TOPIC 1: Introduction and covert behavior pertains to behavior that is

Origins of Psychological not observable, and includes mental

Assessment 2.
processes such as thinking, feeling, etc.
To describe and predict behavior and
Psychological Assessment personality. Traits are characteristic patterns
(PSY 9) SEM 1 that are generalized in similar situations,
while states are characteristic patterns that
occur in a specific moment of time and
situation.
3. To determine signs and symptoms of
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOMETRICS
dysfunctionality.
● Psychometrics is a scientific discipline
concerned with the construction of TESTING vs. ASSESSMENT
assessment tools, measurement ● Psychological Testing is the process of
instruments, and formalized models that measuring psychology-related variables by
may serve to connect observable phenomena means of devices or procedures designed to
to theoretical attributes. obtain a sample of behavior.
● For example, in measuring self-esteem, ● Testing is only a part of the whole process of
psychological tests measure behavioral the assessment.
patterns that can be observed. ● Psychological Assessment is the process of
gathering data in order to make a
OBJECTIVES psychological evaluation.
1. To measure behavior. Overt behavior
pertains to behavior that is observable, while

TESTING ASSESSMENT

OBJECTIVE To obtain a numerical gauge with To answer a referral question, solve a problem,
regards to ability or attribute or make a decision through the evaluation

FOCUS Nomothetic; how one person/groups Idiographic; the uniqueness of an individual,

compares with others group or situation

PROCESS Testing may be done individually or by Assessment is typically individualized, as it

group after which the tester will typically focuses on how an individual processes
typically add up the results.

ROLE OF Tester is not key to the process. Assessor is key to the process of test
EVALUATOR selection/other tools of evaluation

SKILL OF Requires technician-like skills in terms Requires an educated selection of tools

EVALUATOR of administering, scoring, and evaluation, and thoughtful organization and
interpreting test results integration of data

OUTCOME Testing yields a score or series of test Assessment entails a logical problem-solving
scores approach that brings to bear many sources of
data

DURATION Shorter; few minutes to hours Longer; few hours to days or more

SOURCES OF One person, the test-taker Often includes collateral sources such as
DATA relatives, or friends.

QUALIFICATION Knowledge of tests and testing Knowledge of testing, assessment methods, and
procedures like psychometricians specialty area being assessed

