NUCLEAR HEATED STEAM GENERATORS

BY

D. J. STELLIGA - Chief Engineer

J. M. DYKE - Assistant Chief Engineer

Babcock & Wilcox Canada Ltd.

Galt, Ontario

Presented to:

CANADIAN ELECTRICAL ASSOCIATION

Toronto. Ontario

MARCH 9-12, 1970

 ··1-
NUCLEAR HEATED STEAH GENERATORS
C.E.A. MEETING MARCH 1970 - - -

INTRODUCTION
The art of Power Plant Design is in a continuous state of development
and the store of available knowledge for the desi~n of the equipment
involved i.s being enlar~ed each year and with every completed project.

When nuclea~ energy was first introduced, some mav have thought that
our en~ire accumulation of po'ver plant knowledge would have become
obsolete. Over the years it has been apnarent th~t most of our
familiar equipment and terminology has b~en retained. The knowledge
we have gained in the past has been modified to meet new requirements
in a slightly different environment.

We have realized that the experience gained in the boiler industry

utilizing heat from- various sources and employing various systems
and concepts~ complemented by the experience gained in the
heat transfer and steam generation field, olus apolied research
has made it possible TO desi~n nuclear heated s~eam generators
for various types of nuclear plants.

This paper will review some of the types of units either in service
or for which conceptual designs are available and their application
to the CANDU Cycle.
 -2-
NUCLEAR HEATED STEAM GENERATORS FOR PWR SYSTEMS
The majority of units to b'=l discuss.:>d are employed in pressurized
water cooled reactors (PHR). The prim3.ry fluid, wRt'er, he.3.vy
water flows over the reactor tube bundles, the heat of fisson is
.picked up by the primary fluid ~nd transported to ~he ste~ generators
where the heat is given up to the secondary fluid~ ordinary w~~er

which is converted into steam for the turbines. The selection of ~he

primary fluid, either heavy or light w~ter. or liauid met~l) as the

case may be, is determined by the type of nuclear cycle employed.
The temperature and pressure of the primary fluid leuvi~g the reactor
are set by the nuclear r~actor cor~ desig,n par~~eters

During the p~st ~igh~ to ten years in which Canada has been in the
nuclear pOv7er generation field, there has been a steady development
and improvement in the design and construction of steam gener'.3.tors
for use with nuclear reactors for central sta~ion ary~lic~~ion. The
most significant factor affecting cost reduction h~s been increased
megawatt capacity.

POT TYPE BOILER

Figura 1 shOvJfJ the simpleST st~:.":"u-n ~enerator a horizontal

integral drum boiler or "'Pot Type: unit. Primflry water enters ·'inC!.
leaves through the separate internal primary he3ds and tubs sheets.
Ste~ is formed on the ou~side of the tubes a~d rises to the surface
above the tube bundlt where it is removed from the w~~er by n3tural
separation at th~ ste~a wnter interfac~. Bafflin s is ins tailed
- .

to provide a downcomer and thus ussis~ circuiation.

 · 3-~

The location of the feedwater in~roouction is such th~~ i~ mixes

with the recirculation w~ter before contactinq the he~ting surf~ce

as in nor.m~l steam drum practice. The limitation of this type of

unit is free surf~ce separation of steam from water resulting in low

steam qu~lity ~nd low capacity.

HORIZONTAL U TUBE STEAM GE~TERATORS

The horizontal U tube stea~ generGtor with a separ~te steam drum

(Figure 2) using mech~nic~l cyclone sep~ration of stc~~ ~nd wnter
evolved next to overcome thE:: limitations of the "Pot' Type" Boiler.

This type of gener~tor w~s used at NPD Nucle~r St~+ion at Rolphton~

Ontario to prove the practic~bility of the C~n~di~n Nucle~r Cycle.

This single unit produces 300)000 ibs. of ste.~ per hour from

a U "shcll-""1.ndtube· he:=tt exchnnger employing 6,200 sq. ft. of

1/2; O. D. inconel tubing. ThE: heavy w~:ter flovling from the. re9.ctor
p~sses through the he~t exch~nger inside the tubes ~nd the h~~t

is tr~nsferred to the light w~ter on the shell side c~using it

to boil. The ste0",'I\-tv='\.ter mix ture circul'.1tes up~.,~rds to the steron
drum through the riser tubes ~nd enters the cyclone sep~r~tors.

