PHYSICS lab manual aissce

(2023-24)
Submitted to: Submitted by:
MR. KARANVEER SINGH students name
Class-xii
Roll NO.
EXPERIMENT - 1
Aim: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus cmTent.
Apparatus: A metallic conductor (coil or a resistance wire), a batte1y, one way key, a voltmeter and an ammeter of
appropriate range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper, a scale.

Formulae Used: The resistance (R) of the given wire (resistance coil) is obtained by Ohm's Law V =R
I
Where, V : Potential difference between the ends of the given resistance coil. (Conductor)
I: CmTent flowing through it.

If l is the length ofresistance wire, then resistance per cm of the wire= R

1
Observation:
(i) Range:
Range of given voltmeter = 3 v
Range of given ammeter= 500
mA

Battery K
,-----------!+ ,1------------------------'l>IVV\'VV','VV'-

+
A

(ii) Least count: Fig. 1.1

Least count of voltmeter= 0.05v

Page 1 (PHYSICS)
 Least count of ammeter= 10 mA
(iii) Zero e1rnr:
Zero enor in ammeter, e1 = 0
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 = 0
Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:
Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading, V (v) V
Sr.No. Observed Value Observed Value
-=R
I
1 50 500mA 16 16x0.05=0.8 1.6Q
2 35 350mA 11 0.55 1.57Q
3 32 320mA 10 0.50 1.56Q
4 19 190mA 6 0.30 1.58Q
5 10 l00mA 3 0.15 1.50
Mean R = 1.56
Length of resistance wire: 28 cm
Graph between potential difference & current:

Scale: X - axis : 1 cm= 0.1 V of potential difference

Y - axis: 1 cm= 0.1 A of cmTent
The graph comes out to be a straight line.

Result: It is found that the ratio V/I is constant, hence cmTent voltage relationship is e
Law is verified.
Unlmown resistance per cm of given wire= 5.57 x 10-2 Q cm-1 Po1e111iol Difference (V) --->
Precautions: Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
• The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
Source of Error: Rheostat may have high resistance.
The instmment screws may be loose.

EXPERIMENT - 2
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using Whetstone's btidge (meter btidge) & hence detemline the specific
resistance of the mate1ial.
Apparatus: A meter btidge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a laclanche cell, a jockey, a one
way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, meter scale, set square, connecting wires and sandpaper.
R X

0 10 20 30 40 50 100

A B C
--------------1100-1)
E K

Fig. 2.1 Circuit Diagram - Meter Bridge

Formulae Used:
(i) The unlmown resistance X is given by:
X= (IOO-l) xR Where,
l
R = known resistance placed in left gap.
X = Unknown resistance in right gap of meter b1idge.
/=length of meter b1idge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)
Page 2 (PHYSICS)
 XtrD2
(ii) Specific resistance ( p) of the material of given wire is given p = ---
4L
Where,
D: Diameter of given wire L: Length of given wire.
Observation Table for length (/) & unknown resistance, X:
Resistance from Unknown Resistance
Sr. Length Length
resistance box X= R. (100 - l) Q
No. AB=/cm BC=(100-1) cm
R (ohm) 1
1 2 41 59 2.87
2 4 60 40 2.66
3 6 69 31 2.69
4 8 76 24 2.52
Table for diameter (D) of the wire:
Circular Scale Reading
Observed diameter
Sr. Linear Scale No. of circular
Value D =N + n xL.C.
No. Reading (N) mm scale divisions
coincidin2 (n) n x (L.C.) mm mm
1 0 34 0.34 0.34
2 0 35 0.35 0.35
3 0 36 0.36 0.36
4 0 35 0.35 0.35
Observations:
• Least count of screw gauge: 0.001
cm Pitch of screw gauge: 0.1 cm
Total no. of divisions on circular scale: 100
Pitch
Least Count= ---------------------------------------
Noodfiv.isions on circular scale
:.LC=0.00icm
• Length of given wire, L = 25cm
Calculation:
• For unknown resistance, X:
MeanX= X1+X2+X3+X4=2.680
4

• Mean diamet.er, D1 +D 2 +D 3 +D 4
D= 4 =0 035cm
.
7rl)2
• Specific Resistance, p = X. -- = I. 03 x 10-4Q cm
4L

Result: Value of unknown resistance= 2.68Q

Specific resistance of material of given wire =1.03x10-40 cm
Precautions: All plugs in resistance box should be tight. Plug in key, K should be inse1ted only while taking
observations.
Sources of Error: Plugs may not be clean.
Instnunent screws maybe loose.