COST Inexpensive Very expensive

 VARIOUS TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

● Education assessment is the use of tests to SOURCES OF INFORMATION

evaluate abilities and skills relevant to 1. Psychological Tests are standardized
success or failure in a school, such as measuring devices or procedures used to
entrance exams. describe and measure variables.
● Retrospective assessment is the use of a. Measurement is the process of
evaluative tools to draw conclusions about quantifying the amount of the
psychological aspects of a person as they variable.
existed at some point in time before the b. Assessment is the process of
assessment. This is usually done in forensic synthesizing the results of the
cases. measurements.
● Remote assessment is the use of evaluative c. Evaluation is the process of judging
tools to gather data and draw conclusions the worth of an occurrence which
about a subject who is not in physical concludes with a decision.
proximity. 2. Interviews are tools of assessment in which
● Ecological momentary assessment is an “in information is gathered through direct or
the moment” or real-time evaluation of reciprocal communication.
specific problems and related cognitive and a. Structured interviews follow a set of
behavioral variables at the very time and questions within a specific time.
place they occur. b. Unstructured interviews have no
predetermined questions.
ASSUMPTIONS c. Semi-structured interviews follow a
1. Psychological traits and states exist. Traits set of questions as well but leaves
are characteristic behaviors and feelings that room for follow-up questions
are consistent and long-lasting while states depending on the answers of the
are temporary behaviors/feelings that interviewee.
depend on a person’s situation and motives 3. Portfolio assessment is a type of work
at a particular time. sample used as an assessment tool.
2. Psychological traits and states can be 4. Case history data is a report or illustrative
quantified and measured. account concerning a person or an event that
3. Test-related behavior predicts was compiled on the basis of case history
non-test-related behavior. Postdict is to data.
estimate or suppose something which took 5. Behavioral observation is the monitoring of
place in the past, and predict is to say or actions while recording information
estimate that a thing will happen in the regarding such actions.
future. 6. Role-play tests are tools of assessment
4. Tests and other measurement techniques wherein assessees are directed to act out a
have strengths and weaknesses. situation.
5. Various sources of error are part of the 7. Computers serve as test administrators.
assessment process. 8. Other tools include medical tests.
a. Errors are long standing
assumptions that factors other than
what a test attempts to measure will
OTHER INFO
influence performance on a test.
b. Trait Errors are errors that reside Psychological tests may differ in content, format,
within the individual. and technical quality.
c. Method Error are errors that reside in
the testing situation.
d. Error variance is the component of a WHO ARE INVOLVED IN ASSESSMENT?
test score attributable to sources ● Test authors and developers create tests
other than the variable being and other methods of assessment.
measured. ● Test publishers publish, market, and sell
6. Testing and assessment can be conducted tests.
in a fair and unbiased manner. ● Test reviewers prepare evaluative critiques of
7. Testing and assessment benefit society. tests based on their technical and practical
merits.
● Test users are professionals who use these
tests for assessment.
 ○ Psychometricians administer and ● Wilhelm Wundt aimed to formulate a
score tests except projective tests, general description of human abilities, and is
and interpret test results. first to set up an experimental psychology
○ Psychologists administer, score, and laboratory.
interpret tests, including projective ● James Cattell coined the term “mental test”.
tests, as well as diagnose. ● Charles Spearman originated the concept of
● Test sponsors include institutional boards or test reliability and building the
government agencies who contract test mathematical framework for factor analysis.
developers or publishers for testing services.
● Test takers are the subjects. INTELLIGENCE TESTS
● Society at large exerts effort to determine ● Alfred Binet is the father of IQ Testing, and
what tests must be developed and removed. developed a measuring scale of intelligence
with Theordore Simon (Stanford-Binet Test of
OTHER INFO Intelligence).
● David Wechsler introduced a test design to
● Psychological autopsy is the reconstruction of measure adult intelligence (Wechsler Adult
a deceased individual’s psychological profile. Intelligence Scale/WAIS)
● It is the test user’s job to manage test takers. ● Robert Yerkes is the president of the
American Psychological Association (APA),
and pioneered the group intelligence test
WHERE DO WE CONDUCT ASSESSMENT? called Army Alpha and Army Beta.
● Clinical setting includes psychotherapy,
learning difficulties, insurance companies,
OTHER INFO
court trial, and rehabilitation.
● Counseling setting assess improvement of
● During WWI, group intelligence tests came in
the assessee in terms of adjustment,
the US as the military needed an efficient
productivity, or other related variables.
method in screening the intellectual ability of
their recruits.
HOW ARE ASSESSMENTS CONDUCTED?
● Familiarity with test administration and
test protocols. CULTURE AND ASSESSMENT
● Establishing rapport with the test takers in ● Culture is a socially transmitted behavior
order to build a connection. pattern, beliefs, and products of work of a
● Having a conducive testing condition. population.
● Accommodation for PWDs. ● Culture-specific tests are tests designed for
use with people from one culture but not
from one another.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOMETRICS
● Culture fair tests are tests designed to
● 2200 BCE - Chinese Civilization minimize the influence of culture with regard
○ Testing was instituted as a means of to various aspects of evaluation procedures.
applicant selection for government ● Issues on culture and assessment include:
jobs. verbal and nonverbal communication and
○ Content of exams changed over time standards of evaluation.
and with cultural expectations of the
period.
● 104 BCE - Greek Civilization
○ Tests were used to measure TOPIC 2: Testing &
intelligence and physical abilities.
○ Greco-Roman writings about
Assessment
personality in relation to bodily fluids
Psychological Assessment
(Temperament Theory) (PSY 9) SEM 1