Steam is dr~wn off through the outlet he~der to the turbine :nd
solid w~~~r is recircul~ted bnck down feeder tubes ~o ~he he~t

exch~nger bundle.

This unit h~s been in servic6 for 40,000 hours ov~r ~n eight ye~r

period. L~st F~ll ~ le~k was discovered in one of th6 tubes ~dj~cen~
 -4-·

to i baffle support. The exact cause of failure has nQ~ been

established ~s the defective tube could not be removed from the
unit. The tube was plugged ana the unit has been returned to
service to carryon experimental work in connection with the CANDU
Cycle Development.

Steam gener~tors of a similar configuration cnn be found in the

Nuclear Ship Savannah) Shipping Po~t and Indian Point Nuclear Plants,
The NPD heat exchanger was designed to meet the reouirBm~nts of
the ASME Code Section VIII, since the Nuclear Code as we know it was
not in existance at that time.

Vertical U Shell g Tube Generator

Following the successful applicf1:tion of the NPD concept ~ the next
station; namely Douglas Point) Fig. 3~ a 200 ~7 full scale demonstr-
ation plant, employed multiple vertical U-tube U-shell heat exchangers
with a separ~te ste~~ drum for the free surface separation of ste(~

with secondary dryers. This configuration was designed to employ

the me.ximum possible LHTD using the outlet leP:' of the: heat exche.nger
surface as an economizer. The ho':: leg of the V-tube he<3.t exchf\.nger being
the boiling rBcircul~ting typ~ circuit.

Recirculation Type Boiler

The desire to pack heating surface into less plap area, to generate
more and more kilowatts in less space, and to keep the containment
vessel to its smallest size, led to the next evolution in the con
figuration of CANDU nuclenr heated stenID generators - the vertical
integral drUm boiler or light bulb type generntor. This configuration
is the most commonly used in pressurized water reCl.ctor systems to ··d~.y.
 --5-

The vertical unit shown in Figure 4- combines in one enclosure

both steam generation and separation eauipment and is the ~ype used
for Pickering Station.

Primary fluid enters the bottom of one side of the divided primary
head passes upward through the U ·tube and leaves the primRry outle't
nozzle on the opposite sideo On the secondary side wa~er enters
the shell into the preheat sec~ion in the outlet le~ of ~he primary
side passes upwards and becomes hea~ed to saturation tempe.rature
after which it boils and the s~eam wat.er mixture passes up to the
cyclone separators in the enlarged section of the unit.

From ~he cyclone separators~ steam is discharged upwards through

the scrubbers~ where The entrained ~oisture is removed~ and leaves
the vessel thr'ough the steam outlet connection. This unit
design results in an extremely compact nuclear heated s~e~~ genera+.or.
The tubes employed are alloy material) while the struc~ural parts
are carbon steel. The primary tubesheet face is clae with the
same alloy as the tubes to facilitate seal welding.

The selection of tubing materials for nuclear heated s+~arn generators

is a topic which could form *he subject ~aterial of a seoara+e ?aD~r.

The search is always on for bet~er materi2ls for apolication in the

PWR. We will mention here only properties of the presen~ly known
candidates in order of their relative costs.
 -6-

1. Cnrbon steel has been considered and has ~xcellent po~ential~

however, carbon steel is subject to pi+ting attack under lack

of chemical con~rol.

2. Monel has proven itself in nuclear service but tends to produce

some copper activation products which are undesirable.

3. Incoloy appears to be an excellent material but ~here is no known

relevant heat exchanger service.

4. Stainless steels were used in all the origin~! PWR systems but
stainless steel is subject to chloride stress corrosion.

5. Inconel is widely used and until recent months, had no known

history of stress corrosion or other defects in service.

