Chemistry 228

General Chemistry Lab

Table of Contents
ARGUMENT-DRIVEN INQUIRY DESCRIBED ............................................................................................................................. 2
GUIDELINES FOR MAINTAINING A PROPER LABORATORY NOTEBOOK ................................................................................... 6
NOTEBOOK SETUP: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
AN EXAMPLE OF A PREPARED NOTEBOOK ............................................................................................................................................. 8
NOTE ABOUT PRESENTATION OF DATA (TABLES AND GRAPHS) IN A REPORT OR IN YOUR LAB NOTEBOOK: ........................................................ 10
INVESTIGATION 1: THERMOCHEMISTRY AND CALORIMETRY ............................................................................................... 11
CONCEPT OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................................................................................... 12
INTRO ACTIVITY, HEAT OF DISSOLUTION (ΔHSOLN) ............................................................................................................................... 14
INTRO ACTIVITY, HEAT OF DISSOLUTION (ΔHSOLN) WORKSHEET ............................................................................................................. 15
INVESTIGATION 1: CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: ............................................................................................................................ 17
INVESTIGATION 1, WHICH SALT AND IN WHAT QUANTITY SHOULD BE USED TO MAKE AN EFFECTIVE BUT ECONOMICAL COLD PACK ? ..................... 18
LAB REPORT ................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
INVESTIGATION 2: GAS LAWS .............................................................................................................................................. 20
CONCEPT OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................................................................................... 20
INTRO ACTIVITY, INVESTIGATING GAS LAWS USING PHET ..................................................................................................................... 21
INTRO ACTIVITY, INVESTIGATING GAS LAWS USING PHET WORKSHEET ................................................................................................... 24
INVESTIGATION 2: CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: ............................................................................................................................ 27
INVESTIGATION 2, WHAT IS THE PERCENT COMPOSITION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IN AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION? .............................................. 28
INVESTIGATION 5, WHAT IS THE PERCENT COMPOSITION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IN AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION? WORKSHEET ............................ 30
INVESTIGATION 3: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ..................................................................................................................... 31
CONCEPT OVERVIEW..................................................................................................................................................................... 31
INTRO ACTIVITY, MOLECULAR MODELS AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES WORKSHEET ................................................................................ 33
INVESTIGATION 3: CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: ............................................................................................................................ 36
INVESTIGATION 3, INTERMOLECULAR FORCES. HOW DOES A COMPOUND’S INTERMOLECULAR FORCES RELATE ITS VAPOR PRESSURE? .................. 37
LAB REPORT ................................................................................................................................................................................ 39
INVESTIGATION 4: REACTION RATES .................................................................................................................................... 41
CONCEPT OVERVIEW..................................................................................................................................................................... 41
INTRO ACTIVITY, HOW DO YOU CONTROL THE RATE OF A CLOCK REACTION? ............................................................................................. 43
INTRO ACTIVITY, HOW DO YOU CONTROL THE RATE OF A CLOCK REACTION? WORKSHEET ........................................................................... 46
INVESTIGATION 4: CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: ............................................................................................................................ 48
INVESTIGATION 4, HOW DO YOU CONTROL THE RATE OF A CLOCK REACTION? ........................................................................................... 49
INVESTIGATION 4, HOW DO YOU CONTROL THE RATE OF A CLOCK REACTION? WORKSHEET ........................................................................ 50
LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE ................................................................................................................................................... 51
LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE WORKSHEET ............................................................................................................................................ 54

1
 ARGUMENT-DRIVEN INQUIRY DESCRIBED
This lab course is taught using an innovative instructional model called Argument Driven Inquiry (ADI).
This model is designed to give students a more authentic science laboratory experience and to promote
and support student learning inside the classroom. Rather than simply verifying known scientific values
or concepts, students must design their own investigations in order to answer a research question. All
the labs require collaborative work not only with students at the same table, but with other students in
the class as well. This is how science is done, not in isolation but as part of a team. In the scientific
community, results from research are shared and evaluated by fellow researchers. In this way results are
validated through comparison, and differences are resolved through discussion with others. A version of
this system is part of the ADI laboratory program as well. Finally, when a scientist submits written
results to a journal for publication the paper goes through extensive review and revision before it is
finally published. To simulate this process, peer review and revision of lab reports are also part of the
ADI instructional model.

Figure 0.1. Nine-steps of ADI.

2
Argument-Driven Inquiry Steps

There are nine stages to Argument-Driven Inquiry (see Figure 0.1). These stages have been intentionally
designed to provide students with a richer and more genuine science laboratory experience. The
overall process is designed to provide an apprenticeship for students in the scientific community.
Research conducted has demonstrated improved ability to use evidence and reasoning as well as
improved attitudes towards science.
Stage 1: Complete an Intro Activity that introduces the scientific concept and provides training in
laboratory techniques.
Stage 2: Introduce the guiding question. Groups construct a proposal for their investigation.
Stage 3: Investigation and Data collection. For each investigation students will have a list of
materials and some general suggestions for how to start collecting data, but there are no
detailed instructions to follow. It is up to each group of students to decide what to do and to
coordinate their efforts so that everyone is involved.
Stage 4: Creation of Posters on a whiteboard. Each group will produce a poster presenting their
explanation or answer to the research question along with their evidence and reasoning.
This is not a detailed presentation of data, but a presentation of an argument, which is a
conclusion, supported with evidence and a rationale that explains why the evidence supports
the conclusion (more below).
Stage 5: Argumentation session. Each group will leave one member at the lab bench to present their
argument and the remaining group members will move around the room to other groups.
At each table the presenter will begin a discussion of the results with the visiting group. The
students should compare results and question each other’s findings and methods. Each
group reconvenes to discuss potential claim change or the need to collect more data or
reanalyze original data (a more detailed description is presented below).
Stage 6: Instructor leads a reflective discussion.
Stage 7: Creation of an investigation report. The investigation report consists of three sections
identified by the following questions.
Section 1: What were you trying to explain (or figure out) and why?
Section 2: How did you go about your work and why did you conduct your
investigation in this way?
Section 3: What is your argument?
A scoring rubric is used to assign points for each section of the lab report. Students should
refer to this rubric as they write their report.
Stage 8: Double Blind Peer Review. The draft will be labeled with an ID number, NOT the student’s
name. Reviewers should identify deficiencies in the lab report and make suggestions for
improvement on the peer review sheet. Before each peer review session, the instructor will
highlight key concepts that should be addressed in each of the three sections of the report.
Stage 9: Revision and submission of the final report. The instructor will collect the final lab report,
the peer review sheet and the marked-up copy of the draft lab report the following week.
The instructor will then score the lab report using the scoring rubric. The instructor will also
check the peer review to see if the reviewers were sincere in their effort to score the
report.

3
Initial Argument
Once your group has finished collecting and analyzing your data, you will need to develop an initial
argument. Your argument must include a claim, which is your answer to the guiding question. Your
argument must also include evidence in support of your claim. The evidence is your analysis of the data
and your interpretation of what the analysis means. Finally, you must include a justification of the
evidence in your argument. You will therefore need to use a scientific concept or principle to explain why
the evidence that you decided to use is relevant and important. You will create your initial argument on
a whiteboard. Your whiteboard must include all the information shown in Figure 0.2.

The Guiding Question: Group Members:

Claim:

Evidence: Justification of the Evidence:

Figure 0.2. Whiteboard Layout

Argumentation Session
The argumentation session allows all of the groups to share their arguments. One member of each
group stays at the lab station to share that group’s argument, while the other members of the group go
to the other lab stations one at a time to listen to and critique the arguments developed by their
classmates. The goal of the argumentation session is not to convince others that your argument is the
best one; rather, the goal is to identify errors or instances of faulty reasoning in the initial arguments so
these mistakes can be fixed. You will therefore need to evaluate the content of the claim, the quality of
the evidence used to support the claim, and the strength of the justification of the evidence included in
each argument that you see. To critique an argument, you might need more information than what is
included on the whiteboard. You might, therefore, need to ask the presenter one or more follow-up
questions, such as:

• What did your group do to make sure the data you collected are reliable? What did you do to
decrease measurement error?
• What did your group do to analyze the data, and why did you decide to do it that way? Did you
check your calculations?
• Is that the only way to interpret the results of your group’s analysis? How do you know that your
interpretation of the analysis is appropriate?
 • Why did your group decide to present your evidence in that manner?
• What other claims did your group discuss before deciding on that one? Why did you abandon
those alternative ideas?
• How confident are you that your group’s claim is valid? What could you do to increase your
confidence?
Once the argumentation session is complete, you will have a chance to meet with your group and revise
your original argument. Your group might need to gather more data or to design a way to test one or
more alternative claims as part of this process. Remember, your goal at this stage of the investigation is
to develop the most valid or acceptable answer to the research question.
 Guidelines for Maintaining a Proper Laboratory Notebook

