Bernoulli's principle

Bernoulli's principle is a key concept in

fluid dynamics that relates pressure, speed
and height. Bernoulli's principle states that
an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in static
pressure or the fluid's potential
energy.[1]: Ch.3 [2]: 156–164, § 3.5 The principle is
named after the Swiss mathematician and
physicist Daniel Bernoulli, who published it
in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.[3]
Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure
decreases when the flow speed increases,
it was Leonhard Euler in 1752 who derived
Bernoulli's equation in its usual form.[4][5]

A flow of air through a venturi meter.

The kinetic energy increases at the
expense of the fluid pressure, as
shown by the difference in height of
the two columns of water.

Video of a venturi meter used in a lab

experiment

Bernoulli's principle can be derived from

the principle of conservation of energy.
This states that, in a steady flow, the sum
of all forms of energy in a fluid is the same
at all points that are free of viscous forces.
This requires that the sum of kinetic
energy, potential energy and internal
energy remains constant.[2]: § 3.5 Thus an
increase in the speed of the fluid—implying
an increase in its kinetic energy—occurs
with a simultaneous decrease in (the sum
of) its potential energy (including the static
pressure) and internal energy. If the fluid is
flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all
forms of energy is the same because in a
reservoir the energy per unit volume (the
sum of pressure and gravitational
potential ρ g h) is the same
everywhere.[6]: Example 3.5 and p.116

Bernoulli's principle can also be derived

directly from Isaac Newton's second Law
of Motion. If a small volume of fluid is
flowing horizontally from a region of high
pressure to a region of low pressure, then
there is more pressure behind than in
front. This gives a net force on the volume,
accelerating it along the streamline.[a][b][c]

Fluid particles are subject only to pressure

and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing
horizontally and along a section of a
streamline, where the speed increases it
can only be because the fluid on that
section has moved from a region of higher
pressure to a region of lower pressure; and
if its speed decreases, it can only be
because it has moved from a region of
lower pressure to a region of higher
pressure. Consequently, within a fluid
flowing horizontally, the highest speed
occurs where the pressure is lowest, and
the lowest speed occurs where the
pressure is highest.[10]

Bernoulli's principle is only applicable for

isentropic flows: when the effects of
irreversible processes (like turbulence)
and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. thermal
radiation) are small and can be neglected.
However, the principle can be applied to
various types of flow within these bounds,
resulting in various forms of Bernoulli's
equation. The simple form of Bernoulli's
equation is valid for incompressible flows
(e.g. most liquid flows and gases moving
at low Mach number). More advanced
forms may be applied to compressible
flows at higher Mach numbers.

Incompressible flow equation

In most flows of liquids, and of gases at

low Mach number, the density of a fluid
parcel can be considered to be constant,
regardless of pressure variations in the
flow. Therefore, the fluid can be
considered to be incompressible, and
these flows are called incompressible
flows. Bernoulli performed his
experiments on liquids, so his equation in
its original form is valid only for
incompressible flow.

A common form of Bernoulli's equation is:

(A)

where:

is the fluid flow speed at a point,

 is the acceleration due to gravity,

is the elevation of the point above a

reference plane, with the positive -
direction pointing upward—so in the
direction opposite to the gravitational
acceleration,

is the pressure at the chosen point,

and

is the density of the fluid at all points

in the fluid.

Bernoulli's equation and the Bernoulli

constant are applicable throughout any
region of flow where the energy per unit
mass is uniform. Because the energy per
unit mass of liquid in a well-mixed
reservoir is uniform throughout, Bernoulli's
equation can be used to analyze the fluid
flow everwhere in that reservoir (including
pipes or flow fields that the reservoir
feeds) except where viscous forces
dominate and erode the energy per unit
mass.[6]: Example 3.5 and p.116

The following assumptions must be met

for this Bernoulli equation to apply:[2]: 265

the flow must be steady, that is, the flow

parameters (velocity, density, etc.) at any
point cannot change with time,

the flow must be incompressible—even

though pressure varies, the density must
 remain constant along a streamline;

friction by viscous forces must be

negligible.

