HISTORICAL RHYTHMIC TRACES: SHARED QUALITIES BETWEEN WEST

AFRICAN DRUM ENSEMBLE AND AFRO-CUBAN MUSIC

INCLUDING DRUM SET APPLICATION

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of the Departments of Music

California State University, Los Angeles

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Music

in

Music

By

Keita Katsumi

December 2021
 © 2021

Keita Katsumi

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

ii
The thesis of Keita Katsumi is approved.

Dr. Adam Snow, Committee Chair

Dr. Patti Kilroy

Professor Joao Pedro Marcondes Mourao

Dr. Michael Caldwell, Department Chair

California State University, Los Angeles

December 2021

iii
 ABSTRACT

Historical Rhythmic Traces: Shared Qualities Between West African Drum Ensemble

and Afro-Cuban Music with Drum Set Application

By Keita Katsumi

The drum set was invented in the United States, and adopted many different

elements in the early 20th century. In addition to the format of instruments, the drum set

player also takes a variety of musical factors from many music genres, and its influence is

worldwide. The research in this report investigates the contribution of the drum set and

how percussion players developed popular music with the drum set. It helps to compare

examples of the Cuban drum approach and American ones to understand how the drum

set affects popular music in Cuba and the U.S. It is considered that the Cuban rhythmic

concept derived from African rhythm tradition. The research samples West African drum

ensembles as examples and clarifies shared rhythmic features between Cuba and West

African tradition. These features are historically considered roots of Afro-Cuban rhythm.

The three common characteristics of West African drum ensemble music include

multiple starting points, the interlock system, and cross-rhythms. By analyzing American

drummers for these common themes, we can gain insight regarding the rhythmic

traditions shared between West Africa and Cuba.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is an excellent opportunity to work on the thesis with Dr. Snow. I genuinely

appreciate his invaluable advice and introducing a variety of aspects of rhythms in world

music. His profound insight about West African drums encourages me to research the

West African tradition every time. I cannot say thank you enough to Dr. De-Castro and

my drum instructor, Professor Oviedo. Thanks to their help and support, my academic

years at California State University Los Angeles became a precious experience in my

musical career. Finally, I would love to express my gratitude to my parents. Without their

patience and understanding, I could not complete my research.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract............................................................................................................................... iv

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................... v

List of Tables ....................................................................................................................viii

List of Figures..................................................................................................................... ix

Chapter

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

The Origin of the Drums ................................................................................... 1

Notation Key .................................................................................................... 4

2. Interactive Influence of Cuban and American Popular Music ............................... 6

History of Timbales and Drum Set .................................................................... 6

Difference between Clave and Backbeat ......................................................... 10

What is Clave? ....................................................................................... 10

Backbeat from Marching Bands ............................................................. 13

Examples of Cuban Percussionists’ Drum Set Application ............................ 14

Jose Luis Quintana “Changuito” in Songo ............................................. 15

Calixto Oviedo in Timba ........................................................................ 16

Examples of American Drummers’ Latin Adaptation..................................... 18

John “Jab’o” Starks in James Brown...................................................... 18

David Garibaldi in Tower of Power ....................................................... 19

Steve Gadd in the Paul Simon Band....................................................... 20

3. Common Rhythmic Features between West African and Cuban ........................ 22

Tony Allen in Fela Kuti ................................................................................... 23

vi
 Three Distinguishing Features in West African Tradition .............................. 26

Multiple Starting Points ......................................................................... 28

The Interlocking System ........................................................................ 31

Cross-Rhythm ......................................................................................... 34

Examination of the Three Elements in American Drummers’ Examples ...... 37

4.Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 40

References ......................................................................................................................... 42

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table

1. Drum set “Don’t Fight Your Wars” ................................................................. 24

2. Drum set “The Same Blood.” ........................................................................... 25

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1. Vase Face Illusion .............................................................................................. 2

2. Timbal notation key ............................................................................................. 4

3. Drum set notation key ......................................................................................... 4

4. Dunun drums notation key .................................................................................. 5

5. Conga drums notation key .................................................................................. 5

6. Cascara with timbal shell .................................................................................... 6

7. Jazz and blues fundamental drum pattern ........................................................... 7

8. 2-3 Son Clave .................................................................................................... 11

9. 3-2 Son Clave .................................................................................................... 11

10. Clave example 1, “The Peanuts Vendor” ........................................................ 12

11. Clave example 2, “Lluvia” .............................................................................. 12

12. Drum set 8 beat ................................................................................................ 13

13. Big four ............................................................................................................ 14

14. Drum set songo by Changuito ......................................................................... 16

15. Drum set timba variation by Calixto Oviedo .................................................. 17

16. Drum set “Super Bad” by John”Jab’o” Starks ................................................ 18

17. Drum set “Oakland Stroke” by David Garibaldi ............................................. 20

18. Drum set “Late in The Evening” by Steve Gadd ............................................ 22

19. Djembe and Dununs ........................................................................................ 28

20. Kuku ................................................................................................................ 29

21. Mendiani ......................................................................................................... 30

ix
22. Mozambique entry points ................................................................................ 31

23. Kassa ............................................................................................................. 32

24. Tiriba ............................................................................................................ 33

25. Rumba Guaguanco .......................................................................................... 34

26. Cross-Rhythm .................................................................................................. 34

27. Mendiani ......................................................................................................... 35

28. Sorsornet .......................................................................................................... 36

29. Habanera .......................................................................................................... 37

30. Drum set “Super Bad” by John”Jab’o” Starks ................................................ 38

31. Drum set “Oakland Stroke” by David Garibaldi ............................................. 38

32. Drum set “Late in The Evening” by Steve Gadd ............................................ 39

x
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The Origin of the Drums

“Drum” is an interesting umbrella term. Drums are one of the most ancient

instruments, there are many different types, and people think about drums in many ways.

Some think about the drums as small ethnic instruments in traditional occasions that a

community holds worships or celebrates private events. Other possibilities are drums

refer to symphonic percussions such as timpani, the drum set on the big stage, or

electronic drums of Roland V-drum series with synthesized sounds. The image of drums

depends on what kind of cultural background people identify with.

Initially, drums were created to play rhythm for communication instead of making

music1. For example, chimpanzees make a sound and change their direction. It is not hard

to imagine our early ancestors, such as Neanderthal, conveying his ideas with rhythm.

The first people who emerged in Africa formed many kinds of local communities, and

later people in Africa invented language to communicate with other tribes2. The language

contains sound and rhythm, and it is considered as rhythm. People in Africa have diverse

rhythms with drums, and its purpose is not only communication. They created traditions

and celebrated their occasions with drums. Rhythm and drums are customized to fit the

community and culture, which spread out worldwide through the Atlantic slave trade.

