James Heard, M.Ed.

Ted Tucker, M. Ed.

An Accelerated Method

for University Students

An advanced writing course designed specifically

for the needs of Korean University Students

1
Academic Writing is an advanced level writing textbook geared to the needs of Ko-
rean university students.

The textbook is designed to take the student from writing paragraphs to essays. The
first chapter of the book provides a review of sentence writing, covering clauses and
phrases, types of sentences, and common problems encountered by students. Also
covered in the initial chapters are the purposes for writing and how this effects the
style of writing and the steps in the writing process.

Paragraph writing is covered next. Topics reviewed include the parts of the para-
graph
(topic sentences, supporting sentences, and the concluding sentence). Characteris-
tics of a paragraph (unity, completeness, cohesion, and continuity) are examined,
along with the various cohesive devises that are employed to ensure competent
writing skills. Finally, the various types of paragraphs (narrative, descriptive, process,
compare and contrast, cause and effect, problem analysis and solution, and per-
suasion) that can be written are reviewed.

Parts of the essay (introduction and thesis statement, body paragraphs, and con-
cluding paragraph) are covered before covering the various types of essays
(process, division and classification, cause and effect, compare and contrast, and
problem analysis and solution) that students are likely to encounter.

The textbook provides examples of specific writing topics in each chapter that stu-
dents can read and use as models before attempting independent writing exercises.
Following these models are numerous writing exercises that allow the student to
practice and refine their writing skills.

2
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Sentence Review 3

Clauses and Phrases 3
Types of Sentence 8
Common Problems 13

Chapter 2 Purpose of Writing 29

Organization: Brain storming 30
Clustering 32
Free Writing 34
Model Paragraphs 36

Chapter 3 Steps in the Writing Process 40

Seven steps in the writing process 40
Organizing Information 42

Chapter 4 The Paragraph 45

Parts of the Paragraph 45
Topic Sentence 45
Supporting Sentences 50
Concluding Sentence 52

Chapter 5 Paragraph Characteristics 56

Unity, Completeness, Cohesion, Continuity 57
Cohesive devices 58

Chapter 6 Types of Paragraphs 62

Narrative 62
Descriptive 63
Process 65
Compare and Contrast 67
Cause and effect 69
Problem Analysis and Solution 71
Persuasion 72

Chapter 7 Parts of the essay 73

The Introduction 73
Body Paragraphs 79
Concluding Paragraph 84

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Chapter 8 Process Essays 8 7
Model Thesis Statement 88
Transition Words for Process Essays 88
Process Essay Guidelines 89
Exercise: Steps in a Process 90
Model Essays 91
Writing exercise: Process Essays 94

Chapter 9 Division and Classification Essays 95

Model Thesis Statement 96
Transition Words for Classification Essays 96
Division and Classification Essay Guidelines 97
Exercise: Writing Thesis Statements 98
Model Essays 99
Writing exercise: Division and Classification Essays 100

Chapter 10 Cause and Effect Essays 101

Model Thesis Statement 103
Transition Words for Cause and Effect Essays 103
Cause and Effect Essay Guidelines 104
Exercise: Causes and effects 105
Exercise: Combining sentences 106
Model Essays 107
Writing exercise: Cause and Effect Essays 112

Chapter 11 Compare and Contrast Essays 113

Model Thesis Statement 114
Transition Words for Compare/Contrast Essays 114
Compare/Contrast Essay Guidelines 115
Exercise: Combining sentences 117
Exercise: Ideas to compare and contrast 118
Model Essays 120
Writing exercise: Compare/Contrast Essays 123

Chapter 12 Problem/Solution Essay 124

Model Thesis Statement 124
Problem/Solution Essay Guidelines 125
Exercise: Writing Thesis Statements 126
Exercise: Possible solutions 126
Model Essays 127
Writing exercise: Problem/Solution Essays 128

4
 Chapter One
Sentence Review

Before beginning the task of writing paragraphs and essays this chapter will review
some basic concepts of the writing task. The activity of writing begins with words
and these words are built upon to form larger and larger units or groupings of words.
From words, the activity progresses to phrases and clauses to sentences, to para-
graphs, to essays, to units or chapter to books. The first chapter of this book will be-
gin with a review of phrases and clauses followed by common problems that begin-
ning writers have with clauses and sentences. Next the chapter will cover the differ-
ent kinds of sentences that can be used when writing.

Phrases and clauses

A phrase is a group of two or more words that has no subject or verb. Look at these
examples:

A big blue tambourine

An amazingly fast animal

4 AAA alkaline batteries

A clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb. There are two kinds
of clauses: independent clauses (also called main clauses) and dependent clauses
(also called subordinate clauses). An independent clause is a complete sentence
and can stand-alone. A dependent clause is not a complete sentence and cannot
stand alone. It must be connected to an independent clause in some way.

5
There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adverb clauses, adjective clauses,
and noun clauses.

An adverb clause is a dependent clause that starts with a subordinating conjunc-

tion. (See below for a list of subordinating conjunctions). Adverb clauses function as
adverbs and modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs in the independent clause. It
tells when (time), where (place), why (reason), how, how long, or how far. An adverb
clause can be placed before or after an independent clause. If it is place before the
independent clause, a comma must be used to separate the two clauses. No
comma is needed if the adverb clause is placed after the independent clause.

Whenever I take the bus to class, I always arrive late.

I always arrive at class late whenever I take the bus.

An adjective clause (also called relative clause) is a dependent clause that begins
with a relative pronoun (who, whom, which, whose, or that). An adjective clause
functions as an adjective and follows the noun or pronoun it modifies. It tells more
about a person or thing.

Maria, who is in my class, drinks coffee everyday.

Three professional athletes, who are members of

the Olympic swim team, were arrested last night
for disturbing the peace.

Please note the use of the following relative pronouns:

The word who (and whom) is used when referring to people.
Which is used when referring to things.
That can be used to refer to people or things.

A noun clause is a dependent clause that begins with a WH-question words (what,
when, where, why, who, how), that, whether, and if. A noun clause can function as
a subject, object, or complement.

I know that people have different opinions about capital punishment.

I could be completely happy if I had a lot of money.

Connecting Clauses
Clauses, whether independent or dependent,
need to be joined together in some way to make
the writing smooth and to make the relationship
between the clauses clear. Clauses are joined
together with the use of clause connectors.
There are four kinds of clause connectors:
subordinating conjunctions, coordinating
conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and
conjunctive adverbs.

6
Subordinating conjunctions are words that connect dependent clauses to inde-
pendent clauses. Look at the partial list of subordinating conjunctions below. Note
that each subordinating conjunction can introduce specific functions or situations.

Subordinating conjunctions
Time when whenever while as soon as
after since as before
until once by the time that
Place where anywhere wherever everywhere
Manner as as if as though
Reason because as since in as much as
Purpose so that in order that may/might
can/could will/would have to
Concession although though even though
Contrast while whereas
Distance as + adverb + as
Result so + adjective + that

Coordinating conjunctions (also called coordinators) are used to connect two in-
dependent clauses, both with equal importance in the sentence. A comma sepa-
rates the two independent clauses, with the coordinator immediately following the
comma. Look at these examples.

Mr. Lee was already extremely tired, but he

continued working until well after midnight.

Sam had not finished cooking dinner, nor had

he completed all the homework before his wife
returned home.

List of coordinating conjunctives

for and nor
but or yet so

An easy way to remember the coordinators is with the mnemonic device FAN BOYS.

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of coordinating conjunctions that work together

to join two similar or contrasting thoughts together. The correlative conjunctions are:

both… and not only… but also either… or neither… nor

Look at these examples.

The Democratic Party in America is committed to higher taxes for

both big business and the wealthy.

Cheetahs are not only fast but also powerful.

If a person is attempting to lose weight they should neither eat excessively

nor avoid exercise.

A popular axiom is ‘You are either with us, or against us’.

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Exercise 1.1 Write one sentence of your own using the above correlative
conjunctions.

1. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Conjunctive adverbs (such as besides, however, indeed), like coordinating con-

junctions, are used to connect two independent clauses together. Conjunctive ad-
verbs, however, do not join two independent clauses into a single grammatical unit,
as coordinating conjunctions do; they merely show the relationship between the two
clauses. Look at this example.
Economic vehicles are widely available in the United States; however, many
Americans still prefer gas guzzling luxury cars.

In the sentence above, however does not join the two clauses into a grammatical
unit,
it just shows how the two clauses are related. Because a conjunctive adverb does
not bind clauses together, as coordinating conjunctions do, they can be moved
around. Look at these examples.

The Smiths’ had planned on going on a picnic; however, a sudden

thunderstorm forced them to cancel the outing.
The Smiths’ had planned on going on a picnic; a sudden thunderstorm
forced them to cancel the outing, however.

Compare the use of coordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs and how the
clauses are combined into grammatical units.

Economic vehicles are widely available in the United States; but, many
Americans still prefer gas guzzling luxury cars.

Economic vehicles are widely available in the United States, many A m e r i c a n s

still prefer gas guzzling luxury cars but.

The sentences above demonstrate that but binds the two clauses into a grammatical
unit, which does not allow the movement of the coordinating conjunction to other
places in the sentence.

Conjunctive adverbs are always placed between two independent clauses. Note the
punctuation used with conjunctive adverbs. A semi-colon separates the two inde-
pendent clauses and a comma follows the conjunctive adverb if it is between the
clauses, or a period if at the end of the sentence.
8
List of conjunctive adverbs
accordingly besides consequently for example
furthermore hence however in addition
in contrast indeed instead likewise
meanwhile moreover nevertheless nonetheless
on the other hand otherwise therefore thus

Types of sentences
Four types of sentences can be used when writing. Writers should strive to use all
four types of sentences because doing so provides greater interest and enjoyment
for the reader. Imagine having to read a long passage containing only simple sen-
tences. Boredom and tedium would soon set in. Look carefully at the four types of
sentences.

1. A simple sentence consists of one independent

clause with one verb and subject.

A tornado is a destructive force in nature.

Bicycles are a great way to travel short distances.

Exercise 1.2 Write four simple sentences in the space below.

1. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

4. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. A compound sentence consists of two or

more independent clauses joined together.
The independent clauses can be joined
together in one of three ways.

a) with a coordinating conjunction

b) with a conjunctive adverb
c) with a semicolon
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 a. With a coordinating conjunction
Independent clause; + coordinator + independent clause

Phil thoroughly enjoys playing chess, but he detests checkers.

Luxury cars are very expensive, yet they can be just as unreliable
as cheaper cars.

b. With a conjunctive adverb

Independent clause; + conjunctive adverb, + independent clause

Maureen can play the violin like a virtuoso; however, she can’t
stand classical music.

A diet high in cholesterol can be dangerous to your health; indeed,

it can lead to high blood pressure and arterial-sclerosis.

c. With a semicolon
Independent clause; independent clause

My oldest sister is a teacher; my youngest is a lawyer.

Russia was the first country to put a man into space; the
United States was second.

Exercise 1.3 Write six compound sentences, two each with a coordinating
conjunction, conjunctive adverb, and a semi-colon.

1. _________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3. _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

4. _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

5. _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

6. _________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

10
 Exercise 1.4 Add another dependent clause to the dependent clause below
using the seven coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, so) to form a compound sentence. Be sure to include correct
punctuation.

1. Camels can thrive in the desert for __________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

2. Mr. Jackson can fly an airplane and _________________________________

______________________________________________________________

3. Ms. Kang cannot cook nor __________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

4. I enjoy studying mathematics but _____________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

5. To lose weight people can eat properly or ______________________________

_______________________________________________________________

6. Millions of people go to church regularly on Sundays yet __________________

_______________________________________________________________

7. Mr. Wallace was starting to put on a few pounds so ______________________

_______________________________________________________________

3. A complex sentence consists of one

independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. (See above for a
review of the three different kinds of
dependent clauses). The most impor-
tant idea of the sentence is place in
the independent clause and the least
important idea is placed in the depen-
dent clause.

Complex sentence with adverb clause

Although winters in Colorado can be extremely cold, if you like to ski,
it is the place to be.

Hawaii is a great place to vacation, because of its white sandy beaches

and warm calm waters, unless of course, one doesn’t like tropical environs.

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Complex sentence with adjective clause

Ostriches are very large birds, which are found in Africa and Australia,
and are known for sticking their heads in the sand.

When Alice goes to the movies, she always has buttered popcorn and
Gummy Bears, which makes the total experience more enjoyable.

Complex sentence with noun clause

That elephants have good memories goes without saying.

Whether you like the idea or not is irrelevant.

Exercise 1.5 Write six complex sentences in the space below. Write two
sentences each using an adverb clause, an adjective clause,
and a noun clause.

1. _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

3. _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

4. _________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

5. ________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

6. ________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 1.6
Write the following sentences into one complex sentence,
using the subordinating conjunction, subordinating
conjunction, or conjunctive adverb in the parenthesis to
join the clauses together. Remember to use correct
punctuation.

1. The price of gasoline went up forty cents a gallon. The Elliot’s decided to cancel
their vacation plans of driving to Florida. (since)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. Traveling to other countries can be fun and rewarding. Travelers should never
carry too much money as a safety precaution. They should use credit cards.
(however, instead)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

3. Smokers can no longer smoke in government buildings in the United States.

They also cannot smoke in many restaurants and bars. (nor)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

4. Doctors tell people that drinking excessively could cause damage to the liver.
Doctors also inform us that drinking a small amount of wine is good for the heart.
on the other hand)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

5. All religions preach that murder is a sin. Throughout history there have been
countless killings for the sake of religion. (but)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

6. Americans believe in the right to bear arms. Many Americans have handguns
and rifles in their homes. (because)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

7. Research has shown that drinking alcohol during pregnancy could be detrimental
to a baby’s health. Many women continue to drink during pregnancy. (although)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

8. Southern California has wonderful beaches for surfing. Tom and his wife go there
every chance they get. (so)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more in-
dependent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. It is
a combination of a compound sentence and complex sen-
tence, i.e. a complex sentence joined to another sentence
with a coordinating conjunction or conjunctive
adverb. Compound-complex sentences can be difficult and
confusing to punctuate. The compound-complex part of the
sentence is punctuated like a compound sentence; with a
semi-colon and comma (sentence 1), or with a comma before
a coordinator that connects two clauses (sentence 2). The complex part of the sen-
tence is punctuated like a complex sentence; a comma follows a dependent adverb
clause, but no commas are used with noun clauses.

1. That computers are a wonderful invention is obvious; however, much

of the software available for them is so complicated; they require an
enormous amounts of time and energy to master.

2. Allen always wanted to pursue a career in medicine, but because he

lacked the financial resources, he decided to become an engineer instead.

Exercise 1.7 Write six compound-complex sentences in the space below.

1. _________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3. _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

4. _________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

5. _________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

6. _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

14
Exercise 1.8 Rewrite the following sentences into one compound-complex
sentence. Be sure to use correct punctuation.

1. Driving a sports car can be fun. It is very expensive. There is the high cost of
maintenance and the almost double premiums for insurance to contend with.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. Reading is a favorite pastime for thousands of people. Not only can an avid
reader learn a lot, but also they can escape the realities of daily life. Reading
a good novel can take you to far away places and introduce you to new
experiences.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3. Television programs specifically made for children are good educational tools.
Children can learn many things, not only the three R’s, but the marvelous
wonders of the world. Social customs, habits, and beliefs are also easily
conveyed to children through TV.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

4. There are many benefits from having a pet. Responsibility is learned if the child
has to feed, water, and watch out for illness or injury. Playing with a pet can
provide many children with hours of companionship and fun.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

5. Learning to write in English can be extremely difficult. Additional rules have to be

observed when writing that are not used in speaking. Some of these rules
include punctuation, spelling, and use of complete sentences.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

15
6. The legal drinking age in some states was reduced to nineteen years ago. This
created many problems. There was a dramatic increase in incidences of drunk
driving and drinking related accidents. Car accident fatalities among this age
group soared. The law was repealed several years later.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Common problems
This section will review some of the more common problems that beginning writers
encounter. These problems include sentence fragments, choppy sentences, stringy
sentences, run-on sentences, and comma splices.

Sentence fragments
Many beginning writers make the mistake of writing
sentence fragments, groups of words that are not
complete sentences. There are three reasons for
sentence fragments: there is either no subject in the
sentence or no verb in the sentence or there is no
independent clause.

An independent clause is a sentence that contains a subject and a verb and

expresses a complete and logical thought. It can stand by itself. Look at these
examples:

John works on Tuesday.

The sun shines.
Mary and Tony are engaged and will be married in March.

All three of the above sentences contain a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.
Nothing has to be added to the sentence for it to make sense. The reader can
determine the meaning of the sentence.

A dependent clause may have a subject and/or verb, but it is not a complete thought
and it can not stand by itself. Dependent clauses are sometimes thought of as a
sentence because they may contain a subject and/or a verb, but because they do not
express a complete thought, they are not complete sentences. Look at these
examples:

Rained everyday last week.

Sally and Min Ju everyday.
For example cakes and cookies.
By the time I get to Phoenix.

16
 The four examples above are dependent
clauses, not complete sentences. The first
example has no subject. For this clause to
make sense a subject must be added. Adding
it (it being the weather) as the subject turns this
dependent clause into an independent clause
(or sentence) that the reader can easily make
sense of.

It rained everyday last week.

The second example has no verb. The reader does not know what Sally and Min Ju
did everyday. Did they play? Sing? Cry? Swim?

Sally and Min Ju played on the beach everyday on their vacation.

With the addition of a verb the reader knows exactly what action Sally and
Min Ju performed and the sentence makes sense.

The third example contains no subject or verb and it is impossible for the reader to
understand its meaning. Once a subject and verb are added the meaning of the
sentence becomes clear.

Luke likes anything sweet for dessert, for example cakes and cookies.

The forth example contains both a subject and a

verb, but it does not express a complete thought.
The reader cannot determine the meaning of the
clause because something is missing. What is
missing is the thought about what action or event
will happen when the person arrives in Phoenix.
Will the sun be shining by the time he gets to
Phoenix or will his friend be in Amsterdam by the
time he gets to Phoenix or will he have slept for
36 hours by the time he gets to Phoenix?

By the time I get to Phoenix, she will be return-

ing home from work.

Adding the independent clause she will be returning home from work makes this into
a complete sentence. Now the reader fully understands the intended meaning of the
sentence.

Correcting a sentence fragment involves either adding a subject or adding a verb or

changing the dependent clause into an independent one, as the examples above
have shown.

Words that are commonly used to start dependent clauses are listed below. When
editing and revising written work, be sure to examine any sentence that begins with
these words to ensure that it is indeed a complete sentence and expresses a com-
plete thought.

17
 Common words that begin independent clauses

after although as because

before despite even if even though
if in spite of since so
so that though unless until
whatever when whenever where
whereas wherever which while
who whom whose

Exercise 1.9 Edit the following dependent clause to make them into
complete sentences.

1. After I get home

________________________________________________________________

2. On Mondays Lance and Gertrude like

________________________________________________________________

3. Until it started to rain

________________________________________________________________

4. While I was there

_________________________________________________________________

5. Is the greatest sport ever invented.

_________________________________________________________________
6. Especially math and history
_________________________________________________________________

7. Such as milk and cookies

_________________________________________________________________

8. Because of the weather

_________________________________________________________________

Choppy sentences
Anot her co mmon proble m which be ginning
wr i t e r s h a v e a r e wr i t i n g c h o p p y s e n t e n c e s .
Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short.
They should be combined to make longer sentences.
Look at the examples below.

18
 I like dogs. Dogs make good pets. Dogs are friendly and loyal.
Reading short sentences like this would be very boring and frustrating to read for
long periods of time. It makes for more interesting reading if the sentences are com-
bined into one or two sentences, as shown below.

I like dogs because they are friendly and loyal. These two traits make
dogs good pets.

Exercise 1.10 Edit the choppy sentences below into one or two sentences
so they are more interesting to read.

1. Vegetables are good for you. Vegetables taste good. Vegetables are easy to
prepare.
________________________________________________________________

2. I like movies. I go to movies every weekend. I like action movies best.

________________________________________________________________

3. Elephants are big. They live in Africa and Asia. They eat a lot of food.
________________________________________________________________

4. Phil is a thrill seeker. He enjoys skydiving and bungee jumping. He goes every
chance he gets.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

5. I hate housework. Housework is very boring. It takes too much time. I especially
dislike mopping the floor and ironing.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Stringy sentences
Some beginning writers have a tendency to write and
write, producing very long sentences which consist of
too many independent clauses which are connected
with and, but, or because. These sentences are many
times the result of writing the same way as we speak.
These types of sentences can also be difficult to
comprehend and are tiresome to read. There is no
hard and fast rule for the number of independent
clauses in a sentence, but a good of thumb is two.
Stringy sentences can be corrected by making separate
sentences of some of the independent clauses and
re-writing others to make them compound or complex
sentences.

19
Look at this example.

Stringy Taking a bath everyday is very important for personal

sentence hygiene because if a person doesn’t bathe everyday
they could become sick and they would start to smell
really bad and people would give them very funny looks
and not want to be around them.

Corrected Taking a bath every day is important for personal hygiene. If

a person doesn’t bath everyday they could become sick. In
additional, they would begin to smell; people would give
them funny looks and avoid them.

Exercise 1.11 Rewrite the following stringy sentences into more appropriate
ones.

1. I have made it a point throughout my life to try to save at least a part of my

monthly income and put it into a savings account because I want to have a
large nest egg to retire on, and I try never to give into the impulse of dipping
into it because I would regret it in the future.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. Halloween was always a very special holiday for me when I was a child because
I got to dress up in a costume and went all over the neighborhood and got candy
from all my neighbors, but I never got sick eating all that candy at one time
because my mother made me put most of it away and I was only able to eat a
little bit of it everyday, but it lasted a lot longer that way.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3. When I was in high school I was in the marching band and it was great because
we got to get into all the football and basketball games free, but most of the other
students had to pay to get in, but we also had to march in all the parades that the
city held during the year, which was okay during the winter months but during the
summer it was very hot so it was hard.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

20
Run-on sentences

Ru n - o n s e n t e n c e s c o n s i s t o f t wo o r mo r e
i ndependent cl auses wi th no punctuati on.
Run-on sentences can be just as frustrating as choppy
sentences to read and can be more difficult for the
reader to understand.