For conservative force fields (not limited to

the gravitational field), Bernoulli's equation
can be generalized as:[2]: 265

where Ψ is the force potential at the point

considered. For example, for the Earth's
gravity Ψ = gz.

By multiplying with the fluid density ρ,

equation (A) can be rewritten as:
or:

where
q = 12 ρv2 is dynamic pressure,
p
h = z + ρg is the piezometric head or
hydraulic head (the sum of the elevation
z and the pressure head)[11][12] and
p0 = p + q is the stagnation pressure
(the sum of the static pressure p and
dynamic pressure q).[13]

The constant in the Bernoulli equation can

be normalized. A common approach is in
terms of total head or energy head H:
The above equations suggest there is a
flow speed at which pressure is zero, and
at even higher speeds the pressure is
negative. Most often, gases and liquids are
not capable of negative absolute pressure,
or even zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's
equation ceases to be valid before zero
pressure is reached. In liquids—when the
pressure becomes too low—cavitation
occurs. The above equations use a linear
relationship between flow speed squared
and pressure. At higher flow speeds in
gases, or for sound waves in liquid, the
changes in mass density become
significant so that the assumption of
constant density is invalid.

Simplified form

In many applications of Bernoulli's

equation, the change in the ρgz term is so
small compared with the other terms that
it can be ignored. For example, in the case
of aircraft in flight, the change in height z
is so small the ρgz term can be omitted.
This allows the above equation to be
presented in the following simplified form:
where p0 is called total pressure, and q is
dynamic pressure.[14] Many authors refer
to the pressure p as static pressure to
distinguish it from total pressure p0 and
dynamic pressure q. In Aerodynamics, L.J.
Clancy writes: "To distinguish it from the
total and dynamic pressures, the actual
pressure of the fluid, which is associated
not with its motion but with its state, is
often referred to as the static pressure, but
where the term pressure alone is used it
refers to this static pressure."[1]: § 3.5

The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation

can be summarized in the following
memorable word equation:[1]: § 3.5
 static pressure + dynamic pressure =
total pressure

Every point in a steadily flowing fluid,

regardless of the fluid speed at that point,
has its own unique static pressure p and
dynamic pressure q. Their sum p + q is
defined to be the total pressure p0. The
significance of Bernoulli's principle can
now be summarized as "total pressure is
constant in any region free of viscous
forces". If the fluid flow is brought to rest
at some point, this point is called a
stagnation point, and at this point the
static pressure is equal to the stagnation
pressure.
If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total
pressure is uniform and Bernoulli's
principle can be summarized as "total
pressure is constant everywhere in the
fluid flow".[1]: Equation 3.12 It is reasonable to
assume that irrotational flow exists in any
situation where a large body of fluid is
flowing past a solid body. Examples are
aircraft in flight and ships moving in open
bodies of water. However, Bernoulli's
principle importantly does not apply in the
boundary layer such as in flow through
long pipes.
Unsteady potential flow

The Bernoulli equation for unsteady

potential flow is used in the theory of
ocean surface waves and acoustics. For
an irrotational flow, the flow velocity can
be described as the gradient ∇φ of a
velocity potential φ. In that case, and for a
constant density ρ, the momentum
equations of the Euler equations can be
integrated to:[2]: 383

which is a Bernoulli equation valid also for

unsteady—or time dependent—flows. Here
∂φ
∂t denotes the partial derivative of the
velocity potential φ with respect to time t,
and v = | ∇φ | is the flow speed. The
function f(t) depends only on time and not
on position in the fluid. As a result, the
Bernoulli equation at some moment t
applies in the whole fluid domain. This is
also true for the special case of a steady
∂φ
irrotational flow, in which case f and ∂t are
constants so equation (A) can be applied
in every point of the fluid domain.[2]: 383
Further f(t) can be made equal to zero by
incorporating it into the velocity potential
using the transformation:
resulting in:

Note that the relation of the potential to

the flow velocity is unaffected by this
transformation: ∇Φ = ∇ φ .
The Bernoulli equation for unsteady
potential flow also appears to play a
central role in Luke's variational principle, a
variational description of free-surface
flows using the Lagrangian mechanics.
Compressible flow equation

