Unit 4

Earthquake
 An earthquake in simple words is the shaking of the earth. It is a natural event. It is
caused due to release of energy, which generates waves that travel in all directions.
 The vibrations called seismic waves are generated from earthquakes that travel
through the Earth and are recorded on instruments called seismographs.
 The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called
the hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called
the epicenter.
Types of Earthquake and Causes

Fault Zones:

 The release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal
rocks.
 Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the overlying rock strata
press them, the friction locks them together.
 However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time overcomes the friction.
As a result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past one another
abruptly.
 This causes earthquake in the form of release of energy, and the energy waves travel
in all directions.
 Fig: Earthquakes in the faults

Tectonic Earthquakes:

 The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes.

 Although the Earth looks like a pretty solid place from the surface, it’s actually
extremely active just below the surface.
 The Earth is made of four basic layers (generally three): a solid crust, a hot, nearly
solid mantle, a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.
 Tectonic plates (Lithospheric plates) are constantly shifting as they drift around on
the viscous, or slowly flowing, mantle layer below.

 This non-stop movement causes stress on Earth’s crust. When the stresses get too
large, it leads to cracks called faults.
 When tectonic plates move, it also causes movements at the faults. Thus, the slipping
of land along the faultline along convergent, divergent and transform boundaries
cause earthquakes.
 The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an
earthquake, alternatively, it is called the hypocentre. The energy waves travelling in
different directions reach the surface.
 The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is the first one to
experience the waves. It is a point directly above the focus.

Volcanic Earthquake
 A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised as volcanic
earthquake. However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
 Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the injection or
withdrawal of magma (molten rock) are called volcano earthquakes.
 These earthquakes can cause land to subside and can produce large ground cracks.
These earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill in spaces where magma is no
longer present.
 Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don't indicate that the volcano will be erupting but can
occur at any time.
Human Induced Earthquakes

 In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines
collapse causing minor tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.
 Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.
Such tremors are called explosion earthquakes.
 The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as
reservoir induced earthquakes.
Earthquakes based on the depth of focus

 The earthquakes are divided into three zones: shallow, intermediate, and deep based
on their depth which range between 0 – 700 km.

o Shallow earthquakes have a focus 0 – 70 km deep.

o Intermediate earthquakes have a focus 70 – 300 km deep.
o Deep earthquakes have a focus 300 – 700 km deep.
Wadati–Benioff zone

 Deep earthquakes (300-700 km) are produced in this zone.

 It is a zone of subduction, along which earthquakes are common, which are produced
by the interaction of a downgoing oceanic crustal plate against a continental plate.
 Some of the most powerful earthquakes occur along this zone.
 These earthquakes can be produced by slip along the subduction thrust fault or by
slip on faults within the downgoing plate as the plate is pulled into the mantle.
 Fig: Cross-section of the Benioff zone.
Distribution of Earthquakes

Earthquakes can strike any location at any time, but history shows they occur in the same
general patterns year after year, principally in three large zones of the earth:

 The world's greatest earthquake belt, the circum-Pacific seismic belt, is found along
the rim of the Pacific Ocean, where about 81 percent of our planet's largest
earthquakes occur.

o It has earned the nickname "Ring of Fire".

o The belt exists along boundaries of tectonic plates, where plates of mostly
oceanic crust are sinking (or subducting) beneath another plate. Earthquakes in
these subduction zones are caused by slip between plates and rupture within
plates.
 The Alpide earthquake belt (mid Continental belt) extends from Java to Sumatra
through the Himalayas, the Mediterranean, and out into the Atlantic.

o This belt accounts for about 17 percent of the world's largest earthquakes,
including some of the most destructive.
 The third prominent belt follows the submerged mid-Atlantic Ridge. The ridge marks
where two tectonic plates are spreading apart (a divergent plate boundary).

o Most of the mid-Atlantic Ridge is deep underwater and far from human
development.
 Fig: Distribution of Earthquake

Measurement of Earthquakes

 The energy from an earthquake travels through Earth in vibrations called seismic
waves.
 Scientists can measure these seismic waves on instruments called seismometers.
 A seismometer detects seismic waves below the instrument and records them as a
series of zig-zags.
 Scientists can determine the time, location and intensity of an earthquake from the
information recorded by a seismometer. This record also provides information about
the rocks the seismic waves traveled through.
 The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the
shock. The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. The magnitude relates to
the energy released during the quake. The magnitude is expressed in absolute
numbers, 0-10.
 The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity scale
takes into account the visible damage caused by the event. The range of intensity scale
is from 1-12.
Seismic Waves (Earthquake Waves)

 Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by earthquakes or an explosion. They
are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.
 Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.
 Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all
 directions travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.

o There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.
o P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also
called ‘primary waves’. The P-waves are similar to sound waves. They travel
through gaseous, liquid and solid materials.
o S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary
waves. An important fact about S-waves is that they can travel only through
solid materials.
 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new set of waves
called surface waves. These waves move along the surface.
 The surface waves are the last to report on seismographs. These waves are more
destructive. They cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse.
 Thus, the characteristics of the seismic waves are quite important. It has helped
scientists to understand the structure of the interior of the earth.