1
Matt Dean, The Drum: A History (Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2012), 4.
2
Diane Boudreau, Melissa McDaniel, Erin Sprout, and Andrew Turgeon, “Africa:
Human Geography,” National Geographic, last modified January 4, 2012,
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/africa-human-geography/.

1
 The root of many global rhythms originates in Africa.3 African rhythms were

exported to various countries, and there are many African rhythmic influences in Cuban

music such as clave that is the fundamental rhythmic cell of Cuban music, and Rumba

Guaguanco which is an Afro-Cuban folkloric genre. Cuban music has surprisingly

complex rhythms that have primary and secondary rhythms. “The structure of clave

music is such that primary and secondary elements can flip in one’s mind like the Vase-

Face Illusion…”4(See Figure 1.)

Figure 1. Vase Face Illusion.5

Cuban music impacted American popular music between 1960 and 1970.

Percussionists in Cuba started playing non-Cuban traditional instruments, such as the

American drum set. Cuban musicians drum set techniques are different from the standard

American drum set phrasing. In the U.S., Cuban percussionists play drum set as an

extension of Cuban percussion instruments, like the timbal. Cuban musicians tend to put

accent aligned with Clave that is Cuban music’s fundamental rhythm, while drum set

players in the U.S. focus on timekeeping by emphasizing beats 2 and 4. Many American

3
“History of African Rhythms,” Boston’s Drumming Community, accessed December
st
1 , 2021, https://www.drumconnection.com/djembe-repairs/history-of-african-rhythms/.
4
David Penalosa, The Clave Matrix, (Redway: Bembe Books, 2009), 35.
5
David Penalosa, The Clave Matrix, (Redway: Bembe Books, 2009), 35.

2
drum set players are fascinated by Afro-Cuban rhythmic elements. For example, in

Tower of Power, David Garibaldi was inspired by Afro-Cuban music and created his

unique style in that band. One of the most influential drum set players, Steve Gadd, used

Mozambique to many genres of music in the 1970s. The rhythmic elements of Cuban

music are considered a black box of Afro-Latin music. Since Afro-Cuban music is an oral

tradition6, it is hard to understand the rhythmic relationships for non-Afro-Cuban

musicians until they study with a master drummer of Afro-Cuban music.

A variety of rhythms accompany melody in Afro-Latin music with many different

instruments and timbres. Rhythmic elements are used according to a certain system,

which helps maintain complex rhythmic layers and tie them together. In contrast,

American popular music's general drum set figure is a simple repetitive pattern, in which

the downbeat is consistently emphasized and there is a steady pulse with the melody. The

core rhythmic elements of Afro-Latin music exist in the overlapping point between

African rhythms and Cuban music, yet these shared elements are often not explained

clearly. What characteristics are coexisting in the African rhythms and Cuban music?

In this paper, I investigate which rhythmic features are shared between West

African Drum and examine how Afro-Latin rhythmic features emerge in American

popular drum set playing. To do so, I compare and contrast Cuban percussion and

American drum set instruments, and investigate how Cuban music and American music

influenced each other. I then observe specific drum set phrase examples in traditional

6
Ed Uribe, The Essence of Afro-Cuban Percussion & Drum set, (Miami: Warner Bros.
Publications, 1996), 9.

3
African and Cuban percussion examples for similarities. Then I specifically observe how

American drum set players adopted Afro-Cuban rhythmic features in their playing.

Notation Key

Each notation key indicates to play specific sound in Timbal, Drum set, Dunun,

and conga drums. All the musical figures of the instruments follow the detailed notes

listed in the key. The pitched notation means drum sound, and cross or triangle leads to

play metal or cymbals.

Timbales

Figure 2. Timbal notation key

Drum set

Figure 3. Drum set notation key

4
Dunun drums

Figure 4. Dunun drums notation key

Conga

Figure 5. Conga drums notation key

5
 CHAPTER 2

Interactive Influence of Cuban and American Popular Music

History of Timbales and Drum Set

The drum set and the timbales in Cuban percussion are both composed of multiple

percussion instruments and share a common role. Drum sets are comprised of the bass

drum, snare drum, pitched tom-tom, hi-hat and multiple cymbals, and timbales are

comprised of cymbals, metal bells and two pitched drums. The primary function of both

sets of instruments is to play a steady pulse with metal sounds such as bell and cymbal,

which provides a steady tempo for the other band members. Usually, timbal players use

multiple bells or the shell of pitched drums to create a stable time.7

One of the best-known Cuban and Brazilian drumming educators and authors in

America, Chuck Silverman, describes the cascara, as one of the fundamental Cuban

rhythms. It is a typical timbales pattern used during verses and instruments’ solos, and it

indicates the musical directions to other musical sections.8 Timbal players perform

cascara most of the time. When the music needs to move on to the next section, the

timbal plays a transition phrase to lead the band.

Figure 6. Cascara with timbal shell.9

7
Oscar D’Leon, “Lloraras,” 3:42, YouTube video, Jul 31, 2018,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxlB1B9emDc.
8
Chuck Silverman, Changuito A Master’s Approach to Timbales (New York: Manhattan
Music Publications, 1998), 22.
9
Chuck Silverman, Changuito A Master’s Approach to Timbales (New York: Manhattan
Music Publications, 1998) ,47.

6
 On the contrary, the drum set players use ride cymbal or hi-hat instead of hitting

the shell of drums.10 According to jazz educator Steven Burpee, “Your primary objective

is to keep time with the band. Although each player must be held responsible for the

integrity of the pulse, it is the drummer who provides the style and feels to the division of

time.”11 In early American popular music such as Jazz and Blues, drum set players used

ride cymbal with solid accents on beats 2 and 4 to keep the consistent time.

Figure 7. Jazz and blues fundamental drum pattern.12

Even though the main role of the timbales and the drum set is the same, the origin

of instruments is different. Timbales are often associated with the European percussion

instruments Timpani, but the word origin actually comes from India and ancient Sanskrit.

Silverman notes “the roots of timbales can be traced to Assyria, Asia Minor, and even

India. In the ancient Sanskrit writing of India there are mentions of great timpani-type

instrument with a tight skin, a system of metal hooks turning, played with two curved

sticks.”13 Historically, timpani were played in Cuba for the first time in 1852 for the

10
Miles Davis, “If I were a Bell,” 8:16, YouTube video, February 28, 2012,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=36wafFjFdYs.
11
Steven Burpee, “Beginners Guide to Jazz Druming,” Bandworld, (Summer 1999): 24,
http://www.bandworld.org/pdfs/BWabcDrumset.pdf.
12
Steven Burpee, “Beginning Guide To Jazz Drumming,” Bandworld, (Summer 1999):
25, http://www.bandworld.org/pdfs/BWabcDrumset.pdf.
13
Chuck Silverman, Changuito A Master’s Approach to Timbales (New York: Manhattan
Music Publications, 1998), 14.