My mother likes to cook and she cooks delicious cakes and cookies
and I love the smell of the house whenever she is
baking something because it makes my mouth water.

Run-on sentences can be corrected in one of three ways; by using a period to make
separate independent clauses, by using a subordinating conjunction to connect the
clauses, or by adding extra words. Note how much easier it is to read the above
passage with correct punctuation and the use of conjunctions.

My mother likes to cook. Her cakes and cookies are especially

delicious. I love the smell of the house whenever she is
baking because it makes my mouth water.

Edit the following run-on sentence by using punctuation to

Exercise 1.12 make two or more independent clauses or by adding a
subordinator to connect the clauses, or by adding more words.

1. The first dog I had after graduating from college was named Fred and he was a
great dog and he loved to play ball and get a bath but he also had a tendency to
chew my shoes and plants when he was a puppy that made me very angry.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. The other day John got a speeding ticket when he was driving through a school
zone at forty-five kilometers per hour and the speed limit was only fifteen kilome-
ters per hour but he didn’t realize it was the first day of school so he wasn’t paying
too much attention to the traffic sign in the middle of the road and he was very
angry at the policeman because he was rude and would not give him a break.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

21
3. Telephones are probably one of the best and most convenient devices produced
in the twentieth century because you can call anyone, anytime from just about
anywhere especially now that there are so many cell phones available and
telephones don’t really cost that much to buy or to use.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Comma splice
A comma splice error occurs when a comma is used by
itself to separate two independent clauses. If a comma is
used to separate two independent clauses, a coordinating
conjunction must also be included.

Commas splice: My family went to Australia, then they

immigrated to Canada.

Corrected: My family went to Australia, and then they immigrated to Canada.

There are four methods to use to correct a comma splice.

The first method uses a period to separate the independent clauses.

My family went to Australia. Then they immigrated to Canada.

The second method uses a semicolon to separate the two independent clauses.

My family went to Australia; then they immigrated to Canada.

The third method uses a coordinating conjunction to separate the two independent
clauses.

My family went to Australia, and then they immigrated to Canada.

The forth method changes one of the independent clauses to a dependent clause
and starts it with a subordinating conjunction.

My family went to Australia, before they immigrated to Canada.

After my family went to Australia, they immigrated to Canada.

22
Exercise 1.13 Edit the following sentences, correcting the comma splice.
Use the four different methods describe above to correct
the error.

1. Roger gets up in the morning, then he brushes his teeth.

_________________________________________________________________

2. Leopards hunt by night, they sleep during the day.

_________________________________________________________________

3. Coffee is a good beverage in the morning, caffeine helps people get going.
_________________________________________________________________

4. One should never drink and drive, it could be very dangerous.

_________________________________________________________________

Writing Tips
Selecting the right word
When writing, it is important to select just the right words
that best communicate your meaning. When speaking, the
listener has the opportunity to ask questions and get
clarification of the things you say. The speaker gets im-
mediate feedback as to whether his intended message is
clearly understood. This is not the case when writing. The
reader has no opportunity to ask for clarification, so the
writer must ensure that the words used are just the right
ones to express his message. The best way to guarantee
this is to have a well developed and continually ex-
panding vocabulary. A useful tool that all writers should
possess is a thesaurus. It can be invaluable in helping
find just the right word to express your meaning.

Keep in mind that some words are very similar in spelling and are easily confused.
Two such examples are affect (a verb meaning to influence) and effect (an noun
meaning a result or condition produced by a cause) and advice (a noun meaning
suggestion or recommendation ) and advise (a verb meaning to show the way or
give advice. Also remember that some words are pronounced the same, but have
different meanings. Examples include bare (meaning include without clothes, empty,
just enough, to remove the covering from, or to reveal deep secrets or feelings ) and
bear (meanings include to carry for place to place, to support or hold up, to have or
show, or to suffer or accept). Also some things can be called by many different
names such as sofa, couch, davenport, or chesterfield. Using different names for
things (especially if used repeatedly throughout a passage) can add variety and in-
terest in your writing.
Many words also express different connotations: neutral, positive, and negative.
Look at these examples:

23
 Neutral Positive Negative
police officer officer of the law cop
thin slim/slender skinny

Here are points to keep in mind when searching for the right word that will give your
writing style and clarity. Avoid clichés such as snug as a bug in a rug, can’t tell a
book by its cover, good as gold, cool as a cucumber, or happy as a lark. Clichés are
overused by some writers and merely demonstrate their inability to write creatively
and originally.

Limiting the number of words

Using too many words can be as frustrating and difficult to read as using too little, so
avoid wordiness. Wordiness is using too many words, usually adverbs and
adjectives, to describe something. For example “The eminent, renowned professor,
although a shining paragon within his field of study, was frustratingly incapable of
sustaining the interest of his students during the mono-tonal presentation of his lec-
tures” could be written more simply as: “The famous professor’s lectures were bor-
ing”.

Using descriptive words

Try to use words that have force and exactness. For example “The streets are hot
on a summer’s day” is a fairly non-descriptive statement. The statement “The siz-
zling sidewalks emitted sufficient heat to fry eggs” is much more descriptive and
forceful.

Eliminating unnecessary words

Eliminate repetitious, redundant, or unnecessary words. For example “Although it is
only my opinion, I believe that the movie ‘Gone with the Wind’ was the best movie
ever produced”. The expressions ‘my opinion’ and ‘I believe’ are repetitious and
express the same meaning.

Vary sentence structure

To reduce boredom for the reader and make the composition much more enjoyable
to read, vary the word order of the sentences. If sentences start with the same
words the reader is likely to stop reading and go watch TV. Paragraphs can be
made more interesting and varied by not always beginning with the subject of the
sentence. You could start with a dependent clause (with words beginning with be-
cause, since, or when). Prepositional phrases (beginning with words like at, in, on,
from, and with) can also be used at the beginning of sentences to make them more
interesting to read. Look at these examples.

The residents boarded up their windows in preparation for the upcoming hurricane.

Because a hurricane was coming, the residents boarded up their windows.

24
Another technique that can be used to help writers revise sentence structure is
sentence modification. Sentence modification can be accomplished in three ways:
adding details, substituting precise details, and deleting unnecessary details.
Adding details involves including descriptive words, such as adjectives and adverbs
for greater detail.

The dog slept under the tree.

The short-haired mangy dog slept contentedly under the enormous tree.

The second sentence is much more descriptive and provides greater detail. Substi-
tuting precise details involves replacing vague and abstract words with more con-
crete and sensory ones. Instead of using general or abstract words or ordinary,
vague verbs, replace them with exact names of things and vivid descriptive verbs
that provide concrete sensory details that can be perceived through the senses
(seen, heard, tasted, smelled, touched) Instead of writing Maria’s ring is shiny
write Maria’s engagement ring glimmers in the sunlight.

Deleting unnecessary details involves eliminating unnecessary words. A long sen-

tence does not necessary make a good sentence. Words that repeat the essential
meaning of other words should be deleted to improve sentence economy (the de-
gree that a word contributes to the overall meaning of a sentence.)

The predator’s strong powerful vise like jaws ripped cruelly and
ferociously into the soft delicate underbelly of the frightened quivering prey.

The predator’s powerful jaws ripped ferociously into the soft underbelly
of the frightened prey.

The last technique for revising sentence structure is sentence combination, joining
sentences or parts of sentences together. Sentences can be joined together by co-
ordinating two or more independent clauses, which gives equal importance to the
ideas in the sentence. The two independent clauses are joined together using a co-
ordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Sentences can also be combined by subordination. Subordination means to make

one part (or clause) of the sentence less important than another. The two independ-
ent clauses can be joined together with a subordinating conjunction (such as al-
though, unless, because, if, so that, before, during, after, when, and when).

Avoid faulty reasoning

Avoid faulty reasoning when writing your opinions. There are four kinds of faulty rea-
soning: false analogy, over-generalization, irrelevant argument, and begging the
question.

Avoid false Analogy

False analogy is comparing two things that are not similar.

Some people like to gamble.

They are just like thieves because they steal from other people.

Gamblers do not steal; they attempt to beat others in games of chance. The person

25
who loses always has the choice of not playing. The unfortunate people who are vic-
tims of theft do not have a choice in the matter.

Avoid overgeneralization
Over-generalization is stating that something is true
for all things or in all cases, when in reality it is only
true for some things or in some cases. Look at these
examples.

All college students drink.

All teenagers drive recklessly.

These statements are obviously not true since many college students do not drink
and many teenage drivers are very cautious and safe behind the wheel.

To avoid over-generalizations don’t use never or always as adverbs of frequency-

instead use rarely, hardly ever, almost never, or usually not. Instead of using no,
none, or all as quantifiers- use very few, hardly any, almost none, almost all, or
most of.

Avoid irrelevant arguments

An irrelevant argument is one in which an example or a reason is given that does
not relate to the opinion. Consider this example.

I don’t think the accountant was embezzling money from her company
because she was so nice to me.

Just because someone is nice does not mean that they cannot embezzle money,
nor do they have to be unfriendly and rude. Some of the best con men in the world
are very charming, which is one reason they make good con men.

When you give a reason for an opinion which only restates that opinion, you are
begging the question. Look at this example.

Stealing is wrong because it is immoral.

Wrong and immoral in this context basically mean the same thing. To eliminate
begging the question you need to state why stealing is wrong or immoral. Consider
this:

Stealing is immoral because it deprives others of their hard earned

possessions.

Sentence emphasis
There are numerous structures that can be used to write sentences in English. The
structure used will many times depend on which part of the sentence the writer
wants to emphasize. For example, the following ideas could be included in a sen-
tence:

* Public speaking makes me nervous.

* I have to give a speech on Friday.
* I hope my speech goes well.

26
These three thoughts could be combined into one sentence, but the sentence could
be written in several different ways, depending on what part of the sentence
the writer wants to emphasize. For example:

Public speaking always makes me nervous, so I hope my speech

goes well on Friday. (This sentence emphasizes the nervousness
that the writer experiences.)

Friday I have to give a public speech, but I’m a little nervous: I hope
everything goes well. (This sentence emphasizes when the speech
will be made).

I’m hoping that my public speech goes well on Friday; I’m a little
concerned because speaking in public always makes me anxious.
(This sentence emphasizes that the speech goes well.)

Strong and weak positions

One final word on writing sentences involves the position of
ideas within a sentence. The most important idea of the
sentence should be placed in the strong position, either at
the beginning or the end of the sentence. The least impor-
tant idea should be placed in the weak position, in the mid-
dle of the sentence.

In the examples below, the most important idea is that people were killed and
homes were destroyed (placed at the beginning of the sentence), not when or where
this happened. The idea that it was the worst wildfire in history is of secondary im-
portance and is placed in a strong position (at the end of the sentence).

Strong position
Twenty-five people were killed and over 2,000 homes destroyed in the
Oakland Hills area of San Francisco on 10-20-91, in one of the worse
wildfires in U.S. history.

Weak position
On 10-20-91, in one of the most disastrous wildfires in U. S. history, 25
people were killed and over 2,000 homes destroyed in the Oakland Hills
area of San Francisco.

Rewrite the following sentences, placing the most important

Exercise 1.14 ideas of the sentence in the strong positions.

1. Every year on the eve of December 25th Santa Claus travels the world over
delivering gifts to the children of the world.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

27
2. During the 1950’s and 1960’s the state of Arizona was one of the world’s top
producers of cotton because the favorable weather and long lasting growing
season, not commonly found in other parts of the world.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. On August 24th, 79 AD the flourishing Roman towns of Pompeii and
Herculaneum were buried under millions of tons of ash and soot when
Mt. Vesuvius erupted.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

4. Some people speculate that a cow kicked over a lantern near the O’Leary barn
and the resulting fire, with flames being driven by strong winds from the
southwest, resulted in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

5. Leaving Roosevelt Field, Long Island on May 20, 1927 Charles Lindbergh
embarked on his historic solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean, arriving thirty-three
and a half hours and 3500 miles later at Le Bourget Field outside Paris at 10:22
PM on May 21st, 1927.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Parallelism
Parallelism in writing is the repetition of the same grammatical forms
or structures, (which includes words, phrases, and clauses), when
listing items that are being compared or contrasted. Reading a pas-
sage that does not have a parallel form is distracting and confusing
to the reader because they must try to determine the relationship
between similar ideas. If a list of items begins with a noun, than all
the other items in the list should be nouns. Similarly, if the first item in
the list is a dependent clause (or adjective, adverb, verb phrase, etc),
than all the other items in the list should be independent clauses (or
adjectives, adverbs, verb phrase, etc.). Parallelism is achieved with
the use of coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
and correlative conjunctions (both … and, not only …but also, nei-
ther … nor, either …or) to join ideas together. Look at the following
examples.

28
Parallel Alice enjoys cooking, sewing, and knitting. (gerunds)
Not parallel Alice likes cooking, sewing, and to cook.

Parallel Mr. Thomas is educated, sophisticated, and domesticated.

(adjectives)
Not parallel Mr. Thomas is an educated man, sophisticated, and is
domesticated.
Parallel Dolphins swim with grace, power, and swiftness. (nouns)
Not parallel Dolphins swim with grace, powerfully, and are swift.

Parallel The gymnast moves gracefully, powerfully, and effortlessly.

(adverbs)
Not parallel The gymnast moves with grace, powerfully, and without effort.

Parallel To be healthy, wealthy, and wise is a good thing to strive for.

(infinitives)
Not parallel To be healthy, have wealth, and wisely are good things to strive for.

Exercise 1.15
Rewrite these sentences so that they contain parallel structures.

1. Betty’s sister is an accomplished artist, writes children’s books, and a gourmet

cook.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. Three things that citizens can do themselves to help reduce air pollution is to join
car pools, walking or bicycling to work, or to use mass transportation.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. To learn a foreign language requires a lot of dedication, working hard, and being
exposed to the language continuously.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4. Thrill seekers must be brave, have cool headedness, yet be wary of caution.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

5. Individuals who want to accumulate wealth need to save regularly, shopping

wisely and frugally, and have an investment plan.
_______________________________________________________________

29
 _______________________________________________________________
6. Bill and Tom’s favorite activities are swimming, collecting stamps, and to
exercise.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

7. A good soldier must always act bravely, unselfishly, and with purpose and
dedication.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

8. The president promised voters he would lower taxes, increasing benefits for the
elderly, and to allocate more resources to education.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

9. As a student, the things I hated most were spending time in the library, writing
term papers, and tiredness from not getting enough sleep.
_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

10. Peacocks have large, brightly colored, and beauty plumage.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Active and passive voice

Voice is the verb form that shows the relationship of the

subject to the action of the verb. The passive voice
should be used when the receiver of the action is more
important than the performer of the action or when the
performer of the action is unknown or unimportant. In
the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is the
receiver of the action of the verb. In the active voice,
the subject performs the action of the verb. Using the
active voice makes your writing more forceful, direct,
and concise, so it should be used most often in writing.

The structure of a sentence in the active voice is:

subject + verb + object

The car struck Tom.

Most boys play marbles in the summer.
30
In the passive voice, what is done is important or stressed, not who did it. The struc-
ture of a sentence in the passive voice is:

subject + auxiliary verb + past participle + agent

Tom was struck by a car.

Marbles are played by most boys in the summer.
The Wall Street Journal is read by many businessmen.

Exercise 1.16 Rewrite the following sentences in to the passive voice.

1. Many college students in the United States consider their social life far more
important than their academic life.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. Native American Indians of the Plain States ate buffalo meat as their primary
food source.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3. The atomic bomb completely decimated Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of
World War II.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

4. After months of study, Min Ju finally passed the Bar Exam.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

5. Most tobacconist regard Cuban cigars as the best in the world.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

31
Exercise 1.17 Rewrite the following sentences into the active voice.

1. The cat was chased by the dog across the yard.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. Cookies are made by my mother every Saturday afternoon.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

3. The touchdown was scored by the quarterback with three seconds left on
the clock.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

4. The final World Series game was won by the Arizona Diamondbacks.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

5. The five page report due at the end of the semester was assigned by the
teacher.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

32
 Chapter 2
Purpose of writing

There are numerous reasons why people write. People write to inform, to entertain,
to persuade, and to describe various things in their daily life. A business executive
writes a memo to inform his subordinates of changes in a business proposal. A
teacher writes a story to entertain her students. A newspaper columnist writes to
persuade his readers of the benefits of a political change. A person writes a friend to
describe the fun he is having on a vacation.

Students at universities are obligated to write frequently in order to complete the

course of their studies. The purposes for which they write are also varied. Their aim
is to persuade when writing about the advantages of one political party over another
for a political science class. Their aim is to inform when they write an essay on the
impact that the abolition of slavery had on the lives of people in the South for a his-
tory class. Their aim is to describe when they write a report on the results of an ex-
periment for a chemistry class. Their aim is to entertain when they write a short
story for a creative writing class.

Three factors must be considered when writing: the subject, the purpose, and the
audience. One of the biggest problems facing many writers is deciding what to write
about. Much of the time, the subject is determined for students by the teacher or
professor. In these situations, a student should attempt to find an angle or focus for
the topic that is of interest to him or her. If students write about things that are of
personal interest to them, the writing task is much easier and more enjoyable. In ad-
dition, there is greater motivation for completing the research that may be needed,
which will improve the quality and substance of the project. In other cases the stu-
dents may have to decide the topic on their own. One suggestion is to write about
yourself (your own daily life experiences).

The purpose of writing has an influence on the style and format used. The style of
writing to inform readers of the advantages of recycling will be much different than the
style used for describing an amusing summer vacation story for English writing class.
Keep in mind that the different styles of writing are not mutually exclusive. One could
write a paper that is both informative and entertaining, for example using comical
personal anecdotes when writing about things not to do when on a first date. In an
academic setting, the writing style is usually more formal, without the use of slang,
than when writing to a friend. The writing for university classes should be clear, con-
cise, and direct, in addition to demon strating the student’s ability for
original writing and thinking.
33
There are several types of writing formats that a student may use when writing. A
student would use a narrative format when telling a story or listing events in a
chronological order, such as a term paper for a history class detailing the events
that lead to World War I. A descriptive format may be used for a special education
class to describe the unusual behavior patterns of an autistic child. In a chemistry
class, an informative format may be used to explain the results of the interaction be-
tween two or more chemicals. A persuasive format would be appropriate in a sociol-
ogy class to convince the reader that euthanasia is nothing less than murder.

The audience that is being written to will also influence

the style that is used. Reme mber that different
audiences have different expectations and the writing
style should reflect this. In college classes the audience
Is most likely the professor. For a businessman, the
audience may be a colleague, a competitor, a customer,
or government official. In these cases the style of writing
should be very formal and exact. Slang, idiomatic
expressions, and inappropriate vocabulary should never
be used. On the other hand, if writing a short story for an
English creative writing class, the style used will be
much less formal. The use of slang, idioms, question-
able vocabulary, and grammatical correctness may be
welcomed to maintain the readers interest and enhance
the entertainment value of the assignment.

Organization
Before attempting to write on any subject it is necessary to develop and organize
your ideas and thoughts. Without proper organization the writing may be discon-
nected, unclear, confusing and difficult for the reader to understand. There are three
common techniques that can be used to help you organize and develop your ideas.
These activities are brainstorming, clustering, and free writing. Each of these
techniques is easy to use and one or all of them may be familiar.

Brainstorming is the technique of listing any and all Many business-

ideas that occur to the writer about a topic. Not all the men read the Wall Street journal.
ideas listed will be used in the final product. Once they
are all listed, some will be deleted or modified. I d e a s
that do not relate well or specifically to the purpose of the
paragraph may need to be deleted. Some ideas may be
changed so that the ideas being presented flow more
logi cally an d smo ot hly. Su pp os e tha t th ere i s
an assignment to write about team sports in high
school. What ideas could be incorporated into a well-
written paragraph? Listed below are some ideas
generated from a brainstorming session for high school
sports.

34
 Are fun Develop a team-work attitude among students
Develop the body and mind Develop cooperative behavior
Provide non-academic Could be dangerous
activities for students Opportunities to develop new friendships
Are expensive May ostracize non-athletic students
Takes time away from Provides for new (learning) experiences
studying May exert too much pressure on students
May develop students self to excel
confidence and self image

The ideas listed above include both positive and negative aspects of team sports.
Using all these ideas would result in a poorly written paragraph because the topic
would be too broad for a single paragraph. Some of the ideas indicate positive as-
pects of team sports and some of the ideas relate to more negative aspects. A cou-
ple of the ideas seem to be about the same thing, and one of the items listed may
be irrelevant .The topic needs to be narrowed and organized a little more for a well-
written paragraph. One could either write about the positive aspects of team sports
or the negative aspects, but not both. In the space below, separate the above items
into either positive or negative aspects. Feel free to add ideas of your own not listed.

Positive Negative
________________________ ________________________
_______________________ ________________________
________________________ _________________________
________________________ _________________________
________________________ _________________________
________________________ _________________________
________________________ _________________________
________________________ _________________________

Write a short paragraph on either the positive or negative

Exercise 2.1 aspects of team sports in high school based on the ideas
you listed above.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

35
Exercise 2.2 Write down a number brainstorming ideas for the topics
listed below.

Music’s affects on moods Benefits of exercise

_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________

Games played as a child Your pet peeves

_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________

How the telephone changed lives Traits of good teachers

_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________

Clustering is another method that can be used to help organize thoughts about a
topic. Clustering is very similar to brainstorming in that ideas about the topic are put
down on paper. In clustering, the main topic is written within a circle in the middle of
the page. Related ideas or thoughts are placed in other circles around the main topic
and connected to the topic by lines. If there are lots of bubbles in the cluster, you need
to decide what to write about and eliminate the items not specifically
relevant to the topic. You may have enough ideas or material for a couple of more
paragraphs. Look at the example below, again using the topic of team sports in high
school. In this example, only the positive aspects of team sports are developed. Also
note that related ideas are connected together. If other ideas occur to you
include them in the spaces provided.

