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Applications of Stakeholder Theory in Information Systems and Technology

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DOI: 10.5755/j01.ee.24.3.4618

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 Inzinerine Ekonomika-Engineering Economics, 2013, 24(3), 254-266

Applications of Stakeholder Theory in Information Systems and Technology

Alok Mishra, Deepti Mishra

Atilim University
U21 Global, Singapore, Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.ee.24.3.4618

Abstract. Stakeholder theory has its origins in management literature. Preston (1999) traces the notion of stakeholders
back to the great depression in the United States (1929-1941), when the General Electric company defined four major
stakeholder groups - shareholders, employees, customers, and the general public. Stakeholder management has become
an important tool to transfer ethics to management practice and strategy. Few management topics have generated more
debate in recent decades than the underlying notion, the model and the theories surrounding stakeholders (Donaldson and
Preston, 1995; Gibson, 2000; Wolfe and Putler, 2002; Friedman and Miles, 2006). The visual power of the stakeholder
model and its high simplicity are seen as contributors to the success of the stakeholder concept (Fassin, 2008). An increas-
ing interrelation is observed between the concepts of stakeholder theory, corporate responsibility, and business ethics
(Valor, 2005; Garriga et al., 2004). The stakeholder approach in the organization integrates stakeholder relationships
within a company’s resource base, industry setting, and socio-political arena into a single analytical framework (Susniene
& Sargunas, 2009).
Mumford (1979) is one of the early researchers in supporting the involvement of end-users as a component of effective in-
formation systems development and implementation, using essentially the stakeholder concept in this domain. It has been
proved that end-users and managers are very important towards successful system implementation. As more interorgani-
zational information systems are developed which usually involve strategic decisions, a yet wider range of stakeholders
needs to be involved (Pouloudi, 1999). In these systems the attention may switch from end-users and focus on those parties
that are external to the organization, but who can also be associated in decision making at a managerial or strategic level
(Pouloudi & Whitely, 1997). One of the most thorough investigations of the stakeholder concept in information systems
research that relates information systems stakeholders with implementation failure was made as an early work by Lyytinen
and Hirschheim (1987, 1988). They argue that failure is conditional on the capability of information system to meet the
expectations of different stakeholders - i.e. to say an information system may be considered successful by some stakeholder
but a failure by others. The concept of stakeholder represents a progression from developer – and user – centered prob-
lems to organization-wide and inter organizational information system problems. This is a sign of maturity of information
systems research to show how holistic representation of the parties involved in the more complex systems currently devel-
oped (Pouloudi, 1999). Stakeholder theory proposes an ethical use of stakeholder concept in Information systems as ethi-
cal considerations and professional conduct is a significant issue in information system.
The stakeholder theory is extensively used in management in investigating organizational ambiance, strategic manage-
ment, ethical concerns, business planning process, e-government, project management, environment management, etc.
Recently stakeholders are also seen as means to more successful information and communication technologies and infor-
mation system development and implementation issues. The paper presents stakeholder theory, its origin and applications
in Information Systems (IS) field in the literature. The main objective of this research is to build up the knowledge body of
stakeholder applications in information systems and technology areas.
Keywords: stakeholder theory, stakeholder model, stakeholder, information systems, management.

Introduction responsibility, and business ethics (Valor, 2005; Garriga et

al., 2004). The stakeholder approach in an organization inte-
Nowadays, stakeholder management has become an grates stakeholder relationships within the company’s re-
important tool to transfer ethics to management practice source base, industry setting, and socio-political arena into a
and strategy. Few management topics have generated more single analytical framework (Susniene & Sargunas, 2009).
debate in recent decades than this underlying notion, the The term ‘stakeholder’ has a relatively recent history
model and the theories surrounding stakeholders (Don- (Pouloudi, 1999) and has become an increasingly popular
aldson & Preston, 1995; Gibson, 2000; Wolfe & Putler, term in management vocabulary, “almost a cliché”
2002; Friedman & Miles, 2006). The visual power of the (Willetts, 1997). Freeman (1984) traces it back to 1963,
stakeholder model and its simplicity are regarded as driv- when it was introduced to define “those groups without
ing forces for the success of the stakeholder concept (Fas- whose support the organization would cease to exist”.
sin, 2008). There ıs considerable interconnectedness be- Freeman argues with references to stakeholders in the are-
tween the concepts of stakeholder theory, corporate as of corporate planning, systems theory, corporate social

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 Alok Mishra, Deepti Mishra. Applications of Stakeholder Theory in Information Systems and Technology