Effects of Earthquake

 Earthquakes are a natural hazard. If a tremor of high magnitude takes place, it can
cause heavy damage to the life and property of people. The following are the
immediate hazardous effects of earthquake:

o Ground Shaking
 o Differential ground settlement
o Land and mudslides
o Fires
o Ground lurching
o Avalanches
o Ground displacement
o Floods from dam and levee failures
o Structural collapse
o Tsunami
Earthquake in India

 India is one of the highly earthquake affected countries because of the presence of
technically active young fold mountains - Himalaya.
 India has been divided into four seismic zones (II, III, IV, and V) based on scientific
inputs relating to seismicity, earthquakes occurred in the past and tectonic setup of
the region.

Tsunami’-The word ‘Tsunami’ literally means ‘harbour waves’. These are the series of
waves and the characteristic feature that differentiates these waves are is their long
wavelength.

What is a Tsunami?

1. The series of extremely long waves, Tsunami are very long wavelengths of water
caused by a large and sudden displacement of the ocean due to earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions etc.
2. These are also called seismic sea waves and are one of the most powerful and
destructive natural forces.
3. When they reach the coast, they can cause dangerous coastal flooding and powerful
currents that can last for several hours or days.
4. Most tsunamis are caused by large earthquakes. Though, not all earthquakes cause
tsunamis.

Know in detail about the Earthquake in the given link.

Characteristics of Tsunami

 Tsunamis are among Earth’s most infrequent hazards and most of them are small
and nondestructive.
  Over deep water, the tsunami has very long wavelengths (often hundreds of
kilometres long) when a tsunami enters shallow water, its wavelength gets reduced
and the period remains unchanged, which increases the wave height.

 Tsunamis have a small amplitude (wave height) offshore. This can range from a few
centimetres to over 30 m in height. However, most tsunamis have less than 3 m
wave height.

 It radiates in all directions from the point of origin and covers the entire ocean.

 It generally consists of a series of waves, with periods ranging from minutes to

hours.

 These are the waves generated by tremors and not by earthquakes themselves.

 There is no season for tsunamis and not all tsunamis act the same. It cannot be
predicted where, when and how destructive it will be. A small tsunami in one place
may be very large a few miles away.

 An individual tsunami may impact coasts differently. A tsunami can strike any
ocean coast at any time. They pose a major threat to coastal communities. The effect
of Tsunami would occur only if the epicentre of the tremor is below oceanic waters
and the magnitude is sufficiently high.

 The speed of the wave in the ocean depends upon the depth of water. It is more in
the shallow water than in the ocean deep. As a result of this, the impact of a tsunami
is more near the coast and less over the ocean

Causes of Tsunami
How are Tsunami generated?
A Tsunami can be generated only through the vertical movement of the seafloor. Most
Tsunamis are generated by earthquakes. Volcanic eruption, underwater explosion,
landslides and meteorite impacts are some other causes of Tsunami.
The details of causes of Tsunami is explained below-
Earthquake – Tsunami is generated by the earthquake because of the disturbance of the
seafloor and is formed generally with vertical displacement. Most Tsunami is generated by
earthquakes that occur along the subduction boundaries of plates along the ocean trenches.
The size of the Tsunami is related to the size of the earthquake.
Underwater explosion – A Nuclear Testing by the US generated Tsunami in 1940 and
1950s in Marshall island.
Volcanic eruption – Volcanoes that occur along the Coastal waters can cause several
effects that can cause a tsunami.
Landslides – Earthquake and volcanic eruptions generally generate landslides, these
landslides when moving into the Oceans, bays and lakes can generate Tsunami.
Meteorite Impacts – Though no historic example as such of meteorite impact has caused
Tsunami, the apparent impact of a meteorite about 5 million years ago produced Tsunami
leaving deposits along the Gulf Coast of Mexico and the United States.

How Often Does Tsunami Occur?

 On average, every 15 years a tsunami occurs in the Pacific Ocean.