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
● Charles Darwin. This revolutionary notion
WAYS TO CLASSIFY TESTS
aroused interest in the comparison between
humans and animals.
● Francis Galton (1869). The classification of ● According to qualification and training of
people according to their “natural gifts” and test user
ascertain their “deviation from an average” is ● According to the number of test takers
said to be the precursor of contemporary ● According to the variable being measured
tools. He also pioneered the use of the
coefficient of correlation.
 ○ It can be culturally biased against
QUALIFICATION AND TRAINING OF TEST USER ethnic minorities
● This includes the three-tier of psychological ○ Nonconventional, original, or novel
test: responses are penalized on
○ Type A includes achievement tests. intelligence tests.
○ Type B includes group intelligence tests Misconceptions of IQ Testing include:
and objective personality tests. ○ It measures innate intelligence
○ Type C includes individual intelligence ○ IQs are fixed, immutable and never
tests, projective tests, and diagnostic changed
tests. ○ It provides perfectly reliable scores
○ It measures everything we need to
NUMBER OF TEST TAKERS know about a person’s intelligence
● Individual Test ○ All intelligence tests measures the
● Group Test same thing
○ IQ obtained from different tests are
VARIABLE BEING MEASURED interchangeable
● The variables being measured can either be ○ A battery of tests can tell us
ability or typical performance. everything that we need to know to
● Ability has 3 different types of tests: make judgments about a person’s
achievement, aptitude, and intelligence competence.
tests.
● Typical Performance is measured through
personality inventories (objective and TYPICAL PERFORMANCE
projective), interest, and values. 1. Personal Inventory
Personality Inventory includes the
ABILITY projective and objective personality tests.
1. Achievement Tests Assumptions of personal inventory:
Achievement tests measure previous ○ It assumes that each person is
learning. consistent to some extent; we have
2. Aptitude Tests coherent traits and active patterns
Aptitude Tests measure an individual’s that arise repeatedly.
potential for learning or acquiring a ○ It assumes that each person is
specific skill. distinctive to some extent; behavioral
When is aptitude testing needed? differences exist between individuals.
○ When the selection ratio (no. of people Personality inventories has construction
needed / no. of applications) is low. strategies:
○ When the success ratio (no. of those ○ Theory-Guided Inventories are
capable from those selected / No. of constructed around a theory of
accepted applicants) is low. personality.
3. Intelligence Tests ○ Factor-Analytically Derived
Intelligence Tests measure problem Inventories
solving abilities, adaptation to change, and ○ Criterion-Keyed Inventories
abstract thinking. Objective Personality Inventories are
Pros of intelligence testing include: standardized, have a limited number of
○ IQ predicts success in a variety of responses, and have a high reliability and
areas other than any other measure. validity.
○ It provides standardized ways of Projective Personality Inventories
comparing a child’s performance with measure wishes, intrapsychic conflicts,
that of other children. desires, and unconscious motives. These
○ It provides a profile of cognitive are also subjective in interpretation and
strengths and weaknesses. clinical judgment. These have low reliability
and validity.
Cons of intelligence testing include:
○ IQs are misused as measure of innate
capacity
○ The single IQ does not do justice to OTHER INFO
the multidimensional nature of
intelligence. ● Projective and Objective Personality Tests
○ IQs are of limited value in predicting differ in the following: definiteness of task,
non-test and non-academic response mechanism, product, analysis of
intellectual ability results, and emphasis on critical validation.
 2. Interest ● People are not always good judges of their
Interest is a feeling or preference ability.
concerning activities, ideas, and objects. It ● Provides an estimate
is of high variability, engaged in for a goal, ● Clinicians include self-report measures as
highly changeable, and can be correlated part of their initial examinations of
with personality traits. presenting clients.
Interest Inventories… ● Self-Report measures are frequently subject
○ measure the direction and strength of to self- censorship.
interest. ● People know their responses are being
○ assumes that even though interests measured and wish to be seen in a favorable