Bernoulli developed his principle from

observations on liquids, and Bernoulli's
equation is valid for ideal fluids: those that
are incompressible, irrotational, inviscid,
and subjected to conservative forces. It is
sometimes valid for the flow of gases:
provided that there is no transfer of kinetic
or potential energy from the gas flow to
the compression or expansion of the gas.
If both the gas pressure and volume
change simultaneously, then work will be
done on or by the gas. In this case,
Bernoulli's equation—in its incompressible
flow form—cannot be assumed to be valid.
However, if the gas process is entirely
isobaric, or isochoric, then no work is done
on or by the gas (so the simple energy
balance is not upset). According to the gas
law, an isobaric or isochoric process is
ordinarily the only way to ensure constant
density in a gas. Also the gas density will
be proportional to the ratio of pressure
and absolute temperature; however, this
ratio will vary upon compression or
expansion, no matter what non-zero
quantity of heat is added or removed. The
only exception is if the net heat transfer is
zero, as in a complete thermodynamic
cycle or in an individual isentropic
(frictionless adiabatic) process, and even
then this reversible process must be
reversed, to restore the gas to the original
pressure and specific volume, and thus
density. Only then is the original,
unmodified Bernoulli equation applicable.
In this case the equation can be used if the
flow speed of the gas is sufficiently below
the speed of sound, such that the variation
in density of the gas (due to this effect)
along each streamline can be ignored.
Adiabatic flow at less than Mach 0.3 is
generally considered to be slow
enough.[15]
It is possible to use the fundamental
principles of physics to develop similar
equations applicable to compressible
fluids. There are numerous equations,
each tailored for a particular application,
but all are analogous to Bernoulli's
equation and all rely on nothing more than
the fundamental principles of physics
such as Newton's laws of motion or the
first law of thermodynamics.

Compressible flow in fluid dynamics

For a compressible fluid, with a barotropic

equation of state, and under the action of
conservative forces,[16]
where:
p is the pressure
ρ is the density and ρ(p) indicates that it
is a function of pressure

v is the flow speed

Ψ is the potential associated with the
conservative force field, often the
gravitational potential

In engineering situations, elevations are

generally small compared to the size of
the Earth, and the time scales of fluid flow
are small enough to consider the equation
of state as adiabatic. In this case, the
above equation for an ideal gas
becomes:[1]: § 3.11

where, in addition to the terms listed

above:
γ is the ratio of the specific heats of the
fluid

g is the acceleration due to gravity

z is the elevation of the point above a
reference plane

In many applications of compressible flow,

changes in elevation are negligible
compared to the other terms, so the term
gz can be omitted. A very useful form of
the equation is then:

where:

p0 is the total pressure

ρ0 is the total density

Compressible flow in thermodynamics

The most general form of the equation,

suitable for use in thermodynamics in
case of (quasi) steady flow,
is:[2]: § 3.5 [17]: § 5 [18]: § 5.9
Here w is the enthalpy per unit mass (also
known as specific enthalpy), which is also
often written as h (not to be confused with
"head" or "height").

Note that

where e is the thermodynamic energy per

unit mass, also known as the specific
internal energy. So, for constant internal
energy the equation reduces to the
incompressible-flow form.
The constant on the right-hand side is
often called the Bernoulli constant and
denoted b. For steady inviscid adiabatic
flow with no additional sources or sinks of
energy, b is constant along any given
streamline. More generally, when b may
vary along streamlines, it still proves a
useful parameter, related to the "head" of
the fluid (see below).

When the change in Ψ can be ignored, a

very useful form of this equation is:

where w0 is total enthalpy. For a calorically

perfect gas such as an ideal gas, the
enthalpy is directly proportional to the
temperature, and this leads to the concept
of the total (or stagnation) temperature.