The evidence shows that the method of Tube support design is critical
if tube failures are to be avoided. The mechanism of fnilure of inconel
is not yet fully established but local boiling to dryness initiates the
attack. It can be shown tha~ drilled support plates with parallel
sides and small clearances around the tub~ can promote ~dverse condi
tions. The lattice bar type tube supports with line contact on the
tubes and large open areas have proven to be successful and no failures
are repor~ed either from dryout or vibra~ion.
 -7-
In order to ensure maximum circulation stability under boiling condi
tions, Steam Generators of this type usually operate with a circu1a~ion

ratio in the range of l~ to 10. This order of magnitude of circulation

ratio also reduces the tendency of hide-out of various sections of
the heating surface and boiling to dryness in these areas. WiTh the
arrangement of cyclone steam separating equipment, steam to the turbine
can be guaranteed ~o have a quantity of·25% or better.

Velocities in the heating zone are relatively low, usually under

20'/second. Heat fluxes are maintained in the range where only
nucleate boiling takes place and high co efficients of heat transfer

The economizer section is baffled to give increased mass flow

and adequate heat transfer, however, the boiling takes place as
pool boiling. Boiling heat transfer is not improved by the addition
of haffies to direct the steam water mixture flow~ in fac~, it
may be ~~peded because of the collection of s~eam bubbles under
steam baffles in this area •. Therefore, tube support in this area
must be sufficiently open to allow the free passage of ~he s~eam

water mixture upwards. Also, in order to maintAin flow stability

tube supports must have sufficien~ free flow area to give the lowest
possible pressure drop on the boiling side and thereby keep the circula··
tion ratio as high as possible in the range of 4 to 10 as indica~ed

earlier in the paper.

 -8-
Direct Cycle Boiling Water Reactor
The next s~ep in the advancement of the CANDU Cycle some smar~

design engineers said why not do away with the steam generators and
reduce the cost, and they did, by producing the direct cycle Boiling
Water Reac~or, presently under construction at Gentilly, Quebec.
With Direct Cycle units, it is essential ~o obtain high puri~y

steam for the turbine. This can be accomplished in some cases

by providing for adequate circulation and separation inside the reac~or

pressure vessel itself. Such a design is shown in Fi~ure 5. The s~eam

water mixture resulting from the boiling in the reactor core is

directed through the cyclone separators, which function in the
same manner as those used in boilers. Steam is carried directly
to the steam turbine from the reactor outlet while the se~ara~ed

water, mixed with feedwa~er, is recirculated down through the annulus

surrounding the thermal shields.

Another variation of this design, Figure 6, which is used in the

Gentilly Station, involves the location of steam separa~ing equipment
in a separate steam drum which is supplied wi~h the steam wa~er

mixture ·through riser tubes from the reactor. This mixture is

directed through cyclone steam separators and the l: so lid water
is recirculated to the reactor core through downcomers. It is
to be noted ~hat the conventional steam plant in this cycle, operates
under radioactive conditions.
 -9-

The next step in the evolution of the CANDU Cycle is the 3,000 M4
BruceGener~ting Station on th~ shores of L~ke Huron, consis~ing of
4 - 750 MW units).

Due to the speci~l reouirements as l~id down by AECL, th~ norm~l

'light-bulb' recirculation type st'eC'JIl genere.tor has been modified

somewh~t. A long horizon~al steam ar~~ connects four inv~rted U-tube
heat exch~nger bundles. In this st~tion then we see the combination
of the prov~n ~ecircula~ion type vertical U-tube ste~m generator
coupled to a stearn drum similar in i~s concept to the s~eem drum on
a large utility boiler. Therefore in designing this equipment
available knowledge in the ~lready developed utility boiler field~

c~n be used in conjunction with knowledge of nuclear he~ted steam

genern~or design.

The units we have described briefly ~nd generdlly show the development
of nuclear heated ste~m gener~tors in the industry and show how these
designs were applied to the C~nadi~ Nuclecr Cycle.

Once-Thru Steam Generators:

._--~~

Our Americ~n Comp~ny h~s desi~ned nnd built a steam gener~tor

utilizing the once··thru concert or the OTSG Unit. In its simplest

form this type of uni~ is a single tube ex~o5ed to ~ he~t source.

Feedwater is introduced into one end of the tube and if the tem?er-
 -10-

a~ure of the heat source is high enough, superhe~ted ste~m is

emitted from th~ other end. This ste~m ~ener~tor is usu~11y

characterized by high ste,~ - w~ter velocities, to minimize metal

temperature vari~tions nlong the tU~G, Th8 qu~lity of the mixture
varies along the length of the tube, being zero ut the inlet end nnd
reaching 100% at some poin~ in the length of th~ tUb8> ~t which
point superhenting commences.