You are expected to have prepared your notebook in advance of EVERY lab period.
It is accepted practice in science that all laboratory work, data, observations, etc., be documented
properly in order for the results and conclusions to be deemed legitimate. At minimum, “proper”
documentation in the General Chemistry sequence entails the following:
∙ All documentation is done in a laboratory notebook with numbered, carbon copy pages; using
loose scraps of paper is unacceptable for any purpose
∙ Ink is used for all entries (blue or black is preferred); pencil is unacceptable
∙ The only pages that are ever removed from the notebook are the carbon copy pages
∙ If mistakes are made, a single line is used to cross it out. For example; do not scribble over
anything that is written; provide a reason if any changes to original data are made
∙ Each page includes the student’s name, date, group partners and title of investigation
∙ Data and observations are recorded in “real time”, as the work is performed

For each Intro Activity or other non-Investigation days, the following is expected to be completed prior
to entering the lab:
∙ a title
∙ a brief overview of the project
∙ a description of safety hazards and necessary precautions
∙ a section for observations and data, including specific information about reagents and the
glassware, instruments and software used to measure, collect or record data
∙ a section to make notes if the TA suggests adjustments to the published procedures

For each Investigation, the following is expected to be completed prior to entering the lab:
∙a title
∙a brief overview of the project and the guiding question(s)
∙a description of safety hazards and necessary precautions
∙the experimental plan to accomplish the stated project goals, this includes a summary of the
procedural steps that will be taken to accomplish the stated goals, and needs to include specific
information about reagents, glassware, instruments and software used to measure, collect or
record data
∙ data tables that support your experimental plan (show which data will be collected, account for
multiple trials…)
∙ if adjustments or adaptations are made to the experimental plan devised on Day 1, then these
are clearly stated along with a brief explanation
Notebook Setup:
With your lab notebook laid open, on the right-hand page write down the title of the experiment, and
the date. In general, you will use the right-hand page for all your writing. The left-hand page is reserved
for recording scratch work. Don’t use this space until you need to. One example of how to use the left-
hand page: if your work requires simple calculations using your measurements, use the left-hand page
to do the calculations. If unexpected results occur later, sometimes you can look back at your scratch
work and discover the error. (“Oh, I subtracted wrong! We put in 10.5 grams of copper sulfate, not 9.5
like we thought!”) Better to discover the error after the fact than never to discover it at all.
Purpose:
Below the title, write the purpose of the experiment in one or two sentences. This section serves to
remind you and notify the reader what the experiment is about. In general, your purpose will be what
you are attempting to find or solve for, such as the molar mass of an unknown sample.
Procedure and Observations:
This next section will be labeled Procedure and Observations. As the name suggests, write down what
you actually do and what you observe. Your procedures should be of sufficient detail that you, the
student, can independently perform the lab activity without looking at the lab manual. This section is
where you should have pre-prepared tables for data collection. Set up this section by dividing the page
into a right and left column. In the left-hand column write your procedure and in the right column next
to the procedure, record observations and data or measurements.
Results and Discussion:
Include a final section that is labeled Results and Discussion. In this section, you would describe what
results you got, what conclusions you have reached, ideas for continuing work, etc. This should be done
before leaving the lab. It will be these ideas that you present the poster session and in your lab reports.
Getting these ideas documented prior to leaving the lab will make writing your formal report much
easier later.
Writing Style in the Lab Notebook
For certain entries in your lab notebook, such as the Introduction before each experiment, you should
strive to write as logically and clearly as possible. It is also a good idea to write in the third person
passive voice, to get into the habit. However, this is a working document. It is not expected that you
write perfect prose in your notebook – it is a first draft. Just do the best you can.
Entries recorded during the lab activity may be brief, but are still expected to include all crucial
information and observations.
An example of a prepared notebook
Note about presentation of data (tables and graphs) in a report or in your lab notebook:

Tables
Whenever possible, data should be presented in the clearest format possible, usually in the form of a
table. For a simple example, see Table 0.1. When you present your data in a table it is necessary to take
the following into account.

• Number tables sequentially as they appear (Table 1, Table 2….).

• Be sure to refer the reader to view the tables in the text.
• Construct a descriptive table caption and place it above the table.
• Tables should include descriptive column headings, including units.
• Tables should not be divided across page boundaries
Graphs
When a table does not provide a clear picture of the data, a graphical presentation of data is necessary.
Do not present the exact same information as both a table and a graph. Pick the format that best
displays the data and stick to that. For a simple example, see Figure 0.3.
Please prepare graphs using the following guidelines.

• Number figures sequentially as they appear (Figure 1, Figure 2….).

• Insert a caption below the graph that briefly explains what the graph is presenting.
• Each axis should be clearly labeled, including units.
• Figures should not be divided across page boundaries
• Remove gridlines, titles and equations from the graph. If this information is pertinent, it
should be included in the caption.
• In your writing, be sure to cite the figures in the text.
• If the slope or intercept is necessary for other parts of the experiment, then place the
values in the caption with proper units.

0.7
Absorbance at 470 nm

0.6 Table 0.1: Mass and volume measurements when a

0.5
0.4
portion of an unknown solid was dissolved to make
0.3 10.0 mL of aqueous solution.
0.2 Mass of unknown Mass of
0.1
0 Trial Sample (g) solution (g)
0 0.05 0.1 1 3.021 12.042
Concentration (mM) 2 2.964 11.980
3 3.128 12.356
Figure 0.3. A calibration curve for the absorbance at 470
nm of aqueous Allura Red solutions as a function of the
concentration. A best fit line was rendered resulting in a
slope of 5.86 mM-1.
 INVESTIGATION 1: THERMOCHEMISTRY AND CALORIMETRY

Safety

• Safety goggles, long pants, shoes that completely enclose your feet, and closed lab coat must be
worn throughout the experiment.
• Wear gloves while handling chemicals.
• Flush with water immediately if a chemical used in this experiment is spilled on the skin.
• Exercise care with hot surfaces (hot plate).
• Do NOT place the Styrofoam coffee cup calorimeter on the hot plate.
• Be careful not to spill solutions on or near the electrical devices used in this experiment. All wet
work should be done away from the keyboard, mouse, and computer interface.
• Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory.

Waste Disposal
The salt solution left in the calorimeter is to be disposed of as directed by your TA. Before pouring your
waste into the carboy, check the level of liquid in it. IF IT IS ¾-FULL, DO NOT POUR YOUR WASTE IN.
Immediately notify your instructor. An empty carboy will be made available.

Clean-Up
Dispose of your solutions as described in the Waste Disposal section. Your computer equipment,
temperature probe, calorimeter, cardboard lid, thermometer(s), magnetic stirrer, stir bar, and small
utility clamp should be left on the bench top for the next class to use. Clean your lab bench. Log the
computer off.
Concept overview
The branch of chemistry that investigates energy changes associated with chemical reactions is called
Thermochemistry. Chemical and physical processes are generally accompanied by the liberation or
absorption of heat. You may be familiar with Hot Packs and/or Cold Packs used for application to
injuries. For example, heat is released when a compound such as MgSO4 is dissolved in water:
MgSO4(s) → MgSO4(aq) ΔH = -85 kJ/mol Equation 1

Enthalpy changes are defined as heat changes at constant pressure, and are denoted by the symbol, ΔH.
By convention, the sign of ΔH for exothermic processes, those releasing heat, is negative and that for
endothermic processes, those absorbing heat, is positive. In this
experiment you will determine the enthalpy changes associated
with the dissolving of a series of ionic compounds in order to
determine the best salt for a commercial product. In order to
keep with the constraints that changes in heat are equivalent to
changes in enthalpy at constant pressure, the atmospheric
pressure will be assumed to remain constant for the duration of
the experiment.
The dissolution of the ionic compounds will take place in a
thermally insulated container called a calorimeter. The
calorimeter is a container in which the reaction occurs. Ideally, it
is adiabatically isolated from the surroundings, that is, thermally
insulated so that no heat is transferred to or from the Figure 1.1. Coffee Cup Calorimeter
surroundings. In this case, the system is the solid being dissolved,
and the surroundings include the liquid and the calorimeter.
A commercial calorimeter is an expensive piece of equipment; however, it is possible to construct a
reasonably good calorimeter in the lab. The calorimeter to be constructed will be a double Styrofoam
coffee cup design with a lid as pictured in Figure 1.1.
The temperature will be measured using a Vernier
temperature probe. The final temperature of the solution,
Tf, is obtained by graphing the temperature vs. time data
collected during the experiment and extrapolating the
temperature data after mixing to determine the final
temperature (see Figure 1.2). The extrapolation considers
the time lag associated with mixing and making the
temperature measurement as well as the heat loss to the
surroundings during the experiment.
The process of dissolution may be exothermic (-ΔH) or
endothermic (+ΔH). Recall that the sign convention for enthalpy Figure 1.2. Cooling Curve of a solution in
Calorimeter
takes the point of view of the system. The reaction system
releases heat in an exothermic process so that the temperature
of the solution increases. For an endothermic process, the reaction system absorbs heat from the
solution so that the temperature of the solution decreases. In these experiments, temperature changes
will be measured and related to enthalpy changes in the system. The heat absorbed (or released) by the
water is calculated according to Equation 2:

qwater = msolution × Cs × (Tf − Ti) Equation 2

where msolution is the mass of the solution based on the volume of water and mass of added solute. Cs is
the specific heat of water, 4.184 J/g °C. The initial (Ti) an final (Tf) temperature of the solution is
determined graphically (see Figure 2).
The heat lost or gained by the water is equal, but opposite in sign, to the heat lost or gained by the
dissolution of the salt in the water (Equation 3). The heat produced or taken in by the reaction (salt
dissolving in water) is simply transferred to or from the water:
qsoln = -qwater Equation 3
Then, the molar enthalpy of dissolution (qsoln) will be calculated according to Equation 4:
q𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
∆Hsoln = Equation 4
n

where qdissolution is calculated with units of J or kJ and n represents the number of moles of salt dissolved.
Intro Activity, Heat of Dissolution (ΔHsoln)
Here you will measure the heats of solution for two different salts. The steps you should follow are
below:

1. There should be two different salt samples for you to acquire. Accurately measure approximately
1 g of each sample and set aside.

• Does it have to be exactly 1.000 g? Discuss with your group.

2. Connect the temperature probe into the LabPro sensor interface

3. Open the Logger Pro software if not already running, and choose Open from the File menu.
Select the Chemistry with Vernier folder and choose the file titled ‘01 Endo-Exothermic’.
4. In Logger Pro, set the data collection duration for 10 minutes and sampling rate to 25 samples per
minute. This is done by selecting the clock icon in the upper right of the screen next to the
“Collect” button.

5. Set up the calorimeter as seen in Figure 1.1. The coffee cup should be doubly insulated with a
top. Make sure that the cup is centered on the magnetic stirrer with the magnetic stir bar inside the
cup.

6. Fill a graduated cylinder with 60 mL of room temperature distilled water. Record the volume
accurately. Pour this water into the calorimeter. Make sure the stir bar is consistently stirring
and not touching the temperature probe.

• Does it have to be exactly 60 mL? Discuss with your group.

7. Select “Collect” on the screen. Allow the data to collect for ~1 min.

8. After ~1 min, WITHOUT stopping the data collection, add the first salt sample to the calorimeter,
replace the top to the calorimeter, and allow the temperature to be recorded for ~5 additional
minutes.

9. After the temperature reaches a leveling point, you can stop the data acquisition by clicking on
the stop button. Format your data plot. Make sure you set the axes so you can extrapolate your
lines correctly. This can be done by the Autoscale button in the toolbar on the top of the screen.
Right click on the graph and select Graph Option to give your graph a more descriptive title
(including the name of the solute) before saving a digital copy for the Intro Activity assignment.

10. Properly dispose of the solution. Make sure you keep the stir bar!

11. Repeat steps 5-10 for the second salt.

Download the Word document version of this worksheet from Canvas, and complete the downloaded
version on the lab computer

DATE: SECTION/GROUP:
NAME: NAME:
NAME: NAME:

Intro Activity, Heat of Dissolution (ΔHsoln) Worksheet

Figure 1. Heating Curve for Calcium Chloride

Insert heating curve here

Figure 2. Heating Curve for Ammonium Nitrate

Insert heating curve here

Table 1.1. Pre-Lab Data and Results

Compound CaCl2 NH4NO3

TInitial (°C)

TFinal (°C)

ΔT (°C)

Volume of water (mL)

qwater (J)

qsoln (J)

grams salt (g)

n (mol salt)

ΔH (kJ/mol)
 1. Show your work for the determination of ΔH for one of the salts here:

2. Briefly, which salt dissolves with an endothermic process and which salt dissolves with an
exothermic process? Use the claim-evidence-justification process for your answer.

3. Are there any observations worth mentioning that were not accounted for in the data and results
tables?

Make sure each group member has signed up for the assigned group number. Save the file as a pdf.
Each member should maintain a digital copy of this worksheet. One member should submit a copy of
this document to the respective folder on Canvas (it is the responsibility of all group members to make
sure that the document has been submitted).

Additionally, in your lab notebook, complete a Laboratory Investigation Proposal for next week (the
proposal must be signed by your TA before departing for the day).
Investigation 1: Critical Thinking Questions:

Answer the following questions in your lab notebook (be sure to show work for any
calculations):

1. Explain how you will calculate the molar ΔHsoln for a compound using coffee cup calorimetry.

2. When doing calorimetry, is it important to know the change in temperature of the solution or
just its final temperature?

3. If dissolving 1.5 g of a solute into 100 mL of water caused the temperature of the solution to
increase by 4.7 ⁰C, what would the change of temperature be if 3.0 g of the solute were dissolved
in the same volume of water? Explain.

4. If dissolving 1.5 g of a solute into 100 mL of water caused the temperature of the solution to
increase by 4.7 ⁰C, what would the change of temperature be if 1.5 g of the solute were dissolved
in only 50 mL of water? Explain.

5. With respect to the scenarios presented in questions 3 and 4, would you expect that the listed
changes would to impact the final value for ΔHsoln? Why?
Investigation 1, Which salt and in what quantity should be used to make an effective but
economical cold pack?

An instant cold pack is a first aid device that is used to treat injuries. Most commercial instant cold packs
contain two plastic bags. One bag contains an ionic compound, and the other bag contains water. When
the instant cold pack is squeezed hard enough, the bag containing the water breaks and the ionic
compound and water mix. The dissolution of the ionic compound in the water results in an enthalpy
change and a decrease in the overall temperature of the cold pack. In this investigation, you will explore
the enthalpy changes that are associated with common salts and then apply what you have learned about
these enthalpy changes to design an effective but economical instant cold pack.

Your Task
You will determine which salt should be used to make an inexpensive yet effective instant cold pack.
Suppose that a company wants to produce small instant cold packs that will easily fit in a portable first
aid kit. The company is planning on using 60-mL of water in this cold pack. For the instant cold pack to
be effective, its temperature needs to drop about 18°C once
Table 1.2. Prices of salts.
the salt and water are mixed. The company, however, wants
to spend as little as possible to produce the instant cold Salt Price per kg
packs. You will therefore need to conduct a complete cost- NH4Cl $13.90
benefit analysis for each salt. This will require you to NH4NO3 $17.90
determine how much of each type of salt you will need to Na2S2O3∙5H2O $17.10
use and how much it will cost per instant cold pack. The MgSO4∙7H2O $11.70
price of each salt is given in Table 1.2.
Guiding Question
Which salt and in what quantity should be used to make an effective but economical cold pack?

Getting Started
The first step in your investigation is to determine the heat energy change associated with the
dissolution of each salt. To accomplish this task, you will need to determine what type of data to collect,
how you will collect the data, and how you will analyze the data.
• Is it important to know the change in temperature of the solution or just its final temperature?
• How does the amount of salt influence your potential results?
• How will you calculate the molar ΔHsoln for each compound?

Materials (You may use any of the following materials during your investigation):
• Distilled water • Temperature probe with sensor interface
• Graduated cylinder (100 mL) • Up to 1 g of each of the below salts:
• Coffee cup calorimeter • Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl
• Magnetic plate and stir bar • Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
• Spatula • Sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3∙5H2O
• Electronic balance • Magnesium Sulfate, MgSO4∙7H2O
Lab Report

Which salt and in what quantity should be used to make an effective but economical cold pack?

Once you have completed your work, you will prepare an investigation report that consists of three
sections. Your report should answer these questions in 2 pages of text. This report must be typed (12 pt
font, 1.5 spacing, and 1-inch margins) and any diagrams, figures, or tables should be embedded into the
document (these are not counted in the 2-pages of text). Generally, you need one page for the first two
sections and the second page for the third section.

SECTION 1
What concept were you investigating and how does it relate to the guiding question?
• See the overview above to get started.
• Specifically define endothermic, exothermic, dissolution, and enthalpy
• Explain how enthalpy can be used to answer the guiding question.

SECTION 2
How did you go about your work and why? This is NOT the details of your procedure, but a discussion
and justification of the process.
• Describe the methods used to obtain the enthalpy of solution.
• Why did you use the coffee cups?
• What did you do to reduce error?
• Would you have come up with a similar answer for the enthalpy of dissolution for each salt if you
had used 100 mL of water as opposed to 60 mL?