Page 3 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERll\'IENT - 3
Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series & parallel) of resistances using meter b1idge (slide Wire B1idge)
Apparatus: A meter bridge, laclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set
square, sand paper and com1ecting wires.
(I) In series

E K
------------------------::!:!

Flg. 3.1 Serles combination of resistances

(II) In parallel e K

r=w--i D
'•

p 0

A C

Fig. 3.2 Parallel combination of resistances

Observations: Table for length (1) & unknown resistance (r):

Resistance
Length Resistance
from Mean
Resistant Length BC= 100-/
Obs. No. resistance r = 100-/.R Resistant
Coil AB=l(cm) (cm)
box, l (ohm)
R(ohm)
1 0.5 35 65 0.92
r1only 2 1.0 43 57 1.32 1.24
3 1.5 50 50 1.5
1 0.5 30 70 1.16
r2only 2 1.0 38 62 1.63 1.51
3 1.5 46 54 1.76
1 1.3 34 66 2.52
r1& r2 in 2 2.2 45 55 2.68 2.72
senes 3 3.5 54 46 2.97
1 2 75 25 0.67
r1& r2in 2 3 82 18 0.66 0.66
parallel 3 4 86 14 0.65
Calculations:
(i) In Series: Expe1imental value of Rs= 2.72 Q
Theoretical value of Rs= r1 + r2= 2.75Q
(ii) In parallel: Expe1imental value ofRp= 0.66 Q
rr2
Theoretical value ofRp = -1 = 0.68Q
- -

'i +r2

Page 4 (PHYSICS)
Result: Within limits of experimental en-or, experin1ental & theoretical values of Rs are same. Hence the law of
resistance in series i.e. Rs = r1 + r2 is ve1ified. (1) Within limits of expe1imental enor, experimental & theoretical
r.r2
values ofRp are same. Hence law of resistances in parallel i.e. Rs= -1 -
isverified.
-

'i + r2
Precautions:
(i) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don't rub
it.
(iii) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error:
(i) The plugs may not be clean.
(ii) The instmment screws maybe loose.

Page 5 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT - 4
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a batte1y, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000 Q and 500
Q ), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper.

Circuit Diagram : (i) For halt deflection method (ii)

For figure of merit
E K1
---'-<+ t------ --- K,

Flg. 7.1 : Resistance of galvanometer Fig. 7.2 : Figure of merit

Formulae Used:
(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method:
R. S
G= -
R-S
Where R: resistance connected in series with the
galvanometer S: shunt resistance For Half Deflection:
E
Half Galvanometer
(ii) Figure of merit: k = (R+ G) s. Resistance
Deflection in Shunt
Deflectio Resistance
0 galvanometer resistance
Where E : emfofthe cell No. R (Q) n G =.........!!£0.
(0) s (Q) 0/2 R-S
0 : deflection produced with resistance R. 1 4500 30 70 15 71.1
2 9500 14 70 7 70.5
3 5200 26 70 13 70.9
Calculation: Mean G = 70.8 Q 4 5700 24 70 12 70.8

Mean G = 70.8 n
(i) For G : Calculate G using fonnula. For Figure of Merit:
Take mean of all values of G recorded in table.
(ii) Fork: Calculate k using formula & record in table. Figure of
Resistance
Take mean of values ofk. s. Emf of the
from R. B.
Deflection Merit
No. cells E (v) B(div.)
Result: RO K= E
(R+G)B
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half - deflection method:
1 1.5 X 2 = 3 4500 30 2.18 X 10·5
G= 70.SQ 2 3 9500 14 2.23 X 10·5
5 3 3 5200 26 2.18 X 10·5
(ii) Figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10· A/div 4 3 5700 24 2.16 X lQ·5
5
Mean K = 2.19 x 10· A/div.
Precautions:
(i) All theplugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
(ii) The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
(iii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit. Othe1wise for small
resistance, an excessive cunent will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter & damage them.
Sources of error:
(i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean.
(ii) The screws of the instruments maybe loose.
(iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.

