If the forces act along same line (parallel),
repulsion between electrical charges the overall effect is found by adding those going in same direction &
• When two objects interact. Bot feel are equal, but subtracting those in opposite direction
opposite force (Newton law 3)
• Objects in equilibrium have a resultant of zero-
• Pair of forces called interaction pair with a pair of vectors either stationary/ move at steady speed
(arrows)
 Forces & vector diagrams
Forces and vector diagrams Object is in EQUILIBRIUM if forces are balanced:
Scale drawings (to find a resultant force): -If all forces on object make a resultant force of 0 they are
in EQUILIBRIUM.
-On scale diagram- tip to tail tip of force should meet tail of
Step by step:
the force,( in a triangle)
1. Draw all forces acting on an object, to
scale. (tip to tail) To find a missing force
2. Draw a straight line from start of first 1. draw forces you know (to scale)
force to end of last force- (net force) 2. join end of last force to start of first force
3.Measure length of resultant force on 3. MAKE SURE YOU DRAW IT IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION
diagram (to find magnitude) of fore and (opposite direction to resultant force)
angle to find direction. 4. The last line is the missing force
5. so you can measure force and direction.

You can SPLIT a force into COMPONENTS

Not all forces act horizontally or vertically- some act at
awkward angles.
Easier to deal with, split into 2 components at right angles.
Same effect as a single force (acting together)
Work out force by drawing on a scale grid.
Moments
Moments- turning effect of a force Gears fit together to transmit turning effect
Size of moment given by: Gears- circular cogs with “teeth”. Teeth interlock so that turning of one
causes the other to turn (opposite direction)
-Force applied to small gear= small moment. Gear applies same force
to the next gear. If the next gear is larger, this force is applied further
from pivot, so moment is larger.
Example:
-Interlocked gears rotate at different speeds-larger the gear, slower it
-Force of spanner cause moment on nut. (pivot) spins
-Maximum moment, require pushing at right
angles. At any other angle it could be a short
Example:
distance= smaller moment.
Large gear has 16 teeth, medium 8 teeth. Ratio of teeth is 8:16 there
PRINICPLE OF MOMENTS: equilibrium (one
2:1
that’s not turning)
(Every turn large gear does medium turns twice)
Force applied to each gear is the same, and the radius of a gear is
equal to the distance of the force applied.
Moments- levers
LEVERS- easier for us to do work
Transfers turning effect of the force- push one end of lever down and rotation around pivot causes other end to rise.
Levers make it easier to do work, increase distance from pivot, longer lever smaller force.

Lever Examples

Class 1 Scissors

Class 2 Wheelbarrow

Class 3 Tweezers
Electricity & circuits
Circuit symbols

Equations to learn Equation symbols

Current: I
Charge: Q
Potential difference: V
Energy transferred: E
Power: W
Time: t
Resistance: R
 Current
Current- flow of electrical charge around a
circuit Current flowing through a circuit depends on resistance of
Potential difference- driving force that component, and potential difference.
pushes charge around. Unit – V (voltage)
• Higher potential difference, higher the current.
Resistance- anything slowing flow down. • Higher resistance, smaller current.
Unit ohm • Total charge is dependent on current & time

(untis; current.amperes A, charge. Coulombs (C), Time

seconds (S))
Potential difference & resistance
Potential difference- energy transferred per coulomb of charge Resistance- in a circuit electrical charge through a
passing between 2 points on electrical circuit component must work against resistance which can
Energy transferred= charge moved x potential difference (unit, cause electrical energy transfer.
energy J, joules, charge, coulombs, c, potential voltage v) -Some energy transferred usefully and some is
dissipated to thermal energy of component and
For example, amount of energy transferred by motor to its kinetic
surroundings causing resistor to heat up.
energy store
THIS HAPPENS BECAUSE-
• electrons collide with ion in lattice of resistor giving
ions energy, causing vibration and heat.
• -More ions heat, harder it is for electrons to pass
through resistor, Potential difference and current
therefore decreasing.
Since the current of the circuit is affected by its • -If it becomes too hot, no current can flow, 1
resistance, you can use a variable resistor to change the exception, resistance of thermistor decrease with
current of the supply increase in temperature.