SECTION 3
What is your argument? This third section is where you not only present your data, but also use the
values you obtain as evidence in your reasoning. Statements like, “see data table for values” are NOT
acceptable.
• State your claim.
• Use enthalpy values and the prices of salts to support and justify your claim.
• Include a data table with enthalpy values and cost-benefit data. Units and significant figures are
important.
• Contrast the values of the cost per gram per change in temperature
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your data in answering the question.
• Discuss any differences or similarities that were seen when observing the results of your peers
during the poster session. If there were differences, propose a reason for the differences.
 Investigation 2: Gas Laws

Concept overview
According to the kinetic molecular theory, gasses are in constant and random motion with enough kinetic
energy such that they rarely interact with one another. When gas particles collide with the walls of a
container, they rebound with no apparent loss of energy. These characteristics describe an "Ideal Gas”.
Experimental evidence suggests that many common gasses making up air behave in this manner when
studied at temperatures well above their boiling points.
We are constantly being exposed to the behavior of gasses. Each time we pump up a tire, blow up a
balloon, use a spray can, or experience the cooling of gasses as they escape from a gas storage container,
we are reminded of how gasses behave with changes in temperature (T), volume (V), pressure (P), or
number of particles (n).
The behavior of gasses has been scientifically investigated starting with Robert Boyle's work in 1662,
followed by Jacques Charles' (1787) and Joseph Gay-Lussac's work (1802). Together these studies led to
the so-called "Gas Laws" which relate volume (V), pressure (P), temperature (T) and numbers of particles
of gas (n). In a scientific manner, one can derive the mathematical relationships that exist between these
variables by holding two of the variable’s constant, changing one, and monitoring the effect on the fourth
variable.
When dealing with mixtures of gasses, John Dalton postulated the Law of Partial Pressures, which
indicates that at constant temperature, the pressure of a mixture of gasses is the sum of the pressures
of the gasses, measured separately, in the same container. This indicates that when working with a
mixture of gasses, it is easy to discount one from another when using the other gas laws.
To help derive the relationships shown in the various gas laws, you will be using an interactive research-
based simulation produced by the PhET project at the University of Colorado.
 Intro Activity, Investigating Gas Laws using PhET

PROCEDURE 1: Pressure Volume Relationship

1. Go to the Physics Education Technology from the University of Colorado at:
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gas-properties/latest/gas-properties_en.html
2. Select the Ideal button under the Gas Properties window.
3. Play around with the simulator and see what sorts of tools are available to you to analyze the
behaviors of gasses. Qualitatively get a feel for the relationships that exist between the four variables
that describe gasses: P, V, n and T. If you ever get to a point that you need to reset the simulator, you
can always hit the reset button at the bottom right of the screen.
4. If you have not already done so, on the lower right side of the screen, click on the RESET button.
5. On the right side of the screen, click on the Width |←-→| button to activate the ruler.
6. Using the mouse and the right button, grab hold of the pump handle and inject three cycles worth of
gas into the chamber by pulling the handle up then pushing it back down.

MOVE UP THEN DOWN

7. In the upper right-hand corner, click on the TEMPERATURE button under the Constant
Parameter heading. This will hold temperature constant while allowing you to observe the
relationship between pressure and volume. Record this temperature in the data section
8. Using the mouse and the right button, grab hold of the
handle on the left side of the box and adjust the length
of the container until it measures 15.0 nm. Record this
as your initial length (for determining volume, the
container depth (4 nm) and height (8.75 nm) are
constant). The conversion factor used for nm3 to L will
be left to you to come up with.

9. Once the pressure has somewhat stabilized, record your pressure value for the chamber length
of 15.0 nm. This will represent your initial pressure in atmospheres.

10. Using the mouse and the right button, grab hold of
the handle on the left side of the box and adjust
the length of the container until it measures 14.0
nm. Once the pressure has stabilized (again, this
may take a short period of time to happen), record
the new pressure for a length of 14.0 nm.
 11. Repeat step 10 for approximate decreasing lengths of 1.0 nm intervals until you get to 5.0 nm.
For each trial, record the length value and resulting pressure value in a properly labeled data
table.

12. Record your data in Table 2.1.

13. Click the RESET button to remove all the gas particles from the chamber before moving on to the
next section.

Procedure 2: Pressure Quantity Relationship

Reset the simulation. Devise an experiment using the simulator in which you can elucidate the
relationship between Quantity (independent variable) and the Pressure of a gas while holding
temperature constant. Collect and record your data over a wide range of numbers of molecules in a
properly labeled table. Collect your data in Table 2.2. Be sure to record the volume and temperature
that were used in your simulated experiment. Also, change the number of particles into moles (if using
Excel for your calculations you can type in 6.022E23 for Avogadro’s Number).

Procedure 3: Mixture of Gasses

Reset the simulation. For this we will want constant volume and constant temperature. I know it really
doesn’t make sense, but the setting for this is to indicate that ‘Nothing’ is selected in the Hold Constant
section. You can monitor that both are held constant using the width tool and the thermometer. Open
up the ‘Particles’ menu and start the simulation by adding 50 small particles (use the double arrows
pointing to the right). Assure that the temperature and the volume of the container have not changed
and record the pressure. Add increments of 50 big particles and record the new pressure. Complete
Table 2.3. Be sure to record the volume and temperature that were used in your simulated experiment.

Data and Analysis:

For procedures 1 and 2, you will create a graphical representation for each relationship. Be sure to label
each axis and include a title for each graph. I suggest that you utilize Microsoft Excel or some other
comparable spreadsheet software to produce your graphs. Along with the graphs and tables for each
procedure, completely answer the questions below that correlate with each section.

Notes about Trendlines

Many natural phenomena exhibit linear relationships. For instance, the data that you collected for the
Pressure-Quantity relationship in part 2 should be linear. Excel can use a statistical technique known as
linear regression to draw a best fit line on your data and run an analysis on the line to show how nicely
the line fits the data. The output will be a linear equation in the form of y = mx + b, and a correlation
coefficient, R2 (a value between 0 and 1, the closer the R2 value is to 1, the more linear the data and
therefore the better the fit of the line to the data). Follow the below steps to create a graph with a
trendline.

1. Use Excel to create a scatter plot of the data

2. Have Excel draw the best fit line through the data (by right-clicking any data point in the scatter
plot and select ‘Add Trendline’, select the Linear option, select ‘Display Equation on chart’, and
select ‘Display R-squared value on chart’.

3. You can adjust the number of significant figures in the regression output by right clicking on the
linear equation and select format trendline. Under the ‘Number’ menu option, there is a drop-
down menu, select ‘Number’ and enter the desired number of decimal places that you would like
to display.

4. Add a relevant title and label each axis before copy/paste in the area below.
Download the Word document version of this worksheet from Canvas, and complete the downloaded
version on the lab computer
DATE: SECTION/GROUP:
NAME: NAME:
NAME: NAME:

Intro Activity, Investigating Gas Laws using PhET Worksheet

PROCEDURE 1: Pressure Volume Relationship

Table 2.1: The Pressure Volume Relationship of Gasses

Width Volume Volume 1/Volume Pressure

(nm) (nm3) (L) (L-1) (atm)
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
Temperature of simulation

1. Graphically represent the Pressure (atm) Volume (nm3) relationship with volume on the x-axis.
Be sure to include a proper title and label each axis.
insert graph here

2. Graphically represent the Pressure (atm) and Inverse Volume, 1/V (nm-3) relationship with 1/V on
the x axis. Be sure to include a proper title and label each axis.
insert graph here

3. What does your R2 value tell you about the relationship between volume and pressure
(Remember, R2 is a statistical value – not the square of the ideal gas constant). Which line is a
better fit to the data, P vs V, or P vs 1/V?

4. Identify the mathematical relationship that exists between pressure and volume, when
temperature and quantity are held constant. Is it directly proportional or inversely proportional?
Use the claim-evidence-justification process for your answer.
Procedure 2: Pressure Quantity Relationship
Table 2.2: The Quantity Pressure Relationship of Gasses

Number of Moles of Total Pressure

Particles Particles (atm)

Temperature of simulation
Volume of simulation

5. Graphically represent the Quantity (moles) Pressure (atm) relationship with quantity on the x-
axis and pressure on the y-axis. Be sure to include a proper title and caption.
insert graph here

6. Describe the impact of increasing the number of molecules (or moles) of a gas on the pressure of
a gas sample. Would you expect this trend to be the same for other gasses? Is this a linear
relationship? Explain your answer using the claim-evidence-justification process.