7
Italian opera, Lucia di Lammermoor by Donizetti.14 However, orchestral timpani was not

suitable for Cuban daily life or for music played in a street setting. Since Cuban music

required to be portable, timbales with bells, high and low pitch drums, and cymbals

emerged.15

Timbal players collaborate with other percussion players and coordinate all the

sounds for the various musical genres in Cuba. Latin music contains many fundamental,

yet complex, interweaving, and identical rhythm patterns. The basic percussion

instruments configuration in Cuban music is that each person plays a specific rhythm on

one instrument only.16 Cuban musicians play different rhythms and make complex

rhythmic aggregation with multiple percussionists, which encourage people on the street

to dance and form a community. There is no border between performers and audience;

everyone on the street participates in the ensemble.17

On the other hand, the drum set is a relatively new instrument compared to the

timbales, with origins in late 19th century in New Orleans. According to jazz drummer

Theodore Brown, there were many instruments available during and after World War I in

New Orleans. People began marching on streets and formed musical groups for other

occasions such as weddings and funerals.18

14
Chuck Silverman, Afro-Caribbean Drum Grooves (New York: Cherry Lane Music,
2002), 15.
15
Chuck Silverman, Changuito A Master’s Approach to Timbales (New York: Manhattan
Music Publications, 1998), 15.
16
Silverman, Drum Grooves, 7.
17
El Solar de los 6, “Rumba Guaguanco,” 3:10, YouTube video, May 15, 2011,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJVT_5swkhA.
18
Theodore Brown, “The Evolution of Early Jazz Drumming,” Percussionist Vol. VII,
No2. (December 1969): 39.

8
 Eventually, music became more popular as entertainment in New Orleans

nightclubs for dancers, rather than for ceremonial occasions for the marching. Dancers

requested slow-tempo songs rather than marching beats, and did not prefer marching-

style bands with many percussion players, or percussion sounds not suitable for slow-

tempo dances. Over time, one percussionist began to maintain the steady pulse and play

multiple percussion sections with a combination of drums in this setting. Rhythmic feels

also progressively changed. Instead of a stiff march feel played in 2/4 or 6/8 meter, the

feel was softened by 12/8 relaxed compound meter over a basic 4/4 time feel.19 Dancers

prefer simple duple or compound meters rather than complex rhythmic layers, which

matched the dance steps they practiced like mazurkas, waltzes, polkas, Schottische, and

the quadrille - a medley of popular tunes played in 2/4 or 6/8 meter.20 21

As a result, a single percussion player took charge of all the rhythmic layers. To

coordinate a variety of timbered and rhythmic figures, percussion players collected

different instruments to fit their musical contexts, such as snare drum, bass drum, hi-hat,

tom, and woodblock marimba, later called the drum set. Various instruments created

diverse sounds, and helped percussionists to accompany films, theater, and many other

stage shows’ dances.22 Since percussion players were given authority over coordinating

rhythm in the music, they constructed their drum set in a unique way. The single

19
Scott Fish, “Innovators of Jazz Drumset: Part 1.” Modern Drummer Magazine, August
1994, 34.
20
Theodore Brown, “The Evolution of Early Jazz Drumming,” Percussionist Vol. VII,
No2. (December 1969):39.
21
Walter Nelson, “The Fox Trot in the Jazz Age,” 6:06, YouTube video, April 27, 2014,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DrLqM8mZhis.
22
Royal Hartigan, “The Heritage of the Drumset,” African American Review 29, No. 2
(Summer 1995): 234.

9
drummer in one ensemble became popular, and musical experimentation with a variety of

percussive sound effects became widely influential.23 They included marching band

timbre in their musical style to complement other percussion players’ parts.

The number of percussion players in an ensemble is one of the most significant

differences between Cuban and American popular music. Cuban percussion players

always collaborate as a percussion section with dancers, while drum set players play

rhythm instruments alone in ensembles and coordinate multiple rhythms based on their

musical taste.24

Difference between Clave and Backbeat.

In Cuban music, all the musicians in the ensemble follow master rhythms that are

definitive for each song, called clave. Because the clave ties all the musicians together,

percussion players can relate to each section, even though the rhythms are complex. In

contrast, the drum set players in popular American music need to play a consistent,

repetitive pulse instead of playing a variety of rhythmic layers. The primary drum set

players’ role is keeping tempo and delivering the clear beat for other musicians.

What is Clave?

Instead of playing a simple beat based on a 1, 2, 3, 4 counting system, timbales

players play a more syncopated rhythm along with the clave. Clave, which is Spanish for

key is the essence of Cuban music, and the characteristic of clave is the stress of rhythmic

23
Scott Fish, “Innovators of Jazz Drumset: Part 1.” Modern Drummer Magazine, August
1994, 34.
24
Scott Fish, “Innovators of Jazz Drumset: Part 1.” Modern Drummer Magazine, August
1994, 41.

10
patterns signifying a key phrase based on composition or musical style.25 There are two

different types of clave patterns: 2-3 clave, and 3-2 clave. Kevin Moore, author of the

Beyond Salsa series, describes the difference of two types of claves: “One cycle of clave

lasts four main beats, or four taps of your foot. When we break this into two equal halves

of two taps each, we call each such half a “side”. We call one of them the 3-side and the

other the 2-side.”26

Figure 8. 2-3 Son Clave.27

Figure 9. 3-2 Son Clave.28

The starting point of clave changes to suit the melody of the song. If the clave

pattern starts with the two side, it is called 2-3 clave. If the pattern begins with the three

side, it is called 3-2 clave. All the Cuban musicians play along with clave rather than

counting 1-2-3-4. According to Ned Sublette, American composer and musicologist,

clave works as an asymmetrical metronome to provide a rhythmic spine for the song. It

successfully glued Spanish harmony and African rhythmic structure towards a musical

fusion that would become Cuban music.29 The examples show the relationship between

25
Billy Martin, Riddim: Claves of African Origin, (Ohio: Music in Motion Films Ltd,
2006), 4.
26
Kevin Moore, Understanding Clave and Clave Changes (Santa Cruz: 2011), 19.
27
Kevin Moore, Understanding Clave and Clave Changes (Santa Cruz: 2011), 18.
28
Kevin Moore, Understanding Clave and Clave Changes (Santa Cruz: 2011), 18.
29
Net Sublette, Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago:
Chicago Review Press, 2007), 95.

11
melody and clave.