In designing the 5te?~ gener~tor, i~ is vitnl to m~k~ efficient use

of the he~t transfer surfacE.:. For this renson it is. nec€.:ssC'..ry to
make the maximum use of nucleate boilin~. In this typ~, boiling
ste~m bubbles form where there ~re discontinuties in the henting
surface. These bubbles bre~k off ~nd are carried aw~y by the sweeping
action of th~ stea~-water mixture.

BOILING
Nucleate boiling gives high. heC'!.t transfer co- efficients '1.nd mCl.kes
possible the generation of steam v1i~h a minimum of he~~ing surf~ce.

There is, however, another type of boiling called f~lrn boiling.

It is char~cteristic by a film which anpears ndj~cent to the hentinq
surface. The film acts ~s CI. insulator, and greatly reduces the
nmount of heat transferred in a given surface are~ ~s well ~s incrensing
the met~l temper?ture. This type of boiling depends on flow velocity
of the steet.rn ·-W(l.ter mixture, the qU('1.li ty of the mixture C'l.nd the rA.te
of heat input. With the tempt;r'ntures and pres'sures of the PHR cycle
ct the present time, most of the heat trRnsfer takes pl~ce under
 ...
-.1..1.-

nuele~~e boiling conditions. With the ability to produce ~ low

level of superheat in this type of unit, the steam sepflrr1.i;ing equipment
inherent with th~ recirculaTion type boiler is eliminRTed, and therefore
these units can be d~signed to produce rnor~ rne~~wntts per foot of
diC1.meter.

Figure 8 shGTtJS o. sectional side vie"l of the once-·thru generf\ting

unit. Primary Wnter enters th~ ste?~ ~enerntor through the upper
head, flows do~m through the tubes, and exits through the lower
head. Feedwater enters the unit near the top of the vessel and
is spr~yed from an annular ring to be mixed with steam bled from

the upper end of the boiling section before flowing down the annular
downcomer into the tube bnnk. The flow of the steam-wRter mixture in
the boiler section is upwards through the tube bank inside the shroud.
No distinct water level is present in this design since th~ ve.por
content of the mixture increnses ~lmost unifQrmly until the quality
reaches 100% and superh€f\ting begins. The sup~rh~ater region at
the upper end of the bank is closely baffled to obt~in the high
velocity and good cross flow necessery for efficien~ heaT transfer in
this region. Superheated ste?~ leaves the uni~ through the outlet
nozzle near the upper end of the shell.

This steam generator is a definite step forward in the evolution of

PWR Plants. It has a number of significnn~ ~dv?nt~ges such as: A
comp~ct unit-with high power r?ting which c~n -be shipped by r~ilin
 -·12··

single capacities. up to 400 MW, superheaT, and the ver+ic~l config-

uration is a good natural circulating thermal siphon, whicn may be
used for reactor dec~y heat removal. Figure 9. This also shows a
rough size comparison.

The main disadvantage for the applicntion of this unit to the CANDU
~ycle is that although the heavy water holdup in the tUbes is
compar~ble ~o the recirculation-type unit, the holdup in the connect-

ing_piping is much greater, unless however, a vertic~l oriented

reactor core were employed. The low level of superheat could increase
the overall cycle efficiency.

Before going on to other aspec~s we would like to. mention th~t our
Company is also involved in the design and application of sodium
cooled reactor cycles and Figure 10 shows ~ sodium heated. boiler.

As in the design of fossil fuel fired boilers, there appenrs to

be as many designs of nuclear heated steam generntors C'l.S there are
manufacturers or even more so, It is not the intent of this paper
to go into detail of other designs~ but we wish rather to revert
hack to some of the design considerations for nuclenr heate0. s~eem

generators and then perhaps take a look at some of tho manufacturin~

operntions. Figure 11.

 "13-

DESIGN STEPS NUCLEAR HEA~~TEAM GENERATORS

Thermal DesigI!
In the thermal design of a nuclear hea~ed stewu genera~or ~he pressure

temperature flow parameters are se~ by the reactor design on the basis
of allbwable fuel rod core temper~ture and heat pickup allowance across
the reactor coolant channels.