responsibility, organization theory (Pouloudi, 1999), and The present article reviews stakeholder theory and its
later on integrated with strategic management and ap- various applications in the IS and ICT (Information Com-
proaches to help managers in improving their organiza- munication Technology) in organizations. Recently, stake-
tion’s strategic position (Eden & van der Heijden, 1993; holders are also seen as the means to more successful infor-
Flood & Jackson 1991; Gilbert et al., 1988). Different re- mation and communication technologies, and information
searchers have defined the concept of stakeholder differ- system development and implementation issues. The paper
ently with their own perspectives depending on different presents stakeholder theory, its origin, and finally applica-
views of their roles. For instance, stakeholders have been tions in Information Systems (IS) field in the literature.
defined as differently as “groups of constituents who have The research objective: To identify and review
a legitimate claim on the firm” (Hill & Jones, 1992), “par- Stakeholder theory application in information system and
ticipants in corporate affairs” (Ackoff, 1974), those that technology.
“will be directly impacted by the decisions” (Friend & The research problem: To introduce stakeholder the-
Hickling, 1987), and those who “hold a stake” about the ory and identify its applications in the information system
decisions made by the organization (Eden & van der and information technology.
Heijden, 1993; Wagner, 1993). In general the most widely The research methods: The methods used logical and
known definition has been proposed by Freeman (1984) comparative analysis of literature; synthesis, review and
which states “A stakeholder in an organization is (by defi- deduction.
nition) any group or individual who can affect, or is affect- First, this paper introduces stakeholder theory from its
ed by, the achievement of the organization’s objectives.” inception. Second, the applications of stakeholder theory in
In all cases, stakeholders are an inseparable part of the information system and information technology towards
management strategy, and this concept helps people and organizational, strategic, ethical, cultural and other related
organizations to agree upon joint goals, participation, issues will be presented. Finally, stakeholder theory appli-
boundaries and benefit, i.e. flexibly to plan activity cations in Information system and technology perspectives
(Susniene & Sargunas, 2009). They further argue that or- by different researchers are discussed. The available
ganization - stakeholder relations lead to new ideas about studies have generally and merely focused on stakeholder
the responsibilities of organizations, the role of managers, theory and its single application in specific areas of
and the most appropriate management style. information system or information technology. This paper
Freeman (1984) divided his broad stakeholder groups provides a rather comprehensive review in this regard
into internal (customers, employees, suppliers, owners) and which hopefully ease the task of researchers working in
external (governments, competitiors, special interest groups, this significant interdisciplinary area.
etc.). Although the internal groups are seen as “key”, in The research is formed by: The research is formed by
some situations the external stakeholders are more important a systemic and comparative literature analysis of scientific
and they cannot a priori be relegated to a subsidiary position publications with the intention to idenify stakeholder theory
(Bailur, 2007). There is further division between primary applications in information systems and technology.
and secondary stakeholders. Clarkson (1995) defines prima-
ry stakeholders as those “without whose continuing partici- Stakeholder Theories of Management
pation the corporation cannot survive as a going concern”. If
these primary stakeholders withdraw or become dissatis-
Origin of Stakeholder Theory
fied with the system, “the corporation will be seriously Stakeholder theory has its origins in management liter-
damaged or unable to continue”. He further argues that ature. Preston (1999) traces the notion of stakeholders back
support of primary stakeholders can be lost if the organiza- to the Great Depression in the United States (1929-1941),
tion is either unable to create and distribute sufficient when the General Electric Company defined four major
wealth or value to satisfy them, or if more wealth or value stakeholder groups - shareholders, employees, customers,
is given to one primary stakeholder group at the expense of and the general public. Freeman (1984) indicated its origin
another group, which would cause them to withdraw from linked to the research conducted by the Stanford Research
the system. On the other hand, secondary stakeholder Institute, which defined it in 1963 as “those groups without
groups are those who have the “capacity to mobilize the whose support the organization would cease to exist”
public opinion in favor of, or in opposition to, a corpora- (Freeman, 1984). Freeman (1984) recommended a manage-
tion’s performance. Pouloudi (1999) argued that stake- rial perspective, which identifies four key stakeholders being
holders are not passive environmental elements, but act ac- the firm-owners, customers, employees, and suppliers and
cording to their interests and use their power to influence also found that during late Twentieth Century, the owners of
the organization in the direction they desire, and in this corporation were no longer focusing on just their returns on
context, the word “or” is significant as, according to Free- investment, but were also interested in “shareholder activ-
man, it indicates two directions of influence (between or- ism” and promoting social justice.
ganization and stakeholder) along with provision of future The framework of the stakeholder model illustrates
stakeholders. The more dynamic perspective of organization more clearly the relationships among the various groups of
- stakeholder relations acknowledges the interdependence actors in and around the organization. Based on extensive
that prevails between companies and their stakeholders, literature reviews on organizational theory and corporate
and asserts that stakeholder relationships can be a source of strategy along with a vast amount of research and observa-
opportunity and competitive advantage rather than simply tion Freeman provided the notional view of the organiza-
a threat or drain on organizational resources (Susniene & tion in a new and simplified fashion. Freeman (1984) orig-
Sargunas, 2009). inally presented the stakeholder model as a map in which

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 Inzinerine Ekonomika-Engineering Economics, 2013, 24(3), 254-266

the organization is the hub of a wheel and stakeholders are tral oval, each oval representing a group of stakeholders.
at the ends of spokes around the rim (Freeman, 1999). It Freeman’s original framework included eleven stakehold-
consisted of one central circle, or oval, representing the ers on a non-exhaustive basis (Freeman, 1984). The most
firm, surrounded by a variable number of other circles or common version of the model (Figure 1) includes seven
ovals with bi-directional arrows toward and from the cen- stakeholders.

Figure 1. The original stakeholder model (Freeman, 1984)

Descriptive, Instrumental, and Normative c) Finally, “the fundamental basis” of stakeholder

Views of Stakeholder Theory theory is normative and involves acceptance of the fol-
lowing ideas: stakeholders are persons or groups with le-
Donaldson and Preston (1995) described the descriptive, gitimate interests in procedural and /or substantive aspects
instrumental, and normative views of stakeholder theory to of corporate activity” and “the interests of all stakeholders
facilitate in understanding different features of this theory as are of intrinsic value”.
follows: d) Further, Donaldson and Preston (1995) justify
a) Stakeholder theory is descriptive in the sense that their claim that the normative aspect is at the core of the
“it describes the corporation as a constellation of cooperative stakeholder theory by exemplifying how the justifications
and competitive interests possessing intrinsic value”. for favoring stakeholder theory over other management
b) Stakeholder theory is instrumental because “it theories ultimately rely upon normative arguments. They
establishes a framework for examining the connections, if suggest that these three aspects can be viewed as nested
any, between the practice of stakeholder management and circles (Figure 2).
the achievement of various corporate performance goals”.

Figure 2. Aspects of stakeholder theory (Donaldson & Preston, 1995)

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 Alok Mishra, Deepti Mishra. Applications of Stakeholder Theory in Information Systems and Technology