7. Would you expect the slope of this trendline to be the same for other gasses? Explain your
answer.

8. Since this simulation is modeling the ideal gas law, PV=nrt, graphing P vs n (while holding T and V
constant) produces the linear relationship P = (RT/V) x n + b. In this equation, the slope = RT/V.
Use your data to estimate the value of R used by the PhET simulation.
Procedure 3: Mixture of Gasses
Table 2.3: The Pressure Quantity Relationship of a Mixture of Gasses

Trial Number of Number of Total Pressure

Heavy Particles Light Particles (atm)
1 50 -
2 50 50
3 50 100
4 50 150
5 50 200
6 50 250
7 - 250
Temperature of simulation
Volume of simulation

9. Consider table 3. Compare the total pressure from trial 6 to that of trial 7, how do they relate to
the total pressure of trial 1? Relate this to Dalton’s Law.

10. If volume and temperature are not changing, what is happening to the partial pressure of the
heavier gas as more and more lighter particles are added?

11. Use the data to determine the partial pressure of the light gas particles from line 5 of the data
table. Explain your calculation in terms of partial pressures and Dalton’s law.

Make sure each group member has signed up for the assigned group number. Save the file as a pdf.
Each member should maintain a digital copy of this worksheet. One member should submit a copy of
this document to the respective folder on Canvas (it is the responsibility of all group members to make
sure that the document has been submitted).

Additionally, in your lab notebook, complete a Laboratory Investigation Proposal for next week (the
proposal must be signed by your TA before departing for the day).
Investigation 2: Critical Thinking Questions:

Answer the following questions in your lab notebook (be sure to show work for any
calculations):

1. In a mixture of three gasses (A, B, and C), explain how are the partial pressures of the gasses
related to the total pressure of the mixture?

2. Equal molar quantities of two gasses of molecular weight 4 and 40 are mixed. The pressure of the
mixture is 1.2 atm. What is the partial pressure of the lighter gas in this mixture? Explain.

3. When gasses are collected by water displacement, there is always water vapor (gaseous water)
present. The amount of water vapor present depends on the temperature. The greater the
temperature, the more water vapor present (this quantity is called the vapor pressure). A 1.00 L
volume of nitrogen gas measured at 290 K and 0.978 atm was collected at 290 K by water
displacement. Use Dalton’s Law and the Ideal Gas Law to determine the number of moles of
nitrogen gas that were collected. At 290 K, the vapor pressure of water is 14.59 Torr.
Investigation 2, What is the percent composition of hydrogen peroxide in an aqueous
solution?

Hydrogen peroxide spontaneously decomposes to form oxygen gas according to the following equation:
2 H2O2 (aq) → 2 H2O (l) + O2 (g)
This process usually occurs very slowly. Many different compounds or ions are capable of acting as
catalysts, increasing the rate of the reaction. In this activity, potassium iodide (KI) will be used as a
catalyst to make the reaction produce products rapidly enough to study the reaction in the lab. You will
need to make use of the various gas laws to relate the quantity of collected oxygen back to the
concentration of the hydrogen peroxide solution.

Your Task
In this investigation you will determine the percent composition of hydrogen peroxide in an aqueous
solution by collecting a gas using volume displacement.

Guiding Question
What is the percent composition of hydrogen peroxide in an aqueous solution?

Getting Started
You will need to determine a way to collect the gas produced during the catalyzed reaction by water
displacement. You will apply Dalton’s Law and the Ideal Gas Law to elucidate the percent composition of an
aqueous solution. Using that the maximum percent composition of hydrogen peroxide in the solution is 5%
mass/volume, determine the volume of hydrogen peroxide that you should use. Since it will be collected in a
100 mL graduated cylinder, the volume of oxygen gas produced should not be greater than 100 mL (check
your calculations with your TA). Water vapor pressures are provided in Table 2.4.
Additionally, you will need to introduce 3 mL of the aqueous potassium iodide catalyst solution in each
reaction (how will it be delivered and how will that volume be accounted for?). Be prepared to allow the
reaction to proceed until no further production of oxygen gas is observed and complete three trials.
Materials
You may use the following materials during your investigation:
• Aqueous hydrogen peroxide solution (between 1-5% by mass/volume, 1-5 g H2O2 per 100 ml of
solution)
• Aqueous potassium iodide
• Large beaker
• Gas capture kit components: 1x rubber stopper, 2x plastic Luer tips, 1x syringe, 1x tubing, and 1x
stopcock
• Magnetic stir bar and stirrer
• 100 mL Graduated cylinder
• Temperature probe
• 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask
Table 2.4: Vapor pressure of water at various temperatures
Temperature Vapor Temperature Vapor Temperature Vapor
(oC) Pressure (torr) (oC) Pressure (torr) (oC) Pressure (torr)
15 12.8 21 18.6 27 26.7
16 13.6 22 19.8 28 28.3
17 14.5 23 21.1 29 30
18 15.5 24 22.4 30 31.8
19 16.5 25 23.8 31 33.7
20 17.5 26 25.2 32 35.7

Safety
LAB INVESTIGATION
• Chemical splash-resistant goggles, gloves, long pants, closed lab coat, and shoes that completely
enclose the foot must be worn throughout the experiment.
• Handle glassware with care. DO NOT use cracked or chipped glassware.
• ALWAYS wash your hands before leaving the laboratory

Waste Disposal
LAB INVESTIGATION
• Dispose of the reaction waste solution as directed by your TA.
• Water from the water displacement bath is not waste
• If a waste container is ¾ full, DO NOT pour your waste in it. Ask your instructor for an empty waste
jug.

Clean-Up
LAB INVESTIGATION
• Wash glassware thoroughly.
• Wipe off your workstation’s countertop with a wet towel and dry with a paper towel.
• Have your instructor check you out of the workstation.
Investigation 5, What is the percent composition of hydrogen peroxide in an aqueous
solution? Worksheet

This is a worksheet that should be completed individually. It will be submitted in lieu of a lab report.

Data:
Tabulate the relevant data and paste in this section. The table should include all of the data that
were collected for each trial, including units. Your table should include a title and descriptive
caption.

Sample Calculation:
Include an annotated sample calculation showing how you used the volume of collected oxygen
gas to determine the percent composition of hydrogen peroxide.
Note: As defined by Merriam-Webster, annotate means to make or furnish critical or
explanatory notes or comment (i.e. why did you do what you did in each calculation)

Results:
Tabulate the results and paste in this section. Your table should summarize the mass percent of
hydrogen peroxide from each trial, the average of the values, and the standard deviation of
those results. Your table should include a title and a descriptive caption.
Note: The standard deviation function in Excel is =STATDEV.S(range of data)

Summary:
In a single paragraph, restate the purpose of this activity. State your results. Noting your
standard deviation, and that the true value is between 1 and 5% by mass, discuss the validity of
your results. Discuss any differences or similarities that were seen when observing the results of
your peers during the poster session. If there were differences, propose a reason for the
differences. Make note of at least one thing that you did to reduce errors within this activity and
describe how not making that change may have impacted the final result.
 Investigation 3: Intermolecular Forces

Concept Overview
Under appropriate conditions, the attractions between all gas molecules will cause them to form liquids
or solids. This is due to intermolecular forces, not intramolecular forces. Intramolecular forces are those
within the molecule that keep the molecule together, for example, the bonds between the atoms.
Intermolecular forces are the attractions between molecules, which determine many of the physical
properties of a substance.

INTRAmolecular Force Energy (kJ/mole) INTERmolecular Force Energy (kJ/mole)

• Ionic 400-4000 • London Dispersion 0.05-4
• Covalent 150-1100 • Dipole-dipole 5-25
• Hydrogen bonding 10-40

The type of intermolecular forces in a molecule are a result of bond polarity and molecular shape.

• Bond Polarity – determined from electronegativity differences

• Molecular Shape – determined from electron-dot structure

Electronegativity is the relative attraction for the shared electrons in a covalent bond. Electronegativity
is a periodic trend increasing across a period (row) and decreasing down a group (column).

Figure 3.1

The physical properties of water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) illustrate the role of shape and bond
polarity. The difference in the strength of intermolecular forces explains the striking difference in
physical properties, i.e., water is a liquid with a boiling point of 100⁰C and carbon dioxide is a gas under
normal conditions, with a sublimation point of -78.5⁰C.
 Figure 3.2

Water has a tetrahedral electron dot structure, but 2-lone pairs make the molecular structure bent. The
difference in electronegativity of Oxygen and Hydrogen results in polar bonds. The bent shape means
the dipoles do not cancel, making the molecule polar. Water has strong intermolecular forces called
hydrogen-bonding.