Fig. 12 will illustrate a typical relationship between the terminal

temperatures of the boiler and economizer heating surfaces relative
to the primary fluid flows.

The upper line shows the primary fluid temperature drop across the
unit while the lower line shows the secondary ,fluid temperatures.

The feedwater from the feed train is preheated in the economizer to

saturation temperature and steam is generated by pool boiling in the
body of the vessel.

For economical design and predictable performance under boiling

conditions, the minimum temperature difference between the primary
and secondary fluid, which occurs at the common point of the two
heating surfaces~ should not be less than approximately 10°F. This
is known as the pinch point. Also there is a relationship between
the turbine cycle efficiency, T'-sat (throttle pressure) and the feed
water temperature delivered to the heat exchanger.
 -14-

The diagram will also indicate that minimum pumping power will be
achieved wi~h ~he g~eates~ temperatu~e d~o~ on thep~imary side -
inlet to outlet. This will adversely affect the available throttle
pressure. The converse is true.

A precise study of the total system economics will determine the

temperatures selected.

To achieve the smallest heating surface of the boiler and economizer

the heat transfer rates on the tube side should be .compatihle with
the boiling heat transfer rates. Thus, high tube side velocities
are desirctble to achieve this. This is lim~ted by the allot-Jeble
velocity for the tUbing material selected, the cost of pumping power
and the cost of the unit resulting. Having made this selection and
knowing the terminal temperatures of the unit illustrated above, the
unit c~n be sized.

Structural.Design and Analysis of the Vessel

In order to meet the requirements of the ASME Code, Section III
Class C~ the primary side of the circuit must be desi~ned to ASME
Nuclear Code Section III and ~he Secondary Side to ASME Unfired
Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII Division 1. The primary side
of a "light··bulb:· steCl.m genere.tor consists of the inlet head, tube-
sheet and tubes while the secondary side consists of the shell upper
 -15-
head 1ightbu1b section and main steam outlet nozzle. The primary
side of the steam generators must have a complete stress analysis
and a stress repor~ issued docu~enting this analysis.

Basically, ~he Power Boiler Code Section 1 or Unfired Pressure Vessel

Code Division 1 Section VIII do no~ call for a detailed str~ss

analysis but merely set-the"wall thicknesses necessary to keep the

basic hoop stress below the tabulated allowable stress. They do
not require detailed evalu~tion of the higher more localized stresses
which are known to exist, but instead allo~7 for these by the safety
factor of four and a set of design rules. These simplified procedures
are for the most part conservative for pressure vessels in conventional
service and a detailed analysis of many pressure vessels constructed
.
to the rules of Section VIII would show where the design could be
optimized to conserve metal. However, in vessels to be used
in severe types of service such as highly cyclic types of operation,
for services which require superior reliability, or for nuclear
service where periodic inspection is usually difficult some~imes

impossible~ addi~ional design considerations are required. The

development of analytical and exp~riment~l technio.ues~ and the use
of computers) has made it possible__ ~?_ ~eterm.ine stresses i~. consider
able detail. Therefor.e," the Section III Nuclear Code has tn effect;
'a nominal safety fac~~r of 3 on the primary membrane, or hoop stress,
since this stress is limited to one third of the ultimate t.ensile
strength or two thirds of the yield strength. However~ this code
requires the investigation of all primary and secondary S~~Qsses

along with pea,k stresses to give a complete picture of the STreSS

 -16-

system in a pressure vessel. The b~ckground reasoning for these

changes are given in other documents and we do not intend to go
in~o ~hese in de~nil here o~her ~hc~ ~o say ~hat complo~o stress

analysis work must be done requiring the USe of a computer and the
availability of design programs to analyze and prov~ that stresses
are within the stated limits for the primary pressure pe~ts. This
design work on nuclee~ heated ste?m generators is done in our
engineering offices in Galt and requires many thousands of hours.
It cannot b~ said that a primary vessel built to Section III is
designed before i~ is built~ it is sized before the mRterial is
ordered, but the design process continues during the engineering
and manufacturing.