 Example a be taken from India itself which was the tsunami on Dec 26th, 2004 on
the Indian Coast. It caused huge damage to life and property.
How is Tsunami different From a Wind – Generated Wave?
Tsunami should not be confused with the huge wind-generated waves. A wind-generated
wave lasts for some seconds whereas a tsunami remains for minutes to hours. A tsunami
can be disastrous which a wind-generated wave is not.
Tsunami Vulnerability in India
INCOIS is the body that is vigilant regarding tsunamis on the Indian coast. To know more
about the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services – INCOIS.
The possible zones are Andaman – Sumatra or Makran (Pakistan).

Tsunami Risk, Hazard & Mitigation Measures

The main damage from the Tsunami comes from the destructive nature of waves. The
second effect of the Tsunami includes debris acting as projectiles and the tertiary effect
includes the loss of crops and water which leads to famine and disease.
Mitigation Measures

1. Effective Planning
2. The building of walls was done by Japan.
3. Planting trees as done in Tamil Nadu by a village
4. Proper relief and rehabilitation preparedness
5. Awareness among the masses

Volcanoes are ruptures in the crust of our planet Earth that allow hot gases, molten
lava and some rock fragments to erupt by opening and exposing the magma inside. In
this piece of article, we will be discussing how and why volcanoes erupt.

How Do Volcanoes Erupt?

It is so hot deep within the earth that some rocks slowly melt and turn into a thick flowing
matter known as magma. Since it is lighter than solid rock, the magma rises and collects in
magma chambers. Eventually, some magma pushes through fissures and vents on the
earth’s surface. Hence, a volcanic eruption occurs, and the erupted magma is known as
lava.
We need to understand the Earth’s structure to know how volcanoes erupt. At the top lies
the lithosphere, the outermost layer that consists of the upper crust and mantle. The
thickness of the crust ranges from 10km to 100km in mountainous locations and mainly
consists of silicate rock.

Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?

The Earth’s mantle within the crust is classified into different sections depending on
individual seismology. These include the upper mantle, which ranges between 8 – 35 km to
410 km; the transition zone ranges from 400 to 660 km; the lower mantle lies between
660 – 2891 km.
The conditions change dramatically from the crust to the mantle location. The pressures
rise drastically and temperatures rise up to 1000 oC. This viscous and molten rock gets
collected into large chambers within the Earth’s crust.
Since magma is lighter than surrounding rock, it floats up towards the surface and seeks
out cracks and weakness in the mantle. It finally explodes from the peak point of a volcano
after reaching the surface. When it is under the surface, the melted rock is known as
magma and erupts as ash when comes up.
Rocks, lava and ash are built across the volcanic vent with every eruption. The nature of
the eruption mainly depends on the viscosity of the magma. The lava travels far and
generates broad shield volcanoes when it flows easily. When it is too thick, it makes a
familiar cone volcano shape. If the lava is extremely thick, it can build up in the volcano
and explode, known as lava domes.

Causes of Volcanic Eruption

We know that the mantle of the Earth is too hot, and the temperature ranges from 1000°
Celsius to 3000° Celsius. The rocks present inside melt due to high pressure and
temperature. The melted substance is light in weight. This thin lava comes up to the crust
since it can float easily. Since the density of the magma between the area of its creation and
the crust is less than the enclosed rocks, the magma gets to the surface and bursts.
The magma is composed of andesitic and rhyolitic components along with water, sulfur
dioxide, and carbon dioxide in dissolved form. By forming bubbles, excess water is broken
up with magma. When the magma comes closer to the surface, the level of water decreases
and the gas/magma rises in the channel. When the volume of the bubbles formed is about
75%, the magma breaks into pyroclasts and bursts out.
The three main causes of volcanic eruptions are:
The buoyancy of the magma
Pressure from the exsolved gases in the magma
Increase in pressure on the chamber lid.
Materials Produced by Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions produce three types of materials: gas, lava, and fragmented debris
called tephra.

Volcanic Gas

Magma contains gas. At high pressures, the gases are dissolved within magma. However,
if the pressure decreases, the gas comes out of solution, forming bubbles. This process is
analogous to what happens when a pop bottle is opened. Pop is bottled under pressure,
forcing carbon dioxide gas to dissolve into the fluid. As a result, a bottle of pop that you find
on the supermarket shelf will have few to no bubbles. If you open the bottle, you decrease
the pressure within it. The pop will begin to fizz as carbon dioxide gas comes out of solution
and forms bubbles.

The main component of volcanic gas emissions is water vapour, followed by carbon dioxide
(CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and hydrogen sulphide (H2S).