36
 Opportunities
Are to develop
Fun new friend-

Provides for
new learning
experiences

Provides non-
academic Sports
activities for Teams
students Develops
cooperative
behavior

Develops the
body and the Develops self
mind confidence
and self image
Develops a team
attitude among
students

Using the above ideas generated in the cluster diagram a well-organized paragraph
could be written about the benefits of team sports. Notice how related ideas are
connected together. Team sports are fun and so are non-academic activities. Team
sports develop a teamwork attitude and also cooperative behavior. Team sports
provide for new learning experiences and for developing of new friendships.

Using the ideas above write a short paragraph about the

Exercise 2.3
benefits of team sports in high school.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

37
Exercise 2.4 Organize the ideas generated on one of the topics in
Exercise 2.1 on brainstorming using the cluster map below.
Write the central idea in the middle with other ideas branch-
ing out and connected with lines.

The third method that can be used to develop ideas for a

topic is free writing. Free writing is simply writing down
ideas that occur to you as quickly as you can, without regard
to the final organization of the ideas. An important point
about free writing is not to stop writing. If you get stuck with
one idea, move on quickly to another. Students should not
spend too much time worrying about grammar, sentence
structure, or organization when free-writing. The important
thing is just to write. Organization and correction come later.
Look at the following example.

I always liked team sports in high school. I met many new friends and it
was fun. The teams got to travel to other cities to play other high schools. Be-
fore playing high school basketball, I was only interested in shooting the ball.
I didn’t care about defense or what my teammates were doing. The coach
was tough but he taught me a lot about the sport. I really liked the feeling of
accomplishment and self-satisfaction when we won a game. I also liked being
popular with all the girls because I could play so well. Practice took a lot of
time and I really didn’t study as much as I probably should have, but it was a
lot more fun than studying.

38
In the above example many ideas are put down on paper. As can be seen, the ideas
are very disorganized and some are not really related well to the topic, but they rep-
resent a good place to start. You now have thoughts that can be organized and re-
lated to each other to develop a well-written paragraph. Once the free writing is
completed it can be reread, keeping and reorganizing the ideas that are relevant
and eliminating the ideas that are irrelevant.

Select one of the topics listed below and generate ideas for a
Exercise 2.5 possible paragraph by using free writing.

Safe driving tips Benefits of a college education

Computer games Benefits of reading
Tattoos Premarital sex

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Points to Remember

The main idea or point of the paragraph is stated in the

topic sentence, usually the first sentence of the paragraph.
The topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is
about. After the topic sentence is written, it needs to be
supported by other sentences. The form of the support
may be by the use of examples, anecdotes, or facts and
figures. The paragraph should have unity (having a single
focus and talking about only one thing). If the paragraph
talks about more than one thing, it lacks unity, an essential
element of a well-written paragraph. Transitions must be
used to ensure that the sentences are logically arranged
and flow smoothly from one idea to the next. A paragraph
that fails to do this lacks continuity and cohesion (two other
elements of a good paragraph).

39
Exercise 2.6 Read each of the paragraphs below. On the space provided
indicate the topic and the writer’s purpose. Remember the
purposes that people write are to inform, to entertain, and to
persuade.

Littering is an unnecessary plight that affects all cities to some extent. It is

one of the few city problems that could quickly, easily, and economically be
corrected. Littering is the result of careless, uniformed, or uncaring individuals.
Trash cans are visible and within easy access to citizens on virtually every
street corner. People need to simply think before they toss. Think of the untar-
nished beauty that your streets could have if not inundated with unsightly litter.
Think of the savings to government coffers that would not have to be allocated
for cleaning up the mess. Think of the health and safety of your children that
could play in the streets and parks without fear of illness, disease, or injury;
litter is a potential source of these things. Think of the positive image that city
visitors would have in such a pristine environment. Everyone can easily do his
part to make their city one to be proud of: just think before you toss.

Topic: __________________________________________________
Purpose:________________________________________________

Scrabble is a word game that is fun and challenging for young and old
alike. It is easy to play. The only skill needed is the ability to spell. The game
consists of a game board about 36 centimeters square. The board is divided
into 215 squares, each square about two centimeters by two centimeters.
There are also 100 tiles, about two centimeters square, with letters printed on
them. Each tile also has a number on it, which represents the numerical value
for that tile. The object of the game is to spell words, placing then either hori-
zontally or vertically on the board. The numerical value of the word is deter-
mined by adding up all the numbers on the tiles used. Each player in turn
makes a word, using at least one of the letters already on the board. For
added excitement, some of the squares on the board are designated as dou-
ble or triple letter scores and double or triple word scores. These squares al-
low the players to accumulate more points. The winner of the game is the per-
son with the highest score after all the tiles have been played. Try playing
Scrabble today; it’s not only fun, but educational!

Topic: __________________________________________________
Purpose: _______________________________________________

40
 Pigs are the cleanest and brightest of animals in spite of the bad press they
sometimes receive. Pigs prefer clean, cool areas to sleep in. When they re-
lieve them selves of bodily waste, they do it in one small area of the pen,
away from where they sleep and spend most of their time. Although it is true
that pigs wallow in the mud, they don’t do it because they like dirt. Pigs have
no sweat glands, so they roll around in mud to keep cool. In addition to being
clean animals, pigs are also intelligent. Many animal experts consider pigs to
be more trainable than dogs or cats. The next time someone says that your
house looks like a pigsty, take it as a compliment, and thank them.

Topic:___________________________________________________
Purpose: ________________________________________________

Many people consider Leonardo de Vinci one of the most brilliant people
ever born. De Vinci was an Italian artist, architect, and inventor during the
13th and 14th centuries. Two of de Vince’s greatest paintings, the Mona Lisa
and The Last Supper, have survived down the ages and still inspire people
today with their unparalleled artistic beauty. Between 1485 and 1490 de Vinci
designed many buildings, ranging from churches to fortresses. An inventor
well before his time, de Vinci invented the parachute. He also designed nu-
merous devices for war and combat, including a submarine, a tank, numerous
weapons, and a helicopter 500 years before the airplane was invented. Leo-
nardo de Vinci, a great man whose works and achievements are still loved
and admired the world over even today.

Topic: ___________________________________________________
Purpose: _________________________________________________

41
 Ocean and tidal waves offer a vast source of untapped energy that both
government and industry need to exploit to benefit from its full potential. There
are numerous advantages to this source of power, when compared to fossil
fuel or nuclear generating plants. Once the power plant is built, the cost of
continued operation and maintenance is negligible. This source of power is
also renewable, unlike fossil fuels which generate much of the electrical
power used today. In addition, there is no pollution created from the burning of
fossils fuels, nor is there the danger associated with nuclear power plants.
Tidal and wave devices appear to have only a minimal impact on the environ-
ment, and may even have a positive effect on coastal erosion. Finally, the en-
ergy produced is reliable and predictable, unlike the energy produced from
wind power. Although research and development of this form of energy is still
in the infancy stage, it offers future generations hope for a cheap, environ-
mentally friendly source of electrical power.

Topic: __________________________________________________
Purpose:________________________________________________

Arizona, a rich, vibrant state in southwestern United States, has some-

thing for everyone. Its geography is varied, encompassing tall snow capped
mountain ranges, swift flowing and slow meandering rivers, grass lands on
high plateaus, arid desert flatland, and blowing sand dunes. Although the
summer months can be just short of sizzling, with average July temperatures
about 106º, winters offer its many seasonal visitors a balmy average tempera-
ture of just 66º, even in the coldest of months. Although Arizona ranks 20th in
population, with 5.1 million residents, it ranks sixth in land size with a total
area of 113, 462 square miles. Phoenix (the capital) and Tucson, the two larg-
est metropolitan areas in the state, offer just about all the attractions that big
city dwellers value, including art galleries and museums, fine restaurants, pro-
fessional sports teams, universities, and a host of leisure and recreational fa-
cilities and events. Tourists from around the world visit to marvel at the mag-
nificence of the Grand Canyon, to appreciate the quiet beauty of the Painted
Desert, to photograph the graceful flight of hovering hummingbirds at Ramsey
Canyon, and to view the spectacle of a rodeo in several southwestern cities of
the state. Arizona truly is a must see for any discriminating traveler.

Topic: __________________________________________________
Purpose:________________________________________________

42
 Younger sisters can be incredibly stupid. Take mine for instance; she did
something that I have never seen before. Granted, she was only four years
old at the time, but still… Here’s what happened. I got a sling shot one year
for my birthday and was having a great time out in the back yard shooting old
soda cans over with small pebbles, using the slingshot. My sister came out,
thought it looked fun, and wanted to give it a try. Being the kind and generous
brother I was, I let her have a go at it. Holding the handle of the slingshot in
her left hand, she selected a good pebble from the ground and placed it tightly
in the pouch of the sling with her right. Raising her arms up to her face she
pulled back on the elastic band, took careful aim, and let it go. Unfortunately,
she got a little confused. Instead of holding the handle at arms length and
pulling the band toward her nose, she did just the opposite. She held the han-
dle close to her face and pulled the band away from her. When she let go the
pebble, band, and pouch hit her right in the nose. Predictably, she ran into the
house crying her eyes out. I, on the other hand, noting that she was not seri-
ously hurt or injured, laughed hysterically. She claims not to remember this
particular incident, even when I bring it up occasionally during moments of
nostalgia.

Topic: __________________________________________________
Purpose: _______________________________________________

A man hates his wife’s cat and one day decides to get rid of it. He takes
the cat to a park a couple of blocks from his home and lets it lose and returns
home. When he was driving into the driveway of his home the cat was there.
The next day he decided to drive farther, he drove two miles from his home
and dropped the cat off. Upon entering his driveway, he again found the cat
already there. He continued doing this for several days, driving farther and
farther from his home everyday, but the cat always beat him home. Finally he
decided to drive way out of town. He took the road out of town, turned left
and drove several miles, turned right and went over a bridge, drove a couple
more miles, turned left again and drove for several more miles. When he
thought he was a safe distance from the house he let out the cat and started
the drive home. After three hours of driving around he called his home. When
his wife answered, he asked if the cat was there. The wife said “Yes, why do
you ask?”. The man said “Put the cat on the phone, I’m lost and need
directions”.

Topic: ___________________________________________________
Purpose: ________________________________________________

43
 Chapter 3
Steps in the Writing Process

Writing is a continuous process of thinking, organizing, re-thinking and re-organizing.

Writing is not a finished product. Writing involves a number of steps or activities. All
writers go through the same process, whether they are writing a short letter to a
friend or a dissertation for a doctorate degree.

Seven steps in the writing process

1. Assessing the assignment

This step in the process involves determining what is to be written, for whom, and
where to get the information needed. Consideration must be given to the audience
and the purpose of the composition. The audience will set the tone (style or manner of
expression) and vocabulary use. The tone may be serious, humorous, personal, im-
personal, formal, or informal. The purpose of the composition will determine the rhe-
torical form used. A persuasive essay is written in one way and an expository essay in
another. Information for the assignment may come from a variety of sources– your
own experiences or background knowledge (which may include your opinions and
feelings) or from extended research of a specific topic with information gathered from
a library or the Internet. In addition, one must also think about how long the compo-
sition needs to be, when it needs to be completed, and for academic papers, the for-
mat to be used.

2. Generating ideas

Brainstorming, clustering, and free writing activities can be used to help the writer
develop ideas. Discussion of the topic with classmates or doing limited research in a
library may also be used to aid the writer at this step. Keep in mind that if only a
paragraph is being written, the topic must be narrowed sufficiently so the topic is
not too broad.

44
3. Organizing your ideas

Before writing the first words in any assignment, one must decide on the most
logical way to present the information. Depending on the topic, this may include
chronological order, order of importance, comparison, or cause and effect
organization. Outlining is one method to use when organizing your p a p e r . W h e n
outlining, first determine the main topic and list it. After the main topic is listed,
supporting ideas are listed under the main topic. When outlining, complete
sentences do not need to be used, instead use short phrases. Another method to use
to organize your thoughts is a tree diagram. A tree diagram is a more visual
format than an outline. In a tree diagram, place the main idea at the top of the page
and use lines to connect the supporting ideas to the main point.

The following is a possible outline for a paragraph on the topic of cats as pets.

Cats make the best pets

A. good companions
1. are affectionate
2. always available
B. independent
1. easy to care for
2. take care of themselves
3. entertain themselves
4. are cleaner than dogs (litter box)
C. provide service
1. keep rats/other vermin out of house

4. Writing the first draft

The first draft is written after your ideas are

generated and organized through the use of an outline or
tree diagram. It is important to consider your first
attempt at the assignment as a draft, and not the finished
product. During the drafting stage, the focus should be to
put the ideas down on paper quickly and not worry about
grammar, spelling, etc. Once the first draft is complete, it
must be critically reviewed and analyzed to identify
grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors in the editing
stage. In addition, the writer should ensure that the
organization and flow of ideas throughout the paper is
smooth, logical, and easily understood by the reader.
Start by writing the topic sentence and then develop
supporting sentences, following the logical order
developed in the outline. Ideas that were not in the
outline, but that occurred to you while writing the draft,
c a n be i ns e rt e d wh e r e n e ed ed t o i mp r o ve th e
composition. If you draw a blank while looking for a
particular word or phrase, leave it blank and fill it in later.

45
5. Revising

Revision may be done immediately after the drafting stage. Some writers put the work
aside and come back to it later. This allows them to attack it with a fresher
perspective. Revision involves adding or eliminating material and reorganizing it by
moving sentences around so the paragraph is more logical and understandable.
During the revision, your concern should be only content and organization, not
grammar, spelling, or punctuation.

It is important to make sure that the organization of your paper is complete

before worrying about how to revise sentences. Many students spend much time
revising sentences, only to find out latter that, because of a change in the organiza-
tion of the paper, that the sentence they so laboriously worked on is deleted.

There are several questions that can be asked during the revision stage that
can help the writer improve the material.
● Have you achieved your stated purpose?
● Have you said what you wanted to say?
● What is the topic?
● Is there a topic sentence and does it have a central focus?
● Does the paragraph have unity and only talk about only one topic?
● Are there any irrelevant sentences that do not support the topic
sentence? If there are, eliminate them.
● Is enough detail included in the supporting sentences to make the
ideas clear?
● Are sufficient and appropriate transition signals used so the paper is
logical and coherent and easily understood by the reader?
● Is there a conclusion? Does it need one?

6. Editing

In reality, editing takes place all the time when writing. In the editing stage the focus
is on checking spelling, grammar, punctuation, vocabulary, sentence structure, and
page layout. When editing, check the following points:

● Spelling
Does the reader use American or British English? Remember
that there are spelling differences between some American
and British English words. Whichever is used, be consistent
and don’t use both British and English spelling in the same work.
● Punctuation
Is there a period, question mark, or exclamation mark at the end of
each sentence?
Are there ending and closing quotation marks?
Are commas, colons, and semi-colons used appropriately to
separate dependent and independent clauses?
●Grammar
Do all sentences have subject-verb agreement?
Is there number agreement of nouns, pronouns, and possessives?
Are there any sentence fragments?
Are the correct verb tenses used?

46
 ● Vocabulary
Is just the right word used to express your meaning?
Are too many words repeated unnecessarily? Remember, using the
same word over and over again results in boredom for the reader.
● Sentence structure
Can some sentences be rewritten, using a different structure, so
they are more easily understood by the reader?
● Page layout
Is the composition visually appealing?
Are new paragraphs indented?
If a block design paragraph form is used, does a space separate
paragraphs?

7. Publishing
In this stage the final copy of the composition is completed;
the one that will be submitted for review. In most instances
the final product should be done on a computer or typed.
Hand written compositions may be difficult to read because
of the differences in the quality of handwriting among
individuals. Computers or word processing program should
ideally be used on all written assignments. Some people
may resist this idea if they have limited typing skills, but in
the long run, it could save time and effort. Revisions and
editing of the composition are so much easier on a
computer or word processor. Typing mistakes are easily
corrected, and even revisions of whole sentences,
paragraphs, or sections are simple and fast. In addition,
most word processing programs nowadays have not only
spell checkers, which alert the writer to misspelled words,
but also have grammatical functions that advise the writer of
possible problems with grammar and sentence structure.
For a novice English writer, a processing program is an
indispensable tool.

Organizing information
Many topics are very broad or too general and may be difficult to write about
effectively in a short composition. In these cases it is important to narrow the topic
so it can be covered effectively and interestingly in a short composition. For exam-
ple, the topic sports, is very broad and could cover countless games, events, or ac-
tivities. This topic could be narrowed further to sports in the United States; however
this topic is still too broad to write about in a short composition. It could be further
narrowed to professional basketball in America. This limited topic is much more
manageable to write about in a short composition, Of course, it could be narrowed
even more to salaries of professional basketball players, or cities with professional
basketball teams in them, or the economic benefits of professional basketball teams
on small businesses, or professional basketball teams and its effect on community
pride.

47
Exercise 3.1
Select three of the topics below and narrow the topics down
into ones that are manageable for a short composition.

Gambling
Religion
Pollution
TV shows
Health benefits of exercise
Hobbies
Computers
Crime and punishment
Space exploration
Family recreational activities

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

48
 Chapter 4
The Paragraph

A paragraph is a series of sentences all relating to the same topic or central idea. The
aim of all paragraphs is to communicate to the reader that idea clearly and effectively.
There is no hard and fast rule about the length of a paragraph; it will depend on the
topic and what the writer wants to say. The paragraph should be long enough to de-
velop the idea expressed in the topic sentence sufficiently. It should do what it sets
out to do in the topic sentence. If the topic sentence states that you will be explaining
how to make pizza, don’t forget the steps about turning on the oven and at which
temperature and how long the pizza should cook. Regardless of the length, the
paragraph must contain only one idea. Any irrelevant sentences must be
eliminated from the paragraph to ensure that it maintains its unity.

Parts of the paragraph

There are three parts to a paragraph: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a
conclusion. Think of a paragraph as an Oreo cookie. The first and last sentences are
like the top and bottom chocolate cookie of an Oreo; they are general
statements about the topic, which tie the paragraph together. The middle sentences
are like the white creamy filling, which contains information, facts, opinions, and
examples that support or develop the topic sentence.

1. Topic Sentence
There are differences between a topic sentence and a title. The title is above the
paragraph and expands the topic. It should indicate what the essay is about,
provoke interest, and be brief. The topic sentence is usually the first sentence in
the paragraph and limits the topic of the paragraph. A title is usually not a complete
sentence. The topic sentence is always a complete thought or sentence. Most words
in the title are capitalized. Only the f irst word and pro per nouns are
capitalized in the topic sentence.

The most important sentence of a paragraph is the topic sentence because it

contains the main ideas of the paragraph. There are has three elements in a topic
sentence: the topic, a controlling idea, and the point of view of the writer.

49
A. Topic

The topic is the subject, what is being written about in the

paragraph. The main idea expressed in the topic sentence
should not be too general or too specific. If it is too general,
it will be difficult to develop it adequately in a single
paragraph. If it is too specific, there will be nothing left to
say to develop the idea in the paragraph.

Look at the following topic sentences.

Everyone can benefit from exercise.

This topic sentence is too general. There are many different kinds of exercise
and different kinds of exercise have different benefits. Not all of them can be
developed within one paragraph.

Doing aerobics for thirty minutes a day will strengthen a person’s

cardio- vascular system by twenty five percent.

This topic sentence is too specific. There is nothing else that can be said to
support this statement in the remainder of the paragraph.

There are three reasons why I exercise everyday.

This sentence is an adequate topic sentence. It limits the discussion of the

paragraph to only discussing the reasons that the writer exercises. Telling wh a t
those three reasons are and what benefits the writer gains from exercise can be
expanded upon in the paragraph.

B. Controlling idea

The controlling idea limits the topic of the paragraph

to one definite idea or one aspect of the topic that
represents a particular idea, feeling, or opinion. The
controlling idea must not be too broad, it must be
specific enough for the subject to be discussed
within one paragraph.

Look at these three topic sentences. Each has same

topic, but contain different controlling ideas.

Topic
The Grand Canyon is a favorite vacation spot for travelers worldwide.
(controlling idea: vacation spot)
The Grand Canyon is noted for it awe inspiring panorama.
(controlling idea: panorama)
The Grand Canyon is an ideal area to view the geologic history of the earth.
(controlling idea: geologic history)

50
 Topic
The television is a major source of home entertainment.
(controlling idea: home entertainment)
The television is an effective educational tool.
(controlling idea: educational tool)
The television has become smaller since its initial invention.
(controlling idea: become smaller)

A divided topic sentence is useful in ensuring the sentence has a controlling idea. In
a divided topic sentence, the writer specifies or explains the divisions of the topic.
Look at the following sentences that illustrate a divided topic sentence.

There are three major professional sports in America.

Five essential ingredients are required in learning a foreign language.
To become a successful, writer one needs four basic skills.

All three of the topic sentences above clearly limit what will be discussed in the
paragraph (three sports, five ingredients, and four skills).

C. Point of view

A good topic sentence also expresses the point

of view of the writer. It may contain the opinion or
attitude of the writer. In the topic sentence

Digital cameras make photography easy and fun.

The writer’s point of view is easily determined- it’s easy and fun.

Compare with Steven King has written many books.

In this statement the writer’s opinion of the works of Steven King is not e vide nt ,
nor is there any indication of whether being such a prolific writer is
good or bad.