CONCLUSION

We have endeavoured to highlight the development of nuclear

heated steam generators as applied to the CANDU CYCLE. w~ have
touched upon similar designs rel~ting to this development and
have discussed briefly ·~he ~herm~l design and stress anaysis

involved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Nuclear Hea~ed Boilers, R. C. Barnett & B. N. McDonald s

American Power Conference ~arch 1960.

2. Nuclear Steam Generators by D. K. Davies, American Power

Conference April 1965.

3. Shop Fabrication and Quality Control Techniques for Massive

Nuclear Vessels by A. T. Fragumen, American Power Conference
April 1967.

4. Modern Techniques In Design and Analysis of Nuclear Pressure

Vessels by D. K. Davies, American Nuclear Society June 1966.

5. Criteria of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code for

Design by Analysis in Sections III and VIII, Division 2,
1969.
HANDHOLES
~ STEAM BAfFLES

\~
\\'

TUBE BUNDLE
SUPPORT PLAm
PRIMARV iNLET PIPE CIRCULATION BAFflES
PRIMARY OUTW PIPE

HORlZONTAL INTEGRAL DRUM BOILER

FIG. N° I
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,~ I
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~l

FIG. N- :5
 . , . - - - - - STEAM OUTLET
STEAM SCRUBBERS

~ _ _ CYCLONE
SEPARATORS

FEEDWATER .-'
INLET

__...f---- BUNDLE
U- TUBE

CIRCULATION
BAFFLE ---

trr-_ HANDHOlES

PRIMARY OUTLET ,--...;.PR~IMARYINLET

NOZZLE NOZZLE

VERTICAL INTEGRAL DRUM BOILER

FIG. N° 4
STEAM OUTLET - - - - ~

.e=..- --=..=::::::;\r- DRY PAN

SCRUBBERS
I~-CYCLONES

U TUBES

PREHEAT
.~ SECTION

FEED NOZZLE
INLET NOZZLE

~\) OUTLET NOZZLE

MAN\VAY EACH
.\] HALF

FILLER BLOCKS

FIG. N°S
STEAM OUTlET--~I!Ll:.1~.J,....J[L1

STEAM
SCRUBBERS

CYCLONE
SEPARATORS

BOILING WATER REACTOR

FIG. N° 6
 FLOW DIAG'RAM .OF GENTILLV
NUCLEAR POWER STATION

J'\", .
" 1
. I - ,_.
Of..

._. "--;;;,,,i't,,.J'r.",-
.' . : ..

-V
-..
. .. ::: ••.•• :

(,

REACTOR
COOLANT
PUMP

.~..J
i'
",'~
- L,i';
.•• I;.'.'

'":. '.

I
FUELLING . IAACHINE
BOILING LIGHT WATER ( I COOLED LIGHT WATER [':: A':]
D;zO MODERAT0 R 1:!):f: !)~ ~ 1j\!)~) ) ~1~)~):1
FIG. N° 7
 Feedwater aT d Steam Flow 'in the OTSG

SUPERHEAT
FILM
STEAr~ ~ - BOlll~~G
OUTL.ET --~ di NUCLEATE
FEED~'tfATER BOILI~JG
INLET --~
DO~JV~~COr:jER ----.......
SHELL - ...
SHROUD "

PRlrv~ARY
OUTLET

FIG. N° 8
 Recirculating and Once· Through Boilers

STEAM OUTlET _4 PRIMARY

ItILET

----- SUPERHEATER
SECTION
I,
,I

--•.. FE£DWATER
!NUl STEAr!
- - - OUTLET
DOWNCOMER --
- - fEED\YATEa
IALET
1.4T
-.L a' ! I ',I

..s.7.._---
'PRIMARY T PRrMAR'
INLET ~ I --. OUTlET 11
RECIRCULA TING L.1 ;J
••r BOILER r
~ PRIMARY
OUTLET
•
g ONCE-THROUGH
rc BOILER

FIG. N° 9
STEAM oun.ET- ~ - SODIUM iNLET

DifFUSER PIPE --fIIlF>:::~~

-TUBE BUNDLE

INTERNAL BAFFLE--t--....~=

FEEOWATER INLET

SODIUM HEATED ONCE..1"HROUGH BOILER

FIG. N° 10