When shock waves are present, in a

reference frame in which the shock is
stationary and the flow is steady, many of
the parameters in the Bernoulli equation
suffer abrupt changes in passing through
the shock. The Bernoulli parameter
remains unaffected. An exception to this
rule is radiative shocks, which violate the
assumptions leading to the Bernoulli
equation, namely the lack of additional
sinks or sources of energy.
Unsteady potential flow

For a compressible fluid, with a barotropic

equation of state, the unsteady
momentum conservation equation

With the irrotational assumption, namely,

the flow velocity can be described as the
gradient ∇φ of a velocity potential φ. The
unsteady momentum conservation
equation becomes
which leads to

In this case, the above equation for

isentropic flow becomes:

Derivations

Bernoulli equation for

incompressible fluids

The Bernoulli equation for

incompressible fluids can be
derived by either integrating
Newton's second law of
motion or by applying the
law of conservation of
energy, ignoring viscosity,
compressibility, and thermal
effects.

Derivation through
integrating Newton's
Second Law of Motion

The simplest derivation is to

first ignore gravity and
consider constrictions and
expansions in pipes that are
otherwise straight, as seen in
Venturi effect. Let the x axis
be directed down the axis of
the pipe.

Define a parcel of fluid

moving through a pipe with
cross-sectional area A, the
length of the parcel is dx,
and the volume of the parcel
A dx. If mass density is ρ,
the mass of the parcel is
density multiplied by its
volume m = ρA dx. The
change in pressure over
distance dx is dp and flow
dx
velocity v = dt .
Apply Newton's second law
of motion (force =
mass × acceleration) and
recognizing that the effective
force on the parcel of fluid is
−A dp. If the pressure
decreases along the length
of the pipe, dp is negative
but the force resulting in flow
is positive along the x axis.
In steady flow the velocity
field is constant with respect
to time, v = v(x) = v(x(t)), so
v itself is not directly a
function of time t. It is only
when the parcel moves
through x that the cross
sectional area changes: v
depends on t only through
the cross-sectional position
x(t).

With density ρ constant, the

equation of motion can be
written as

by integrating with respect to

x

where C is a constant,
sometimes referred to as the
Bernoulli constant. It is not a
universal constant, but rather
a constant of a particular
fluid system. The deduction
is: where the speed is large,
pressure is low and vice
versa.

In the above derivation, no

external work–energy
principle is invoked. Rather,
Bernoulli's principle was
derived by a simple
manipulation of Newton's
second law.

A streamtube of fluid moving to the right. Indicated are pressure, elevation, flow
speed, distance (s), and cross-sectional area. Note that in this figure elevation is
denoted as h, contrary to the text where it is given by z.
 Derivation by using
conservation of energy

Another way to derive

Bernoulli's principle for an
incompressible flow is by
applying conservation of
energy.[19] In the form of the
work-energy theorem, stating
that[20]

the change in the kinetic

energy Ekin of the system
equals the net work W
done on the system;

Therefore,
 the work done by the
forces in the fluid equals
increase in kinetic energy.

The system consists of the

volume of fluid, initially
between the cross-sections
A1 and A2. In the time
interval Δt fluid elements
initially at the inflow cross-
section A1 move over a
distance s1 = v1 Δt, while at
the outflow cross-section the
fluid moves away from
cross-section A2 over a
distance s2 = v2 Δt. The
displaced fluid volumes at
the inflow and outflow are
respectively A1s1 and A2s2.
The associated displaced
fluid masses are – when ρ is
the fluid's mass density –
equal to density times
volume, so ρA1s1 and ρA2s2.
By mass conservation, these
two masses displaced in the
time interval Δt have to be
equal, and this displaced
mass is denoted by Δm:
The work done by the forces
consists of two parts:

The work done by the

pressure acting on the
areas A1 and A2

The work done by gravity:

the gravitational potential
energy in the volume A1s1
is lost, and at the outflow
in the volume A2s2 is
gained. So, the change in
gravitational potential
 energy ΔEpot,gravity in the
time interval Δt is

Now, the work by the force of

gravity is opposite to the
change in potential energy,
Wgravity = −ΔEpot,gravity:
while the force of gravity is in
the negative z-direction, the
work—gravity force times
change in elevation—will be
negative for a positive
elevation change
Δz = z2 − z1, while the
corresponding potential
energy change is
positive.[21]: 14–4, §14–3 So:

And therefore the total work

done in this time interval Δt
is

The increase in kinetic

energy is

Putting these together, the

work-kinetic energy theorem
W = ΔEkin gives:[19]

or
After dividing by the mass
Δm = ρA1v1 Δt = ρA2v2 Δt
the result is:[19]

or, as stated in the first

paragraph:

(Eqn. 1, Which is also Equation (A))

Further division by g
produces the following
equation. Note that each
term can be described in the
length dimension (such as
meters). This is the head
equation derived from
Bernoulli's principle:

(Eqn. 2a)

The middle term, z,

represents the potential
energy of the fluid due to its
elevation with respect to a
reference plane. Now, z is
called the elevation head and
given the designation
zelevation.
A free falling mass from an
elevation z > 0 (in a vacuum)
will reach a speed

when arriving at elevation

z = 0. Or when rearranged as
head:

v2
The term 2g is called the
velocity head, expressed as
a length measurement. It
represents the internal
energy of the fluid due to its
motion.
The hydrostatic pressure p is
defined as

with p0 some reference

pressure, or when rearranged
as head:

p
The term is also called
ρg
the pressure head,
expressed as a length
measurement. It represents
the internal energy of the
fluid due to the pressure
exerted on the container. The
head due to the flow speed
and the head due to static
pressure combined with the
elevation above a reference
plane, a simple relationship
useful for incompressible
fluids using the velocity
head, elevation head, and
pressure head is obtained.
(Eqn. 2b)

If Eqn. 1 is multiplied by the

density of the fluid, an
equation with three pressure
terms is obtained:
 (Eqn. 3)

Note that the pressure of the

system is constant in this
form of the Bernoulli
equation. If the static
pressure of the system (the
third term) increases, and if
the pressure due to elevation
(the middle term) is
constant, then the dynamic
pressure (the first term)
must have decreased. In
other words, if the speed of a
fluid decreases and it is not
due to an elevation
difference, it must be due to
an increase in the static
pressure that is resisting the
flow.

All three equations are

merely simplified versions of
an energy balance on a
system.

Bernoulli equation for

compressible fluids

The derivation for

compressible fluids is
similar. Again, the derivation
depends upon (1)
conservation of mass, and
(2) conservation of energy.
Conservation of mass
implies that in the above
figure, in the interval of time
Δt, the amount of mass
passing through the
boundary defined by the area
A1 is equal to the amount of
mass passing outwards
through the boundary
defined by the area A2:
Conservation of energy is
applied in a similar manner:
It is assumed that the
change in energy of the
volume of the streamtube
bounded by A1 and A2 is due
entirely to energy entering or
leaving through one or the
other of these two
boundaries. Clearly, in a
more complicated situation
such as a fluid flow coupled
with radiation, such
conditions are not met.
Nevertheless, assuming this
to be the case and assuming
the flow is steady so that the
net change in the energy is
zero,

where ΔE1 and ΔE2 are the

energy entering through A1
and leaving through A2,
respectively. The energy
entering through A1 is the
sum of the kinetic energy
entering, the energy entering
in the form of potential
gravitational energy of the
fluid, the fluid
thermodynamic internal
energy per unit of mass (ε1)
entering, and the energy
entering in the form of
mechanical p dV work:

where Ψ = gz is a force
potential due to the Earth's
gravity, g is acceleration due
to gravity, and z is elevation
above a reference plane. A
similar expression for ΔE2
may easily be constructed.
So now setting
0 = ΔE1 − ΔE2:

which can be rewritten as:

Now, using the previously-
obtained result from
conservation of mass, this
may be simplified to obtain

which is the Bernoulli

equation for compressible
flow.

An equivalent expression
can be written in terms of
fluid enthalpy (h):
Applications

Condensation visible over the upper

surface of an Airbus A340 wing
caused by the fall in temperature
accompanying the fall in pressure.

In modern everyday life there are many

observations that can be successfully
explained by application of Bernoulli's
principle, even though no real fluid is
entirely inviscid,[22] and a small viscosity
often has a large effect on the flow.