Look at the following topic sentences and decide whether they

are good or lacking. Put an X in the space if it is a good topic
Exercise 4.1 sentence, a G or S if it is too general or specific, or a C if it
lacks a controlling idea.

_____ The greatest boxer of all time was Mohammed Ali.

_____ Jogging is good exercise.
_____ Computers have changed the world.
_____ Bananas are the best fruit because they contain all the essential
vitamins needed for a healthy body.
_____ Using cell phones while driving can be a hazard.
_____ Religion is a crutch.
_____ The most challenging board game ever invented is chess.
_____ AIDS kills people every day.
_____ Music soothes the soul.
_____ Lawyers are too plentiful in the United States.

51
Exercise 4.2 Rewrite the following general statements and make them
more specific and suitable as topic sentences.

1. Italian food is healthy and easy to prepare.

_______________________________________________________________

2. The United States government is over burdened with citizens complaints.

_______________________________________________________________

3. Natural disasters create havoc for everyone.

_______________________________________________________________

4. The extinction of species of life on earth will have a profound effect on

future generations.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

5. Fairy tales are beneficial to children.

_______________________________________________________________

Exercise 4.3 Identify the topic and controlling idea of the following topic
sentences.

1. Children’s educational programs on TV are superior to cartoons for young minds.

Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

2. Racial discrimination in the work place is a waste of human resources.

Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

3. The exploration of space needlessly expends resources that could be put to

better use elsewhere.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

4. Hobbies provide people with many benefits.

Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

52
5. Learning a foreign language is also about learning the culture of that country.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

6. Becoming a doctor requires skills other than just medical knowledge.

Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

7. The time I spent in the Peace Corps was a horrendous experience.

Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

8. Driving in Korea presents foreign drivers with many challenges.

Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

9. A computer is a must for today’s college students.

Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

10. Teaching children the basics of fire prevention at home is fast and easy.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

Exercise 4.4 Write topic sentences for the topics below.

Same sex marriage Dancing as exercise

Littering Dieting
Home safety White sandy beaches
Reading for pleasure Favorite pets
Basic first aid Games played as a child

1. _________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________
4. _________________________________________________________________
5. _________________________________________________________________
6. _________________________________________________________________
7. _________________________________________________________________
8. _________________________________________________________________
9. _________________________________________________________________
10. ________________________________________________________________

53
2. Supporting sentences
The topic sentence is usually fairly general.
The supporting sentences that follow it
should be more specific and develop the
idea expressed in the topic sentence.
Supporting sentences that are vague merely
restate the topic sentence. There are
several methods that can be employed to
make the supporting sentences more
specific. One is to use details, facts, statis-
tics, examples, opinions, research results,
personal experience, or anecdotes. For
example:

Seoul is a big city. (no statistics, just a broad statement)

Seoul, South Korea has a population of over 10 million people.

Another method of adding specificity is by using exact names of things rather than
writing about them in general terms. For example

He is a doctor. (a very general statement)

He is a pediatrician who has worked at City Hospital
for the last 15 years. (a very specific statement)

A final method is to use concrete words that allow the reader to imagine the topic
being written about in greater detail, and not just in general or abstract terms. For
example:
Mr. Thompson enjoys life.
Mr. Thompson is almost always in a good mood, most often
has a smile on his face, is quick to laugh, and always sees
the positive, even in terrible situations.

Look at the following paragraph and note the supporting sentences.

The invention of the automobile has provided many benefits to travelers.

With a car, man is able to travel vast distances in short periods of time. What
once took a two or three weeks on horseback or horse drawn wagon can now
be done in a matter of hours. The comfort enjoyed by travelers, compared to a
horse drawn wagon, is amazing. No longer do travelers have to endure the
bone-jarring ordeal of riding on a stiff leather saddle or splinter-infested wagon
seat. Their voyage is now made on softly cushioned seats that can be ad-
justed to fit the sojourners level of comfort. Travelers are no longer subjected
to the harsh elements of the weather. In the past, travelers had to suffer the
biting cold of winter and the blistering heat of summer, not to mention the suf-
fering encountered by gale force winds, blinding snow, and drenching rain.
Today people can enjoy a soothing and relaxing trip thanks to the totally en-
closed interiors that offer air conditioning and heating units in most vehicles.
Needless to say, with all the advantages an automobile has to offer, no one
would dream of using the expression ‘Get a horse’ today.

54
Exercise 4.5 Select two topics that you wrote topic sentences for in
exercise 4.4. Write five or six supporting sentences for each
topic.

1. ________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. Concluding sentence
The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the
paragraph. Single paragraph compositions should
have a concluding sentence, however, it may not
be necessary all the time for a multi-paragraph
composition. The function of the concluding
sentence is to signal the end of the paragraph.
Concluding sentences can either be a restatement
of the topic sentence, a summary of the supporting
sentences, or contain a final comment about the
topic. The concluding sentence in a paragraph
should be a general statement that relates to the
idea expressed in the topic sentence, and not
another fact or detail of support. If restating the
topic sentence, it should be expressed in different
words, not an exact copy of the topic sentence.

In the above paragraph about automobiles, the concluding sentence was a final
comment about automobiles. A concluding sentence that restates the topic sentence
could be ‘The examples mentioned above clearly demonstrate the many advantages
of the automobile’. A concluding sentence that summarizes the supporting sentences
could be ‘Speed, comfort, and a controlled environment are just a few of the
advantages that a modern day car has over a horse’.

55
Many words or phrases can be used to signal the end of the paragraph in the con-
cluding sentence. Here are just a few (Note that these examples require a comma
following them):

finally, in conclusion, in summary,

therefore, thus, as a result,
indeed, in brief, in short,

Other phrases (which do not require commas) include:

we can see that . . .
it is clear that. . .
these examples show that. . .
there can be no doubt that. . .
the evidence suggest that. . .

Exercise 4.6 Read the sentences below and number the proper order for
the sentences in a paragraph.

____ Temperatures on the continent frequently drop below 100º below zero.
____ It is no wonder that this harsh environment has no permanent residents.
____ Antarctica, the continent at the South Pole, is one of the coldest spots on
earth.
____ The continent receives no sunlight for several months out of the year.
____ More than 95% of the land surface is covered by a tightly packed ice cap.
____ The sunlight it does receive is so slanted because of the tilt of the planets
axis, that the warmth for the sunlight is negligible.
____ The land is covered by thousands of feet of snow and ice.

Read the following paragraphs

Exercise 4.7 and write a topic sentence and
a concluding sentence for each.

Topic sentence: _________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
Acid rain is the result of pollutants, which are released into the atmosphere
from automobiles and industry, which fall back to earth after being trapped by
rain and snow. There have been numerous scientific studies of the effects of
acid rain on the ecosystem in recent years. Pollutants contained in acid rain
destroy plant and animal life when it enters lakes and rivers. Millions of acres
of trees and plants have been damaged or destroyed because of the harmful
effects of acid rain on these delicate ecosystems.
Concluding sentence: ____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

56
 Topic sentence: ________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
It has only recently come under more intense investigation by proponents of
western medical practices. Acupuncture involves the insertion of small nee-
dles, with the application of heat and electrical stimulation at precise acu-
puncture points on the body. According to traditional Chinese doctors, the
balance of yin and yang (opposing forces that regulate spiritual, emotional,
physical, and mental balance) are essential for good health. Blockage of the
gi flow (the energy that flows through the body via meridians or pathways)
creates an imbalance of yin and yang, which results in health problems or ill-
ness. The insertion of needles into the skin during acupuncture treatments
unblock these channels and allow energy flows to optimize, resulting in im-
proved health.
Concluding sentence: ____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Topic sentence: __________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
Area 51, located on the desert floor of Groom Lake, Nevada, is reported to be a
top-secret military base established in the early 1950’s. The base, according to
the government, is a testing facility for advanced aircraft being developed by
the military. The U-2 spy plane was tested there in the early 1950’s. Other air-
craft tested there include the SR-71 Blackbird, the F-117 stealth fighter, and
Northrop's B-2 stealth bomber. In 1989, a former employee of Area 51 claimed
that the base was testing UFO’s that the government received by trading with
aliens. Some believe that Area 51 is the site of a crash of an alien spacecraft
and that secret research is being conducted on the remains of the craft and its
occupants.
Concluding sentence: _____________________________________________

57
 Topic sentence: __________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Angina refers to the pain caused from a lack of blood supply to the heart. The
blood supply is reduced due to a buildup of plague (deposits of cholesterol) in
the arterial walls. The pain of angina is brought on by physical exertion and nor-
mally subsides with rest. The pain is typically located in the center of the chest,
but may also radiate to the left arm, neck, jaw, left chest, or back.
Concluding sentence: _____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Topic sentence: __________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
The first is when another driver pulls into the lane I am driving in and I have to
slow down. It doesn’t matter if the other person is driving safely and there is no
immediate danger of a collision. I get peeved if I have to slow down just a little,
even two or three miles an hour for a few seconds, while the guy in front of me
picks up speed. I see no reason why I should slow down because someone
else is in a hurry. The second thing that really gets my in an uproar is when
someone passes me on the right. In some states in the United States it is actu-
ally against the law to pass on the right. Don’t those people realize that passing
on the right is dangerous? Have they never heard of the blind spot in the rear
view mirror? Do they not care that they could be putting people’s lives in jeop-
ardy? The last thing that I really hate to see when I drive is when a pedestrian
walks into the road without looking. Are they nuts? Do they have a death wish?
Are they just plain stupid! Have their parents never taught them that it is a bad
idea to walk in front of a one ton car traveling at forty miles an hour? Do they
have no concept of bodily injury or death?
Concluding sentence: _____________________________________________
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 Chapter 5
Paragraph Characteristics

A well-written paragraph has four characteristics: unity, completeness, cohesion, and

continuity. Unity means discussing only one idea in the paragraph, the idea pre-
sented in the topic sentence. If a sentence in the paragraph does not relate to the
topic sentence, it is irrelevant and should be deleted. For example, if the topic sen-
tence states that the paragraph is about the advantages of CD’s over cassette tapes,
talk only about advantages– not disadvantages. Discussing the disadvantages does
not support the topic sentence and should not be included in the paragraph. Lack of
unity may also occur if the writer adds too much to the topic. For example, in the fol-
lowing topic sentence ‘The two biggest problems facing most candidates for public
office are lack of money and lack of public exposure’, only these two things should be
discussed in the paragraph. If a sentence about candidate’s inability to garner the
public confidence is included in the paragraph, it is irrelevant and should not be in-
cluded in the paragraph. The topic sentence stated that only two items would be dis-
cussed. Adding a sentence about garnering public confidence is not related to the
topic sentence and results in a lack of unity.

The following paragraph lacks unity because some of the

Exercise 5.1 sentences do not relate to the topic sentence. Cross those
sentences out.

Robert Goddard is considered to be the father of modern rocketry. God-

dard, a physics professor at Clark University in Worcester Massachusetts,
predicted in 1920 that a rocket would be able to reach the moon some day.
He speculated that with a big enough rocket and fuel that was powerful
enough, space travel was a possibility. Weightlessness could also be experi-
enced on a trip to the moon. His first determined that rockets could fly in the
vacuum of outer space, from his experiments with airtight chambers. After
calculating the energy-to-weight ratios of various fuels he learned the fuel
needed for a rocket would not come from black powder, like that used in fire-
crackers and TNT. Ever since Goddard was a child he had a fascination with
pyrotechnics. He discovered that what was needed was a liquid fuel that
could supply greater propulsion. His experiments in chemistry lead to a fuel
like kerosene or liquid hydrogen, combined with liquid oxygen, which was
needed in airless space for combustion. One newspaper ridiculed him at the
time stating that his musings were farfetched and unscientific. As any child
knows, Goddard’s prediction became a reality when man first stepped on the
moon in July 1969.
59
Completeness is similar to unity, except that instead of including sentences that are
irrelevant, completeness is ensuring that all the necessary supporting sentences are
included to fully explain and support the topic.

For example, if a topic sentence states that three things are needed obtain a visa
and only two are mentioned in the supporting sentences, the paragraph is incom-
plete. All three items must be mentioned for the paragraph to have completeness.
Another example, if a topic sentence promises to list the steps needed to change a
flat tire, but neglects to mention that the car must be jacked up before taking off the
wheels, the paragraph is incomplete. All the steps needed to change a tire must be
included in the paragraph to ensure completeness.

Cohesion is the smooth, continuous flow of thoughts of the

sentences and ideas presented according to some logical
principle. Cohesion allows the reader to follow the flow of
ideas within the text without effort, confusion, or frustration
because all the sentences are connected
together and sequenced in a rational order in their support
of the topic sentence. For example, if a paragraph is about
how to change a flat tire, a sentence about
removing the tire from the axle should not come before a
sentence about jacking up the car. When actually
completing this task, the car must always be jacked up first
before removing the flat tire from the axle. If the
supporting sentences in the paragraph are arranged with-
out rational order the paragraph lacks cohesiveness.

The principle used in the ordering of the sentences within a paragraph depends on
the kind of paragraph being written. Chronological ordering is appropriate for
narratives, which use a time order of events to relate the sequence in which things
happen. An example would be a paragraph about instructions for assembling a
model airplane. A descriptive paragraph uses spatial ordering to ensure cohesion. In
a descriptive paragraph, items could be describe from left to right, top to bottom,
front to back, etc. For example, when describing people, a writer may start from the
head and work down. The principles of logic and reason are used in expository
paragraphs, which arrange the sentences into a logical pattern. For example, if writ-
ing a paragraph about how to play a game the logical order may be first to explain
the object of the game, what materials are needed for the game, and then the rules
of the game.

To ensure cohesion, transition words are used to connect the gaps between
sentences in a paragraph. Usually transition words are at the beginning of a
sentence to relate a sentence to the one preceding it, but transition words can
come within sentences to connect one idea to another within a sentence.

Continuity is the combined inclusion of the three characteristics mentioned above:

unity, completeness, and cohesion. Having all three characteristics in the paragraph
ensures that the connection between ideas presented is smooth and even. For a
paragraph to have continuity it must have all three of these characteristics. If a
paragraph lacks unity, it has no continuity. If a paragraph lacks completeness, it
has no continuity. If a paragraph lacks cohesion, it has no continuity.

60
More on cohesiveness

As previously noted, one characteristic of a

good paragraph is cohesion; sentences that
stick together in supporting the topic
sentence. There are five devices that can
be used to connect sentences together to
ensure cohesion. These are personal
pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, the
definite article, use of synonyms, and linking
or transitional words.

Personal Pronouns are words that refer back to and substitute for nouns (called
antecedents) previously mentioned. Before a pronoun can be used in a text, an
antecedent must precede it, so the pronoun has something to refer back to. Look
at the following example.

The rich yuppie admired the sports car in the show window.
He decided to buy it.

The personal pronouns in the second sentence, he and it, refer back to the nouns
yuppie and car in the previous sentence.

Without the use of pronouns, a sentence may become awkward to read and in some
cases may not seem to relate to each other. Look at the following sentences.

The rich yuppie admired the sports car in the show window. The rich
yuppie had always wanted to buy a sports car. In the rich yuppies mind,
owning a sports car represented success and achievement. Being quite
wealthy, the rich yuppie could easily afford such an expensive sports car.
The rich yuppie decided to buy the sports car.

The relationship between these sentences may confuse the reader if it is not know
that the rich yuppie referred to is always the same person, they could easily refer to
two different rich yuppies. In addition to adding cohesion to a paragraph, the use of
pronouns allows for more interesting reading. Imagine having to read the paragraph
above, which used no pronouns. Having to read a passage like this would soon
become monotonous.

Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) are also tools that can be used to
connect sentences together. As with personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns
require an antecedent (a previously mentioned noun) before their use. Look at this
example.

Please note the Yankee’s baseball cap in the display case.

This cap was worn by Babe Ruth in the World Series.

If a demonstrative pronoun (this in the second sentence) is not used in the above
example the sentences may not appear to be connected or related to each other. If
a (cap) were used instead of this it would be unclear if the cap in the display case
was the same cap worn by The Babe.

61
The definite article (instead of a demonstrative pronoun) may also be used to join
these sentences. Just like pronouns, before using the definite article, it must be
preceded by a noun, which it can refer back to. The previously mention noun
(antecedent) is usually in the previous sentence. Look at the example below.

I bought an album yesterday.

The album was by the Beatles.

Using the definite article, it becomes clear that the Beatles album was the one
purchased yesterday, and not some other album. Without the use of the definite
article, the relationship between two sentences may not be as clear.

I bought an anniversary present yesterday.

An anniversary present is for my grandparents.

In the second sentence, because an was used, it is not clear whether the present in
the second sentence is the one that was purchased yesterday. To ensure there is
no misunderstanding the (and not an) should be used.

Another cohesive devise, synonyms, are used to enable the writer to add variety to
his writing by preventing the repetition of nouns or phrases, which may make the
passage boring and uninteresting to read. As with the other listed cohesive
devices, synonyms require an antecedent before their use. Note the synonyms for
car in the passage below and how it adds variety and spice to the paragraph.

Bob purchased his first car at the age of 17. The vehicle was an
old clunker and only cost $200 and was in a constant state of repair.
In spite of its problems, the automobile allowed Bob a degree of
freedom he had never experienced before.

The final cohesive device is linking or transition words. Transition words are
words that link ideas or sentences together and show the relationship between them.
They guide the reader through the passage by letting him or her know which direc-
tion the text is going. Coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, or
prepositions are frequently used linking words.

62
Transition words can be divided into six groups, each group serving a different
function in the way in which it combines sentences or phrases together. Look
carefully at the lists below.

A. Transitions which indicate additions, repetitions, or intensification:

also in addition besides too
another further furthermore in other words
moreover indeed in fact finally
first second after all once again
to repeat and so on again to sum up
to conclude usually habitually any more
including nevertheless to put it another way as a matter of
fact

B. Transitions which indicate comparisons, contrasts, or contradictions:

similarly likewise by comparison in the like manner
as well as as as if unlike
however though regardless on the other hand
in spite of despite but yet
whereas even though even when rather than
instead instead of on the contrary nevertheless
in fact nonetheless then again to put it another way
either… or neither… nor

C. Transitions which indicate a time or space relationship:

before now next after that
in time later following after so much time
finally earlier at first (last) then
just then until soon the next day (night)
while meanwhile beside between
beyond across over at
from to into outside
inside eventually since ever since
even when

D. Transitions which limit or prepare for an example:

if unless when provided that
in case in particular that that is
namely for example for instance to illustrate
such as

E. Transitions which indicate a cause or result:

because for therefore thus
so as a result consequently that (this) reason

F. Transitions which indicate obvious truths or grant opposition:

no doubt doubtless undoubtedly without a doubt
of course naturally surely certainly
in fact granted granted that conceding that

63
Exercise 5.2 The cohesiveness of the paragraph below could be im-
proved with the addition of transition words. Insert appropriate
transition words from the list below in the blanks.

undoubtedly whereas although

furthermore following nonetheless
as a result in addition

Tutankhamen, _______________ not as notable a pharaoh as Seti I or

Rameses II, _______________ gained wide-spread fame because of his
tomb. Howard Carter discovered Tutankhamen’s tomb in 1922 in the Val-
ley of the Kings. Surprisingly, the tomb was largely intact;
_____________ most Egyptian tombs had been pillaged and plundered
over the last 3000 years by grave robbers. The treasures revealed in the
tomb include his mummy and solid gold sarcophagus. _______________
a priceless gold mask, wall paintings, furniture, chariots, statues, jewelry
items, weapons, games, clothing, cosmetic equipment, and other artifacts
were discovered. _______________, these items have given archeolo-
gists a unique portrait of the life of ancient Egyptian royalty.
_______________, to add to the tombs myth, _______________ the
opening of the tomb a number of unexplained and mysterious deaths
sparked rumors of the mummy’s curse. _______________, it was widely
believed that anyone disturbing the peaceful remains of the tomb was
doomed to a terrible death. Much more can be learned about the legend
and treasures of Tutankhamen by visiting the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

64
 Re-arrange the sentences below in a correct sequential or-
Exercise 5.3 der to form a logical paragraph. As written, the sentences lack a
degree of cohesion for a well written paragraph. Rewrite the
paragraph below, using the cohesive devices discussed above to
make a well written paragraph.

_____ The Hope Diamond’s unparalleled beauty and

uniqueness is attributed to the diamond’s
unquestioned perfection, large size, and
brilliant blue color.
_____ The Hope diamond, one of the world’s great
treasures, has been enshrouded in tragedy
and mystery for centuries.
_____ Her first son died in an car accident at age nine.
_____ Death has followed its history.
_____ It is alleged that Tavernier stole the Hope Diamond from the stature of a
Hindu goddess and was mauled by a pack of wild dogs after selling the
stone in Russia.
_____ Whether the legend of the Hope Diamond is believed or not, thousands
still marvel its beauty and allure daily at the museum’s display.
_____ The next owner, a New York jeweler named Harry Winston, donated the
gem to the Smithsonian Institute in 1958.
_____ In 1939, the diamond was purchased by Henry Philip Hope (from which
the gem gets its current name).
_____ According to legend, Hope went bankrupt because of the curse.
_____ She considered the gem a good luck charm:however, tragedy struck her
life after the purchase.
_____ The curse began with a traveler to India named Tavernier.
_____ Her daughter committed suicide at the age of 25.
_____ Her husband was committed to a mental institution fro insanity and
remained there until his death.
_____ Many believe that the donation was made in order to rid himself of the
diamond’s curse.
_____ Some attribute the beheading of Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI, later
owners of the famous diamond, to the curse of the Hope Diamond.
_____ An American woman, Evelyn Walsh McLean, bought the diamond in
1910.

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66
 Chapter 6
Types of paragraphs

The order of the sentences in a paragraph must be in some sort of logical order so it
can be easily read and understood by the reader. The kind of logical organization
used partly depends on the topic and what the writer wants to say about it. There
are several kinds of paragraphs– narrative, descriptive, process, compare and con-
trast, cause and effect, problem analysis and solution, and persuasion. Each kind of
paragraph has a different purpose and different method of organization.