Page 7 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT - 5
Aim: To conve1t the given galvanometer (of known resistance & figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range &
to verify the same.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer whose resistance & figure of me1it are given, a constantan or manganin
wire, a batte1y, one-way key, a rheostat, a milli-ammeter, connecting wires, sand paper etc.

Circuit Diagram :

----1 ii f-------<.1---..........,..,
Rheostat

1····································.·

.... +A >--------,..---

l Converted
!..-....-...-....... J
-...1."'."... "."..".-.".. ..... Ammeter

Fig. 7(A) - 1 : Converted Galvanometer into an amme1er.

Formulae Used:
To conve1t a galvanometer which gives full scale deflection for cunent IGinto an ammeter of range Oto I0 amperes,

the value ofrequired shunt is given by: S = ( JG JG

Jo -JG
Required shunt resistant Sis made using a unifonn wire whose, specific resistance is p (known) & its length:
I= m-2S
p
Observations: Given resistance of galvanometer, G = 70.8 Q
Given value of figure of merit, k = 2.19 X 10·5 A
div·1 Total no. of divisions on either side of zero, N0=
30
Clment for full scale deflection, le= N0 X k = 6.57 X 104 A
Table for Verification:

a) Calculation of value of shunt resistance: Galvanometer Reading Ammeter

* Required range of converted ammeter, I0 = 3A s. Deflection Current Reading
Error
No. (h-11) A
* Value of shunt resistance, 0 l1 = 0 X LC l2 =ux LC
1 3 3 X 0.1 =.3 6 X .05 = 0.3 0.0
2 5 0.5 11 X 0.05 =.55 0.05
S= ( JG JxG=0.0155Q 3 7 0.7 15 X 0.05-= .75 0.05
Jo -JG 4 9 0.9 19 X 0.5 -= .95 0.05
* Computing the length of the wire to make resistance of 0.155 Q
b) Observations for diameter of the wire:
(i) Pitch of screw gauge, p = 1 mm
(ii) No. of division of circular scale= 100
(iii) Least count, a= 0.01 mm
(iv) Zero enor, e = 0.0 mm
(v) Diameter of the wire= 0.98 mm, Radius= 0.049 cm
c) Specific resistance ofmate1ial ofwire, p =l.92x10-6 O.cm
d) Requirnd length of the wire,
2
l=Sxm- = 0.0155x3.14x(0.049)2cm=60.8cm
p l.72xl0-6
Page 8 (PHYSICS)
Ve1ification: Checking the pe1fo1mance of the conve1ted ammeter:

Page 9 (PHYSICS)
Cunent indicated by full scale deflection (N0) of conve1ted ammeter. L, = 3A
, I
Least count of conve1ted ammeter, k = -0 = 0.1 AI div.
No
Result:
• Cunent le, for full scale deflection= 6.57 X 104 A
• Resistance of shunt required to conve1t the galvanometer into ammeter, S = 0.0155 Q
• Required length of wire, I = 60.8 cm
• As enor ( - l is ve1y small, conversion is verified.
Precautions & Sources of Error:
(i) All connections should be neat & tight.
(ii) The diameter of the wire for making shunt resistance should be measured accurately for diameter is taken
in two mutually perpendicular directions.
(iii) The terminal of the ammeter marked positive should be connected to positive pole of the battery. Also
ammeter should be in se1ies with circuit.

Page 10
(PHYSICS)
 EXPERl1\1ENT - 6
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex minor using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench with four uptights (2 fixed uptight in middle two outer uprights with lateral movement),
convex lens, convex minor, a lens holder, a mitrnr holder, 2 optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting
needle, a half meter scale.
Ray Diagram

Fig. : 10.1 Focal Length of Convex Mirror

Formula Used:

Focal length of a convex minor f =R

2
Where R is radius of curvature of the minor.
Observation:
(i) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.
(ii) Observed distance between image needle I and back of convex minor, y = 15 cm
(iii) Index enor = y - x = 15 - 15 = 0 cm No index conection
Observation Table:
Position of: Radius of
S. N. Object needle Lens Mitrnr Image needle Curvature
0 (cm) Lem Mcm I (cm) :MI (cm)
1 25 50 56 70.5 14.5
2 28.5 50 60 73.3 13.3
3 31.5 50 65 78.4 13.4
4 30.5 50 60 74 14
MeanR= 13.8

Calculation:
R
Mean conected MI= R = 13.8 cm f= =6.9cm
- 2
Result:
The focal length of the given convex miti:or = 6.9 cm
Precautions:
(i) The tip of the needle, centre of the mitrnr & centre of lens should be at the same height.
(ii) Convex lens should be of large focal length.
(iii) For one set of observations, when the parallax has been removed for convex lens alone, the position of the lens &
needle uprights should not be changed.