Figure 3.3

Carbon dioxide has a linear electron dot and molecular structure. The difference in electronegativity of
Oxygen and Carbon results in polar bonds. The linear shape means the dipoles do cancel, making the
molecule nonpolar. Carbon dioxide only has dispersion forces.
Download the Word document version of this worksheet from Canvas, and complete the downloaded
version on the lab computer

DATE: SECTION/GROUP:
NAME: NAME:
NAME: NAME:

Intro Activity, Molecular Models and Intermolecular Forces Worksheet

In your own words describe the three types of intermolecular forces (IMFs).
Dispersion Forces:

Dipole – Dipole:

Hydrogen Bonding:

1. Use the molecular model kit to make a model of ethanol, water, pentane, methanol, propanol,
butanol, and acetone.
2. Insert a photo of the structure into Table 3.2
3. Indicate dipoles with ∂+/∂–.
4. Identify the strongest intermolecular force present in each compound.
5. Rank the molecules 1 to 7 for intermolecular forces, with 1 being the molecule with the strongest
IMF’s and 7 being the weakest.
 Table 3.2
Ethanol Water

Acetone Pentane

Methanol Propanol

Butanol

6. Model how three ethanol molecules would interact with one another through hydrogen bonding.
Draw (or take a picture) of the three molecules and use dashed lines to indicate the hydrogen
bonding (follow the X-H∙∙∙∙X axis, where X = N, O, or F).
 7. Build three acetone molecules and orient them to each other based on IMF. Draw the three
molecules, label their partial positively and partial negatively charged regions, and use dashed
lines to indicate the dipole-dipole interaction (δ- ∙∙∙∙ δ+).

8. What factor did you consider when differentiating the relative strength of the IMF’s in methanol,
ethanol, propanol, and butanol?

Clean-Up

• Disassemble all molecular models completely. Check your work area thoroughly for parts that
may have fallen off during model building.
• Organize all the pieces in the kit according to the inventory picture that is attached to the inside
cover of the kit box.
• Have your instructor inspect your model kit and initial your worksheet to indicate that the kit is
complete and organized.

Make sure each group member has signed up for the assigned group number. Save the file as a pdf.
Each member should maintain a digital copy of this worksheet. One member should submit a copy of
this document to the respective folder on Canvas (it is the responsibility of all group members to make
sure that the document has been submitted).

Additionally, in your lab notebook, complete a Laboratory Investigation Proposal for next week (the
proposal must be signed by your TA before departing for the day).
Investigation 3: Critical Thinking Questions:

Answer the following questions in your lab notebook (be sure to show work for any
calculations):
.
1. Using your knowledge of IMF’s, rank the following in order of increasing expected vapor
pressure. Make sure to explain your logic and indicate which intermolecular force(s) each is
capable of forming.

C4H10, C6H14, C8H18.

2. Using your knowledge of IMF’s, rank the following in order of increasing expected vapor
pressure. Make sure to explain your logic and indicate which intermolecular force(s) each is
capable of forming.

3. Using your knowledge of IMF’s, rank the following in order of increasing expected vapor
pressure. Make sure to explain your logic and indicate which intermolecular force(s) each is
capable of forming.
Investigation 3, Intermolecular Forces. How does a compound’s intermolecular forces relate
its vapor pressure?

A liquid that readily evaporates is known as a volatile liquid. The volatility of a liquid is due to its molar
mass and the strength of the compound’s intermolecular forces. When a volatile liquid is placed in a
container, and the container is sealed tightly, a portion of the liquid will evaporate. The newly formed
gas molecules exert pressure in the container, while some of the gas condenses back into the liquid
state. If the temperature inside the container is held constant, then at some point a physical equilibrium
will be reached. At this equilibrium, the rate of condensation is equal to the rate of evaporation. The
pressure at equilibrium is called vapor pressure, and will remain constant as long as the temperature in
the container does not change
In this experiment, you will measure the vapor pressure of a series of compounds from last week. You will
then relate the trend in each compounds vapor pressures to the relative predicted strength of the
compound’s intermolecular forces

Your Task
In this investigation you will develop an explanation for the differences in the vapor pressures of four
liquids.

Guiding Question
How does a compound’s intermolecular forces relate to its vapor pressure?

Materials

• Gas capture kit components: 1x rubber stopper, 2x plastic Luer tips, 1x syringe, 1x tubing, and 1x
stopcock
• 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask
• Liquids labeled in Table 3.2

Table 3.2
Name Molecular Formula Structural Formula

Methanol CH4O CH3OH

Propanol C3H8O CH3CH2CH2OH
Pentane C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
O
Acetone C3H6O
CH3CCH3
Safety
• Chemical splash-resistant goggles, gloves, long pants, closed lab coat, and shoes that completely
enclose the foot must be worn throughout the experiment.
• Handle glassware with care. DO NOT use cracked or chipped glassware.
• The flask should be attached tightly to a ring stand to avoid knocking the glassware over.
• ALWAYS wash your hands before leaving the laboratory
• The alcohols used in this experiment are flammable, so be sure that there are no open flames in
the lab during the experiment.
• Avoid inhaling their vapors.
• Notify your TA immediately if there is an accident

Waste Disposal
• Dispose of the liquids in the Erlenmeyer flask into the proper waste container.
• If a container is ¾ full, DO NOT pour your waste in it. Ask your instructor for an empty waste jug.

Clean-Up
• Wash the Erlenmeyer flasks with soap and water.
• Return the Gas capture kit components back to the original bag
• Wipe off your workstation’s countertop with a wet sponge and dry with a paper towel.
• Have your instructor check you out of the workstation. Your instructor will initial the first page of
your proposal form to indicate that you are in compliance with the clean-up procedure.

Getting Started
1. Using an Erlenmeyer flask, the gas collection kit, and a Vernier gas pressure probe, devise a
closed system that is both connected to the Vernier probe, and has a way to introduce 3 mL of a
liquid into the flask.
• When adding the liquid to the closed system, it is important to quickly remove a volume of
air that is equivalent to the volume of liquid that was added to the Erlenmeyer flask.

2. Use the Vernier pressure probe to measure the vapor pressure of 2 of the liquids (Your TA will
assign you which liquids to measure, if you are working efficiently, feel free to do all four liquids)

3. Report all values to your TA. They will be displaying the class set of data and will lead a
discussion of throwing out data outliers. Make sure to collect the class set of data for personal
analysis.
Lab Report

How does a compound’s intermolecular forces relate to its vapor pressure?

Once you have completed your work, you will prepare an investigation report that consists of three
sections. Your report should answer these questions in 2 pages of text. This report must be typed (12 pt
font, 1.5 spacing, and 1-inch margins) and any diagrams, figures, or tables should be embedded into the
document (these are not counted in the 2-pages of text).
Generally, you need one page for the first two sections and the second page for the third section.
SECTION 1
What concept were you investigating and how does it relate to the guiding question?

• Describe and compare the relevant types of intermolecular forces.

• What is vapor pressure?
• Explain how IMF’s should correlate to the vapor pressure.
• As a part of discussion involving the correlation between IMF and vapor pressure explain how
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) can have a lower vapor pressure than dichloromethane (CH2Cl2).

SECTION 2
How did you go about your work and why? This is NOT the details of your procedure, but a discussion
and justification of the process.

• How did you measure vapor pressure?

• Why was it important to remove a volume of air that is equivalent to the volume of liquid that
was added to the Erlenmeyer flask?
• Discuss sources of error and explain steps taken to reduce error.

SECTION 3
What is your argument? This third section is where you not only present your data, but also use the
values you obtain as evidence in your reasoning. Statements like, “see data table for values” are NOT
acceptable.

• Discuss ALL 4 liquids.