Narrative paragraphs

A narrative paragraph tells a story and its purpose is to

provide information about an event. In a narrative para-
graph, events are related to the reader in the correct
chronological order as they happened. A narrative para-
graph is used when writing about such things as: a va-
cation trip taken to Africa, your first day in a foreign
country, man’s journey into space, or the events leading
to the end of slavery in America. When telling a story
elements that should be included are the chain of events
of the story, the characters or people involved, when and
wh e r e t h e e v e n t o c c u r r e d , a n d p o ss i b l y t h e
theme or moral of the story.

67
Read the narrative paragraph below.

Narrative paragraph

My girlfriend and I went on vacation to Hawaii about a year ago. We spent a

week there and had a great time. We stayed at a very nice hotel right on the
beach in Honolulu. We spent a lot of time on the beach, of course, swimming,
wading, walking, and soaking in the sun. At night we always went out to a fine
restaurant for a romantic dinner on the beach. We even took in a show once.
One day we went snorkeling. That was fantastic! The numbers and varieties of
brightly colored fish we saw were just amazing. I thought about trying my hand
at surfing and parasailing, but I chickened out. On another day, we did the
typical vacationer’s tour; we went to a Marine Museum, a traditional Hawaii
market, and The Arizona War Memorial. One night we went to a luau. The
food at the luau was delicious, as were the tropical drinks. The organizers of
the luau taught all the women how to do the hula; all the men sat back,
watched the dancing, and drank Mai Tai’s. The luau was fun, but I thought it
was over-crowed. There were a least 150 people there. In spite of the crowds,
Hawaii certain is a vacation paradise.

Exercise 6.1 Write your own narrative paragraph in the space provided.

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Descriptive paragraphs

When one wants to describe the way something looks like in a physical sense a
descriptive paragraph is used. A descriptive paragraph would be used for such things
as describing the physical appearance of your favorite uncle, the layout of the library
at a school, the awesome grandeur of the Pyramids, or the stunning beauty of the
Mona Lisa. The organizational flow of sentences in the paragraph should be based on
some logical principle and could vary based on the writer’s style or intent. For exam-
ple, if describing a person, one may start the description from the head and work
down to the feet, or vise versa. Additional supporting sentences may include infor-
mation about the person’s eye color, hair color and style, height, weight, physical
stature, and distinguishing marks. If describing a room, one could describe from left to
right or front to back or from the center outward. Items that may be included in the
supporting sentences may include the color of the walls, the size of the room, the
furniture or décor of the room, the location of the furniture, windows or doors in the
room. If describing the beauty of a famous landmark one could start with the landmark
itself and expand outward to include the landscape around it, the sky above, and the
horizon beyond. Supporting sentences may include information on the size, shape,
a n d c o l o r o f t h e l a n d ma r k, i t s l o c a t i o n , t h e k i n d s o f v e g e t a t i o n i n
the vicinity, and the immediate or distant geologic characteristics of the landscape.

Read the descriptive paragraph below.

Descriptive paragraph

Kangaroos are strange and amazing animals. There are three species of
kangaroos and they can weigh between forty and two hundred pounds (18 to
95 kg) and range in height between three and nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters). A
kangaroo has two large hind legs (with four toes) and a long, powerful, tapered
tail that is used for balance when hopping and leaping. Kangaroos can walk
and stand upright and they move about by hopping on their hind legs. Their
front legs are short and small, with hands and five unequal digits (fingers) simi-
lar to a human’s. The digits are used for grasping objects and also have sharp
claws that are used for fighting. Kangaroos have long pointed ears and a long
and well-defined muzzle, with distinctive black and white patches on both
sides of the muzzle. Their head resembles that of a dear. The fur of the kanga-
roos is soft and woolly and may have stripes on the head, back, or upper limbs.
Depending on the species, the color of the fur can be reddish brown, grayish
brown, or chocolate brown. One distinguishing feature of kangaroos is that the
females have a pouch in which the babies reside until mature. To see these
amazing animals up close one has to travel to Australia, as that is the only
place kangaroos can be indigenously found.

69
Exercise 6.2 Select one of the topics below and write a descriptive
paragraph about it in the space provided.

Your bedroom Your college campus

A friend A TV
An elephant Your own idea

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Process paragraph

An process paragraph is used when

explaining something such as how to do
something, how something is done, or how
something works. Topics suitable for an
process format include how to overcome a
fear of heights, how to bake a cake, or how
a h y d r o e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r wo r k s .

Keep in mind that the present and future tense are most often used in describing a
process, very seldom is the past tense used. In addition, when writing a process
paragraph, it is important for the reader to be able to follow the sequence of steps
easily. For this reason, the use of transition words is essential. Below is a list of
commonly used transition words for process paragraphs.

first second third after

that then next before

70
Read the two process paragraphs below.

Process paragraph 1 (how something works)

The design and operation of a household toaster is simplicity itself. Modern

toasters work on electricity. Electricity passes through thin wires that are on
both sides of the slot where the bread is placed. The wires become red hot
when the electricity passes through them, which generates a tremendous
amount of heat. This heat burns the bread to make the toast. The degree that
the bread burns can be regulated with a dial. On a low setting, the toast be-
comes lightly toasted; with a higher setting, the toast becomes darker. The dial
controls the amount of time that the bread is in the toaster, not the amount of
heat generated. Most toasters contain a lever that is pushed down, which low-
ers the bread into the device so the bread is beside the heating filaments. The
toast pops up, away from the heating filaments, when the time that is set with
the control knob expires. The electricity stops passing through the wires and the
heat soon dissipates. Some of the newer toasters have no lever to push down;
instead the bread is automatically lowered into the toaster when it is placed in
the slots. Most toasters are made for two slices of bread, but four slice toasters
are available, to meet the ever increasing time demands on working moms.
Toasters are fast, convenient, and easy to use tools that help make breakfast
quick and easy.

Process paragraph 2 (how to make something)

Making tacos, a Mexican dish, is fast and easy. There are six basic ingredi-
ents: corn tortillas, ground beef (hamburger meat), lettuce, tomatoes, onions,
and shredded cheese. For a serving of six, use these amounts of ingredients:
six uncooked corn tortillas, one half pound of ground beef, one quarter head of
lettuce, one large tomato, one medium sized onion, and four ounces of shred-
ded Cheddar cheese. First, dice the lettuce, tomatoes, onions, and shred the
cheese and put them into separate bowls. Second, brown the ground beef in a
frying pan, being sure to mash the beef into small bits. Season the beef with
salt and pepper to taste. Then, put in six to eight tablespoons of cooking oil in
another small frying pan and cook the tortillas over medium to high heat. To
make soft tacos, cook the tortillas for 30 seconds on one side and then turn
over and cook the other side for 30 seconds. After cooking the tortillas, place
the cooked tortilla on a paper towel to remove the excess grease. To make the
taco, take the soft tortilla and fold it in haft, spoon into the tortilla shell a table-
spoon or so of the cooked ground beef. On top of this add small equal amounts
of cheese, lettuce, tomatoes, and onions. The taco is now ready eat, just pick it
up with your hands and chow down (no spoons or forks are required). Keep in
mind that the ingredients have a tendency to fall out of the taco when eating,
so eat carefully. The debris that falls on the plate can be eaten later with a fork,
or if keeping with custom, just use your fingers. Some people like to add a little
zest to their tacos by adding a dash or two of hot taco sauce and a dab of sour
cream or guacamole. To Tacos make a fast, easy, and delicious meal, so add
them to your menu to add variety to your dining experience.

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Exercise 6.3 Select one of the topics below and write a process
paragraph.

How to make your favorite food How to fail a class

How to impress a teacher How to master English
How to be a millionaire How to make a kite
How to find the perfect mate How to stop the hiccups
How an electric can opener works Your own idea

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Compare and contrast

In a compare and contrast paragraph the writer

is pointing out the similarities and/or differences
between two or more things. A compare and
contrast paragraph could be used to show that
one thing is superior to another or to show
changes over time. Suitable topics for a
compare and contrast paragraph include city
versus country living or modes of transportation
today versus 100 years ago.

There are two methods for organizing a compare and contrast paragraph: point-by-
point or block. In a point-by-point organizational method, two topics are compared or
contrasted point by point. In a point by point method, one aspect is talked about for
both items being compared, then another point is discussed for both items, and so
on. For example, in a paragraph comparing shopping at a superstore (such as Wal-
Mart) and shopping at specialty stores, the first point may be convenience. The
writer would discuss the advantages or disadvantages for both stores. A second
point may be price. Again the writer would talk about the advantages or disadvan-
tages of one over the other. The paragraph continues in this manner until all points
of comparison are covered.

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In a block method of organization the writer would write about the two things being
compared or contrasted separately. Using the shopping example cited above, the
writer would first write about all the advantages or disadvantages of shopping at a
superstore. The remainder of the paragraph would discuss the advantages or
disadvantages of shopping at specialty shops. Look at the two paragraphs below,
one using a point-by-point method and the other a block method.

Read the two compare and contrast paragraphs below.

Compare and contrast paragraph: Point by point method

Shopping at a superstore is far more superior than shopping at a specialty

shore. Shopping at a super store is much more convenient and time saving.
First, a super store provides for one stop shopping, you can get every thing
you need under one roof. If shopping at specialty shops, one may have to
drive all over town, spending half a day doing so, to complete all of your pur-
chases. Prices may also be much cheaper at a superstore. Super stores are
able to buy in bulk, passing on the savings to the customer. Many specialty
stores are unable to provide this benefit to their customers. Parking at a super
store is generally fast and easy since they always have large, spacious park-
ing lots. Finding a parking space for a specialty shop may be difficult. A person
may end up parking one or two blocks away, and may have to pay a parking
fee. A super store may also provide the customer with greater choice. The
electronics department of a super store could have 10 different brands of tele-
visions, with several models of each brand to choose from. A specialty store
may only have two or three brands, the brands that they carry, to choose from.
All in all, why would any one want to shop at a specialty store?

Compare and contrast paragraph: Block method

Shopping at a superstore is far superior than shopping at a specialty store.

Shopping at a super store is much more convenient and time saving. First, a
super store provides for one stop shopping, you can get every thing you need
under one roof. Prices may also be much cheaper at a super store. Super
stores are able to buy in bulk, passing on the savings to the customer. Park-
ing at a super store is generally fast and easy since they always have large,
spacious parking lots. Finally, a super- store may also provide the customer
with greater choice. The electronics department of a super store could have
10 different brands of televisions, with several models of each brand to
choose from. On the other hand, if shopping at specialty shops, one may
have to drive all over town, spending half a day doing so, to complete all of
your purchases. Many specialty stores are unable to purchase their merchan-
dise in bulk; therefore customers may end up paying a higher price. Finding a
parking space for a specialty shop may be difficult. A person may end up
parking one or two blocks away, and may have to pay a parking fee. A spe-
cialty store may only have two or three brands, the brands that they carry,
thus limiting their customer’s choices. All in all, why would any one want to
shop at a specialty store?

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Exercise 6.4 Write a compare and contrast paragraph using one of the
topics below.

City and country living A sports car and a luxury car

Audio-tapes and CD’s Two countries
Your mother and father Typewriters and computers
Your own idea

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Cause and effect

In a cause and effect paragraph the writer analyzes the causes or factors that
brought about an event and examines the results or consequences of that event.
The paragraph could contain only the causes of an event or situation or could con-
tain only the effects of an event or situation, or it could contain both the causes and
effects. Topics that may utilize a cause and effect method of organization include
examining the cause of air pollution and its effect on plant life or the rates of illiter-
acy in a country and the effects on the employability of its citizens.

74
Read the Cause and effect paragraphs below.

Effect paragraph

When the United States lowered the legal drinking age from 21 to 18 about
30 years ago it created unforeseen problems. One problem was the increase
in the number of alcohol-related automobile accidents among 18 to 21 year
old drivers. The accident rate nearly doubled within six moths after the law
was enacted. In addition to the accident rate, the number of fatalities resulting
from alcohol related car accidents increased dramatically. As would be ex-
pected, the insurance rates for this age group also increased due to the lar-
ger number of accidents. At the time that the law was passed, there was a
national sentiment that if 18 year olds were old enough to die in a war, they
were old enough to handle the responsibility of alcohol use. Clearly this was
not the case. Less than three years later the law was repealed and the drink-
ing age was re-instated to 21.

Cause paragraph

There are several reasons many high schools in the United States have be-
gun to change their curriculum from the traditional academic focus to a voca-
tional focus. Many students in high schools have no desire, or lack the financial
resources, to attend college. Students found the courses offered irrelevant to
their lives, which effected their attendance and performance in classes. Receiv-
ing a traditional high school education did not prepare them for the world of
work because they had no skills to offer an employer, other than the three R’s.
The students and their parents needed a curriculum that taught the student
specific skills that could be used immediately upon graduation to join the work
force. Schools now offer courses in automotive repair, construction, nurse’s aid
training, cooking, and secretarial or office work. Businesses also supported this
change. Training new employees in the most basic skills for a particular job
costs time and money. Employers required a work force with skills that could be
put to work immediately. The changing of focus of the high school curriculum in
America has resulted in more motivated students and a better skilled work force.

75
Exercise 6.5 Select one of the topics below and write an effect paragraph
about it.

Water pollution Unemployment

Being laid off from work A new baby in the family
Cell phones on daily life Your own idea

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Select one of the topics below and write a cause paragraph

Exercise 6.6 about it.

Stress Crime
Failing a class Rising divorce rates
Longer life expectancies Your own idea

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

76
Problem Analysis and solution

In a problem analysis and solution paragraph the writer identifies a problem and of-
fers solutions for that problem. Topics that may be found in a problem and solution
paragraph include employees consistently reporting late for work or a lack of parking
space in a downtown area.

Read the problem/solution paragraph below.

Problem and solution paragraph

Rush hour traffic jams are a major source of annoyance and inconven-
ience for millions of big city dwellers. Most large metropolitan areas have a
number of modes of mass transportation that can be utilized by commuters to
eliminate the daily headaches and hassles of traffic jams. The first is the sub-
way. Subways are fast, inexpensive, easily accessible, and have routes to
most areas of a city that a person may need to travel to. In addition, they can
be a source of fun and entertainment. For example, they are an excellent
place for people watching; there is no doubt that a person can meet a wide va-
riety of fascinating and unusual people using the subway. A second alternative
is a bus. Although buses may be a little slower than subways, they also have
the same advantages as a subway in that they too are relatively inexpensive,
easily accessible, and travel to most areas of a city that a person may need to
go to. One disadvantage, however, is that buses generally do not run as fre-
quently as subways, so a person may have to wait a much longer time for the
next bus to arrive. A third alternative is the taxi. Although taxis can be quite ex-
pensive, they have the advantage of dropping the passenger off at the exact
location he or she is going, thus eliminating the need for additional walking to
their final destination. Car pools, if used more extensively, could also be a
means to reduce traffic jams. Car pools are ideal for people that live in the
same area and work in the same place. They have the advantage of being In-
expensive, in that all riders could pitch in for the cost of the gas. Also it’s a
great opportunity to socialize with coworkers and maybe even reduce the
stress and frustration associated with bumper-to-bumper traffic. Finally, for
those who live close to their place of work, a bicycle may be just the ticket. Not
only does a cyclist beat the traffic, they can get a good work-out at the same
time and have a healthier life. So, if you are tired of the daily grind of getting to
work, try another mode of getting there, and relax.
77
Exercise 6.7 On a separate sheet of paper, select one of the topics below
and write a problem analysis and solution paragraph.

The homeless Over-population

Drug use Sexual discrimination
Political corruption Employment for youth
Domestic violence High cost of medical care
Drunk Drivers

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Persuasion

In a persuasion paragraph the writer attempts to persuade others to his particular

point of view or tries to convince others to do something. If writing about the benefits
of a tax cut or allowing prayers in school, one would use a persuasion format. The
writer may use facts and figures, emotional appeal, or intellectual arguments to
sway the reader’s opinion.

78
Read the persuasion paragraph below.

Persuasion paragraph

Euthanasia is a merciful and humane termination of prolonged suffering, and

not murder, as some proponents insist. There is no sane reason why a person
with a terminal illness should have to suffer the agony, humiliation, and degra-
dation of a slow, certain death when other alternatives are available. Certainly
no one wants to die, but like taxes, it is unavoidable. Life is indeed a precious
gift that should be cherished and celebrated. For those unlucky souls inflected
with a painful terminal illness, they should have the option of passing quietly,
peacefully, and quickly. What rational person would choose the never-ending
torment that comes with the slow, excruciating death of a terminal illness?
Loved ones too suffer from a prolonged terminal illness. They experience the
grief, agony, and pain of losing someone every time they visit the hospital.
This continued exposure creates emotional, physical, and psychological stress
that is unnecessary and in most cases probably unwanted. Prolonged terminal
illnesses also put a great burden on family’s financial resources. With the high
cost of medical care today, this could (and many times does) create a financial
crisis that takes years to overcome. In addition, time and resources of the hos-
pital are inefficiently utilized. Medical facilities may be turning away patients
that need urgent care if their beds are filled with patients that are afflicted with
incurable diseases. This in turn could create grave social problems for a com-
munity. We are all going to die, let us hope that we have the option of going
out serenely.

Write a persuasion paragraph from one of the topic below.

Exercise 6.8
The death penalty Legalization of drugs
Mandatory military service Abortion
The existence of God Political part affiliation
Interracial marriage Elimination of testing in
Pornography on the Internet schools
You own idea
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

79
 Chapter 7
Parts of the Essay

Essay Organization
An essay or composition is a collection of paragraphs that cover one particular topic.
The organization of an essay is essentially the same as a paragraph. It contains an
introduction, just as a paragraph contains a topic sentence. The introductory
paragraph lets the reader know what the essay will be about. An essay has body
paragraphs, which develop the topic stated in the introduction, in the same way that
supporting sentences develop the topic sentence in a paragraph. The body
paragraphs, usually the longest part of the essay, contain support for the thesis
statement. An essay contains a concluding paragraph, just as a paragraph contains
a concluding sentence. The concluding paragraph summarizes the information in
the essay or may contain the writer’s opinion or prediction of the topic.

For an essay, a topic sentence and a concluding sentence may be not needed for all
paragraphs. If the thesis statement contains a predictor, it will clearly show what the
topic of the paragraphs will be. Even if no topic sentence is used, the writer still
needs to have good transition and unity to tie the paragraphs together cohesively.

The Introduction
There are two primary functions of the introductory
paragraph: to indicate what the essay will be about and to
attract the attention of the reader. The introduction may
include making an initial general statement and narrowing
it down to the thesis statement or explaining the impor-
tance of the topic. In addition, the introduction may provide
the reader with background information, set the limits of
the discussion, or to clarify the meaning of words. Without
an introduction the essays begins too abruptly and may
cause confusion for the reader.

80
If the introduction does not grab the reader, they may stop reading and seek
entertainment or information elsewhere. There are several techniques that can be
used in introductions to help get the attention of the reader. These are anecdotes,
quotes, surprise with an unexpected view, questions, interesting facts or statistics,
background or historical information, or a combination of these.

The topic of the essay is contained in the thesis statement. The thesis statement is
the most important sentence in an essay, just as the topic sentence is the most
important sentence in a paragraph. The thesis statement is similar to the topic sen-
tence and serves the same function in an essay as the topic sentences does for the
paragraph. It tells what the essay is about, just as the topic sentence tells the reader
what the paragraph is about. The thesis statement is the last sentence in the intro-
ductory paragraph. It lets the reader know what will be discussed in the remaining
paragraphs and expresses the opinion or point-of-view of the writer. It contains the
same components as the topic sentence. It contains the topic, a controlling idea, and
opinion or point-of-view. The topic is what the essay will be about. The controlling idea
is what will be said about the topic. There can only be one controlling idea in the thesis
statement. The thesis statement must also contain an opinion. If the thesis statement
c o n t ai n s a f a c t , i t c a nn o t b e s up p o rt e d a n d t h e wr it e r c a nn o t wr i t e
an essay about it.

Thesis statements may also have additional

characteristics. The thesis statement indicates
the central purpose for the essay and controls
the essay. It gives a plan for the essay and the
essay must follow that plan. The thesis statement
may indicate how many paragraphs the essay
will be, the organization of the essay, and the
content of each paragraph. For example, in the
thesis statement ‘The primary causes for the
gradual collapse of the British Empire were
political differences, economic factors, and
geographic distance’, one paragraph each
will be devoted to explaining the three causes of the collapse: political differences,
economic factors, and geographic distance. The order of the ideas presented in the
body paragraphs must match the order indicated in the thesis statement. In the
above example, the first body paragraph must be about political differences, the
second paragraph must be about economic factors, and the third must be about
geographic distance.

81
When writing thesis statements keep in mind these simple rules:
1) it must be a statement, not a question
2) it must be complete sentence
3) it must be an opinion, not a fact
4) it must have one, and only one, a controlling idea
5) it must state the writer’s position on the topic

Look at the following thesis statements. Place an X in the

space provided if it is an ineffective thesis statement. If the state-
ment is an effective thesis statement leave the space blank. If
Exercise 7.1 the statement is ineffective as a thesis statement, indicate in the
line under the statement what it is lacking: does it lack a topic, a
controlling idea, or an opinion.

___ Computers save time, money, and effort.

__________________________________________________________
___ Habitual gamblers waste resources.
__________________________________________________________
___ The three most common reasons for divorce are economic difficulties,
incompatibility, and unfaithfulness.
__________________________________________________________
___ George Washington was the first president of the United States.
__________________________________________________________
___ Are money and religion the two main causes of war?
__________________________________________________________
___ Hawaii is a great vacation spot because of the sun, sand, and surf.
__________________________________________________________
___ There are three qualities that a good secretary must have.
__________________________________________________________
___ Dream interpretation is a major concern for Freudian psychologists.
__________________________________________________________
___ Three popular Disney characters are Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, and
Winnie the Pooh.
__________________________________________________________
___ The only proven methods to lose weight are diet and exercise.
__________________________________________________________

Look at the topics below and write effective thesis

Exercise 7.2 statements for them.