One joule= one volt

AKA VOLTAGE
Resistance, PD, and current
Investigating components
1.Standard test circuit PRACTICAL – investigating a
-Test for relationship between PD, component, fixed resistor / lamp
resistance and current 4 range of Investigating DIODES, LDR AND THERMISTORS
components , eg filament 1.Connect circuit -You can also create IV graphs for diodes, LDRs
2.Change output PD of power and thermistors
lamp, fixed resistor etc. (easily
illustrated on I.V graph) supply
3.Take several readings from 1. DIODES- after you take measurements, from
ammeter and volt meter currents remove diode and swap
2. Standard test contains 4.Plot current against PD on IV direction(should find current wont flow no more)
graph 2.THERMISTORS- keep supple PD constant,
-Ammeter (measure current, put 5.Use data to work out resistance gradually heat thermistor (water in beaker).
anywhere in circuit but must be for each measurement , of I and V Should find as heat increasing, thermistor
placed in series, NEVER
to compare resistance change as current increases, resistance decreases.
PARALLEL)
I and V changes. 3. LDRs – conduct experiment in dim room, PD
-Main circuit- must be place in 6.Make sure experiment doesn't supply constant and slowly adjust light level near
series with component get too hot (mess up results) to LDR. As light gets brighter, current through
-Voltmeter- measure PD across 7.Repeat and calculate mean LDR increases, resistance decreases.
component, must be placed in
parallel under test
 Circuit devices
Graphs- IV graphs show how as current varies as you change PD.

Linear components- STRAIGHT LINE (eg fixed resistor)

• -Line goes through 0,0, resistance is equal to inverse of gradient
• -Steeper graph, lower resistance

Non-linear components- CURVED (eg filament lamp, diode)

• Find resistance by: PD/Current = resistance
• LDR- light dependent resistor
• (eg, automatic night lights, outdoor lighting, burglar detectors)
• -Bright light resistance falls, darkness resistance is highest.
• Thermistor- temperature dependent resistor

Hot conditions- resistance drops

cool conditions-resistance increases
(eg, temperature detectors, car engines)
 Series & parallel circuits
• Series circuit- different components Tests Series Parallel
Potential difference There’s a bigger PD when more cells Potential difference is the
connected in a line, end to end, are in the series (e.g. Two batteries same across all components
between the + and _ ends of power with P.D 1.5 connected in series they V1=V2=V3 etc.
supply supply 3V between them)
Current Current is the same everywhere. Current shared between
(depends on total P.D and the total branches. Total current
resistance I= V/R) flowing around circuit= total of
all currents through separate
components. I total=I1 + I2
etc.
Resistance Total resistance of circuit increase as Total resistance of circuit
• Parallel- each component is you add resistors decreases if you add a
separately connected to + and – second resistor.
ends of power supply (except
ammeters, always connected in
series) Series Parallel
Removing components Remove/ disconnect the circuit Remove of disconnect any
is broken and stops working components, hardly effects
circuit at all. (obviously how
most systems are connected
(eg cars)
More on series & parallel circuits
• Adding resistors increase total resistance

Investigating these properties

• Series- total resistance of two components= sum of resistance 1. Set up circuit
• This is because adding a resistor= the two components having to share total P.D 2. Vary the output PD from the power supply
& record reading from ammeter &
• Potential difference across each resistor is lower, current therefore is lower. Current voltmeter for each charge
through circuit is same everywhere so when resistor is added total current is
3. Replace the resistor with a filament lamp
reduced= total resistance of circuit increases.
to the circuit in the parallel to the first,
• Bigger components resistance, bigger its share of total potential difference. connect ammeters & a second voltmeter
4. Again vary the output PD of the supply
5. Write down the current through each
• Parallel- two resistors in parallel, total resistance is less than the ammeter & the pd of each component
resistance of the smallest of two resistors.
• In parallel both resistors have same PD across them as a source, the “pushing force”
making current flow is same as the pd for each resistor you add
• By adding another loop, current has most than one direction to go
• Increases total current that can flow around circuit.
 Energy circuits
Energy transferred from cells and other sources:
Electrical appliances designed to transfer energy in circuit when a
current flows

Energy transferred-
-Dependent on CURRENT, P.D and TIME
When electrical charge goes through a
change in p. d, energy is transferred. The higher the current the more energy transferred to thermal stores of
Energy is supplied to power source to “raise components.
it through a potential”. Charge gives up this -Heating normally increases resistance of components.
energy when it “falls” through a potential
drop in components elsewhere in circuit
Heating a circuit isn’t always bad
Generally- heating component reduces efficiency (less energy transferred to useful energy
stores as most is transferred to thermal energy stores)