Donaldson and Preston (1995) also suggested four new technology”. Willcocks and Mason (1987) define the
central theses related to stakeholder theory. stakeholders of a computer system similar to Freeman as
a) Stakeholder theory is descriptive because it offers “people who will be affected in a significant way by, or
a model of the corporation. have material interests in the nature and running, of the
b) Stakeholder theory is instrumental in offering a new computerized system”.
framework for investigating the links between conventional Ahn and Skudlark (1997) have provided an extended
firm performance and the practice of stakeholder manage- definition of the stakeholder in this way: “the stakeholders
ment. are a group of people sharing a pool of values that define
c) Although Stakeholder theory is descriptive and in- what the desirable features of an information system are
strumental, it is more fundamentally normative. Stakehold- and how they should be obtained”. Lederer and Mendelow
ers are identified by their interests, and all stakeholder inter- (1990) observed the ‘environment’ of the information sys-
ests are considered to be intrinsically valuable. tem department, and included the host organization’s envi-
d) Stakeholder theory is managerial because it rec- ronment as “everything within the organization that lies
ommends attitudes, structures, and practices and requires beyond the borders of the IS department”. Checkland in
that simultaneous attention should be given to the interests the soft systems methodology mentioned the requirement
of all legitimate stakeholders. for stakeholder identification and the significance of under-
lining different stakeholder’s perspectives, mainly by using
Stakeholder Theories in Information Systems the ‘CATWOE’ elements (customer, actor, transformation
process, Weltanschauung, system owner, environmental
Most references to stakeholders in the information sys- constraints) (Checkland, 1981; Checkland & Scholes,
tems literature refer primarily to individuals or groups 1990). This approach has the advantage that it can be used
within the organization and contrary to the stakeholder lit- to provide a holistic representation of the information sys-
erature in strategic management (Pouloudi, 1999). Mum- tem, be it a part of whether an organization or an inter-
ford (1979) is one of the early researchers in supporting the organizational system in as broad an aspect as the “human
involvement of end-users as a component of effective in- activity system”. One of the most common instrumental
formation systems development and implementation, using approaches to the stakeholder analysis in the information
essentially the stakeholder concept in this domain. It has systems field addresses one key issues in information sys-
been proved that end-users and managers are very im- tems practice (Brancheau et al., 1996; Galliers & Baker,
portant towards successful system implementation. As 1994; Knights et al., 1997), that is the development of the
more inter-organizational information systems are devel- information systems strategy and its alignment with com-
oped which usually involve a strategic decisions, a yet pany’s business strategy (Pouloudi, 1999). According to
wider range of stakeholders needs to be involved (Pou- Lacity and Hirschheim (1995), a major obstacle for the
loudi, 1999). In these systems the attention may switch alignment of information systems and business strategies is
from end-users and focus on those parties that are external the conflicting expectations and perceptions of information
to the organization, but which can be associated in deci- systems that different organizational stakeholders hold.
sion-making at managerial or strategic level (Pouloudi & The senior management is mostly concerned with the cost,
Whitely, 1997). According to Pouloudi, (1999) it is im- whereas the end-users are mostly concerned with the ser-
portant to note there is some confusion in information sys- vice. Information system managers are ‘caught in the mid-
tems research about the notion of stakeholders, and re- dle’ of a hostile environment and find that they need to jus-
searchers do not offer a specific definition (Benjamin & tify the agreement made with these groups. Benjamin and
Levinson, 1993; Eden & Ackermann, 1994; Galliers, 1994; Levinson (1993) proposed a 7- step stakeholder analysis
Lee & Gough, 1993). For instance, Boddy and Buchanan approach (Table 1) that will support the management of
(1986) explained that “organizations can be viewed as change enabled by IT. These steps have been expected to
comprising different ‘stakeholder’ groups, whose interests help the organization to determine whether the change is
in promoting or resisting change, or apathy to innovation, feasible, and also what modified in strategy can bring
may be explained by identifying their respective perceived about better results.
interests and by examining how they will be affected by
Table 1
Stakeholder analysis (Benjamin & Levinson, 1993)
Step 1 Identify a vision or objective.
Step 2 Describe a number of future states in terms of goals understandable by the stakeholder group..
Step 3 Break the goals down into the process, technology, and organization and cultural steps necessary to balance organizational
equilibrium.
Step 4 Identify stakeholder groups whose commitment is necessary for achievement of each goal.
Step 5 For each type of stakeholder, describe the needed changes, perceived benefits, and expected kind of resistance.
Step 6 Analyze the effort required to gain the necessary commitment from the stakeholder group.
Step 7 Develop actions plans for those stakeholder groups that are not committed enough.

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 Inzinerine Ekonomika-Engineering Economics, 2013, 24(3), 254-266

One of the most thorough investigations of the stake- tem may be considered successful by some stakeholders,
holder concept in information systems research that relates but a failure by others). Whilst the stakeholder manage-
information systems stakeholders with implementation ment literature concentrates on debating the normative use
failure has been made in early work by Lyytinen and of the stakeholder concept, the information system litera-
Hirschheim (1988, 1987). They argue that failure is condi- ture has remained focused on the instrumental perspective
tional on the capability of the information system to meet of stakeholder theory (Pouloudi, 1999), which has been
the expectations of different stakeholders (information sys- summarized in Table 2.

Table 2
The use of stakeholder concept in information systems research (Pouloudi, 1999)

Examples of instrumental uses Examples of normative uses

Stakeholder analysis can be used to assist IS Stakeholder analysis can be used to assist IS It is ethical to consider Stakeholders
planning and strategy formulation. development and implementation. Stakeholder analysis can be used to study
ethical issues.
Organizations need to consider IS Failure is contingent on the capability of Obligations of IS professionals towards
stakeholders (Earl, 1989); IS to meet different stakeholder stakeholders: to minimize harm to others
Dynamics of key stakeholder groups need expectations (Lyytinen, 1988) (Lyytinen (Rackley, 1996);
to be addressed (Ruohonen, 1991); and Hirschheim, 1987); Ethical decisions regarding the privacy of
Misalignment of IS strategies can be Information centers need to consider key medical information are made in a context
addressed by considering the stakeholder stakeholders when developing IS (Bento, of complex stakeholder relations (Introna
agendas (Lacity and Hirschheim, 199). 1996); and Pouloudi, 1998) (Pouloudi, 1997).
Management of conflicting stakeholder
interests is important for IS
implementation (Ahn & Skudlark, 1997).

Application of Stakeholder Theory in Infor- decisions about why and how they are used”. There is a
mation Systems number of applications for stakeholder theory in the Infor-
mation and Communication Technology (ICT) and Infor-
Boddy and Buschanan (1986) define organizational in- mation Systems (IS) related areas. The stakeholder theory
formation system stakeholders as “all those who have a and its applications in IS and the allied areas along with the
practical concern for the effective application of new tech- main results are summarized in Table 3.
nologies, and who are in a position to take or to influence
Table 3
Applications of Stakeholder Theories in IS

Study Area Purpose Main Results

Fedoro- E-government By identifing legitimate stakehol- Drawing on stakeholder theory, a typology of four stakeholder groups (data con-
wicz et al.. ders and their concerns prior to the trollers, data subjects, data providers, and secondary stakeholders) is proposed to
(2010) implementation, data controllers address the privacy concerns, and further argue that by ensuring procedural fair-
can reduce adoption and implemen- ness for the data subjects, agencies can reduce some barriers that impede suc-
tation barriers in e-government data cessful adoption of e-government applications and policies.
mining applications.