Figure 10. 2-3 Clave example, “The Peanuts Vendor.”30

Figure 11. 3-2 Clave example, “Lluvia.”31

Cuban percussionists accent upbeat to syncopate the rhythm with clave as the

cascara rhythm discussed previously aligns on this clave. By contrast, drum set players

hit strongly beats two and four to deliver four-beat counts of songs. Timbales and the

drum set share the same musical role of playing a sustained beat, maintaining the tempo,

and deciding the dynamics of the music, but the rhythmic figure in timbales differs from

American popular drum set. The timbales rhythmic figures are related to the clave instead

of hitting every downbeat in one measure, while American popular drum set emphasizes

downbeat with bass drum and snare drum.

30
Don Azpiazu, “The Peanuts Vendor”, 3:30, YouTube video, Jun 20, 2020,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=essMVyS1Om0.
31
Adalberto Alvarez Su Son En Vivo, “Lluvia”, 8:52, YouTube video, August 28, 2020,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5snzVHpLPmE.

12
Backbeat from Marching Bands

Drum set players still adopt unique instruments, but the most common drum set

format is a bass drum, snare drum, pitched tom-toms, hi-hat cymbal, crash cymbal, and

ride cymbal. Drum set players often play a basic eight beat drum rhythmic pattern with

the bass drum, the snare drum, and cymbals.32 “The right hand will play steady beats on

all four counts while you alternate between bass drum and snare drum beats.”33 (See

Figure 12.)

Figure 12. Drum set 8 beat.34

This rhythmic pattern is one of the most common drum set patterns. The bass

drum emphasizes beats 1 and 3, while the snare drum hits accents 2 and 4. Almost every

time, the drum set players emphasize beats 2 and 4 with the snare drum. This emphasis

with the snare is called the backbeat, which comes from the traditional marching beat in

New Orleans, big four. A bass drum percussionist in a marching band attached a cymbal

to the top left side, and the cymbal followed the bass drum hits as an afterbeat.35

32
Drumeo, “Eight Note Drum Beat,” 18:51, YouTube video, March 10, 2014,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJTWyMxC2C8.
33
Mark Wessels, A Fresh Approach to the Drum set, (Prosper: Mark Wessels
Publications, 2009), 16.
34
Mark Wessels, A Fresh Approach to the Drum set, (Prosper: Mark Wessels
Publications, 2009), 19.
35
Herlin Riley and Johnny Vidacovich, , New Orleans Jazz and Second Line Drumming,
(New York: Manhattan Music, 1995), 18.

13
Figure 13. Big four.36

Figure 13 shows how the bass drum and cymbal play alternately and make a

steady pulse. The drum set player takes this idea with the bass drum and snare drum. The

role of the drum set becomes playing a sustained beat emphasizing 2 and 4, which is the

distinctive feature of American popular music.

Even though the drum set and timbales are based on different rhythmic concepts,

Cuban musicians started adopting the drum set as a new sound in the 1970s. With the

drum set came American genres such as Jazz and Blues, which blended with the

traditional Cuban style. We will find beneficial discoveries to investigate how Cuban

musicians apply the clave concept to the drum set. Also, it is interesting to analyze how

American drummers take Cuban musicians’ ideas over to American popular music.

Examples of Cuban percussionists’ Drum Set Application

There are two major music genres influenced by North American music: songo

and timba. Cuban timbales players started using bass drum to reinforce bass lines in the

late 1960s. Songo was invented by the legendary Cuban musical group Los Van Van in

the 1970s, and refers to a wide range of music genres and is hard to define in a way that

is similar to rock music.37 Like rock music, songo consistently changed over time, and

36
Herlin Riley and Johnny Vidacovich, New Orleans Jazz and Second Line Drumming,
(New York: Manhattan Music, 1995), 18.
37
Kevin Moore, “The Roots of Timba – Part II – Songo Enigma,” last modified March
10, 2014, http://www.timba.com/encyclopedia_pages/the-songo-enigma.

14
eventually the term was used to describe a range of types of music, but particularly music

by Los Van Van.38 Many important key musicians play as members of Los Van Van.

Jose Luis Quintana “Changuito”, who played timbales and drum set in the group, created

Songo.

Jose Luis Quintana “Changuito” in Songo

Changuito used to be engaged in military service and played in army bands and

the jazz band. He learned drum set rudiments that are right-hand and left-hand

combination patterns and applied them to the Cuban music expanding the new

vocabulary of percussion fills and solos in Los Van Van. Many Cuban percussionists

such as Calixto Oviedo and Samuel Formel followed his style and ideas. When

discussing how he created Songo, Changito characterized Songo as a process of

combination and experimentation.

I kind of turned things around and started experimenting with the Songo…All the

percussionists here, over there, and in other countries started saying this was

Songo and that was Songo. That was greatest event of my lifetime.39

Changuito adopted a partial drum set with bass drum and floor tom to boost lower

frequencies along with the bass player. The timbale player and bass player play bass

tumbao, which is clave aligned accents. At the beat one upbeat the snare drum interlocks

the two side clave, and at the fourth 16th note of the beat three, the bass drum overlaps the

38
Kevin Moore, “The Roots of Timba – Part II – Songo Enigma,” last modified March
10, 2014, http://www.timba.com/encyclopedia_pages/the-songo-enigma.
39
Jose Luis Quintana, “Part 7- Afro Cuban Drumming – Ignachio Berroa, Giovanni
Hidalgo, Changuito, Michael Spiro,” interview by Ignachio Berroa. YouTube Video May
29, 2009. Audio, 8:02, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idmkvI55THY.

15
second hits of three side clave.40

Figure 14. Drum set songo by Changuito.41

Calixto Oviedo in Timba

Calixto Oviedo of NG La Banda is one of the most innovative percussion players

in Cuban music history. He aggregated many traditional Cuban elements and American

influences with the drum set and contributed to creating a new music genre: Timba.42

According to Moore, NG La Banda’s establishment is one of the most important

contribution in Cuban music history, and the band defined the “timba” style of the 1990s

and beyond.43 Harmony and rhythm became more complex with strong influences of

American music such as jazz and rock.44 Even though the music has a clave, the clave

direction tends to change in the song as the song starts 2-3 clave, changing in the middle

of the song to 3-2, and back to the original clave.

I was fortunate to study with Calixto Oviedo, and he mentioned his approach to

modern Cuban music was based on the songo pattern. Songo contains many kinds of

rhythms and changes flexibly as long as it fits the music. This pattern is derived from the

40
Jose Luis Quintana, “Songo Cira 1985-90”, 1:59, YouTube video, March 12, 2016,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b2VHQwyirPM.
41
Ed Uribe, The Essence of Afro-Cuban Percussion & Drum set, (Miami: Warner Bros.
Publications, 1996), 255.
42
Kevin Moore, Beyond Salsa Percussion, Volume 2: Calixto Oviedo, (Santa Cruz:
2010), 37.
43
Kevin Moore, Beyond Salsa Percussion, Volume 2: Calixto Oviedo, (Santa Cruz:
2010), 33.
44
NG La Banda, “La Bruja,” 6:56, YouTube video, Nov 8, 2014,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BWvqBH7buts.