Page 11 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERl1\1ENT - 7
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph:

(i) between u and v (ii) between .!.and..!_

U V

Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needles &
a half-metre scale.
L
Ray Oiagram B'

2F A F A'

I
2F
I
Needle
D

U sN V

Fig 11 1 Focal LMgtl1of Convex Lens

Formula Used:
The relation between u, v and/for convex lens is:
1 1 1
j =V U

Where f focal length of convex lens

u: distance of object needle from lens' optical centre.
v: distance of image needle from lens' optical centre.
Observations:
(i) Rough focal length of the lens= 10 cm
(ii) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.
(iii) Observed distance between object needle & the lens when lmitting needle is placed between them, y = 15.2 cm.
(iv) Observed distance between image needle & the lens when lmitting needle is placed between them, z = 14.1 cm.
(v) Index conection for the object distance u, x- y = - 0.2 cm
(vi) Index conection for the image distance v, x - z = +0.9 cm
Observation Table:

Position of: cm)

S.No. Object Image u (cm) v (cm) 1/v (cm-1) Jiu (cm-1)
Lens
needle needle
1 66 50 26 16 24 0.041 0.062
2 67 50 27 17 23 0.043 0.058
3 68 50 28 18 22 0.045 0.055
4 70 50 30 20 20 0.05 0.05
5 75 50 33 23 17 0.058 0.043
6 80 50 34 24 16 0.062 0.041
u - v curve

Calculation of focal length by graphical method:

(i) u - v graph: The graph is a rectangular hyperbola:
Scale: X' axis: 1 cm= 5 cm of u
Y' axis: 1 cm= 5 cm ofv
AB =AC= 2/orOC=OB =2/

<--------u (cm)
 OB OC
:.f= -and also f =-
2 2 Jiu vs 1/v Curve
:.Mean value off= 10.1 cm.
. . -. . ' J - ;' ~w'iir=itti!,E'.

(ii) !_ _!.graph :The graph is a straight line. •

U V

Scale; X' axis: 1 cm= 0.01 cm-1 of_!_

u

Y' axis: 1 cm= 0.01 cm-1 of!

V
1 1
Focal length,/= -=-=10.2cm.
OP OQ
Result:
(i) From u-v graph is,f= JO.I cm

(. From 1- - 1- graph. 1s/, = 10.2 <-------Jiu

)
n cm
. U V

Precautions:
(i) Tips of object & image needles should be at the same height as the centre of the lens.
(ii) Parallax should be removed from tip-to-tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm. away from the needle.
(iii) The image & the object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.

EXPERIMENT - 8
Aim: To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights, a convex lens (less focal length), a concave lens (more focal length),
two lens holder. two optical needles, a knitting needle & a half - metre scale.
. -

C>
,..,

C>
r (b)

_,.. -1

Formulae Used: From lens fonnula, we have:

f=
u-v
Observations:
Actual length of knitting needle, x= 15 cm.
Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15 cm.
Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 15 cm.
Index conection for u = x - y = 0 cm
Index conection for v = x - z = 0 cm

Page 13 (PHYSICS)
Observation Table:
Position of (cm) UV
S.No. ,
u=IL1 V =I'Li J=-
0 (cm) L1 at 01 I L2 I u-v
1 29 50 75 69 78 6.0 9.0 -18.0
2 27 50 71.5 65 77.5 6.5 12.5 -13.54
3 25 50 70.5 65 72.8 5.5 7.8 -18.64
4 28 50 71.3 63 71.2 8.3 8.2 -17.45

Calculations:
Mean/= J;+ f2+ /2+ /4
4
=- 16.9 cm ""-17cm
Result: The focal length of given concave lens = - 17 cm.
Precautions:
(i) The lenses must be clean.
(ii) A bright image should be fo1med by lens combination.
(iii) Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of the concave lens, so that the combination is
convex.