Kamal et E-government To study the role of stakeholders Proposed the concept of stakeholder theory to analyze the role of stakeholders
al., (2011) and the surrounding challenges during the Technology Integration Solutions (TIS) adoption process with regards
when implementing TIS in LGAs to their perceptions on the factors influencing TIS adoption in Local Government
as the TIS adoption process in- Authorities (LGAs) and their involvement on the adoption lifecycle phases.
volves several stakeholders, each
with their own specific domain
knowledge and expertise that are
crucial to the success of TIS pro-
jects.

Lapointe et Health Infor- Framework proposed to assess the 1. An assessment framework was developed to provide general guidance on how
al.,(2011) mation Tech- actual impacts of health infor- to assess HIT impacts.
nology mation technology (HIT) imple- 2. The proposed framework will be useful for researchers and practitioners as it
mentation. takes into account the underlying reasons for the HIT productivity paradox and
identifies the salient outcomes of interests associated with HIT implementa-
tion.

Yuthas & Business Eth- Based on stakeholder theory, the 1. Proposed a stakeholder theory of enabling as one way to make the risks and
Dillard ics ethical development of advanced moral concerns associated with business AIT (Advanced Information Tech-
(1999) technology. nology) systems more visible.
2. Applying the principles of affirmative post-modern ethics through a stake-
holder-enabling system development process that explicitly allows for the ex-
amination of moral concerns, which might otherwise be overlooked, ignored,
or silenced.

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 Alok Mishra, Deepti Mishra. Applications of Stakeholder Theory in Information Systems and Technology

Study Area Purpose Main Results

Rowley E-government Development of tools and ap- 1. Successful e-government requires engagement of all stakeholders, and prelim-
(2010) proaches for understanding the inary to that engagement is a shared understanding of the interests, perspec-
benefits sought by a wide range of tives, value dimensions, and benefits sought from e-government by the various
stakeholder groups in e- stakeholders roles.
government. 2. Study proposed typologies of stakeholders roles, and stakeholder benefits, and
embedding these in the stakeholder benefits analysis tool (SBAT). This is de-
signed to be used to support:
(i) The identification of stakeholders;
(ii) The recognition of differing interests amongst stakeholders; and
(iii) The development of strategies to align stakeholder interests so that par-
ticipation in e-government can be self-governing.

Chung, Business Intel- Proposes a framework for design- 1. Framework proposed for designing Business Intelligence Systems to identify
Chen & ligence Sys- ing Business Intelligence (BI) sys- and classify stakeholders on the Web, incorporating human knowledge and
Reid tems tems to identify and classify stake- machine-learned information from web pages.
(2009) holders on the Web. 2. Based on their framework a prototype called ‘Business Stakeholder Analyz-
er’ (BSA) is developed which helps managers and analysts to identify and
classify their stakeholders on the Web.
3. Research results provide a better understanding of how to integrate infor-
mation technology (IT) with stakeholder theory towards enriching the
knowledge base of business intelligence system design.

Islam & E-government To assesses an e-government pro- 1. It used stakeholder analysis and a gap analysis technique to assess an e-
Gronlund ject using design-reality gap analy- Government project crucial for almost all developing countries – providing
(2007) sis and stakeholder theory. information to the Agriculture Market Information System.
2. The research suggests the use of mobile technologies in combination with call
centres and locally available human resources as the most important factors for
e-government success.

Bailur, Telecenter Pro- Applying stakeholder theory to 1. Analyze the applicability of a stakeholder perspective in development infor-
(2007) jects analyze telecenter projects. matics.
2. Provides preliminary framework for identification and management of stake-
holders.
3. Involving stakeholder is a much more complex activity than many of the tele-
center analysts cited earlier.

Lim, Ahn Strategies for Proposes a methodology for formu- 1. Authors present a holistic way to integrate the most critical tasks surrounding
& Lee Stakeholders lating strategies for stakeholder stakeholder management.
(2005) management management by the use of these 2. It employs a Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) technique and proposes a
RDAP (reactive, defensive, ac- methodology to help formulating stakeholder management strategies.
commodative, or proactive) strate- 3. A system called the ‘Stakeholder Management Strategy Support System’
gies. (SMSSS) is implemented to put the proposed methodology to work.

Chua et E-commerce The Evolution of E-commerce re- 1. This work surveys seven of the top nine e-Commerce journals to test the prop-
al.,(2005) search : A stakeholder perspective. osition that stakeholder theory suggests that, as an emerging research disci-
pline, e-Commerce research is likely to focus primarily on specific stakehold-
ers and ignore others.
2. Academic e-commerce researchers concentrate their attentions on two stake-
holder groups, specifically customers and internal organization (i.e., managers
and employees) of the Net-Enhanced Organization (NEO).

Flak & E-government Adapting stakeholder theory to e- 1. Apart from its original profit focus, there is no serious conceptual mismatch
Rose government. between stakeholder theory and the government's objective of providing poli-
(2005) cy and services for citizens and organizations - society's stakeholders.
2. The article discusses how information technology impacts a stakeholder model
of governance.

Dimovski Effect of ICT A Stakeholder theory approach to 1. Higher-level organizational learning leads to improved organizational perfor-
& Skerlav- on organiza- the organisational performance and mance from the employee’s perspective.
aj (2005) tions influence of ICT. 2. Companies which focus their efforts into a systematic approach to organiza-
tional learning profit in terms of an augmented level of employee trust in the
leadership, improved efficiency of work organization, a more committed
workforce, reduced costs per employee, increased employee satisfaction, and
increased employee flexibility.

Zhang, E-government Exploring stakeholders’ expecta- 1. There are significant differences among stakeholders groups based on the
Dawes & tions of the benefits and barriers of types of organizational membership.
Sarkis e-government knowledge sharing. 2. Local government stakeholders are considerably less optimistic in achieving
(2005) goals, and more concerned about a variety of organizational, technological,
and financial barriers.
3. Research results indicated that key participants' expectations were similar to
those of general participants/users.

Scott, E-government Implementation strategies for e- 1. Public-sector organisations in particular present unique challenges to the

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 Inzinerine Ekonomika-Engineering Economics, 2013, 24(3), 254-266

Study Area Purpose Main Results

Golden & government: A stakeholder analysis implementation process, and implementation strategies often require particular
Hughes approach. attention to the social and political elements inherent in organisational change.
(2004) 2. In e-government implementation, the main barriers are not technical but rather
social and cultural. Implementation strategies should, therefore, support the
process of managing stakeholder relations in order to reduce the risk of
stakeholder conflict and ensure the success of e-government initiatives.