Volcanoes release gases when erupt, and through openings called fumaroles .They can
also release gas into soil and groundwater.

Lava

The ease with which lava flows and the structures it forms depend on how much silica and
gas the lava contains. The more silica, the more polymerization (formation of long
molecules) occurs, stiffening the lava. The stiffness of lava is described in terms
of viscosity– lava that flows easily has low viscosity, and lava that is sticky and stiff has
high viscosity.

In general, high-silica lava contains more gas than low-silica lava. When the gas forms
into bubbles, viscosity increases further. Consider the pop analogy again. If you were to
shake the bottle vigorously and then open it, the pop would come gushing out in a thick,
frothy flow. In contrast, if you took care to not shake the bottle before opening it, you could
pour out a thin stream of fluid.

Chemical Composition Affects the Thickness and Shape of Lava Flows

The thickness and shape of a lava flow depends on its viscosity. The greater the viscosity,
the thicker the flow, and the shorter the distance it travels before solidifying. Highly
viscous lava might not flow very far at all, and simply accumulate as a bulge, called a lava
dome, in a volcano’s crater. Figure 11.8 shows a dome formed from rhyolitic lava in the
crater of Mt. St. Helens.

Low-viscosity basaltic lava flows may travel extended distances if they move through
conduits called lava tubes. These are tunnels within older solidified lava flows. Figure
11.10 (top) shows a view into a lava tube through a hole in the overlying rock, called
a skylight. Figure 11.10 (bottom) shows the interior of a lava tube, with a person for scale.
Lava tubes form naturally and readily because flowing mafic lava preferentially cools
near its margins, forming solid lava levées that eventually close over the top of the flow.
Lava within tubes can flow for 10s of km because the tubes insulate the lava from the
atmosphere and slow the rate at which the lava cools. The Hawai’ian volcanoes are riddled
with thousands of old, drained lava tubes, some as long as 50 km.

Volcanic Ash

Particles less than 2 mm in diameter are called volcanic ash. Volcanic ash consists of small
mineral grains and glass. Figure 11.16 shows volcanic ash on three scales: in the upper
left is ash from the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland. The image was taken with
a scanning electron microscope at approximately 1000 times magnification. In the upper
right is ash from the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens, collected in Yakima, Washington,
about 137 km northeast of Mt. St. Helens. Individual particles are under 1 mm in size.
shows a village near Mt. Merapi in Indonesia dusted in ash after an eruption 2010.

Blocks and Bombs

Fragments larger than 64 mm are classified as blocks or bombs, depending on their

origin. Blocks are solid fragments of the volcano that form when an explosive eruption
shatters the pre-existing rocks. one of many blocks from an explosive eruption at
the Halema‘uma‘u crater at Kīlauea Volcano in May of 1924. The block has a mass of
approximately 7 tonnes and landed 1 km from the crater.

The distribution of volcanoes in the world is majorly present near both divergent and
convergent plate boundaries. Volcanoes are not distributed randomly across the Earth's
surface. Most are concentrated on the equator, along island chains, or beneath the sea,
forming long mountain ranges. The distribution of Volcanoes around the Globe is highest
near the Pacific Ring Of Fire as it is home to nearly 70% of the world's volcanoes. The
distribution of volcanoes around the globe is an important concept for understanding
related geomorphology related concepts like plate tectonics.

Reasons behind the distribution of Volcanoes

 Volcanoes are not spread across the Earth's surface at random.

 The majority of them are found on the margins of continents, along island chains,
and beneath the sea, where they create lengthy mountain ranges.
 The circum-Pacific "Ring of Fire" encircles the Pacific Ocean and contains more
than half of the world's active volcanoes above sea level.
 Scientists have devised a hypothesis known as plate tectonics that explains the
locations of volcanoes and their link to other large-scale geologic features over the
last 25 years.

World Distribution
World Distribution of Subduction Zones

 With numerous volcanoes lying above subduction zones and in axial rifts, there is a
strong link between volcanic activity, earthquakes, and plate tectonics. Around
80% of all volcanic activity occurs along subduction zones.
 Around 15% of volcanic activity occurs at mid-ocean spreading centers and
continental rifts.
 The Circum-Pacific Ring of Fire contains the majority of the high volcanic cones and
mountains, as well as active subduction of the Pacific, Nazca, Cocos, and Juan de
Fuca plates. The volcanic of Sumatra and Java, which lies over the subduction zone
between the Australian and Eurasian plates, is a good example.
 Mid-Atlantic belt: Along the mid-oceanic ridge, where seafloor spreading is
occurring, a few basaltic volcanoes with fissure eruptions can also be found.