EXPERIMENT - 9
Aim: (i) To dete1mine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence
& angle of deviation.
(ii) To determine the refractive index of the material (glass) of the prism.
Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale, office pins, graph
paper & protector.
Diagram

X X'

p•
T1 T2 T3
F,g. 13.1 : Refraction through prism et ditterenl angles

Formulae Used:
The refractive index, µ of the material of the prism is given by:

Where Dmis the angle of minimum deviation & A is the angle of prism.

Calculations:
From graph between angle of incidence, Li and angle of deviation, we get the value of Dm (angle of minimum
deviation): Dm= 37.8°

• (A+D sin 7.8/2) I\

I
Thus, m) i
sm -2- si.1130°
JI= sn{1) s. Angle of Angle of
_§ '-'

1-1=1.5077
No.
1
Incidence Li
35°
Deviation L8
43°
]
2
3
40°
45°
38.8°
37.8°
t ;!
°"<:
i t r:1 _..,
,.c•.
4 50° 3go
5 55° 40°
6 60° 42° Angle of Incidence (i)----->
Result:
(i) From Li - LD graph we see that as Li increases, LD first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dru) & then again
sta1ts increasing for finther increase in Li.
(ii) Angle of minimum deviation= Dm = 37.8°
(iii) Refraction index ofmate1ial of prism, µ =1.5077
Precautions:
(i) The angle of incidence should be between 30° - 60°.
(ii) The pins should be fixed ve1tical.
(iii) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.
Sources of Error:
(i) Pin pricks may be thick.
(ii) Measurement of angles maybe wrong.

EXPERll\llENT -10
Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope.
Apparatus: A marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.

Formulae Used:
Refractive index real depth 3r. - r1.
JI=---------------_-
apparent depth r2 -1'j_
Observations:
Least count of travelling microscope= 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm
Mean values: r1= 0 mm r2= 6.81 mm r3= 10.25 mm
Observations: Reading of Microscope focused on:
Mark without slab Mark with slab on it Powder on top of slab
S.No.
r1 = M + n x LC min r2= M + n xLC min R3 = M + n x LC min
1 0 6.5 + 29 X 0.01 = 6.79mm 10 + 23 x 0.01 = 10.23mm
2 0 6.5 + 31 X 0.01 = 10 + 25 X 0.01 = 10.25mm
6.81mm
3 0 6.5 + 33 X 0.01 = 10 + 27 X 0.01 = 10.27mm
6.83mm

Calculations:
Real depth= d, = r3- r1= Mean d, = 10.25 mm
Apparent depth= d..= r2 - r1
Mean da= 6.81 mm
. . real depth d,.
:. Refractive mdex, ;.t = ------=--- ...JI= 1.52
apparent depth d 0

Result:
The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is dete1mined as 1.52 = f-l
Precautions:
(i) Microscope once focused on the cross mark, the focusing should not be disturbed throughout the experiment. Only
rack and pinion screw should be turned to move the microscope upward.
Page 15 (PHYSICS)
(ii) Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on top of slab.
(iii) Eye piece should be so adjusted that cross-wires are distinctly seen.

Page 16 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT - 11
Aim: To draw the I- V characte1istics curve ofp-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias.
Apparatus: A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a three volt batte1y, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (0-
3v), a milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one -way key, connecting wires.

.;:-
--it'
: l\V:
. 'I
/ '
I
' '
'
I
I
1 8 1-'o 1·1 ->
B FCAl/'\ARD \,O...TN'..£ M
a b

+
\-IA
FB/ERSE81AS(V)

r'1-f f--1f--1
B
a b

Observations:
Least count of voltmeter= 0.02 & 1 v/div Zero enor = -
Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.2 mA/div Zero enor = -
Least count of micro-ammeter= 2 µ A/div Zero e1rnr = -
Observation Table:
Forward Bias Voltage Forward Current Reverse bias Voltage Reverse Current
S. No.
(V) (mA) (V) (µA)
1 10 X 0.02 = 0.20 2 X 0.2 = 0.4 l0xl=lO 5X 2 = 10
2 0.30 4x0.2=0.8 15 16
3 0.40 6 X 0.2 = 1.6 20 22
4 0.50 11 X 0.2 = 2.2 25 30
5 0.60 18x0.2=3.6 30 38
6 0.70 23 X 0.2 =4.6 35 48
7 0.80 31 X 0.2 = 6.2 40 60
8 0.90 39x0.2=7.8 45 72
I - V Cun·efur p-11Jwu.·.tio11dit,uJe

Page 17 (PHYSICS)