Benefits of exercise
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

82
Advantages of Oriental medicine
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Educational TV
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Beatles music
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Advertisement
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Boring hobbies
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Difficulties of learning a foreign language

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Punk rock
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Tattoos
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

College sports
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

83
Exercise 7.3 Arrange the following sentences into the proper order to form
a coherent introductory paragraph. Place the number of the
sentence in then space provided on the left.

1.
___ Let’s face it, not everyone can afford a fifty-dollar steak, especially if there
are six in the family.
___ For others, the most important thing is the quality of the food.
___ For individuals on the go, a deciding factor many times is the speed of
service and convenience of the restaurant.
___ Everyone has a favorite restaurant that they like to go to.
___ There are many things that influence a person’s choice of where they will
dine.
___ Price is a deciding factor for many people.
___ The reasons I choose a restaurant are its location, its price, and its
service.
___ Fortunately for those on a tight budget, good food can be found in
inexpensive and moderately priced restaurants, as well as in expensive
restaurants.
___ Trendy restaurants are the perfect choice for those want-to-be socially
popular individuals who want to dine with the in-crowd.

2.
___ There are three reasons why I like being single: it is cheaper, there is
greater personal freedom, and I can live my lifestyle without interference.
___ Considering the pressures of today’s society on marriage and family,
remaining single is a difficult and courageous decision, but one that could
ensure happiness and contentment throughout life.
___ The changes that must be endured affect them emotionally,
psychologically, interpersonally, physically, socially, and financially.
___ Others, those with a little better grasp on reality, consider marriage as not
the beginning of a new life, but the death of an old one.
___ Once those fatal words ‘I do’ are uttered, life changes dramatically and
irrevocably.
___ No more can a carefree single person go through life as they please.
___ They must forevermore consider their life long partners position,
perception, and feelings on just about everything.
___ They consider marriage as the start of a new life.
___ Many people, especially the young and naive, eagerly anticipate of the day
they will walk down the aisle with the person of their dreams.

84
3.
___ In many parts of the world today, the younger generation has embraced
tattoos as symbols of their freedom, individuality, and independence.
___ Other societies have shunned the acceptance and practice of tattooing.
___ Tattoos have been a part of man’s culture since ink and needle were first
developed.
___ These same individuals, sometime in the future, will regret the day they
made the impulsive decision to get a tattoo.
___ Tattoos have been accepted in some societies, and indeed are or have
been an integral part of the rite of passage.
___ Three reasons why a person should not get a tattoo are that they are
painful, they are permanent, and they are often ugly.
___ Although the idea of getting a tattoo may sound appealing at first,
consideration must be given to the consequences.

Exercise 7.4 Write introductory paragraphs for the thesis statements

below.

1. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
The three biggest ways I waste time are by watching TV, talking on the phone,
and daydreaming.

2. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
There are three reasons why I like being single: it is cheaper, there is greater
personal freedom, and I can live my lifestyle without interference.

3. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
The reasons I like my favorite restaurant are its location, its price, and its
service.

85
4. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
If I were living in a foreign country, I would miss most the food, my family and
friends, and the television programs.

5. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
The three most important things to consider when buying a used car are the
mileage, the number of dents in the car, and the price.

Body Paragraphs

The body or supporting paragraphs are the paragraphs after the introduction that
contain the support or development of the ideas presented in the thesis statement.
One of the problems that many students face is coming up with ideas for the
supporting sentences. The sentences in the body paragraph must have concrete
support to convince the reader of the writer’s point of view. Without concrete and
sufficient support, the essay is too vague or too general. Concrete support can be
established by using facts, statistics, illustrations, examples, and personal
experience. Without solid supporting sentences the reader must guess what the
writer means and the writer will fail to convince the reader of his position.

For beginning writers, all body (supporting) paragraphs should have topic and
concluding sentences. The topic sentence for the body paragraphs should
introduce the points or sub-topics stated in the thesis statement, if any. Experienced
writers may eliminate the topic and concluding sentences, but only if the thesis
statement contains the topic for each paragraph. In addition, writers must ensure that
there are good transitions between sentences and paragraphs. The relationship
between paragraphs and how they are connected must be clearly understood by the
reader. At times it may be appropriate for the concluding sentence of one paragraph
to serve as a bridge to introduce the topic for the next paragraph.

86
 Recreational Trends
Year Movies Sports Computer Year Movies Sports Com-
puter
1985 53% 32% 15% 1995 39% 25% 36%
Action Football Games Action Football Games
15% 33% 10% 31% 31% 22%

Comedy Basketball Surfing Comedy Basket- Surfing

35% 35% 5% 21% ball 36% 26%
Drama Baseball Business Drama Baseball Business
23% 25% 50% 26% 24% 33%
Romance Other Other Romance Other Other
27% 7% 35% 22% 9% 19%

1990 45% 30% 25% 2000 21% 19% 60%

Action Football Games Action Football Games
22% 32% 17% 35% 29% 25%
Comedy Basketball Surfing 12% Comedy Basket- Surfing
29% 36% 23% ball 36% 45%
Drama Baseball Business Drama Baseball Business
24% 24% 41% 25% 25% 19%
Romance Other Other Romance Other Other
25% 8% 30% 17% 10% 11%

Exercise 7.5 The essay below uses information from the above chart to
summarize information about national trends of how people
spend their recreational time. However, the essay is very
vague and offers no concrete support for its claims. In addi-
tion, the essay’s use of transitional signals is poor. On a
separate sheet of paper, rewrite the paragraph, using more
specific information provided in the chart to support its
claims. Also include appropriate transition signals to improve
the readability of the composition.

87
 The trend in recreational activities has changed over the last 20 years, ac-
cording to a survey conducted by the National Free Time Association. The As-
sociation polled over ten thousand people, in a random sampling of a cross
section of American citizens. The Association wanted to know how the public
has changed the way they spend their free time. People were surveyed in the
three most popular categories: movies, sports, and computer use.
The time that Americans spend watching movies has declined by about half
over the last twenty years. The kinds of movies that are preferred have also
changed somewhat. The percentage of people preferring action movies has
vacillated, going up and down from 1985 to 2000. The same thing can be said
about the percentage of people that enjoy comedies. The percentage of people
that enjoy dramas has remained fairly constant during that time. Romance
movies have taken an overall decline in preference over the last twenty years.
The popularity of sports as a national pastime has seen quite a significant
decrease also over the survey period. The percentages of viewers for the each
of the three major American sports (baseball, football, and basketball) have re-
mained about the same. About a third of people prefer baseball, about a third
prefer football, and about a third prefer basketball. The popularity of football
has decreased a little, but the popularity of basketball has increased slightly
over the last twenty years. Baseball has maintained about the same amount of
popularity during that time. The popularity of other sports has increased a little.
The most notable change in the way Americans prefer to spend their free
time is the area of computers. The percentage of people that use a computer
as a vehicle for recreation increased between 1985 and 2000. The reason that
people use a computer has also changed. The percentage of people that use a
computer to play games has increased. Surfing the Internet for recreation has
also risen dramatically over the time period, it now being the main reason that
people use a computer. The use of business related software and other soft-
ware programs have seen a steady decline. In 1985 most computer use was
involved with business related software or other software programs. By the
year 2000, this had declined significantly.
The way that Americans spend their free time has changed over the last
twenty years. People still watch movies, but the kinds of movies they watch has
changed, although not significantly. The popularity of sports has seen an over-
all decline, although the percentage of fans that prefer one sport over another
has remained fairly constant, with about a third of the people liking football,
about a third liking baseball, and a third liking baseball. Computer use, specifi-
cally games and surfing the Internet, has shown to be the most significant
change in how Americans spend their free time.

88
Exercise 7.6 Using the introductory paragraphs below, write three
supporting paragraphs for each topic. Be sure to write
the supporting paragraphs in the same order as listed in
the thesis statement. Use the space below or a separate
sheet of paper.

Everyone has a favorite restaurant that they like to go out to eat at. There
are many things that influence a person’s choice of where they will dine. The
price is a deciding factor for many people. Let’s face it, not everyone can afford
a fifty-dollar steak, especially if there are six in the family. For others, the most
important thing is the quality of the food. Fortunately for those on a tight budget,
good food can be found in inexpensive and moderately priced restaurants, as
well as in expensive restaurants. For individuals on the go, a deciding factor is
many times the speed of service and convenience of the restaurant. Trendy
restaurants are the perfect choice for those want-to-be socially popular indi-
viduals who want to dine with the in-crowd. The reasons I choose a restaurant
are its location, its price, and its service.

_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

89
 Many people, especially the young and naive, eagerly anticipate the
day they will walk down the aisle with the person of their dreams. They
consider marriage as the start of a new life. Others, those with a little bet-
ter grasp on reality, consider marriage as not the beginning of a new life,
but the death of an old one. Once those fatal words ‘I do’ are uttered, life
changes dramatically and irrevocably. The changes that must be endured
affect them emotionally, psychologically, interpersonally, physically, so-
cially, and financially. No more can a carefree single person go through
life as they please. They must forevermore consider their life long partners
position, perception, and feelings on just about everything. Considering
the pressures of today’s society on marriage and family, remaining single
is a difficult and courageous decision, but one that could ensure happi-
ness and contentment throughout life. There are three reasons why I like
being single: it is cheaper, there is greater personal freedom, and I can
live my life style out interference.

_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

90
 Tattoos have been a part of man’s culture since ink and needle were first
developed. Tattoos have been accepted in some societies, and indeed are, or
have been, an integral part of the rite of passage. Other societies have
shunned the acceptance and practice of tattooing. In many parts of the world
today, the younger generation has embraced tattoos as symbols of their free-
dom, individuality, and independence. These same individuals, sometime in the
future, will regret the day they made the impulsive decision to get a tattoo. Al-
though the idea of getting a tattoo may sound appealing at first, consideration
must be given to the consequences. Three reasons why a person should not
get a tattoo are that they are painful, they are permanent, and they are ugly.

_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

91
Conclusion
The concluding paragraph of an essay is
the last paragraph. It has an important
function, to ensure that the reader has a
clear understanding of the point the writer
is making. There are several devises or
techniques that a concluding paragraph
may encompass, depending on the type
of essay being written or the writer’s
intent.

A concluding paragraph may involve a:

● Summary of the main points
● A restatement of the ideas in the thesis statement
● A final comment about the topic
● A prediction
● A recommendation
● A possible solution
● The writer’s opinion

Exercise 7.7 Read the following short composition and write a concluding
paragraph. Be sure to incorporate some of the ideas listed
above in the paragraph.

Several years ago, Mr. Adams underwent angioplasty, a medical treatment

for angina. Angina is a condition that results in a decrease of oxygen to the
heart, causing chest pain. If treated appropriately and in time, it need not be
debilitating or life threatening. In order to maintain his health his doctor recom-
mended a number of changes that Mr. Adams had to make in his lifestyle. At
first he thought that these life style changes would be very difficult, but to his
surprise he found that they were not as bad as he had anticipated. The three
easily achieved life style changes were increased exercise, a proper diet, and
reduction of daily stress.
Mr. Adams went on a regular, though not strenuous, exercise program. As
explained by the doctor, exercise was necessary to help reduce the amount of
cholesterol in his body. A high level of cholesterol is the major cause of the nar-
rowing of the arteries. At first Mr. Adams began exercising slowly. He walked
everyday for thirty minutes, at a fairly slow pace. Over the next several months
he gradually increased the amount of time, the distance, and the pace of his
walk. At the end of four months he was able to walk four miles in one hour with-
out difficulty. In addition to lowering his cholesterol level, Mr. Adams found that
he was in better shape, had more energy, and was more alert at work and
home.

92
 The biggest problem Mr. Adams encountered was changing his diet. Prior to
the medical procedure, he was fond of greasy, fried foods, sweet and fattening
desserts, and an ample amount of alcoholic beverages. Although unsatisfying
at first, the change to a more nutritionally balanced diet was not as bad as he
thought it would be. Fortunately his wife was a great cook and was very sup-
portive of his need to change his eating habits. She found and prepared many
delicious recipes for meals that reduced the amount of sugar, fat, and choles-
terol in his diet. Instead of T-bone steaks and French fries potatoes he had
baked chicken or fish and brown rice. Corn or a baked potato smothered in
butter and sour cream were replaced with a fresh green salad, with just a dab
of salad dressing. Sliced fruits, yogurt, and nuts substituted for the cakes, pies,
and ice cream for dessert he used to have. After a while, Mr. Adams found
that he did not even miss his old foods and always left the dinner table satis-
fied.
To reduce the stress in his life Mr. Adams did a number of things. First, he
enrolled in a meditation class. The classes taught him how to let go of the
daily stresses, relax, and enjoy life to the fullest. He made changes at work
too. Mr.
Adams was a successful grocery store owner. Before his life change, he
worked twelve to sixteen hours a day and had a compulsion to oversee every-
thing. Because of his doctor’s recommendations, he delegated much more re-
sponsibility and authority to his assistant managers. He worked fewer hours,
took longer lunch breaks and vacations, and performed less work than he did
in the past. He even found that work was much more enjoyable, not only for
him, but for his employees. To further reduce stress, Mr. Adams took up a
hobby; he started working with pottery. He discovered that when molding clay
he forgot all about work, he did not focus on irritating habits of his wife, chil-
dren, or friends, and utterly enjoyed the process and sense of accomplishment
of creating something with his own hands. By reducing the stress in his life Mr.
Adams discovered a whole new tranquil world that he could take pleasure in.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

93
Exercise 7.8 Look back at the previous exercise and write a concluding para-
graph for the essays written about restaurants, being single, and
tattoos.

Why people choose restaurants

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Single Life
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Tattoos
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

94
 Chapter 8
Process Essays

Just as there are several types of paragraphs, there are several types of essays, each
with a different purpose and form of organization. The remaining chapters of this book
will be devoted to these different forms of essay organization. All the writing tasks in
t hi s s ec tio n t ha t ar e c o mp le te d b y th e st ud en t s ho uld h a ve a t le ast
five paragraphs, an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

The purpose of a process essay is to provide instruction. There are two kinds of
process essays: analytical and instructional. An instructional process essay tells how
to do something, such as how to assemble a bicycle, how to speak in public, or how to
bake banana bread. After reading an instructional process essay, the reader should
be able to do the thing described. An analytical process essay tells how something
works or how something happens, such as how a carburetor works or how steam is
used to generate electricity. Regardless of the type of process essay being written,
the steps or procedures being described should be organized in some kind of se-
quential or logical order. In addition, process essays are primarily written
using the present (and sometimes the future) tense.

95
Model thesis statements for process essays

There are several words or phrases that can be used in the thesis statement that
indicate it is a process essay. Look at the following examples and be sure to include
phrases such as these in the thesis statement.

process of… the procedure of (for) . . . the development of . . .

instructions (for) . . . stages of . . . steps in (of) . . .
phases in (of) . . . principles (of)… growth in (of) …

Look carefully at the model thesis statements below. These kinds of structures and
formats can be used for thesis statements in a process essay.

Instructional process
1. It is ______________ to _______________ if you ____________.
It is easy to iron a shirt if you follow these steps.
It is not difficult to speak in public if you adhere to these basic principles.
2. _____________ is ___________ when you have _________________.
Baking a pie is simple when you have the right ingredients.
Building a bookcase is a snap when you have the proper tools and materials.

3. There are ______________ to follow __________________.

There are six steps to follow in changing a flat tire.
There are three simple instructions to follow to use a pay telephone.

Analytical process
1. A ________________________ works by ___________________________.
A washing machine works by combining the function of three internal
components: a water pump, a tub, and sensors and/or timers.
2. By _______________________ it is easy to explain how a ______________
works.
By combing three internal components (water pump, tub, and sensors/timers),
it is easy to explain how a washing machine works.

Transition Words for Process Essays

Since a process paper is used to tell how

to do something, words that relate to the
sequenci ng of i tems are needed as
transition signals or words.

Look at the following examples.

first second third etc. since

after that next finally before the next step
soon afterward every time whenever meanwhile
while during at this point as soon as when
last then prior to and later (on)

96
Writing a Process Essay
Writing a five paragraph essay may seem daunting at first, however, if the following
format scheme is followed, with the essay broken down into its constituent parts, the
task is much more manageable. The following guidelines can be used to make the
writing process less overwhelming. Not all of the components need to be included in
t h e e s sa y , ho we v e r . T h e wri t er s ho ul d co n sid e r e a c h c o mp o n e n t to
determine which elements are appropriate, based on the topic and the writer’s intent.

Process Essay Guidelines

Introductory paragraph YES NO
1. Is the process identified? □ □
2. Is the importance of the process indicated? □ □
3. Are reasons included for explaining the process? □ □
4. Are the materials, equipment, or supplies needed for
the process included? □ □
5. Does the flow of sentences move from the general
to the more specific? □ □
6. Does the thesis statement provide a guide or outline
for the rest of the essay? □ □

Supporting Paragraphs
1. Do the supporting paragraphs illustrate the steps in □ □
the process?
2. Are appropriate transition signals used to delineate and □ □
order the steps in the process to ensure cohesion? □ □
3. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a
controlling idea? □ □
4. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the
paragraph relate to the topic sentence? □ □
5. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each □ □
paragraph?

Concluding Paragraph
1. Does the paragraph restate the importance of the □ □
process?
2. Does the paragraph summarize the main steps in □ □
the process?
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement? □ □
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of
the writer? □ □
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of
the essay? □ □

97
Exercise 8.1 Look at the topics below and list, in outline form, the steps
that should be followed to complete the process. The topics
may not have an equal number of steps. Then write a thesis
statement for each topic, following the model thesis
statement examples cited above.

How to do break up with your boyfriend or girlfriend

______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
Thesis statement: _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

How to cheat on a test

______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
Thesis statement: _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

How a bicycle works

______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
Thesis statement: _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

How an electric razor works

______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
______________________________ _____________________________
Thesis statement: _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

98
Exercise 8.2 Read the following instructional process essay on how to
make pancakes. Note the use of the transition words and
phrases. After reading, answer the questions that follow.

One of my favorite breakfast treats is pancakes. Millions of men, women,

and children everywhere start their day with this delicious mouth watering
meal. The simple ingredients for this culinary delight are seven fluid ounces
of milk, three fluid ounces of water, four ounces of plain flour, two eggs, and
a dab of butter. For added gratification, many people include diced strawber-
ries, blueberries, apples, peaches, or any other variety of fruit that tantalizes
their taste buds. Making pancakes is easy if you follow these simple steps.
Begin by sifting the flour into a mixing large bowl. Once sifted, make a
well in the center of the flour and break two eggs into it. Then, mix the flour
and eggs, using a whisk, while gradually adding small amounts of the milk
and water. Whisk the mixture until the batter is smooth and lump free. Be
sure to use a spatula to scrape any excess flour off the sides of the bowl.
Once the batter is mixed thoroughly, the fruit is added and stirred in.
Now the mixture is ready for cooking. Begin by placing a medium or
large sized pan over medium heat and coating the bottom of the pan with a
small amount of butter. The coating of butter ensures that the pancake does
not stick to the pan. Using a ladle, pour about a half a cup of batter into the
center of the heated pan. As soon as the batter hits the pan, tip the pan so
the batter spreads out, forming a circular shape seven to eight inches in di-
ameter. Cook for 30 to 60 seconds until the bottom of the pancake is golden
brown and small air bubbles appear on the top. Using a spatula, flip the pan-
cake over and cook an additional 30 to 60 seconds.
When the pancake is done, remove it from the pan and place on a plate.
Using a kitchen knife, smear a dab of butter over the top of the pancake.
Then pour one or two tablespoons of maple or pancake syrup evenly over
the pancake. Many people like their pancakes in stacks, putting three or four
pancakes on top of each other, with butter and syrup between layers. The
breakfast is now ready to eat. For added pleasure, wash down the pancakes
with a glass of milk, your favorite juice, or a cup of coffee.
Pancakes are a traditional and appetizing America breakfast and making
them is fast and easy. They are a great way to start the day and provide
sustenance for a busy morning. Treat your family and yourself to a tasty and
filling pancake breakfast soon.

99
1. What is the thesis statement? ______________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the reader’s attention (refer to
page 81)? _____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

3. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a process is being
discussed? ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

4. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (Refer to page 92)____________
______________________________________________________________

Exercise 8.3 Read the following analytical essay on how a washing

machine works and then answer the questions that follow.

The modern washing machine is indeed a valuable and indispensable time

and labor saving device in today’s fast paced world. Thanks to the inventive-
ness of modern technology women (and men) no longer have to spend hours
of back breaking toil pounding their shirts and pants against rocks in the near-
est stream to enjoy soil free, sweet smelling attire. The operation of a modern
washing machine involves the interaction of three essential components: the
tub and agitator, the timers and control settings, and the pumps.
The tub is the circular shaped container in which the clothes are placed in
the machine. During the washing cycle, the tub slowly rotates back and forth.
This
motion causes the clothes to gentle brush against each other. This brushing
motion, along with the effects of the detergent, result in the removal of dirt and
soil from the clothes. At the bottom of the tub are small fin-like projections
called agitators. The purpose of the agitators is to increase the movement and
churning of the clothes. During the spin cycle, the tub rotates very quickly, forc-
ing the clothes against the sides of the tub through centrifugal force. Excess
water in the clothes is removed by this action, which eliminates the need for
hand wringing prior to drying.
The timers and control setting are electronic components which regulate the
actions of the machine through the various cycles. There are three basic cy-
cles: wash, rinse, and spin. In the wash cycle, detergent is added to facilitate
the removal of dirt. In the rinse cycle, clean water is added to the tub to remove
the dirt and detergent. The spin cycle removes excess water from the clothes
so they are ready for drying. The actions and time spend on these three basic
cycles are determined by these components. The actions of the machine can
be adjusted according to a number of factors including the size of the load, the
type of clothes being washed (cottons, silks, whites, colored, etc.), the water
level in the tub, and the time the machine spends in each cycle.