• Which compound has the lowest vapor pressure? Which compound has the highest vapor
pressure?
• Are the vapor pressures consistent with the predicted IMFs for each compound?
• Relate your data to intermolecular forces. You should prepare a bar graph of vapor pressures to
visualize your conclusion.
• Discuss how well the trend agrees with the predicted intermolecular forces.
 Investigation 4: Reaction Rates

Concept Overview
A basic kinetic study of a chemical reaction often involves conducting the reaction at varying
concentrations of reactants. In this way, you can determine the order of the reaction in each species
and thereby determine a rate law expression. Once you select a reaction to examine, you must decide
how to follow the reaction by measuring some parameter that changes regularly as time passes, such as
temperature, pH, pressure, conductance, or absorbance of light. In this experiment you will conduct a
reaction that involves the reduction of the iodate ion by the persulfate ion in acidic conditions. When all
of the persulfate ion has been consumed, a colored triiodide/starch complex can form. We will not be
focused on the details of the complex chemistry involved but will keep it simple and work with solutions
only labeled as A and B. The reaction between the two will be described by the following chemical
reaction and differential rate law (Equation 1):
A + B → Product Rate = k[A]X [B]y Equation 1
The length of time required for the reaction to elicit a color change will be used as a means of
determining the rate of the reaction. The longer it takes for the color change, the slower the rate of
reaction, the quicker the color change, the faster the reaction rate. By measuring how variations in the
concentration of A and B alter the time necessary to cause the color change it will be possible to
determine the order in each reactant. Once the rate law has been deduced, it is possible to determine
the overall rate constant for the reaction and use that to predict the concentration dependent behavior
of the reaction.
In addition to monitoring the reaction while varying temperature, one can also determine the
activation energy for the reaction using the relationship in equation 2.
−𝐸𝑎 1
ln 𝐾 = (𝑇) + ln 𝐴 Equation 2
𝑅

K is the rate constant, Ea is the activation energy, T is the absolute temperature and A is the frequency
factor.
Safety
• Chemical splash-resistant goggles, gloves, long pants, closed lab coat, and shoes that
completely enclose the foot must be worn throughout the experiment.
• Handle glassware with care. DO NOT use cracked or chipped glassware.
• ALWAYS wash your hands before leaving the laboratory

Waste Disposal
Intro Activity and Lab Investigation
• Dispose of the solutions from your various trials as directed by your TA.
• If a container is ¾ full, DO NOT pour your waste in it. Ask your instructor for an empty waste jug.
• In all cases, use as little water as possible to complete the transfer of the waste.

Clean-Up
Intro Activity and Lab Investigation

• Rinse glassware with distilled water.

• Wipe off your workstation’s countertop with a wet sponge and dry with a paper towel.
• Return the serological pipettes.
• Have your instructor check you out of the workstation.
Intro Activity, How do you control the rate of a clock reaction?
Notes: This lab is very time sensitive. To succeed in this lab:

• Ensure good technique and decrease waste by practicing the procedure using distilled water first.
• Work as a team.
• When diluting with water, measure solution A and the distilled water with the same serological
pipette

1. Connect the temperature probe into the LabPro sensor interface. Open the Logger Pro software
if not already running. Logger Pro should immediately start monitoring temperature.
2. Obtain the materials you will need to conduct this experiment.
a) Two graduated serological pipettes
b) Approximately 100 mL of solution A (0.0090 M in A).
c) Approximately 100 mL of solution B (0.0050 M in B)
d) Approximately 25 mL of solution 2xB (0.010 M in B)

3. During this experiment you will conduct 10 trials.

Trial Solution A (mL) Solution B (mL) Solution 2xB (mL) distilledH2O (mL) Temp
1 10 10 0 - room
temp
2 10 10 - - room
temp
3 5 10 - 5 room
temp
4 5 10 - 5 room
temp
5 10 - 10 - room
temp
6 10 - 10 - room
temp
7 10 10 - - ice
8 10 10 - - ice
9 10 10 - - warm
10 10 10 - - warm
Trials 1,2: baseline trials at room temperature, both components are at 1x concentrations
Trials 3,4: the concentration of B is constant and the concentration of A has been changed
Trials 5,6: the concentration of A is constant and the concentration of B has been changed
Trials 7,8: same concentrations as trials 1,2 run at a lower temperature
Trials 9,10: same concentrations as trials 1,2 run at a higher temperature
For trials 1-6
a) Record the temperature of the room (this will be the assumed temperature for Trials 1-6)
b) Prepare a clean beaker.
c) Measure solution A and, if necessary, water, using the same serological pipette and dispense
into the beaker (refer to the table).
d) Measure solution B, or 2xB, using a second serological pipette (refer to the table).
e) Working quickly, at the same time that your partner starts the timer, pour solution B into the
beaker and gently swirl the beaker or briefly stir with your glass stirring rod to mix.
f) Stop and record the time of the moment that a color change is apparent.

For Trials 7-8

a) Prepare two clean beakers.
b) Measure solution A and the water using the same serological pipette and dispense into the
beaker.
c) Measure solution B using a second serological pipette and dispense into a second beaker.
d) Put both the beakers in an ice bath for 5 min.
e) Working quickly, at the same time that your partner starts the timer, pour solution B into the
beaker and gently swirl to mix.
f) Stop and record the time of the moment that a color change is apparent.
g) Measure and record the temperature (this will be the temperature for trials 7-8)

For Trials 9-10

a) Prepare two clean beakers.

b) Measure solution A and the water using the same serological pipette and dispense into the
beaker.
c) Measure solution B using a second serological pipette and dispense into a second beaker.
d) Put the beaker containing solution A on the hot plate and heat until its temperature is about
50˚C (do not heat solution B, a component in it will decompose at higher temperatures).
e) Remove the beaker from the heat source.
f) Working quickly, at the same time that your partner starts the timer, pour solution B into the
beaker and gently swirl to mix.
g) Stop and record the time of the moment that a color change is apparent.
h) Measure and record the temperature and make sure to turn off the hotplate.
DATA ANALYSIS
1. Using C1V1=C2V2, calculate the initial relative concentration of each of the two components A and
B and prepare a data table containing the concentrations of each reaction and the initial reaction
rate. For instance, for trial 3, the volume of A (0.0090 M) used was 5 mL and B (0.0050 M) was
10 mL and the final volume was 20 mL. The effective concentration, C2, for component A would
be 0.00225 M (when rounded, 0.0023 M) and component B would be 0.0025 M.

2. Convert the time it took for the color change into a rate. The time you measured was the length
of time for a third component, C, to get consumed. In all 10 of the trials, the concentration of C
was 0.0020 M. The color of the solution changed when the concentration of this third
component went to 0. Rate = 0.0020 M / time for color change.

3. Using trials 1-6, determine the order of the reaction in A and B.

4. Write the rate law expression for the reaction.

Download the Word document version of this worksheet from Canvas, and complete the downloaded
version on the lab computer

DATE: SECTION/GROUP:

NAME: NAME:
NAME: NAME:

Intro Activity, How do you control the rate of a clock reaction? Worksheet

RESULTS:
1. Complete the following table.

Trial [A](M) [B] (M) Temperature (K) Average initial rate (units M/s)

1, 2

3, 4

5, 6

7, 8

9, 10

2. Compare the average rate from trials 1 and 2 to the average rate of trials 3 and 4 to determine
the order in A. Report the order in A. Show your work.

3. Compare the average rate from trials 1 and 2 to the average rate of trials 5 and 6 to determine
the order in B. Report the order in B. Show your work.
 4. Write out the rate law. Include the value and units for the rate constant.

5. Describe how the change in temperature impacted the rate of the reaction. Use the claim-
evidence-justification process for your answer.

Make sure each group member has signed up for the assigned group number. Save the file as a pdf.
Each member should maintain a digital copy of this worksheet. One member should submit a copy of
this document to the respective folder on Canvas (it is the responsibility of all group members to make
sure that the document has been submitted).

Additionally, in your lab notebook, complete a Laboratory Investigation Proposal for next week (the
proposal must be signed by your TA before departing for the day).
Investigation 4: Critical Thinking Questions:

Answer the following questions in your lab notebook (be sure to show work for any
calculations):

1. For a reaction where the general form of the rate law is rate = [A] m[B]n, the following data were
collected. What is the order of the reaction with respect to A? What is the order of the reaction
with respect to B? What would be the initial rate of the reaction if [A] = 0.050 M and [B] = 0.075
M?
Initial Rate [A] [B]

0.01 M/s 0.025 M 0.025 M

0.02 M/s 0.025 M 0.050 M

0.09 M/s 0.075 M 0.025 M

2. The rate law for this clock reaction measured at a different temperature was found to be:
rate = 7.0 M-1∙s-1 [A]1 [B]1
Like during your Intro Activity, the rate was determined to be the time that it took to totally
consume a third component that had an initial concentration = 0.0020 M. If a student were
trying to get the color of the reaction to change in 30 seconds, and they started with a
concentration of component A = 0.0050 M, what would the concentration of component B need
to be?
Investigation 4, How do you control the rate of a clock reaction?

Your Task
Design a timer using the reaction that both accurately and precisely measures 90 seconds at room
temperature. You will need to provide evidence that it is both accurate and precise.

Guiding Question
What concentration of both reaction components A and B need to be used to create reaction conditions
that accurately and precisely measure 90 seconds at room temperature? It might help to look at CTQ
question number 2.

Materials
Two serological pipets
Timer
Solutions A, B and 2xB
Distilled water

Getting Started
• As a group you will need to determine the specifics on how to elucidate the concentrations of A
and B that are necessary to reproducibly cause a color change at 90 seconds (a feat that must be
reproduced in front of your TA).
• The total volume should always be a total of 20 mL.
• You can always dilute A with water, but if you decide that you need to dilute one of the B
solutions, B or 2xB, it will be important that you use the B Diluting Solution instead of water to
make up for the reduced volume of the B solution that is used. This ensures that the
concentration of the third component “C” remains constant when diluting the B solution.