Pouloudi et Information Aspects of the stakeholder concept 1. The study investigated different perspectives of the stakeholder concept that
al,. (1999) System and their implication in IS. have been discussed in the literature along with shortcomings.
2. Stakeholder analysis can provide multiple and mutually supportive approaches
to the study and practice of information systems development, particularly if
descriptive, instrumental and normative aspects are taken into account.

Smith & Information Study of the relationship between 1. Information system had made great use of technology in the past two decades
Hasnas Systems Ethics and Information Systems. but the growing number of ethical dilemmas also grew during the same time
(1999) frame without receiving proper attention.
2. Future research should clarify obligations for individuals in non-profit or pub-
lic-sector organizations with a similar context.

Vidgen Information Stakeholders, soft systems, and 1. The application of stakeholder analysis and soft systems thinking for an
(1997) System technology in the analysis of in- investigation of information system requirements.
formation system requirements. 2. A framework for investigating IS requirements is proposed that contrasts the
current situation with the future ones and the real world, specifically with
conceptual thinking about the latter.

Cheng & Corporate To study the significance of 1. As a system arrangement in corporate governance, designation of an
Wang Governance establishing an independent independent manager (director) will help to improve the structure of corporate
(2009) director system. governance, maintain interests of all stockholders, and protect rights and
interests of small-and-medium size of investors.
2. There is a need to strengthen and optimize the independent director system
with a Chinese characteristic.

Ruohonen Strategic In- To examine intra-group and inter- 1. Strategic information systems planning (SISP) requires the participation and
(1991) formation Sys- group relationships in the context involvement of different managerial groups, and the key stakeholder groups in
tem of Strategic information systems this process are the top management, user management, and IT/IS manage-
planning (SISP) ment.
2. Management education is needed to integrate the different views of managers
concerning the use of IT.
3. Successful SISP requires sound communication and the interpretation of these
different views.

Lacity & Information Presented framework to understand 1. Presented framework to understand the context of misalignment, which can
Hirsch- System the context of misalignment which help stakeholders to resolve their differences to arrive at a common strategy
heim can assist stakeholders clear out for the portfolio of IS activities.
(1995) their differences to reach a general 2. In the context of a shared strategy, the benchmarks targeted at performance
strategy. improvement — rather than turf- protection — can be achieved.

Bento Information Analysis of Information Centres 1. A conceptual model, based on the role theory, is presented to explore the
(1993) Centres from major stakeholders’ perspec- special challenges of “life in the middle”, such as different expectations about
tive. the roles that should be performed by Information Centers (IC) professionals,
different criteria for evaluating their performance, and different perceptions of
their success.
2. These special challenges were empirically studied through in-depth interviews
with users, IS Managers and IC Managers, in a random national sample of
forty-seven Fortune 500 companies.
3. The results indicate that, given the multiple expectations surrounding
Information Centers, IC professionals need to be flexible in adopting different
roles, skilled in coping with different sets of performance criteria, and keenly
aware of the highly subjective nature of the evaluations received from their
diverse constituents.

Benjamin Managing IT- Framework for managing IT- 1. Develop a framework for managing IT-enabled changes.
& Levin- Enabled enabled changes. 2. The proposed framework provides a common language for managers imple-
son (1995) Changes. menting IT-based modifications and showed how technology, business pro-
cess, and organization must be adapted to each other for such changes to be ef-
fective.

Boonstra ERP- ERP implementation effects on 1. Different stakeholders can view ERP-systems in different ways, according to
(2006) implementa- stakeholders. their own histories, interests, self-images, prospects, and views.
tion 2. ERP-implementation is a dynamic process and therefore, the views held by
stakeholders at one point in time may change during the project due to various
reasons, including cognitive, political, and opportunistic ones.

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 Alok Mishra, Deepti Mishra. Applications of Stakeholder Theory in Information Systems and Technology