16
traditional timbales bell pattern, clave accent, and bass tumbao.

Figure 15. Drum set timba variation by Calixto Oviedo.45

During one lesson, Oviedo referred to Mozambique many times. He explained

that it was mostly the 2-3 clave. However, every time he started the three side Clave, his

starting point was different from beat 1. According to Kevin Moore, Mozambique is a

type of carnival rhythm, created by Pedro Izquierdo in the early 1960s. It is one of the

first types of popular music to explore the African concept. In many African drumming

traditions, each drummer has a different entry point.46 Cuban musicians regard the

relationship between each rhythmic part with clave. The master percussionist Eddie Bobe

who is one of only a few experts in Caribbean music as a whole, describes the role of

clave related to African tradition, explaining that “the clave is an African means of

estimation and calculation… Instead of bars of music, the clave is the reference of space

and distance measurement.”47 It is one of the secrets of the Timba complexity.

Changuito and Oviedo made significant contributions by creating new sounds

based on the Cuban tradition fused with American popular music. It attracts the younger

generation in Cuba, and at the same time, musicians in America. These two musicians

addressed new rhythmic concepts outside of Cuba, and it spread out globally, which

affected drum set players in the U.S.

45
Kevin Moore ,Beyond Salsa Percussion, Volume 2: Calixto Oviedo, (Santa Cruz:
2010), 88.
46
Kevin Moore, Beyond Salsa Percussion, Volume 2: Calixto Oviedo, (Santa Cruz:
2010), 74.
47
Frank Marino and Eddie Bobe, “Eddie Bobe,” Bomb, No 82. (Winter 2002/2003): 51.

17
 Examples of American Drummers’ Latin Adaptation

In the 1970s, music in the U.S was influenced by many different genres, including

Cuban music, creating new genres. American and Cuban musicians have curiosity and

enthusiasm to try new materials and unique ideas. It lets American and Cuban popular

music to become highly creative, and extremely flexible.48 Funk and fusion were two

major music genres in the 1970s when American musicians created many masterpieces.

Three legendary drummers adopted Cuban rhythms to their drum set figures and

contributed to developing funk and fusion.

John “Jab’o” Starks in James Brown

John ”Jab’o” Starks played in funk music pioneer James Brown’s band in the

1960s, and invented a unique drum set pattern in the song of “Super Bad.” His drum set

figure differs from those found in traditional American Soul and Blues music. As we

reviewed previously, the typical drum set figure emphasizes beats 2 and 4. However,

Starkes invented a new approach in the James Brown band, which resembles Cuban 3-2

clave pattern.49

Figure 16. Drum set figure “Super Bad “by John”Jab’o” Starks. 50

48
David Garibaldi, Jesus Diaz, and Michael Spiro, Timba Funk by Talking Drums,
(Miami: Warner Bros. Publications, 1997), 1.
49
James Brown, “Super Bad,” 9:06, YouTube video, August 29, 2010,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LJ9CLOEOB5U.
50
Allan Slutsky and Chuck Silverman, The James Brown Rhythm Sections: 1960-1973,
(Van Nuys: Alfred Music, 1997), 100.

18
 Starks recalls how he created this figure, which avoids beat two’s downbeat, with

his band member, Bootsy Collins, a primary bass player in the James Brown band and

funk music era:

If you listen good enough to super bad, you know, it is the dancer’s tune. Bootsy

and I fool around with patterns. Bootsy was doing a little dance, and I said, ‘Oh, I

know what that is.’ I played something that dancers use a lot of taps.51

In the interview, he mentioned that the dance he pointed out was different from

“Sweet Georgia Brown,” an American jazz standard written in 1925. It means he needs to

relate with dancers instead of serving simple beats. Interestingly, Starks’ figure connects

not only with dance steps but also other sections. The first two snare hits relate to horn

attacks and a guitar riff.

David Garibaldi in Tower of Power

Another primary music group in the funk era is Tower of Power, with thick horn

lines based on the James Brown’s funk instrumentation. One of the drummers in the

band, David Garibaldi, was strong influence by James Brown band in the 1960s.52 He

also collaborated with Cuban percussion players, and applied Cuban music material to his

drum set figures to feature the rhythm section in Tower of Power. He explains the

relationship between songo and funk in his drum clinic:

51
John “Jabo” Starks, “Sex Machine – Super Bad”, 5:01, YouTube video, May 6, 2014,
Audio,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3hSdvuqqiT8&list=RD3hSdvuqqiT8&index=1.
52
Jim Payne, Give the Drummer Some! (New York: Face the Music Production, 1996),
203.

19
 I think it is interesting to know songo is not a drum beat, it’s a style of music. It is

very unpredictable and comprises many elements. As long as you keep that in

perspective it will work well for you in funk.53

Tower of Power achieved an extraordinary funk sound thanks to Garibaldi’s

unique groove. As he explained in the clinic, when he was in the band, he tried to avoid

playing predictable two and four beats with the snare drum. The Tower of Power’s music

has many unpredicted rhythmic accents, often backing up horn lines. Garibaldi

successfully imported the songo style from Cuban music and blended his ideas to fit the

sound of his group, as can be demonstrated “Oakland Stroke” by Tower of Power.54 (See

Figure 17.)

Figure 17. Drum set “Oakland Stroke” by David Garibaldi.55

Steve Gadd in the Paul Simon Band

Besides funk music, fusion is another genre that emerged in the late 1960s that

combines jazz harmony and improvisation concepts with rock, funk and blues styles. The

New York Style fusion emerged as many different musicians and genres coexisted. Steve

Gadd, one of the most innovative drum set players in entire popular American music

53
Tower of Groove, DVD, directed by David Garibaldi (Vun Nuys, CA: Alfred Music,
2006).
54
Tower of Power, “Oakland Stroke,” 1:44, YouTube Video, Jul 23, 2020,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xS4CRaCP0uw.
55
Jim Payne, Give the Drummer Some! (New York: Face the Music Production, 1996),
208.

20
history, often applied marching drum corp techniques - the drum rudiments - to the drum

set. He expanded the drum set role in 1970s New York, which used to only focus on

keeping tempo. Steve Gadd created numerous vocabularies with the drum set and

participated in many masterpiece sessions like Steely Dan’s “Aja” and Chick Corea’s

“Friends.”