Bernoulli's principle can be used to

calculate the lift force on an airfoil, if the
behaviour of the fluid flow in the vicinity
of the foil is known. For example, if the
air flowing past the top surface of an
aircraft wing is moving faster than the
air flowing past the bottom surface, then
Bernoulli's principle implies that the
pressure on the surfaces of the wing will
be lower above than below. This
pressure difference results in an
upwards lifting force.[d][23] Whenever the
distribution of speed past the top and
bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the
lift forces can be calculated (to a good
approximation) using Bernoulli's
equations,[24] which were established by
Bernoulli over a century before the first
man-made wings were used for the
purpose of flight.
The carburetor used in many
reciprocating engines contains a venturi
to create a region of low pressure to
draw fuel into the carburetor and mix it
thoroughly with the incoming air. The
low pressure in the throat of a venturi
can be explained by Bernoulli's principle;
in the narrow throat, the air is moving at
its fastest speed and therefore it is at its
lowest pressure.

An injector on a steam locomotive or a

static boiler.
The pitot tube and static port on an
aircraft are used to determine the
airspeed of the aircraft. These two
devices are connected to the airspeed
indicator, which determines the dynamic
pressure of the airflow past the aircraft.
Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate
the airspeed indicator so that it displays
the indicated airspeed appropriate to the
dynamic pressure.[1]: § 3.8

A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's

principle to create a force by turning
pressure energy generated by the
combustion of propellants into velocity.
This then generates thrust by way of
Newton's third law of motion.

The flow speed of a fluid can be

measured using a device such as a
Venturi meter or an orifice plate, which
can be placed into a pipeline to reduce
the diameter of the flow. For a horizontal
device, the continuity equation shows
that for an incompressible fluid, the
reduction in diameter will cause an
increase in the fluid flow speed.
Subsequently, Bernoulli's principle then
shows that there must be a decrease in
the pressure in the reduced diameter
region. This phenomenon is known as
the Venturi effect.

The maximum possible drain rate for a

tank with a hole or tap at the base can
be calculated directly from Bernoulli's
equation and is found to be proportional
to the square root of the height of the
fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law,
which is compatible with Bernoulli's
principle. Increased viscosity lowers this
drain rate; this is reflected in the
discharge coefficient, which is a
function of the Reynolds number and
the shape of the orifice.[25]
The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle
to create a non-contact adhesive force
between a surface and the gripper.

During a cricket match, bowlers

continually polish one side of the ball.
After some time, one side is quite rough
and the other is still smooth. Hence,
when the ball is bowled and passes
through air, the speed on one side of the
ball is faster than on the other, and this
results in a pressure difference between
the sides; this leads to the ball rotating
("swinging") while travelling through the
air, giving advantage to the bowlers.
Misconceptions

Airfoil lift

An illustration of the incorrect equal transit-time explanation of airfoil lift.

One of the most common erroneous

explanations of aerodynamic lift asserts
that the air must traverse the upper and
lower surfaces of a wing in the same
amount of time, implying that since the
upper surface presents a longer path the
air must be moving over the top of the
wing faster than over the bottom.
Bernoulli's principle is then cited to
conclude that the pressure on top of the
wing must be lower than on the
bottom.[26][27]

However, there is no physical principle that

requires the air to traverse the upper and
lower surfaces in the same amount of
time. In fact, theory predicts and
experiments confirm that the air traverses
the top surface in a shorter time than it
traverses the bottom surface, and this
explanation based on equal transit time is
false.[28][29][30] While this explanation is
false, it is not the Bernoulli principle that is
false, because this principle is well
established; Bernoulli's equation is used
correctly in common mathematical
treatments of aerodynamic lift.[31][32]

Common classroom demonstrations

There are several common classroom

demonstrations that are sometimes
incorrectly explained using Bernoulli's
principle.[33] One involves holding a piece
of paper horizontally so that it droops
downward and then blowing over the top
of it. As the demonstrator blows over the
paper, the paper rises. It is then asserted
that this is because "faster moving air has
lower pressure".[34][35][36]

One problem with this explanation can be

seen by blowing along the bottom of the
paper: if the deflection was caused by
faster moving air, then the paper should
deflect downward; but the paper deflects
upward regardless of whether the faster
moving air is on the top or the bottom.[37]
Another problem is that when the air
leaves the demonstrator's mouth it has the
same pressure as the surrounding air;[38]
the air does not have lower pressure just
because it is moving; in the demonstration,
the static pressure of the air leaving the