Discussion Stakeholder theory has become sıgnificant in the present

context due to its application not only in these contexts but
Stakeholder theory provides the benefit of determining also implications in ethical, policy and startegic dimensions.
who is key in a project, and if and how they can be man- In E-government and ınformation projects and
aged. Bailur (2006) has observed that the stakeholders implementation stakeholders contribution is very significant
analysis involves the use of categorization that is quite sub- and without this it will be impossible to accomplish projects
jective as it matters who conducts the analysis and makes objectives. It is also interesting to note the observation by
the distinction between “important and/or influential” or Roberts and Mahoney (2004) who have examined 125
“primary or secondary” in her project case. She argues that accounting studies that used the stakeholder language and
it is difficult to know how to identify stakeholders, whether found that nearly 65 percent “use the term stakeholder
they are primary or secondary, what their interests might without reference to any version of stakeholder theory”.
be, how they might work together, and if and how they can The important thing is that writers use the same label to
be managed. In addition, stakeholders involved in a project refer to a lot different concepts. This of course can have
change all the time which makes difficult to label them. great consequences on ethical, policy, and strategic
Freeman (1984) explained this through what he calls the conclusions. Although there are limitations of stakeholder
“snail darter fallacy”. Chung et al., (2009) also theory still it is significant as it is related with organiza-
acknowledge that stakeholder - type classifications as a tional management, business ethics, cultural and other re-
limitation of their study and include this in their future lated issues that address values and morals in managing an
work plan to automate such analysis in business stakehold- organization.
er analyzer prototypes. The management of competing Vidgen (1997) proposed future work in terms of IS
stakeholders has emerged as an important weapon for stra- requirements framework in the context of the wider IS
tegic management, and stakeholders need to be categorized development process based on stakeholder analysis. The
for the better utilization of rules for generating appropriate stakeholder theory claims that managers should resolve
strategies (Lim et al., 2005). Rowley (2010) stressed that ethical quandaries by balancing stakeholder interests with-
there is a need to do more work towards the understanding out violating the rights of any stakeholder (Smith & Hasnas,
of e-government stakeholder roles and benefits in e- 1999). Whereas stakeholders are more broadly and
government with the help of stakeholder benefits analysis emotionally involved in the system development process,
tools. Flaks and Rose (2005) observed that there is no seri- they may be more likely to embrace the outcomes of these
ous conceptual mismatch between stakeholder theory and a systems when end-users are involved in the development.
government's objective of providing policy and services Whats more, such these systems are more likely to meet
for citizens and organizations - a society's stakeholders. better the needs and concerns of the stakeholders (Yuthas &
Islam and Gronlund (2007) have found stakeholder theory Dillard, 1999). Chua et al., (2005) argued that at least four
useful to understand e-services but state that it lacks in stakeholder groups, namely investors, suppliers, regulators,
adaptation to stakeholder preferences, needs, capabilities, and indirect stakeholders, will increasingly demand the at-
as well as in project resources including staff supply and tention of NEOs, and, therefore, should be the focus of ex-
qualifications. Over time, stakeholder preferences evolve pansion and research among IS and e-Commerce specialist.
and their stakes change based upon the strategic issues Boonstra (2006) illustrated that ERP-implementation can
considered relevant at a particular point in time (Freeman, have an influence on the interests of stakeholders, and be
1984). Post et al., (2002) also supported that successful perceived as a negotiation process where various parties try
stakeholder management also involves learning, because to use the ERP project to defend or to advance their individ-
stakeholder characteristics and interests change over time. ual or group interests. According to him, there are some di-
The five stakeholder groups identified in management rections for future research to turn the stakeholder approach
theory (Friedman & Miles, 2002; Argandona, 1998) are the into a comprehensive ERP/ICT project analysis. Also, cul-
firm’s suppliers, consumers, employees, competitiors and ture affects the use of ICT in significant ways (Akman &
government/regulatory agencies. Freeman et al., (2004) Mishra, 2010). Therefore, it will be interesting to study
suggested that “business is about putting together a deal so how culture and ICT contribute to stakeholder manage-
that the suppliers, customers, managers and shareholders ment with different information system applications.
all win continuously in the course of time. Stakeholder
satisfaction is critical for organizations in order to obtain a Conclusions
license to operate and produce output, and to gain
resources and trust and, therefore, to be competitive and The concept of stakeholder represents a progression
successful in the long run (Susniene & Vanagas, 2007). from the developer and user-centered, problems to organi-
Strengthened cross-border co-operation between all stake- zation-wide and inter-organizational information system
holders is necessary to reach the goal of trust infrastructure problems. This is a sign of maturity of information systems
in the organizations (Gatautis & Vitkauskaite, 2009). research to show how the holistic representation of the par-
It has been observed in our rigorous literature review ties involved in the more complex systems has currently de-
that stakeholder theory has been applied to different veloped (Pouloudi, 1999). Stakeholder theory proposes an
domains in the following order: E-Government (8), E- ethical use of this stakeholder concept in IS as ethical con-
Commerce and Information System (9), Business Ethics (1), siderations and professional conduct is a significant issue
Health Information Technology (1), Business Intelligence nowadays.
Systems (1), Strategies for stakeholder management (1).

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 Inzinerine Ekonomika-Engineering Economics, 2013, 24(3), 254-266

Upon the literature review and examination of prevail- Therefore, from the IS perspective, stakeholder theory
ing viewpoints in the respect, it becomes apparent that provides insights on the organizational, strategic, ethical,
stakeholder theory can have an impact in different stages cultural and at project levels for:
of IS and technology. Stakeholder analysis is a very effec- Managers in understanding multilateral stake-
tive mechanism for carrying needs and interest into the holder relationships in organizations. Stakeholder analysis
planning process and, from there, into the organization’s will help in study of inter-organizational systems and in-
performance. Also, a more thorough understanding of the formation system planning and strategy formulation.
stakeholder’s interests and their alliance into the organiza- Service Providers in identification of stakeholders
tions operational plans is also detrimental important in this and development of stakeholder typologies.
process. It is evident from literature review and analysis Users where they can understand managerial atti-
that majority of stakeholder theory applications in tudes, structures, and practices adopted in information sys-
information systems are related to E-government, E- tem development and implementation.
commerce and information systems domains. Business Developers, in choosing the early correct perspec-
ethics, health information technology, and business tives on stakeholder management to ensure success of a
intelligence systems are other areas of stakeholder theory project. Good stakeholder management can also lead to the
applications. higher project performance.

Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge editor, reviewers and Dr. Yogesh K. Dwivedi of Swansea University, U.K. for his in-
sightful feedback towards improvement of the paper.

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Alok Mishra, Deepti Mishra

Suinteresuotųjų šalių teorijos pritaikymai informacinėse sistemose ir technologijose