One of Gadd’s signature rhythmic figures is New York-style Mozambique, which

comes from the modern Cuban music genre in New York City. Gadd’s idea and

interpretations of Mozambique brought it to the attention of many drum set players who

were not familiar with this style. He adopted the modern Cuban music rhythmic figure

and applied many musical contexts.56

Although Gadd often played the New York-Style Mozambique in fusion musical

context, Gadd applied the fusion drum figure in a pop song with Figure 17. Paul Simon’s

“Late in the Evening” with four sticks. Gadd used a pair of sticks in one hand, and

created a flam sound that is a note with a grace note in one stroke, which was an

innovative approach in American popular music. He explains this idea in his drum book,

Up Close: ”Paul [Simon] is constantly going for new sounds, and to me, it just sounded

like more than one drummer playing at the same time.”57 Gadd created multiple rhythmic

layers with the New York Style-Mozambique, and four sicks by himself.

56
Ed Uribe, The Essence of Afro-Cuban Percussion & Drum set, (Miami: Warner Bros.
Publications, 1996), 276.
57
Bobby Cleall and Steve Gadd, Steve Gadd Up Close, (New York: Manhattan music,
1990), 26.

21
Figure 18. Drum set “Late in The Evening” by Steve Gadd.58

The 1970s was a time of intense collaboration for Cuban and American

musicians. There is no doubt that Starks, Garibaldi, and Gadd made a significant

achievement in funk and fusion by adopting Cuban rhythmic figures, and many drum set

players follow their styles and copy their drum set figures. It is clear from the analysis

here that the syncopated and layered style of Cuban percussion influenced American

drumset playing, and vice versa. In the next chapter, I will compare West African and

Cuban percussion traditions, to gain insight about the shared influences between that

genre.

58
Bobby Cleall and Steve Gadd, Steve Gadd Up Close, (New York: Manhattan music,
1990), 26.

22
 CHAPTER 3

Common Rhythmic Features between West African and Cuban

The previous chapter discussed how Cuban percussionists and American drum set

players influenced each other’s music. This chapter investigates the similarities between

African and Cuban rhythmic traditions, and evaluates whether American drum set players

apply the same African rhythmic heritage to their musical style. While American drum

set players like Jab’o Starks, David Garibaldi, and Steve Gadd incorporated Cuban

rhythmic elements into their style in the 1970s and were imitated by many later on, it

seems most American drum set players are missing the core of Cuban music elements,

having taken only surface-level features from the Afro-Cuban rhythmic tradition. Instead,

they have created something that is different and distinct from the Afro-Cuban tradition.

Tony Allen in Fela Kuti

As Chapter 1 reviews, African rhythms have been exported all over the world,

and Cuban music is strongly influenced by African rhythmic traditions. Cuban

percussionists develop the rhythmic ideas with an American instrument, the drum set.

Since there are many elements included in Cuban drum set figures, it is hard to extract

African rhythm essence with only Cuban percussion examples. Therefore, the method in

this research starts to investigate how people in Africa perform the drum set. By

comparing African and Cuban rhythms, we can gain insight regarding what rhythmic

features create the Afro-Cuban rhythmic style, which differs from that performed by

American drum set players. This process may help to trace Afro-Cuban identity.

Tony Allen, a Nigerian drum set player, contributed to creating the Afrobeat

sound in the Fela Kuti band, regarded as the pioneer of Afrobeat. Afrobeat began in the

23
late 1960s, and it is a combination of James Brown-Style funk, American Jazz, and Afro-

Cuban Jazz based on traditional Yoruban culture from Nigeria.59 Even though the

Afrobeat includes many musical features, it is based on Yoruba tradition. People can find

many African distinguishing features and historical rhythmic contents from Afrobeat.

Tony Allen’s application with the drum set became a core part of the Fela Kuti band in

the early 1970s.60 African rhythmic elements are evident in his drumming in songs like

“Don’t Fight Your Wars.” (See Table 1. Figure 1.)

Table 1 Drum set “Don’t Fight Your Wars.”61

Figure 1.

Basic patterns.

Figure 2.

Example 1.

Figure 3.

Example 2.

Figure 4.

Example 3.

59
Trevor Schoonmaker, Fela from West Africa to West Broadway (New York: Jacana
Media, 2004), 2.
60
Ruth Stone, The Garland Handbook African Music, (New York: Garland Publishing,
2000), 181.
61
Tony Allen, Tony Allen, “Don’t Fight Your Wars,” 9:08, YouTube video, August 23,
2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAiBolhdWQY.

24
 In this song, the Table 1 Figure 2 and Figure 3 show Allen sometimes starts the

phrase on beats 2 or 4 and ends it at the beat 2 in the next measure. Listeners can tell the

starting point of the song, but Allen seems have his own starting point. Allen tends to

play the strong downbeat with Bass drum and higher pitched drum as snare follows after

bass drum shown as the Table 1 Figure 4.

Allen creates phrases by playing bass drum and snare drum alternately. It is

different from a predictable American rock beat that emphasizes beats one and three with

the bass drum and hits strong accents on beats two and four with the snare drum. There is

a certain relationship between the bass drum and snare drum in his drum set figure. This

pattern appears differently in the song “The Same Blood” as the Table 2 Figure 1 and

Figure 2 show below.

Table 2 Drum set “The Same Blood.”62

Figure 1.

Example 1.

Figure 2.

Example 2.

Figure 3.

Example 3.

Figure 4.

Example 4.

62
Tony Allen, “The Same Blood,” 8:12, YouTube video, Jun 23, 2013,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbAMwKpA4Lo.

25
 “Don’t Fight Your Wars” and “The Same Blood” are in 4/4-time meters. But

Allen includes triplet phrases in the songs. (See Table 2 Figure 3 and 4.) We can think

about the connection between the duple meter and compound meter.

Three Distinguishing Features in West African Tradition

Allen’s figures all have three common rhythmic features. First, Allen has multiple

starting points: the global one that everybody regards as the starting point of the song and

the local one, which is Allen’s phrase starting point. Second, Allen constructs the

relationship between low and high drums, creating an interlocking system as each drum

plays open sound correspondingly. Third, Allen often superimposes duple meter and

compound meters, often playing triplet notes against the duple meter. It seems Allen has

dual meters, two against three.

If these three features are present in the traditional African drum ensemble, it is

possible Allen took over these African historical traces and applied them to the drum set.

If these features exist in Cuban music, then these three features are potentially shared

between African and Cuban music, and can be considered core elements of the Afro-

Latin rhythmic tradition. However, Africa is a vast continent, and many cultures have

different variations of traditional African drum ensembles, so it is necessary to define

which area or drum ensembles to analyze.

Guinean master drummer Mamady Keita founded the Tam Tam Mandingue

Djembe Academy in 1992 and introduced the West African Djembe ensemble globally.