100
 The pumps are the components of the machine that add water to and
remove water from the tub. The water is added to the tub at the beginning of
the wash and rinse cycles. The water flows into the tub from a hose located
at the top of the tub. The tub contains hundreds of small holes (about an
eight of an inch in diameter). The water is removed from the tub through
these holes between and wash and rinse cycle and during the spin cycle.
Clean, sweet smelling clothes are essential for personal well being, sat-
isfying social interactions, and professional success. One hundred years ago
ensuring that one had an adequate supply of fresh, dirt-free apparel was a
monumental task. However, today, with the modern washing machine, main-
taining one’s wardrobe requires nothing more than the press of a few but-
tons.

1. What is the thesis statement? _______________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

2. What are the three components of a washing machine?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (Refer to page 92)
________________________________________________________________

4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the reader’s attention (refer to
page 81)? _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a process is being
discussed? _____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

6. List three supporting facts that are included in the essay.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Select one of the topics below and write a five-paragraph

Exercise 8.4 essay about it.

How to lose weight How to make a hamburger

How to train a dog How to make your favorite dish
How to stop smoking How to put up a tent
How to do laundry How to get an F in a class
How to stop children from fighting
How to make impress a potential employer

101
 Chapter 9
Division and Classification

Another way to organize a topic is through classification. In a classification

essay, the topic (people, things, or events) is divided, grouped, or categorized
according to some principle. The classification principle may or may not be clearly
stated, but the writer needs to ensure that the categories are mutually exclusive,
that they do not overlap. For example the topic games could not be divided into
board games, card games, and games of chance because they are not mutually ex-
clusive. Many card games and some board games are also games of chance- thus
the categories overlap. The categories would need to be changed to ensure that
they are mutually exclusive. However, the topic games could be divided into card
games and board games. Other suitable topics for a classification essay include
modes of transportation (planes, trains, automobiles, boats), automobiles (luxury,
mid-sized, compact, off road), major components of food (proteins, fats, or carbohy-
drates), and movies (romance, comedy, drama, action).

Topics can be categorized in any number of ways, and the classification principle
used will be determined by the focus of the essay. For example, automobiles can
be classified according to these various principles:
Size (big, mid-sized, compact)
Price (below $15,000, between $15,000 and $30,000, over $30,000)
Manufacturer (Ford, Toyota, Daewoo, General Motors)
Class (sedan, sports car, luxury car, van, truck)
Engine size (under 500 cc, between 500 and 1000 cc, over 1000 cc)
Function (basic transportation, storage/hauling capacity, speed, luxury)

When writing a classification essay, the thesis statement must contain the topic
classified and the categories of the group. For the work in this book, there should be
at least three groups. For most essays, each grouping mentioned in the thesis state-
ment would require at least one supporting paragraph. The supporting
paragraphs should contain at least one example of the type of classification being
written about.

102
Model thesis statements for classification essays

Look at the following model thesis statements that could be used for a classification
essay.

1. There are _______________ ________ of _____________.

There are four major classes of wines.
There are numerous types of beer.
There are four levels of schools in the United States.

2. A ____________ can be __________ into ______________.

A magazine can be divided into several sections or parts.
A play can be broken down into three acts.
A novel can be classified into several genres.

3. ____________________ ___________ _____________ into ___________.

Financial managers group investments into three types: stocks, bonds, and
real estate.
Homeowners classify utilities into four groups: gas, electric, water, and
telephone.
Cooks divide meals into four parts: soups, salads, entrees, and deserts.

Transition Words for Classification Essays

Two classes of transition words or linking words are

typically used in classification essays; these are
words or phrases that introduce examples and words
or phrases that express consequences.

Look at the following examples.

To introduce examples:
for example
for instance
such as
namely
including

To express consequences:
therefore
for this reason
as a result
as a consequence
consequently

103
Use the following classification essay guidelines to assist in your writing.

Classification Essay Guidelines

Introductory paragraph YES NO

1. Is background information included for the groups
to be classified? □ □
2. Is the reason for the classification given? □ □
3. Does the flow of sentences move from the general
to the more specific? □ □
4. Does the thesis statement include a guide for the
essay that indicates how the topic is divided or
include the names and numbers of the groups? □ □

Supporting paragraphs
1. Does each paragraph discuss only one group of
the classification? □ □
2. Does each paragraph have at least one example of
items in the group? □ □
3. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis
statement? □ □
4. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a
controlling idea? □ □
5. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the
paragraphs relevant to the topic? □ □
6. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each
paragraph? □ □
7. Is coherence achieved by the logical ordering of the
paragraphs and the use appropriate transition signals? □ □

Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph restate the importance of the
classification method? □ □
2. Does the paragraph summarize the groupings? □ □
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement? □ □
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of
the writer? □ □
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of
the essay? □ □

104
Exercise 9.1 Look at the topics below and develop ideas for classification.
Write a thesis statement for each one, using the different
model thesis statements as a guide.

Books _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Thesis statement: ________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

News Programs ________________________________________________

________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Thesis statement: ________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Restaurants ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Thesis statement: ________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Holiday’s ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Thesis statement: ________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Drinks _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Thesis statement: ________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

105
Exercise 9.2 Read the following classification essay and answer the
questions that follow.

People the world over enhance their dining experience with a glass of
wine. A fine glass of wine and softly lit candles are universally accepted as
the finishing touches to a romantic meal. Many times the kind of wine cho-
sen depends on the food eaten and the occasion. The three most common
types of wines are white, red, and sparkling.
White wines are traditionally eaten with fish. They vary in color, from
pale yellow or green to light brown. The flavor of a white wine can also be
guessed from its color. Pale colored white wines indicate a young wine
with a bitter taste. A brown wine indicates an older, decaying wine. A
golden yellow colored white wine is an indication of a nicely aged wine.
Types of white wine include Chablis, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc.
If the entrée for the day is meat, a red wine is suitable. Red wines also
vary in color. The color for ideal red wines ranges from deep red to mahog-
any. The color of the wine can also help indicate its age. A purple colored
wine indicates a young wine, while brown indicates an older wine. Red
wines are not sweet, as white wines, but instead have a tangy taste. The
bitterness in red wines is a result of the tannin from the grape skins, which
also provides the rich color. The types of red wine include Burgundy, Bor-
deaux, and Cabernet Sauvignon.
Sparkling wines are traditionally served on special occasions, such as
weddings and anniversaries. The sparkling wines vary in color from gold to
bright pink. Sparkling wines are noted for their effervescence. Although the
name Champagne has become a blanket term for all sparkling wines, the
only true champagne comes from the Champagne region of France. Spar-
kling wines made outside of the Champagne region are called Mousseux in
France, Cava in Spain, Sekt in Germany, and Spumante in Italy.
Wine can enhance the overall enjoyment of fine dining. Depending on
the occasion, one may have white, red, or sparkling wine. Each has its own
unique color and taste. There are a great number of wines available to
choose from, each distinctive and able to satisfy any palette.

1. What is the thesis statement? _________________________________________

2. How many groups are there in the classification? _________________________

________________________________________________________________

3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (Refer to page 92)
________________________________________________________________

4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the reader’s attention?

(refer to page 81)
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

106
5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a process is being
discussed? _______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

6. List three supporting facts that are included in the essay.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Select one of the topics below and write a five-paragraph

Exercise 9.3 classification essay.

Kinds of students
Kinds of teachers
Kinds of movies
Kinds of errors made by students
Kinds of diets
Kinds of sports (one-on-one, team, individual)
Kinds of housing (single dwelling, apartments, condos)
Kinds of cars (sports, family, luxury)
Kinds of card games (poker, blackjack, Baccarat)
Kinds of medicine (oral, topical, injected)

107
 Chapter 10
Cause and Effect Essays

In a cause and effect essay, the reasons and results of something that has
occurred are examined. If analyzing causes, the factors contributing to a situation are
explored. In analyzing effects, the consequences of a situation are investigated.
Appropriate topics for a cause and effect essay may be the Federal Reserve Bank’s
decision to raise interest rates and the effect it has on business loans or the cause of
college students partying all night and the effects of this behavior on their grades.
When writing a cause and effect essay it is vital to examine not only the most
obvious causes, but also the more obscure reasons as well. When examining the
effects it is important to include both the expected and unexpected consequences.
The ordering of the causes and effects must also be considered when writing. A writer
may list the most frequent cause first, then the next most frequent cause, etc. When
discussing effects, a writer may list the most serious first, then a less serious one, etc.
Depending on the topic, the causes and effects may be ordered according
to a chain order, chronological order, or order of importance.

There are two kinds of organization that can be used in cause and effect essays:
block or chain. In a block organization format, the causes are written about in one or
more paragraphs. A transition paragraph is then written. The purpose of the
transition paragraph is to alert the reader that the cause part of the essay is con-
cluded and to introduce the effect part. Depending on the topic, a transition paragraph
may not always be needed. The concluding sentence of the last paragraph of the
causes may serve adequately as a transition to introduce the next part for the reader.
Following the transition paragraph are one or more paragraphs that examine the
consequences of the situation.

108
In a chain organization the causes and effects are
linked- the first cause leading to an effect, which
leads to a second cause, which leads to another
effect, etc. In chain organization you write about the
first cause and its effect in one paragraph, then the
second cause and effect in the next paragraph, and
so on until all of the causes and effects are included.
Look at this tragic example. A man loses his job.
This causes him to have no money. The effect of
having no money results in him not eating well.
Because he is not eating well, his
immune system becomes weak. The result of his
weakened immune system causes sickness.
Because he is sick (and can’t afford medical
treatment because he has no job or money) he dies.

The type of organization used will depend on the topic. A block organization format
may be best if there is no direct cause and effect relationship. A chain organization
format may be best for smaller topics or for topics in which the causes and effects are
closely related. In a chain organization, the causes and effects are linked together in a
logical manner. One event causes a second event, which in turns causes
another event, etc.

A writer may choose to write about only the causes of a situation or only the effects of
a situation. It is not required to write about both in the same essay. In this
situation, the introductory paragraph would mention briefly which one is being
discussed, the cause or the effect. For example, an essay on the causes of
insomnia may include only a sentence or two on the effects of insomnia in the
introduction. The supporting paragraphs would be devoted to further expanding on
the causes that were outlined in the thesis statement. An essay examining the
effects of water pollution may only contain a brief statement about its causes in the
introductory paragraph, but a detailed examination of its effects in the supporting
paragraphs.

109
Model thesis statements for cause and effect essays

Look at the following model sentences that can be used for cause and effect essays.

1. There are _______________ _______ (for, of) ________________.

There are several causes for the illiteracy rate in Africa.
There are many reasons smoking is bad for ones health.
There are three effects of improper study habits.

2. There are ______________ ____________ reasons why ______________.

There are three chief reasons why people play the lottery.
There are four reasons why people buy a new car.
There are many reasons why people exercise regularly.

3. ______________ has (had) ________________ on ______________.

My promotion has had several beneficial effects on my life style.
Depletion of the ozone layer has many detrimental effects on the
environment.
Faith in a supreme Deity has numerous effects on people’s lives.

Transition Words for Cause and Effect Essays

T h e r e a r e a n u mb e r o f t r a n s i t i o n wo r d s o r
p h ra s e s t ha t ar e c o mmo n l y as s o cia te d wi th
cause and effects essays. Look closely at the
following and incorporate them into your writing.

Transition signals for cause

the first cause the next reason

because (of) due to
for this reason as
the reason for for
since

Transition signals for effect

to result from to be the result of

as a consequence (of) the consequences of
as a result (of) for this reason
the effect of and that is why
to have an effect on consequently
therefore thus

110
Use the following cause and effect essay guidelines to assist in your writing.

Cause and Effect Essay Guidelines

Introductory paragraph YES NO
1. Does the paragraph include background information
about the topic being discussed? □ □
2. Does the paragraph state whether you are discussing the
causes or effects? □ □
3. Does the paragraph contain interesting facts, statements,
or anecdotes that grab the reader’s attention? □ □
4. Does the thesis statement identify the main causes or
effects? □ □

Supporting paragraphs
1. Does each paragraph discuss only one cause (or effect)
as stated in the thesis statement and is the order of the
paragraphs the same as the thesis statement? □ □
2. Is support for the causes (or effects) supported by facts,
examples, or quotations? □ □
3. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis
statement? □ □
4. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a
controlling idea? □ □
5. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the
paragraphs relevant to the topic? □ □
6. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph? □ □
7. Are appropriate transition signals used to indicate the
relationship between a cause and an effect? □ □

Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph contain a suggested recommendation
or prediction about the topic? □ □
2. Does the paragraph summarize the main causes or
effects? □ □
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement ? □ □
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of the
writer? □ □
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the
essay? □ □

111
Exercise 10.1 Write three possible causes and/or effects for the topics
listed below. Then write a thesis statement for each topic,
using the different sentence patterns described above.

1. Causes of delinquency
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Effects of delinquency on families
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Causes of stress
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Effects of stress
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Causes of racial prejudice
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
6. Effects of racial prejudice
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
112
Exercise 10.2 Combine the two sentences below into one sentence which
shows a cause and effect relationship.

EX: Many people in modern society eat foods that contain high amounts of fat
and cholesterol. More people are dying today from heart disease because
they have a diet high in fat and cholesterol.

Many people have a diet containing of high amounts of fat and cholesterol,
and as these foods lead to heart disease, people are dying prematurely.

1. The number of Korean women in the work place is increasing.

Korean women are gaining more financial independence.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. Crime is rampant in many parts of the world.

Poverty is a major contributing factor to the crime rate.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. Tattoos and body piercing are very common today among teenagers.
Teenagers tend to participate in the latest fads and trends.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4. Constant exposure to loud noise can cause a loss of hearing.

Many old Rock and Roll musicians have a hearing loss.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

5. Bob always fought and argued with his wife.

His wife divorced him after three years of marriage.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

6. Many people are overweight.

One cause of high blood pressure is obesity.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

7. The incidence of skin cancer is higher among people living in desert regions.
Research has shown that extended exposure to ultraviolet radiation increases
the likelihood of skin cancer.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

113
Exercise 10.3 Read the block organization essay below about effects of
hanging family roles on stay at home dads and then answer
the questions that follow.

The traditional family structure and roles are changing with the every
increasing trend in the United States of the stay-at-home dad. In these family
units, the father stays at home and takes care of the house, while the mother
becomes the breadwinner. The primary reasons for this shift are either the
husband simply fell into the role after losing his job or the couple made a
conscious decision to reverse roles. Fortunately, with the increased wages of
women in the workplace in modern society, this is a viable option for many
couples. This change affects all members of the family. The effects of a stay-
at-home father include improved relationships with his children, increased
awareness and appreciation of a traditional mother‘s role, and greater devel-
opment of the father’s domestic skills.
Stay-at-home dads have a unique opportunity to greatly enhance the rela-
tionship they have with their children. Dads who work often find it difficult to
spend the amount of quality time they would like with their children. The de-
mands of the job always seem to interfere. Just to keep up, many dads are
forced to work overtime, either at the office or at home, and on weekends.
For stay-at-home dads this is no longer a problem. Since they stay at home,
they are there to see the children off to school and welcome them when they
return. In addition, more time can be spent with the kids helping them do their
home work, taking them to baseball practice or ballet lessons, or just hanging
out and playing games, watching TV together, or talking. This increased time
strengthens the already strong bond between father and child, not to mention
the opportunity to really get to know each other. This has not only immeasur-
able immediate benefits for both father and son or daughter, but long lasting
rewards as well.
Non-working fathers also develop a greater awareness and appreciation
of the job mothers really do. It is often said that a mother’s job is never done,
and stay-at-home dads learn this all too well. A housewife is constantly busy:
she cleans house, she shops, she cooks, she does laundry, she manages
household finances, she settles disputes between siblings (and their friends),
she provides first aid, she educates her children, she disciplines her children,
she coordinates the family’s
social calendar, and she taxis her children and their friends all over town.
And this is only a partial list; the list goes on and on. After a couple of weeks
of managing the household, stay-at-home dads really learn what a mother
does. With this knowledge comes a deeper appreciation of the hard work and
sacrifices that his wife had make day in and day out. This in turn nurtures the
love between husband and wife.

114
 The domestic skills that stay-at-home dads develop and enhance amaze
even their wives. In the past, many working fathers had no idea of how to do
even the simplest household tasks, such as separating the whites from the
colored clothes when doing laundry, or ironing, or preparing anything other
than peanut butter and jelly sandwiches for lunch. But, as they say, with ne-
cessity comes invention. For the sake of efficiency, family harmony, and
maybe even basic survival, stay-at-home dads learn many new skills. They
learn about nutrition and how to prepare a delicious meal. They learn how to
keep clothes clean and bright. They learn how to disinfect a bathroom and
make a kitchen sparkle. They learn how to deal effectively with repairmen,
salesmen, telephone solicitors, rude store clerks, noisy neighbors, and
screaming kids. They learn to plan, organize, and complete the 101 things that
need to be done during the typical day of a typical mom.
In some modern households, the traditional roles of the husband and wife
are changing, either by necessity or design. Mothers go off to work in the
morning and fathers remain at home a take care of the house. This change
results in positive benefits for everyone, but especially the father. A stay-at-
home dad can build better relationships with his children, develop a greater
appreciation for his wife, and learn many useful skills that will enhance his
family’s life and wellbeing.

Questions

1. What is the thesis statement? _____________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

2. What are the three major benefits for a stay-at-home dad? ______________
_____________________________________________________________

3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (refer to page 92)
________________________________________________________________

4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the reader’s attention (refer to
page 81)? _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

115
Exercise 10.4 Read the chain organization essay below about the effects
of drug abuse.

Drugs have become an ever-increasing personal and social problem in many

countries throughout the world. Over the last fifty years the use of drugs has
spread from ‘bad guys’ to just about every segment of society; to the rich, mid-
dle class, and poor, to the educated and uneducated, to the professional and
laborer, to men and women, to the social elite and the dregs of society. Abus-
ing drugs causes a devastating chain reaction that ruins the lives of thousands
of people daily.
The use of drugs, more times than not, leads to unemployment. Individuals
under the influence of drugs are unable to adequately perform their duties and
responsibilities at work. They come in late or fail to show up at all, the work
they do complete may be substandard or inefficiently performed, they create
strained relationships with supervisors or co-workers, and they may be a health
and safety risk to themselves and others. They simply become a liability to their
employer and soon find themselves out of a job.
Without a means of support, drug users become a financial drain on those
round them. They ‘borrow’ money from their family and friends in order to pay
for not only basic necessities, but sadly, for drugs as well. Most of the time, this
‘borrowed money’ is never again seen by the lender. Credit cards and cash ad-
vances from banks are soon maxed out, with little or no hope of ever being re-
paid. Household and personal items such as audio systems, TV sets, wedding
rings, and family heirlooms are eventually sold off at less than their true value
at pawnshops. Just about everything a drug abuser owns is likely to be put on
the auction block in order to get money for his addiction.
When all legitimate means of obtaining money are exhausted, illegitimate
means are pursued. Drug users will do just about anything to obtain money so
they can satisfy their craving. After being denied loans from family and friends,
these once trustworthy individuals stoop to stealing from the people they love.
Strangers are next on the list. The addict may resort to breaking into houses to
steal valuables that can be pawned, or even worse, begin mugging people on
the street or robbing small time merchants for the meager amount of cash in
their tills. No behavior is too despicable or immoral, as long as the drug user
can obtain what he needs.
Once the person has turned to a life of crime, the inevitable consequence is
police intervention and imprisonment. A drug user may evade law enforcement
officials for a while, maybe even years, but eventually he will be caught. He will
be locked away in a six by ten foot cell for two to five. With any luck, and good
behavior, he could be out sooner. His family and friends may sadly think that
this is for the best. In prison, the addict may overcome his addition, become
rehabilitated, and rejoin society a changed man. But this is a naïve wish at best.
In reality, prison is just a school for criminals, where they can learn the most
brilliant methods of evading police detection to illegally acquire what they do
not deserve.

116
Questions

1. What is the thesis statement? ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________

2. What is the sequential chain of events in the passage?

_______________ ? _____________
_______________ ? _____________
_______________ ? _____________
_______________ ? _____________
_______________ ? _____________

3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (refer to page 92)
________________________________________________________________

4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the reader’s attention (refer to
page 81)? _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a cause of effect is
being discussed?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Read the following essay on the causes of acne and answer

Exercise 10.5 the questions below about it.

What’s one of the biggest problems that adolescents face? Is it accep-

tance by their peers? It is pressure to excel in school? Is it getting along with
their parents? Undoubtedly these are all problems encountered by teenag-
ers. However, the fear, embarrassment, and trauma associated with acne
pales in comparison. Countless hours and vast amounts of money are spent
on avoiding and eliminating these unsightly blemishes. Acne is a skin disor-
der that occurs when excess oil (called sebum) combines with dead skin
cells to clog pores. Pimples, whiteheads, and blackheads are formed when
bacteria form in these clogged pores. There are three basic factors that re-
sult in the development of acne: hormones, increased sebum production,
and bacteria.
As young people reach adolescence, between the ages of 11 and 14,
their bodies begin to produce the hormone androgen. The production of an-
drogens causes the sebaceous glands to enlarge, which is normal. Acne is
the result of androgens over stimulating the sebaceous glands, which
causes the glands to enlarge more than normal. This enlargement results in
facial blemishes.
117
 After the sebaceous gland is stimulated by androgens, it produces more
sebum. The oily sebum accumulates in the follicle, and travels up the hair
shaft to the surface of the skin. As it travels up the hair shaft it also mixes
with normal skin bacteria and dead skin cells that have been shed from the
lining of the follicle. The greater the sebum production, the greater the likeli-
hood that the hair follicle will become clogged and result in pimples and
blackheads.
Propionibacterium acnes or P. acnes are normal bacteria that reside on
skin, even with people who are not afflicted with acne. The P. acnes multiply
quickly as sebum accumulates in the clogged sebaceous gland. This bacte-
rium produces chemicals, which can cause inflammation in the follicle and
the surrounding skin. Two types of acne breakouts can occur: comedones.
(or non-inflamed 'blackheads'), or inflamed lesions, which contain pus, called
pustules.
Acne affects virtually all teenagers, to lesser or greater degrees, at one
time or another during puberty. Fortunately there are numerous medical, hy-
gienic, and environmental measures that young people can take to reduce or
control the outbreak of acne.