Santrauka

Suinteresuotųjų šalių teorijos sąvoka minima jau literatūroje apie valdymą. Preston (1999) teigia, kad Jungtinėse Valstijose (1929-1941), General
Electrical Company nustatė keturias svarbiausias suinteresuotųjų šalių grupes: akcininkai, darbuotojai, vartotojai ir plačioji visuomenė. Suinteresuotųjų
šalių valdymas tapo svarbiu įrankiu kalbant apie etiką ir valdymą. Keletas valdymo klausimų sukėlė daugiau diskusijų, nei sąvokos reikšmė, modelis ir
teorijos ( Donaldson ir Preston, 1995; Gibson, 2000; Wolfe ir Putler, 2002; Friedman ir Miles, 2006). Akivaizdi suinteresuotųjų šalių modelio galia ir jo
paprastumas vertinami kaip įnašas suinteresuotųjų šalių koncepcijos sėkmei (Fassin, 2008). Pastebėtas didėjantis tarpusavio ryšys tarp suinteresuotųjų ša-
lių teorijos, bendrosios atsakomybės ir verslo etikos sąvokų (Valor, 2005; Garriga ir kt., 2004). Suinteresuotųjų šalių sąvoka rodo progresą, atsiribojimą
nuo problemų, sutelktų į kūrėją ir vartotoją. Tai informacinių sistemų tyrimo brandos ženklas norint parodyti, kaip išsivystė dabartinis holistinis šalių, da-
lyvaujančių daug sudėtingesnėse sistemose, vaizdas (Pouloudi, 1999). Suinteresuotųjų šalių teorijoje yra siūlomas etinis suinteresuotųjų šalių sąvokos
naudojimas informacinėse sistemose, nes etiniai svarstymai ir profesionalus elgesys yra svarbi informacinių sistemų tema.
Freeman (1984) savo dideles suinteresuotųjų šalių grupes padalino į dvi grupes: į vidaus (vartotojai, darbuotojai, tiekėjai, savininkai) ir išorės (vy-
riausybės, konkurentai, tam tikro suinteresuotumo grupės ir t.t.). Nors vidaus grupės vertinamos kaip „pagrindinės“, kai kuriose situacijose išorės suinte-
resuotosios šalys yra svarbesnės ir jos negali būti iš anksto nukreiptos į pagalbinę poziciją ( Bailur, 2007). Toliau skirstoma į pradines ir antrines suintere-
suotąsias šalis. Clarkson (1995) apibrėžia pradines suinteresuotąsias šalis kaip šalis „be kurių tęstinio dalyvavimo koorporacija negali išgyventi kaip
veikianti įmonė“. Jei šios pradinės suinteresuotosios šalys pasitraukia arba jų netenkina sistema, „koorporacija bus rimtai pažeista arba nebegalės tęsti
veiklos “. Jis įrodinėjo, kad pradinių suinteresuotųjų šalių parama gali būti prarasta, jei organizacija negali kurti ir skirstyti pakankamai turto ir vertės, kad
jas patenkintų, arba jei daugiau turto ar vertės yra duodama vienai pradinei suinteresuotųjų šalių grupei kitos grupės sąskaita. Tai priverstų jas pasitraukti
iš sistemos. Iš kitos pusės, antrinės suinteresuotųjų šalių grupės yra tos, kurios turi „pajėgumų mobilizuoti visuomenės nuomonę koorporacijos veiklos
naudai arba priešingai“.
Suinteresuotųjų šalių teorija yra plačiai taikoma valdyme nagrinėjant organizacijos aplinką, strateginį valdymą, etinius klausimus, verslo planavimo
procesą, e-valdymą, projekto valdymą, aplinkos valdymą ir t.t. Pastaruoju metu suinteresuotosios šalys taip pat yra vertinamos ir kaip dar sėkmingesnio
informacinių ir komunikacinių technologijų tobulinimo ir įdiegimo priemonė. Šiame darbe analizuojama suinteresuotųjų šalių teorija, jos kilmė ir pritai-
kymas Informacinės sistemos (IS) srityje.
Dauguma nuorodų į suinteresuotąsias šalis mokslinėje literatūroje, kurioje analizuojamos informacinės sistemos, pirmiausia nurodo asmenis arba
grupes organizacijos viduje, o strateginio valdymo literatūroje priešingai (Pouloudi, 1999). Mumford (1979) yra vienas iš tyrinėtojų, kuris remia vartotojų
įtraukimą, laikydamas tai efektyvios informacinės sistemos plėtros ir diegimo dalimi. Buvo įrodyta, kad galutiniai vartotojai ir vadovai yra labai svarbūs
sėkmingam sistemos diegimui. Kadangi plėtojama daugiau tarporganizacinių informacinių sistemų, kurios dažniausiai apima strateginius sprendimus,
reikia įtraukti dar didesnę suinteresuotųjų šalių grupę (Pouloudi, 1999). Šiose sistemose, dėmesys gali būti perkeltas nuo galutinių vartotojų ir sutelktas į
tas dalis, kurios organizacijai yra išorės, tačiau gali bendradarbiauti priimant sprendimus vadovavimo arba strateginiu lygiu (Pouloudi ir Whitely, 1997).
Anot Pouloudi, (1999) svarbu pabrėžti, kad tiriant informacines sistemas yra tam tikros maišaties dėl suinteresuotųjų šalių sąvokos. Kai kurie tyrėjai ne-
siūlo tikslaus apibrėžimo (Benjamin ir Levinson, 1993; Eden ir Ackermann, 1994; Galliers, 1994; Lee ir Gough, 1993). Boddy ir Buchanan (1986) aiški-
na, kad „organizacijas galima vertinti kaip apimančias skirtingas suinteresuotųjų šalių grupes, kurių interesai, remiant pokyčius ar jiems priešinantis, gali
būti paaiškinti nustatant atitinkamai suvokiamus jų interesus ir išnagrinėjant kaip juos paveiks nauja technologija “. Willcocks ir Mason (1987) apibrėžia
kompiuterinės sistemos suinteresuotąsias šalis panašiai kaip Freeman, kaip „žmones, kuriuos labai paveiks, arba kurie turės materialinės naudos iš naujos
kompiuterinės sistemos ir veiklos ”.
Ahn ir Skudlark (1997) pateikė išplėstinį suinteresuotųjų šalių apibrėžimą taip „suinteresuotosios šalys yra grupė žmonių, kurie dalinasi bendromis
vertybėmis, kurios parodo, kokios informacinės sistemos savybės yra pageidaujamos ir kaip jos turėtų būti įgytos”. Lederer ir Mendelow (1990) stebėjo
informacinės sistemos skyriaus aplinką ir įtraukė organizacijos šeimininkės aplinką kaip ir „viską esantį organizacijos viduje, kas yra už IS skyriaus ribų
”. Checkland metodologijoje paminėjo reikalavimą nustatyti suinteresuotąją šalį ir svarbą pabrėžti skirtingų suinteresuotųjų šalių perspektyvą, daugiau-
siai naudojant CATWOE (plg. angl. customer – vartotojas, actor – veikėjas, transformation process – transformacijos procesas, Weltanschauung – pasau-
lio požiūris, system owner – sistemos savininkas, environmental constraints – aplinkos suvaržymai) elementus (Checkland, 1981, Checkland ir Scholes,
1990). Šio metodo privalumas yra tas, kad jį galima panaudoti norint pateikti holistinį informacinės sistemos vaizdą jei ji kaip žmogiškos veiklos sistema
„būtų organizacijos arba tarporganizacinės sistemos dalis platesniu aspektu. Vienas iš įprasčiausių pagalbinių būdų suinteresuotųjų šalių analizei infor-
macinių sistemų srityje atkreipia dėmesį į vieną iš pagrindinių informacinių sistemų praktikos temų (Brancheau ir kt., 1996; Galliers ir Baker, 1994;
Knights ir kt., 1997), tai yra į informacinių sistemų strategijos plėtrą ir jos sureguliavimą su verslo strategija (Pouloudi, 1999). Anot Lacity ir Hirschheim
(1995), svarbiausia kliūtis informacinių sistemų ir verslo strategijų sureguliavimui yra susikertantys informacinių sistemų lūkesčiai ir suvokimas, kurie
skiriasi nuo tų, kuriuos turi įvairios organizacinės suinteresuotosios šalys. Aukštesnė vadovybė labiausiai rūpinasi išlaidomis, o vartotojams labiausiai rū-
pi paslaugos. Informacinių sistemų vadovai patenka į priešišką aplinką ir supranta, kad jie turi pateisinti su šiomis grupėmis sudarytą susitarimą. Benja-
min ir Levinson (1993) pasiūlė 7 žingsnių suinteresuotųjų šalių analizės metodą, kuris paremtų valdymą pokyčių, kuriems atsirasti leido informacinės te-
chnologijos. Jie tikisi, kad šie žingsniai padės organizacijai nustatyti ar pokytis yra galimas ir kokia pokyčių strategija duos geresnių rezultatų.
Vienas iš išsamiausių suinteresuotųjų šalių koncepcijos informacinėse sistemose tyrimų, kuris susieja informacinių sistemų suinteresuotąsias šalis su
įdiegimo nesėkme, buvo atliktas ankstyvajame Lyytinen ir Hirschheim darbe (1988, 1987). Jie teigė, kad nesėkmę sąlygoja informacinės sistemos gebė-
jimas atitikti skirtingų suinteresuotųjų šalių lūkesčius (kai kurios suinteresuotosios šalys gali laikyti informacinę sistemą sėkminga, tačiau kiti gali laikyti