Thanks to his educational achievement, Mamady’s arrangements have become the

standard of the West African Djembe ensemble worldwide, and it represents the West

African Djembe tradition. Keita describes traditional rhythms with Djembe and Dunun,

26
which are low pitch drums in West Africa region, as coming “with histories and tradition

from the rich Mandingue culture of West Africa. It is important that he or she learns it the

correct way and be aware of its philosophy and discipline.”63 Although there are many

African rhythmic variations, we can approximate the African drum essence from his

academy’s publication and I therefore refer to Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy’s

curriculum for African traditional rhythmic elements.

According to Keita’s description, most of the drum rhythms have an application

for specific occasion, and are strongly connected with daily life. The ensemble starts with

the signal phrase of a lead player who plays Djembe and later other percussionists start

their part. The rhythm is typically a four or eight-bar cycle. The main role of the high-

pitched Djembe is accompanying and soloing. The bass drums in the ensemble are

collectively called Dununs. The smallest, highest pitched drum is the Kenkeni, the middle

drum is the Sangban, and the largest and lowest pitched bass drum is called the

Dunumba. In Djembe tradition, Djembe figures are sometimes different locally and use

the same pattern on different occasions, while Dunun figures are very specific and

identify the song.64 In this paper, I focus on the relationship among three Dununs and bell

to find commonalities among the West African Djembe ensembles.

63
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 6.
64
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 9.

27
Djembe Dununs

Figure 19. Djembe and Dununs.65

Multiple Starting Points

The first distinguishing feature is the multiple starting points. All the performers

feel the strong downbeat 1 in measure 1, which I would call a global one. Also, at the

same time, each player is aware of unique starting points, and I would define these points

as local ones. There are two clear examples in the traditional rhythms called Kuku and

Mendiani. Kuku is originally a women’s dance with fishnet to respect men’s arrival

safely after fishing. It has become a popular rhythm to celebrate all kinds of festivals.66

65
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 8-9.
66
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 40.

28
Figure 20. Kuku.67

Once people try to play this figure in Kuku, they can realize the starting points of

the phrase and the song are not the same. For example, the Sangban enters on the ‘&’ of

beat 4. It can be considered as the pickup part in Sangban. But we can think about the

Sangban player starts after listening to signal figure. When a Sangban player hits the first

note, Kenkeni and Dunumba start from beat 1 in measure 1. When the cycle begins, each

player feels the starting point that is a global one and the unique starting point which is

the local one. The points are indicated by the arrow in the figure. These multiple starting

points make the drum cycle repeat seamlessly, with more perceived complexity than

repetitive box rhythmic patterns. Each performer starts with a trigger to start playing a

beat as follower and chaser.

67
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 40-41.

29
 Another example we can observe in the same manner is Mendiani, a rhythm and

dance for the young girls from age six to thirteen to celebrate becoming women.68 The

following figure shows how the three dununs have different starting points.

Figure. 21 Mendiani.69

Dunumba starts beat from ‘ti’ of beat three and Kenkeni starts playing after Dunumba

hits the first note. Then, Sangban gets in the cycle in the beat 1 measure 1. This example

also shows the relationship among the three Dunums. Each player listens to other parts,

and they start playing after listening to a specific beat. They follow certain rhythmic

figures and, at the same time, give a signal for other players to start their beat. In other

words, all the performers have their own starting points (a local one) with awareness of

where the strongest beat is (a global one). Multiple starting points make this drum

ensemble polyphonic rhythm layer.

68
Mamady Keita, A Life for Djembe Traditional Rhythms of the Malinke, (Engerda:
Arun, 2004), 52
69
Mamady Keita, A Life for Djembe Traditional Rhythms of the Malinke, (Engerda:
Arun, 2004), 52.

30
 This feature exists in Cuban music. According to Moore, Mozambique is one of

the typical examples influenced by this African concept. Mozambique starts clave on the

3 side in a traditional setting, while the chord progression and phrased in 2-3 clave. He

explains the reason why it happens is every player has a different starting point. This

element is shared between African drum ensemble and Cuban music.70

Figure 22. Mozambique entry points.71

The Interlocking System

The second point is the interlocking system as each drum plays an open sound

correspondingly. Kassa and Tiriba contain the interesting relationship between Sangban

and Kenkeni. The rhythm of Kassa is originally played for farmers to support their work

in the fields.72

70
Kevin Moore, Beyond Salsa Percussion, Volume 2: Calixto Oviedo, (Santa Cruz:
2010), 74.
71
Kevin Moore, Beyond Salsa Percussion, Volume 2: Calixto Oviedo, (Santa Cruz:
2010), 74.
72
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 52.

31
Figure 23. Kassa.73

Kenkeni plays open sound at beats 1 and 3, while Sangban plays closed sound.

However, at the ‘a’ of beat one Sangban plays an open sound, while Kenkeni plays a

closed sound. The two drums meet with closed sound at offbeat 2 and 4. This example

shows the drum sound interlocks and works as a corresponding sound.

We can observe the same feature as another example in Triba, an oral story about

Landuma dancer, made popular in West Guinea.74 The figure shows the Sangban player

hits open sound 2 and 4, while Kenkeni plays closed sound at beats 2 and 4. By contrast,

Kenkeni plays open sound beat 1 and 3, while Sangban plays closed sound. These two

drums play open sound alternately. (See Figure 31).

73
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 52-53.
74
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 38.

32
Figure 24. Tiriba.75

Cuban music, like Rumba Guaguanco, also is a folkloric music tradition with

dancers and singers, and has a very similar drum format compared to West African drum

tradition. The Conga drums are composed of Quinto (High pitch) drums, Tres Dos

(Middle pitch drum), and Tumba (Low pitch drums). When Tres Dos plays an open

sound at beat 4 in measure 1, Tumba hits closed close sound. (See Figure 32). Tres Dos

and Tumba don’t play the open sound at the same time, and these two drum sounds hit

open sound alternately. It is considered a call and response. These hits are also alternating

open sounds that correspond with clave hits. In Rumba Guaguanco, clave hits and open

drum sounds do not meet. Tres Dos and Tumba players follow the Clave hits and give a

signal for the other side.

75
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 38-39.

33
Figure 25. Rumba Guaguanco.76

Cross-Rhythm

The third feature, cross-rhythm, is often called polyrhythm. People play a

different group of rhythms in the same measure. The top notes subdivide four notes in

one measure, while the bottom notes subdivide six notes in 1 measure.

Figure 26. Cross-Rhythm.77

These two notes are categorized into two different time signatures, and the figure

creates two- against-three relationships in the same measure. This relationship exists

between the dancer and the percussion player. The drums play the cross-beats over the

dancer’s two steps. It is pretty often the dancer’s upper body moves in contrary motion to

76
Ed Uribe, Afro-Cuban Percussion & Drum Set, (Miami: Warner Bros. Publications,
1996), 189.
77
David Penalosa, The Clave Matrix, (Redway: Bembe Books, 2009), 25.