Exercise 10.6
Questions

1. What is the thesis statement? _______________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
2. What are the four causes of acme?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (Refer to page 92)
________________________________________________________________
4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the reader’s attention (refer to
page 81)? _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a cause and effect
is being discussed? ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Select one of the topics below and write a five-paragraph

essay about it.

Long-term causes/effects of hitting a child

The causes/effects of overuse of credit cards
The causes/effects of noise of pollution
The causes/effects of water pollution
The causes/effects of discrimination
The causes/effects of shyness

118
 Chapter 11
Compare and Contrast Essays

The purpose of compare and contrast essays is to show how people, things, places,
events, etc. are similar or different. Comparisons are used to note the similarity be-
tween items and contrast is used to note the differences between items. A compare
and contrast essay can be used to prove a point, to show superiority of one item over
another, or to show changes over time between two items or situations. When writing
a comparison/contrast essay the writer can focus on only the comparisons,
or only the contrasts, or on both the comparisons and contrasts.

There are two methods of organization that can be used for a compare and contrast
essay: block or point-by-point. In a block form of organization all the similarities
between the items or situation are written in one or more paragraphs and all the
differences in other paragraphs. In a point-by-point format, several aspects of the
topic are identified and compared and contrasted. The first supporting paragraph
would discuss the similarities and differences between the first facet, the second body
paragraph would discuss the similarities and differences between the second facet,
and so on. Within this format, an order of importance organization could be used, with
t he mo s t i mp or ta nt f ea tur e fo cu se d on first, t hen the n e xt i mpo rt an t
feature, and so on. The reverse order could also be used, with the least important
item first.

119
Model thesis statements for compare and contrast essays

Look at the following model sentences that can be used for compare and contrast
essays.

1. There are ___________ similarities (differences) between

______________ and __________.
There are three major differences between lap top computers
and desktop computers.
There are a number of similarities between Canadians and Americans.

2. ____________ and _____________ are similar (different) in _________ ways.

Korea and Japan are similar in many ways.
Fruits and vegetables are different in three important ways.

3. _______________ and ___________ have ____________ in common.

Christianity and Islam have many things in common.
Magazines and newspapers have several things in common.

4. ____________ is different from (is similar to) ________ in ___________.

American football is similar to rugby in several ways.
Cable TV is different from public access TV in a number of ways.

5. A comparison between ___________ and __________ ________ _____

similarities (differences).
A comparison between hotels and motels reveals many similarities.
A comparison between dolphins and porpoises shows several surprising
differences.

Transition Words for Cause and Effect Essays

There are numerous transition words or phrases
that can be used in compare and contrast essays.
Look at the following and use them in your writing.

Contrast
but different from however
on the other hand
in contrast while whereas unlike
although even though yet while
but in contrast (to) however on the contrary
whereas different from nonetheless nevertheless
although even though still though
differ from (be) unlike (by/in) comparison
(be) different from (be) dissimilar to

Comparison
likewise similarly in the same way like
similar to like wise also to
similarly as just like the same as
both… and neither… nor not only… but also
both the same compare (to/with)

120
Use the following compare and contrast essay guidelines to assist in your
writing.

Compare and Contrast Essay Guidelines

Block method YES NO
Introductory paragraph
1. Does the paragraph include background information
about the topic being discussed? □ □
2. Does the paragraph explain the reason for making the
comparison and/or contrast? □ □
3. Does the paragraph contain interesting facts, statements,
or anecdotes that grab the reader’s attention? □ □
4. Does the flow of sentences move from the general to
the more specific? □ □
5. Does the thesis statement identify the items or situations
being compared and/or contrasted? □ □

Supporting paragraphs
1. Are the similarities between the items or situations in the
First supporting paragraph(s) described? □ □
2. Are the differences between the items or situations in the
next supporting paragraph(s) described? □ □
3. Does each paragraph clearly state that a comparison
and/or contrast is being made? □ □
4. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis
statement? □ □
5. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a
controlling idea? □ □
6. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the
paragraphs relevant to the topic? □ □

7. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph? □ □

8. Are appropriate transition signals used to indicate
comparisons and/or contrasts? □ □

Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph summarize the reason for making the
comparison and/or contrast? □ □
2. Does the paragraph summarize the main points in the
comparison or contrast? □ □
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement? □ □
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of the writer? □ □
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the
essay? □ □

121
Compare and Contrast Essay Guidelines
Point-by-point method YES NO

Introductory paragraph
1. Does the paragraph include background information
about the topic being discussed? □ □
2. Does the paragraph explain the reason for making the
comparison and/or contrast? □ □
3. Does the paragraph contain interesting facts, statements,
or anecdotes that grab the reader’s attention? □ □
4. Does the flow of sentences move from the general to the
more specific? □ □
5. Does the thesis statement identify the items or situations
being compared and/or contrasted? □ □

Supporting paragraphs
1. Is the first facet in the thesis statement of the items being
compared and/or contrasted identified in the first
paragraph(s)? □ □
2. Is the second facet in the thesis statement of the items
being compared and/or contrasted discussed in the next
paragraph(s)? □ □
3. Does each paragraph clearly state that a comparison
and/or contrast is being made? □ □
4. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis
statement? □ □
5. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a
controlling idea? □ □
6. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the
paragraphs relevant to the topic? □ □
7. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph? □ □
8. Are appropriate transition signals used to indicate
comparisons and/or contrasts? □ □

Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph summarize the reason for making
the comparison and/or contrast? □ □
2. Does the paragraph summarize the main points in the
comparison and/or contrast? □ □
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement? □ □
4. Does the paragraph have any final thoughts of the writer? □ □
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the
essay? □ □

122
Exercise 11.1 Write thesis statements for the topics listed below, using one
each of the models thesis statements above.

1. Western food and your country’s traditional food

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. Jogging and aerobics for exercise

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. Buses and taxis as forms of public transportation

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4. Two cities in your country

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

5. Two of your professors

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Combine the two sentences below into one, making a

Exercise 11.2 comparison or contrast between the two ideas, using the
transition words cited above.

EX: The Indians of the eastern part of the United States lived in teepees.
The Indians in the western United States lived in teepees.

Both the Indians of the eastern and western United States lived in
teepees.

1. Robert Frost was an American poet.

Edgar Allen Poe was an American poet.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. The United States has an extensive space program.

Russia has an extensive space program.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

3. To receive a bachelor’s degree in the America requires four years of college.

To receive a bachelor’s degree in the Korea requires four years of college.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

123
4. Gold jewelry is a common anniversary present for husbands to give their wives.
Silver jewelry is a common anniversary present for husbands to give their wives.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

5. In the 1950’s, a popular children’s toy was the hula-hoop.

In the 1950’s, a popular children’s toy was the yo-yo.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

6. In the past, man got around by horse and wagon.

Today people use an automobile for transportation.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

7. Much of the world today has a capitalistic economic system.

Cuba and North Korea have a socialist economic system.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

8. Hawaii is an ideal spot for a warm and sunny vacation on a sandy beach.
For people who prefer a cooler climate and majestic mountain views, Colorado is
the place to go.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

9. For a cheap night out on the town, many people go to their favorite bar.
Many couples have their anniversary dinner at fine French restaurants.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

10. Christians believe that Jesus has appeared on Earth and will return on
Judgment Day.
People of the Jewish faith believe that Jesus is yet to come.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

For the topics below, list possible ideas for a comparison

Exercise 11.3 and contrast.

EX: skiing and snowboarding

Compare (similarities) Contrast (differences)

1. both cold weather sports 1.less equipment with snow boarding

2. both require balance and 2. skiing more expensive
coordination
3. both require ski slope 3. skiing more difficult to master

124
1. Movie theaters or videos for entertainment
Similarity 1: ____________________ Difference 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________ Difference 2: ___________________
Similarity 3: ____________________ Difference 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________ Difference 4: ____________________

2. Newspapers and TV for news

Similarity 1: ____________________ Difference 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________ Difference 2: ____________________
Similarity 3: ____________________ Difference 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________ Difference 4: ____________________

3. Desk top and notebook computers

Similarity 1: ____________________ Difference 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________ Difference 2: ____________________
Similarity 3: ____________________ Difference 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________ Difference 4: ____________________

4. Vegetables and candy for snacks

Similarity 1: ____________________ Difference 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________ Difference 2: ____________________
Similarity 3: ____________________ Difference 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________ Difference 4: ____________________

5. Married or single life

Similarity 1: ____________________ Difference 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________ Difference 2: ____________________
Similarity 3: ____________________ Difference 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________ Difference 4: ____________________

125
 Read the two essays below comparing digital and film
Exercise 11.4 cameras: one written in a block comparison and the other in
a point-by-point comparison

Block comparison
A picture is worth a thousand words, so the saying goes. Virtually every
one has a camera to capture those precious moments that can be relived
years into the future. A father remembers with pride the snapshot of his son
hitting his first homerun. A mother gazes lovingly at her daughter’s wedding
photo and recalls how beautiful she looked. Children reminisce about the joy
experienced from opening up that special Christmas present that Santa
brought. Modern technology has provided two ways for these images to be
captured so they last forever. But which type of camera is best: a digital cam-
era or the older camera that uses film? Digital cameras offer several advan-
tages over film cameras.
Although the purchase price of digital cameras is generally more expensive
than the older film cameras, in the long run they prove to be more economical.
With a digital camera one memory card can be purchased for forty to eighty
dollars (depending on the amount of memory you require) and it can be used
over and over again. This will add up to quite a savings through the years. The
problems of picture quality and storage are virtually eliminated with a digital
camera. Memory cards are very small and take up hardly any space at all. All
your favorite photos can also be stored on your PC. Unlike a film photo, in
which you have to take what you get, with today’s software programs you can
touch up those less than ideal shots by adding color, contrast, sharpness, dis-
tortions, etc. The only real concern, if you store the pictures on a PC, is that
your hard drive may someday crash and you could lose all those memories. A
digital camera allows you to get just the right picture. If a picture is taken that
is not quite perfect, no problem. Just erase it from memory and try again a few
seconds later. No more will the frustrations and disappointments of not getting
the perfect picture haunt you a week after you took it.
Initially the purchase price of a film camera may be cheaper than a digital
camera, but one still needs to buy the film and pay for the cost of developing
the pictures. This can be up to ten to fifteen dollars for a roll of 24 exposures.
If you are an avid shutterbug, this could add to hundreds of dollars a year or
more. Old photographs become brittle, yellowed, bent, and faded over time.
Once the photographs are developed they also require a place to store them,
usually a photo album or in many cases, an old shoe box. Not only does this
take up space in drawers or closets, but also guarantees that some of your
favorite snapshots will be lost or discarded over time. Amateur photographers
can really destroy a good picture. How many times have you gotten a roll of
film back from the developer, only to see your thumb or
finger displayed prominently on a photo? Or that great shot of an arching rain-
bow that is virtually invisible against the brightness of the noonday sun? What
a waste of time and money, not to mention the lost memories.
Memories can be preserved for a lifetime on a simple photograph. It would
be a shame if you were deprived of your most precious memories because the
pictures faded or became lost. With a digital camera those images will be
preserved forever and will be as clear and sharp as the day they were taken. If
you haven’t done so already, get rid of the old Kodak and get a new digital
camera. Your children and grandchildren will thank you.
126
 Point-by-point comparison
A picture is worth a thousand words, so the saying goes. Virtually every one
has a camera to capture those precious moments that can be relived years into
the future. A father remembers with pride the snapshot of his son hitting his first
homerun. A mother gazes lovingly at her daughter’s wedding photo and recalls
how beautiful she looked. Children reminisce about the joy experienced from
opening up that special Christmas present that Santa brought. Modern
technology has provided two ways for these images to be captured so they last
forever. But which camera is best: a digital camera or an older camera that
uses film? Digital cameras offer several advantages over film cameras.
Although the purchase price of digital cameras is generally more expensive
than the older film cameras, in the long run they prove to be more economical.
After the initial purchase price of a film camera, one still needs to buy the film
and pay for the cost of developing the pictures. This can be up to ten to fifteen
dollars for a roll of 24 exposures. If you are an avid shutterbug, this could add to
hundreds of dollars a year or more. On the other hand, with digital cameras,
one memory card can be purchased for forty to eighty dollars (depending on the
amount of memory you require) and it can be used over and over again. This
will add up to quite a savings through the years.
Old photographs become brittle, yellowed, bent, and faded over time. Once
the photographs are developed they also require a place to store them,
usually a photo album or in many cases, an old shoe box. Not only does this take
up space in drawers or closets, but also guarantees that some of your
favorite snapshots will be lost or discarded over time. These problems are
virtually eliminated with a digital camera. Memory cards are very small and take
up hardly any space at all. Digital storage of your favorite photos also eliminates
bent, yellowed, or faded reproductions. All your favorite photos can also be
stored on your PC. Unlike a film photo, in which you have to take what you get,
with today’s software programs you can touch up those less than ideal shots by
adding color, contrast, sharpness, distortions, etc. The only real concern, if you
store the pictures on a PC, is that your hard drive may someday crash and you
could lose all those memories.
Amateur photographers can really destroy a good picture. How many times
have gotten a roll of film back from the developer, only to see your thumb or
finger displayed prominently on a photo? Or that great shot of an arching rainbow
that is virtually invisible against the brightness of the noonday sun? What a waste
of time and money, not to mention the lost memories. With a digital
camera, that becomes a thing of the past. If a picture is taken that is not just
perfect, no problem, just erase it from memory and try again a few seconds later.
No more will the frustrations and disappointments of not getting the perfect
picture haunt you a week after you took it.
Memories can be preserved for a lifetime on a simple photograph. It would be
a shame if you were deprived of your most precious memories because the pic-
tures faded or became lost. With a digital camera those images will be
preserved forever and will be as clear and sharp as the day they were taken. If
you haven’t done so already, get rid of the old Kodak and get a new digital
camera. Your children and grandchildren will thank you.

127
Questions

1. What is the thesis statement? _________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

2. What are the advantages of digital cameras over film cameras according to the
passage?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (refer to page 92)
_________________________________________________________________

4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the reader’s attention (refer
to page 81)?
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a comparison or
contrast is being discussed?
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Select one of the topics below and write a comparison or contrast essay.

Fruits and vegetables Two places as vacation

spots
Two restaurants Your mother and father
Two makes of cars Two department stores
LP records and CD’s Movies and the theater
Rock and Roll and classical music
Capitalistic and socialistic forms of government

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 Chapter 12
Problem/Solution Essays

A problem/solution essay is used to identify and describe a problem and offer a

possible solution to it. Appropriate topics for a problem/solution essay may be
easing of parking problems in a downtown area, bedwetting, littering, or the high
cost of medical care.

Look at the following model sentences that can be used for problem/solution essays.

Model thesis statements for problem/solution essays

1. The _____ _____________ to _____ are to ________, _______, and ______.

The three most effective methods to get rich are to save regularly every month,
to invest in real estate, and to eliminate frivolous expenses.

The best ways to make up with your wife or girlfriend after a fight are to buy her
flowers, take her out to dinner, and sincerely apologize over and over again.

The easiest means to stop your parents from nagging at you are to agree with
everything they say, do the things that need to be done before they tell you,
blame your siblings for everything that happens.

2. ______ solutions for __________________ are ___________, _________,

and _________.

Possible solutions for the elimination of the budget deficit are increasing taxes,
curtailing social programs, and eliminating government waste.

Potential solutions for reducing teenage smoking are increasing the cost of
cigarettes, massive educational programs, and increased punishment.

Three prospective solutions for high medical costs are limiting frivolous
malpractice lawsuits, a national health care program, and increased use of
medical practitioners for routine medical problems.
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Use the following problem/solution essay guidelines to assist in your
writing.

Problem/Solution Essay Guideline

Introductory paragraph YES NO
1. Does the paragraph include background information
about the problem? □ □
2. Does the paragraph identify the problem and indicate
why it’s seriousness? □ □
3. Does the paragraph contain interesting facts, statements,
or anecdotes that grab the reader’s attention? □ □
4. Does the thesis statement identify possible solutions? □ □

Supporting paragraph
1. Does each paragraph discuss one possible solution
to the problem? □ □
2. Is sufficient information and detail included to explain each
solution? □ □
3. Are the paragraphs organized according to order of
importance of the solutions? □ □
4. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis
statement? □ □
5. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a
controlling idea? □ □
6. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the
paragraphs relevant to the topic? □ □
7. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph? □ □

Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph summarize the solutions to the
problem? □ □
2. Does the paragraph draw a conclusion or make a
prediction based on suggestions for solutions? □ □
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement? □ □
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of the
writer? □ □
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the
essay? □ □

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Exercise 12.1
Write a thesis statement for the topics listed below.

1. Culture shock
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Jet lag
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Forgetting boyfriend’s/girlfriend’s/husband’s/wife’s birthday
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. Getting children to go to bed early
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. Drunk Driving
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
6. Illegal immigrants
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Select three of the topics from above and write three

Exercise 2.2 possible solutions for the problem

Topic 1: ___________________________________________________
Solution 1 _________________________________________________
Solution 2__________________________________________________
Solution 3__________________________________________________

Topic 2: ___________________________________________________
Solution 1__________________________________________________
Solution 2__________________________________________________
Solution 3__________________________________________________

Topic 3: ___________________________________________________
Solution 1__________________________________________________
Solution 2__________________________________________________
Solution 3__________________________________________________

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Exercise 12.3
Read the solution essay below about a healthy heart and
answer the questions that follow..

Is your heart as healthy as it should be? Many doctors would probable an-
swer no. Millions of people throughout the world are currently living sedentary
lifestyles and eating vast amounts of food lacking in nutritional value, and by
doing so they are in- advertently creating problems for their heart. Improving
their situation could be accomplished fairly easily, without incurring monumen-
tal medical bills or making depressing changes in their lifestyles. These minor
changes include exercise, diet, and meditation.
There have been countless studies conducted by medical professions that
tout the benefits of even modest amounts of exercise. Exercise accomplishes
two vital things at once. When people exercise, they burn calories, which re-
sults in reducing body fat. Maintaining an appropriate weight is essential for
good cardiovascular health. People who are overweight place an extra burden
on the heart; it has to work much harder to circulate the blood through the
body. This extra exertion causes weakening of the heart over time. In addition
to burning calories, exercise strengthens the heart. The heart is a muscle, and
like all muscles in the body, it needs to be exercised regularly to maintain
peak performance. The exercise does not need to be exceedingly strenuous
or time consuming. A person doesn’t have to turn into a professional athlete to
enjoy the benefits of exercise. Doctors report that even 30 minutes of light ex-
ercise a day will result in benefits to one’s heart.
Another fairly easy change is to modify one’s diet. With the hectic schedule
of many people today fast foods have allowed individuals to eat on the run
and not waste time. Unfortunately, most fast food today is lacking in nutrition.
It is loaded with sugar, fat, and salt. It may taste delicious, but the price people
pay for a little convenience is too high. Foods high in sugar will eventually add
unwanted pounds. Foods high in fats, if eaten for long periods of time, in-
crease the amount of cholesterol in the body, which eventually leads to the
narrowing of the arterial walls. Foods high in salt increase blood pressure. In-
creased blood pressure makes the heart work much harder to circulate the
blood, which will eventually weaken it. To improve this situation all one has to
do is start eating better. Instead of three eggs, a large pile of bacon, and toast
loaded with butter for breakfast one could eat oatmeal, a bowl of non-sugary
cereal with skim milk, and a glass of juice. Instead of munching down on a
candy bar or cookies for a snack try a carrot or celery stick. Not only do these
snacks keep the calorie count down, they are a good form of roughage.

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 Meditation and deep breathing exercises are other ways to benefit your
heart, especially if you are prone to high blood pressure. Sitting quietly, thinking
of nothing at all and letting your body and mind relax completely does wonders
for the heart, not to mention the turmoil of the mind. It has been estimated that
60% of all doctor visits are stress related. Increased stress increases blood
pressure, heart rate, and respiration rate. Meditation and deep breathing can
help reduce stress, thus providing benefits to the cardiovascular system. Re-
search has shown that meditation and deep breathing exercises lower blood
pressure, without the adverse effects that could occur with medication. Medita-
tion also reduces another cardiovascular risk, a higher than average heart rate,
which also weakens the heart over time.
Many things in life are important, and a healthy heart tops the list. No matter
what one accumulates or accomplishes in life, if your have a bad heart it all
could end in a heartbeat, literally. There are easy and effective means to en-
sure that a person maintains a strong heart that are simple to maintain and
don’t involve vast financial resources. So do yourself and your loved ones a fa-
vor- take a quiet, relaxing walk down to the corner grocery store and pick up a
bunch of grapes for lunch.

Questions

1. What is the thesis statement? ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________

2. What are the three methods listed that can improve cardiovascular health?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (refer to page 92)
________________________________________________________________

4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the reader’s attention (refer to
page 81)? _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a solution is being
discussed? _____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

6. List three supporting facts that were included in the essay.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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Exercise 12.4

Write a problem/solution essay for one of the topics below.

Littering
Air pollution
Sexual discrimination
Lack of parking spaces
Teenagers rebelling
Insomnia
Learning a new language
Over population
Depletion of natural resources
The cost of space exploration

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