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 Inzinerine Ekonomika-Engineering Economics, 2013, 24(3), 254-266
ją nesėkminga). Boddy ir Buschanan (1986) organizacinės informacinės sistemos suinteresuotąsias šalis apibrėžia kaip „visus tuos, kurie praktiškai rūpi-
nasi efektyviu naujų technologijų pritaikymu, ir kurie gali priimti sprendimus, arba daryti jiems įtaką, dėl to kodėl ir kaip jos yra panaudojamos“.
Suinteresuotųjų šalių teorija yra naudinga, kai norima išskirti kas yra svarbu projekte ir ar jis gali būti valdomas ir kaip. Bailur (2006) savo projekte
teigė, kad suinteresuotųjų šalių analizė yra subjektyvi. Ji įrodinėjo, kad sunku žinoti kaip nustatyti suinteresuotąsias šalis: ar jos yra pradinės ar antrinės ir
kokie galėtų būti jų interesai, kaip jos galėtų dirbti kartu, bei ar jos gali būti valdomos. Suinteresuotosios šalys keičiasi viso projekto laikotarpiu, tai sun-
kina jų vertinimą. Chung ir kt. (2009) taip pat manė, kad suinteresuotųjų šalių tipų klasifikacijos riboja jų tyrimą ir įtraukė tai į savo būsimųjų darbų pla-
ną. Konkuruojančių suinteresuotųjų šalių valdymas atsirado kaip svarbus ginklas strateginiam valdymui ir suinteresuotųjų šalių poreikiui būti suskirsty-
toms į kategorijas norint geriau panaudoti atitinkamų strategijų kūrimo taisykles (Lim ir kt., 2005). Rowley (2010) pabrėžė, kad reikia atlikti daugiau
tyrimų, norint suprasti e-valdymo suinteresuotųjų šalių vaidmenis ir naudą e-valdyme su suinteresuotųjų šalių naudos analizės įrankiais. Flaks ir Rose
(2005) pastebėjo, kad nėra rimto konceptualaus neatitikimo tarp suinteresuotųjų šalių teorijos ir valdymo tikslo, pateikiant politiką ir paslaugas gyvento-
jams ir organizacijoms – visuomenės suinteresuotosioms šalims. Islam ir Gronlund (2007) mano, kad suinteresuotųjų šalių teorija yra naudinga, norint
suprasti e-paslaugas, bet ji neprisitaiko prie suinteresuotųjų šalių teikiamų pirmenybių, poreikių, gebėjimų, taip pat ir tokių projekto resursų kaip
aprūpinimas personalu ir kvalifikacija. Bėgant laikui suinteresuotosios šalies pirmenybės tobulėja, todėl kinta jų gairės. Post ir kt. (2002) manė, kad
sėkmingas suinteresuotųjų šalių valdymas apima ir mokymąsi, nes suinteresuotujų šalių interesai keičiasi laikui bėgant. Valdymo teorijoje nustatytos
penkios suinteresuotųjų šalių grupės (Friedman ir Miles, 2002; Argandona, 1998). Tai įmonės tiekėjai, vartotojai, darbuotojai, konkurentai ir
vyriausybė/reguliuojančios įstaigos. Freeman ir kt. (2004) manė, kad „verslas yra veikimas kartu taip, kad tiekėjai, vartotojai, vadovai ir akcininkai, laikui
bėgant laimėtų“. Vidgen (1997) pasiūlė būsimojo darbo temą apie IS reikalavimų struktūrą platesnio IS plėtojimosi proceso mastu, pagrįstą
suinteresuotųjų šalių analize. Suinteresuotųjų šalių teorijoje tvirtinama, kad vadovai turėtų išspręsti etines dvejones keliančius klausimus, kartu
suderindami suinteresuotųjų šalių interesus, nepažeisdami nė vienos pusės interesų (Smith ir Hasnas, 1999). Suinteresuotosios šalys yra daug daugiau
įtrauktos į sistemų plėtros procesą. Jos gali pasinaudoti šių sistemų rezultatais. Chua ir kt. (2005) teigė, kad mažiausiai keturios suinteresuotųjų šalių
grupės, būtent investuotojai, tiekėjai, kontoliuotojai ir netiesioginės suinteresuotosios šalys, reikalauja vis didesnio NEO dėmesio ir todėl turėtų patraukti
IS ir e-komercijos sričių mokslininkų dėmesį. Boonsra (2006) pailiustravo, kad ERP-įdiegimas daro įtaką suinteresuotųjų šalių interesams ir gali būti ver-
tinamas kaip derybų procesas, kuriame įvairios šalys bando panaudoti ERP projektą, norėdamos apginti arba paskubinti savo individualius arba grupės
interesus. Anot jo, egzistuoja tam tikros būsimųjų tyrimų kryptys norint paversti suinteresuotųjų šalių metodą išsamia ERP/ICT projekto analize.

Raktažodžiai: suinteresuotųjų šalių teorija, suinteresuotųjų šalių modelis, suinteresuotosios šalys, informacinės sistemos, valdymas.
The article has been reviewed.
Received in March, 2011; accepted in June, 2013.

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