34
the feet.78 In the Afro-Cuban tradition, these two rhythms are not played rhythm

individually, but instead support each other as a counterpart.

In the previous example, Mendini shows the cross-rhythm relationship via

Kenkeni's standing point. Kenkeni hits a group of 2 beats on the triplet, but Sangban and

Dunumba play the group of 3. The two against three figure is not only between dancer

and percussionists, and it exists between each drum part in the West African Djembe

ensemble.

Figure 27. Mendiani.79

78
David Penalosa, The Clave Matrix, (Redway: Bembe Books, 2009), 24.
79
Mamady Keita, A Life for Djembe Traditional Rhythms of the Malinke, (Engerda:
Arun, 2004), 52.

35
 Another clear example is in Sorsornet, the name of the mask which protects the

village. Sangban plays a metal bell pattern plays a group of two, and the open and close

sound also aligns with the bell pattern. While Sangban plays a group of two in the

compound meter, Kenkeni and Dunumba play a group of three. Three drums support

each rhythm based on the relationship of the two against three.

Figure 28. Sorsornet.80

Cuban music has a specific term to describe this African tendency, which is called

Habanera: “the duple-pulse correlative of three-over-two (3:2).”81 This African rhythmic

concept can be considered an integral part of the DNA of Afro-Cuban music. There are

many Latin American music genres in which compound meters and duplet meters play at

the same time.

80
Mamady Keita, Curriculum For Traditional Djembe & Dunnun Book 1, (Singapole:
Tam Tam Mandingue Djembe Academy, 2016), 66-67.
81
David Penalosa, The Clave Matrix, (Redway: Bembe Books, 2009), 41.

36
Figure 29. Habanera.82

Often, when Westerners play music, they read music notation first. The first

information is the key signature and time meter, and it tells how to subdivide a measure.

It helps them to create a musical grid while they are playing. However, in Afro-Cuban

tradition, there is no musical grid and musicians employ a more flexible approach, with

cross-compound meter and duple meter, which can be uncomfortable for some Western

musicians. Therefore, it is almost impossible to understand Afro Latin music with a

western music notation system. People who want to understand Afro-Cuban music need

to experience and learn with oral tradition.

Examination of the Three Elements in American Drummers’ Examples

There are three distinctive features shared between African rhythm tradition and

Cuban music: Multiple Starting points, the Interlocking system, and Cross-Rhythm. The

features work as glue to construct Afro-Cuban rhythm and fascinate many drum set

players. The research finally evaluates how three iconic American drum set players adapt

Afro-Cuban rhythm referring to these three elements as test points.

John”Jab’o” Starks’ Super Bad figure is very similar 3-2 clave pattern. The hi-hat,

snare drum, and bass drum start at the same starting point in beat 1 and therefore does not

82
David Penalosa, The Clave Matrix, (Redway: Bembe Books, 2009), 41.

37
have the 1st feature. The snare drum sound and bass drum play open sound alternately

except beat 1, so it partially meets the 2nd feature. The snare drums hits the accent as a

group of 3, while the hi-hat forms group of 4, demonstrating the 3rd feature. Therefore,

the figure does not contain all 3 features at the same time. (See Figure 36.)

Figure 30. Drum set Super Bad by John”Jab’o” Starks.83

In David Garibaldi’s “Oakland Stroke,” Hi-hat, snare drum, and the bass drum

start from the different starting point. It meets the 1st feature. We can see the bass drum

and snare sound are not overlapping. It means this pattern meets 2nd feature too.

However, there are not three-over-two dual meters. The hi-hat, Snare drum, and bass

drum are aligned in the 16th note without grouping 2 against 3 relationships. Hence, the

figure doesn’t meet the all three Afro-Cuban rhythmic features.

Figure 31. Drum set “Oakland Stroke” by David Garibaldi.84

83
Allan Slutsky and Chack Silverman, The James Brown Rhythm Sections: 1960-1973,
(Van Nuys: Alfred Music, 1997), 100.
84
Tower of Power, “Oakland Stroke,” 1:44, YouTube Video, Jul 23, 2020,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xS4CRaCP0uw.

38
Figure 32. Drum set “Late in The Evening” by Steve Gadd.85

Steve Gadd’s pattern comes from Afro-Cuban drum set rhythm Mozambique. The

hi-hat, tom and bass drums are starting the same starting point in beat 1 so the 1st feature

is not observed. The hi-tom and floor tom are played alternately instead of overlapping,

meeting 2nd feature. The floor tom and hi tom are composed of a group of three against

sixteenth notes, creating three-over-two dual meters and meeting the 3rd feature.

Therefore, the figure meets the 2nd feature and 3rd feature, and only partially adopt the

Afro-Cuban features.

All these examples are historical American drum set players' patterns influenced

by Cuban music, in which we can trace partial incorporation of the Afro-Cuban rhythmic

elements. However, all three patterns do not hold all three features at the same time.

More than that, it is hard to imagine that these drummers are aware of these features

when they play drums, as American drum set players play drum sets alone, making it

difficult to notice these features.

85
Bobby Cleall and Steve Gadd, Steve Gadd Up Close, (New York: Manhattan music,
1990), 26.

39
 CHAPTER 4

Conclusion

West African Drum and Cuban music possess three common rhythmic features:

multiple starting points, an interlocking system, and cross-rhythms. Cuban musicians

used these African rhythmic elements in their traditional music, handing them down to

each generation. Three drum giants in America were influenced by Cuban music, and

they imitated that style, applying it to popular American music. We can partially trace the

three core elements shared between West African and Cuban music in examples from

these American drummers, however, none of the patterns hold all three core features at

the same time.

One possible reason is that most of the time, American drum set players perform

the part alone, and have to play all the rhythm parts by themselves. Performing alone

makes it hard to feel the three Afro-Latin rhythm features. West African drum ensemble

and Cuban percussionists, in contrast, perform as a group. Although the drum set players

could not apply the three Afro-Latin rhythm features perfectly, these drum set players

made a significant contribution to American popular music. As it is shown in the second

chapter, the drum set is composed of many different materials and is not only an

instrumental format, but also a source of musical ideas. The drum set players take in

many musical elements, diverse musical concepts and expand the tradition to the new

modern creations.

The drum set absorbs a variety of features from everywhere, and in turn,

influences music globally. Cuban musicians developed traditional Cuban music including

songo and timba with the drum set. Tony Allen played in the Fela Kuti band as a drum

40
set player, and it added a new genre known as Afrobeat. The American drum set players

adapted the Cuban music style and innovated funk and fusion music in the 1970s. The

drum set helped these musicians and many others to create new ideas and innovate

musical history, based on multiple worldwide cultural traditions.

41
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