VA + VH2O = 10 mL
V2xB + VB Diluting Solution = 10 mL
For instance,
5 ml A + 5 mL H2O is added to 4 mL 2xB + 6 mL B Diluting Solution
Download the Word document version of this worksheet from Canvas, and complete the downloaded
version on the lab computer. This is a worksheet that should be completed INDIVIDUALLY. It will be
submitted in lieu of a lab report.

Name: SECTION:

Investigation 4, How do you control the rate of a clock reaction? Worksheet

1. Last week you established a rate law for the iodine clock reaction. Write that rate law making
sure to provide empirical values for the order in each reactant, and the rate constant. Be sure to
include units where necessary.

2. In 1-2 paragraphs, discuss the process your group used to arrive at your final set of reaction
conditions. This is NOT the details of your procedure, but a discussion and reflection on the
process you engaged in.

3. Complete the following table for all of your trials (add rows as needed)

mL A mL B
Time
Trial [A] [B] (from (from Rate (M/s) Notes
(seconds)
stock) stock)
1
2
3

4. Using the data from the table in question 3, pick the trial that was most close to the 90 second
mark. Substitute those concentrations into the rate law listed in question 1. Annotate the
calculation and comment on how closely the calculated rate approximates the empirically
determined rate.

5. What was more important with respect to your results, the precision of the glassware used or
your group’s technique in measuring and dispensing solutions?

6. What sources of error were present in your experiments? How did/could you reduce these
sources of error?
 Le Chatelier’s Principle

A chemical system will eventually come to a dynamic state of equilibrium. This state of equilibrium can
be altered by adding some sort of stress to the reaction, such as increasing a reactant or products
concentration or by heating or cooling the reaction mixture. Le Chatelier’s principle states that when a
system in equilibrium is disturbed, the composition of the system changes in a way to reduce or
counteract the disturbance.
In this activity, you will be monitoring the effect of disturbances of the two different equilibrium
systems. The first is the equilibrium between two complex ions of cobalt. Complex ions will be discussed
in more detail during the third term of General Chemistry, but are formed when transition metals are
bound to electron pair donors through coordinate covalent bonds. In this system (Eqn 1),
tetrachlorocobalt(II) is in equilibrium with hexaaquocobalt(II). Both ions carry a distinctive color that
allows one to monitor how a disturbance impacts the equilibrium system.
[CoCl4]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l) ⇌ [Co(H2O)6] 2+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) Equation 1
The second system is an equilibrium between the iron(III) ion and the thiocyanoiron(III) complex ion
(Eqn 2). Aqueous iron(III), and thiocyanate solutions are colorless, but the thiocyanatoiron(III) complex
ion is a deep red color.

Fe3+(aq) + SCN–(aq) ⇌ FeSCN2+(aq) Equation 2

In this activity, we have a relatively simple means of quickly reducing the concentration of thiocyanate
or chloride ions in solution; they can be precipitated using aqueous silver ions. Silver chloride (AgCl) and
silver thiocyanate (AgSCN) are both very insoluble compounds.
 Safety Precautions
• Wear goggles at all times, gloves and lab coat at all times.
• These solutions are VERY corrosive. They can burn the skin and cause permanent damage to the
eyes. If one of these solutions splashes into your eyes, use the eyewash immediately. Hold your
eyes open and flush with water. If contact with skin or clothing occurs, flush the affected area
with water.
• HCl is very corrosive! Exercise caution around solution and vapors. Always make sure to add acid
to less concentrated solutions, rather than adding less concentrated solutions to the acid.
• Be careful handling the silver nitrate solution. It can stain skin and clothing.
• Be sure to wash your hands before leaving the lab

Waste
• The ice and hot water baths are not to be considered as waste (unless they get contaminated with
one of the solutions), they can be poured down the sink.
• All solutions must be disposed of as directed by the TA. IF THE BUCKET IS ¾-FULL, DO NOT POUR
YOUR WASTE IN. Immediately notify your instructor. An empty carboy will be made available

Clean-Up
• Thoroughly rinse all glassware.
• Wipe off your workstation’s countertop
• Have your instructor check you out of the workstation.
Procedure
Exploring the tetrachlorocobalt (II) equilibrium
1. Prepare a hot bath by filling a beaker half full with water and placing it on a hot plate. Heat to
boiling on medium heat. Additionally, prepare an ice/water cold bath in a second beaker.
2. Obtain 10 mL of a 0.1 M cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl2) solution. Note the color.
3. Do this step in the fume hood. Obtain 15 mL of Concentrated HCl solution and while gently
stirring with your stir rod, slowly add 10 mL drop wise, using the disposable transfer pipette, to
your cobalt chloride solution until vivid color cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl2) change is observed. Here,
you have just produced the [CoCl4]2(aq) complex ion. If there is no apparent color change, then
add additional HCl drop wise. Note the color.
4. Divide the resulting solution amongst 4 small test-tubes (label these test tubes 1-4), filling only
half-way. Do not overfill the test-tubes (about 5 mL in each).
5. The solution in test tube #1 remains untouched. It is a control for comparison with other tubes.
6. To test tube #2, add distilled water drop wise, while gently stirring with your stir rod until the
color changes. Here you just produced the [Co(H2O)6] 2+ complex ion.
7. Place test tube #2 and test tube #3 in the hot bath for 2 minutes. Note any color changes.
8. Take the test tubes from step 7 and place in your ice bath for two minutes. Note any color
changes.
9. To a test tube # 4, add 0.1 M silver nitrate drop wise. Note any color changes.
10. Be sure to dispose of your waste as directed above.

Exploring the iron(III) thiocyanate equilibrium

1. Mix 10 mL 0.0020 M FeCl3 with 10 mL 0.0020 M KSCN in a small beaker.
2. Place 4 mL of the prepared stock solution into each of the 4 small test tubes. Label these test
tubes 1-4.
3. The solution in test tube #1 remains untouched. It is a control for comparison with other tubes.
4. To the solution in test tube #2, add 1-mL of 0.1 M FeCl3 (aq). Record your observations.
5. To the solution in test tube #3, add 1 mL of 0.1 M KSCN (aq). Record your observations.
6. To the solution in test tube #4, add 0.1 M AgNO3(aq) dropwise until all the color disappears.
Download the Word document version of this worksheet from Canvas, and complete the downloaded
version on the lab computer

DATE: SECTION/GROUP:

NAME: NAME:
NAME: NAME:

Le Chatelier’s Principle Worksheet

Exploring the equilibrium: [CoCl4]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l) ⇌ [Co(H2O)6] 2+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq)

Compound or ion Color

CoCl2 (aq)

[CoCl4]2-(aq)

[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq)

1. In which direction did heating the [CoCl4]2-(aq) solution cause the equilibrium system to shift? Left,
Right, or No Change. Use the claim-evidence-reasoning process for your answer.

2. In which direction did heating the [Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) solution cause the equilibrium system to shift?
Left, Right, or No Change. Use the claim-evidence-reasoning process for your answer.

3. In which direction did cooling the [CoCl4]2-(aq) solution cause the equilibrium system to shift? Left,
Right, or No Change. Use the claim-evidence-reasoning process for your answer.
4. In which direction did cooling the [Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) solution cause the equilibrium system to shift?
Left, Right, or No Change. Use the claim-evidence-reasoning process for your answer.

5. In which direction did removing the chloride ions from the [CoCl4]2-(aq) solution cause the
equilibrium system to shift? Left, Right, or No Change. Use the claim-evidence-reasoning process for
your answer.

6. Based upon the heating and cooling of the two equilibrium mixtures, propose if the reaction is
endothermic or exothermic. Use Le Chatelier’s principle and provide evidence (would heat be
considered as a reactant or product?). Use the claim-evidence-justification process for your answer.

Exploring the equilibrium: Fe3+(aq) + SCN–(aq) ⇌ FeSCN2+(aq)

Solution Color

FeCl3 (aq)

KSCN(aq)

FeSCN2+(aq)

7. In which direction did adding 0.1 M Fe3+ cause the equilibrium system to shift? Left, Right, or No
Change. Use the claim-evidence-reasoning process for your answer.

8. In which direction did adding 0.1 M SCN- cause the equilibrium system to shift? Left, Right, or No
Change. Use the claim-evidence-reasoning process for your answer.
9. In which direction did removing the thiocyanate ions cause the equilibrium system to shift? Left,
Right, or No Change. Use the claim-evidence-reasoning process for your answer

Make sure each group member has signed up for the assigned group number. Save the file as a pdf.
Each member should maintain a digital copy of this worksheet. One member should submit a copy of
this document to the respective folder on Canvas (it is the responsibility of all group members to make
sure that the document has been submitted).