Larger the current/ p .d across component= 1.If temp is too high, components in circuit may melt- stop working, or not work properly.
more energy transferred to it. 2.Use FUSES to protect circuit- however these melt and break if current becomes too high
3.Other advantages of heating a current- if you want to heat something, such as a Toaster.
(coil wire inside has a very high resistance)
-Transfers energy to bread, heating it
4.Other examples are filament bulbs and electric heaters (work in same way)
 Power in circuits
Power in circuits Power transferred depends on; p.d and current p.D
- tell us how much energy each unit of charge transfers
Total energy transferred (of appliance) depends on how Current- tells us how much charge passes per unit time.
long appliance is on for and its power Both of these effect the rate in which energy is transferring.

Power of AN APPLIANCE can be found by:

Appliances often given a power rating- labelled with
maximum safe power that they can operate at:
Power rating- maximum amount of energy transferred
between stores per second when appliance is in use If you don’t know the potential difference you can use this:

Higher power doesn’t necessarily mean it transfers more

energy usefully. Appliance may be more powerful than another,
however less efficient. I= amperes (a), R (resistance in ohms)
Power also depends on CURRENT AND POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE
Electricity in home
Electric shock
is reduced as
Two types of electrical supply- Plugs appliance
becomes
alternating and direct currents Most appliances are connected to the main supply by 3 core cables isolated as
Mains supply is a.c Battery supply so have 3 wires inside them with core of copper & coloured plastic plug sockets
A.C supplies the movement of the coating have switches
charges is constantly changing direction.

Alternating currents- produced by

alternating voltages (positive and negative
ends of p.d keep alternating) TOUCHING LIVE WIRE MAY GIVES YOU AN ELECTRIC SHOCK
-body just like earth is at 0 V
UK MAIN SUPPLY- around 230 v -Even if light switch you touch a live wire, large potential difference is produced across
Frequency of a.c mains supply is 50 body and current flows through you. Causes large electric shock which could injure or
CYCLES PER second or 50 hertz kill you
h of plug socked is turned off there is still a danger of shock. No current, however still a
Direct current- the movement of charges potential difference. If you made contact with wire your body would provide a link
is only one direction. Created by a direct between supply and earth and current would pass through you.
voltage (pd cant be both positive or Any connection between live and neutral can be dangerous. Creates a low resistance
negative not both) path to earth, huge current will flow, result in a fire.
Fuses & earthing Fuse rating:
Fuses should be rated as near as possible just high than the
Prevent electrical overloads normal operating current
(LARGER THE CURRENT, THICKER THE CABLE YOU NEED TO CARRY IT Household
Surges (sudden increases) in current can occur
(TO STOP IS GETTING HOT & MELTING)- that is why fuse rating needed for fuses
because of changes in a circuit (eg. An appliance cables usually increases which cable thickness
suddenly switching off) or a fault in an electrical Work in the same
way but protect
appliance
wiring in house
not just in an
Lead to circuits & wiring in your appliances melting/
appliance
causing fire or if faulty can cause electric shocks

How they work Circuit breakers can be used instead of

Insulating materials make appliances
1. If a fault develops in which the live wire somehow household fuses
‘DOUBLE INSULATED’
touches the metal case, because the case is Advantages Disadvantages
earthed, too great of a current flows in through the All appliances with metal cases are usually earthed to reduce Circuit breakers turn off Instead of melting a fuse a
live wire, through the case and out down the earth danger of electric shock quicker than the time large current may instead
wire taken for fuse to melt trip (turn off) a circuit
2. This surge in current melts the fuse when the Earthing: the case must have been attached to an earth wire
breaker
amount of current is greater than the fuse rating. so it can never become live They can also be reset
The fuses are connected to the live wire so which is easier than having More expensive than fuses
Double insulated: If it has a plastic casing & no metal parts
breaking the fuse breaks circuit & cuts off the live to replace a fuse
showing
supply
3. This isolates the whole appliance so impossible to Anything double insulared doesn’t need an earth wire (just a Safer than fuses
get electric shock from case & prevent risk of fire live and neutral),
caused by heating effect of a large current
Two core cables: cables that only carry live & neutral wires