are unstable, they have a certain light. (self-serving bias)
stability or else it cannot be measured. ● Items are frequently included to measure the
○ Stability is said to start at 17 years old. extent to which people provide socially
○ Broad lines of interests are more desirable responses.
stable, while specific lines of interests
are more unstable. SETTINGS FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
3. Attitude
○ Attitude is a learned predisposition to
respond positively or negatively to a EDUCATION SETTING
certain subject. ● Intelligence tests and achievement tests are
○ The approval or disapproval (moral used from an early age.
judgment) is what differentiates it ● From kindergarten on, tests are used for
from interest. placement and advancement.
○ It consists of three aspects (Affective, ● Educational institutions have to make
Behavioral, and Cognitive) admissions and advancement decisions
Attitude Inventories are… regarding students.
○ Direct observation on how a person ● Used to assess students for special
behaves in relation to certain things education programs. Also, used in
○ Attitude questionnaires or scales diagnosing learning difficulties.
(Bogardus Social Distance Scale, 1925) ● Guidance counselors use instruments for
○ Reliability is good but not as high as advising students.
those tests of ability. ● Investigates school curriculum.
○ Attitude measures have not generally
correlated very highly with actual PERSONNEL SETTING
behavior. ● Tests are used to assess: training needs,
○ Specific behaviors, however, can be worker’s performance in training, success in
predicted from measures of attitude training programs, management
toward the specific behavior. development, leadership training, and
4. Values selection.
Values define what a person thinks is ● For example, the Myers -Briggs type indicator
important and refers to the importance, is used extensively to assess managerial
utility or worth attached to particular potential. Type testing is used to hopefully
activities and objectives. match the right person with the job they are
most suited for.
Values inventory…
○ purports to measure generalized and
dominant interests MILITARY SETTING
○ Validity is extremely difficult to ● For proper selection of military recruits and
determine by statistical methods proper placement in military duties.
○ The only observable criterion is overt
behavior GERIATRIC SETTING
○ Employed less frequently than interest ● Assessment for the aged
in vocational counseling and career
decision-making. GOVERNMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL
CREDENTIALING
● Promotional purposes
SELF-REPORT INVENTORIES ● Licensing
● Self-report relies upon the test taker’s ● Certification
awareness and honesty. ● General credentialing of professionals
● It is the best method to measure internal
states; things only the person themselves
can be aware of and judge.
 FORENSIC SETTING ○ Formative evaluation refers to
● Evaluate mental health of people charged evaluation conducted during or after
with crime/s instruction.
● Investigating malingering cases in court ○ Summative evaluation refers to
● Criminal profiling evaluation conducted at the end of a
● Making child custody/annulment/divorce unit or a specified period of time.
decisions
RESEARCH
CLINICAL SETTING ● For example, a neuropsychologist wished to
● Tests of Psychological Adjustment and tests investigate the hypothesis that low- level
which can classify and/or diagnose patients lead absorption causes behavior deficits in
are used extensively. children.
● Psychologists generally use a number of
objective and projective personality tests. STEPS IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL
● Neuropsychological tests which examine ASSESSMENT
basic mental function also fall into this
category. Perceptual tests are used for 1. Deciding what is being assessed
detecting and diagnosing brain damage. 2. Determining the goals of assessment
● “Tests do not diagnose, People do!” 3. Selecting standards for making decisions
4. Collecting assessment data
5. Making decisions and judgments
USES OF TESTS 6. Communicating results

CLASSIFICATION APPROACHES IN ASSESSMENT

● Classification involves assigning a person to
one category rather than another.
● It includes several aspects: NOMOTHETIC APPROACH
○ Placement is the sorting of persons into ● Nomothetic approach is characterized by
different programs appropriate to their efforts to learn how a limited number of
needs skills. personality traits can be applied to all people.
○ Screening refers to quick and simple
tests or procedures to identify persons IDIOGRAPHIC APPROACH
who might have special characteristics ● Idiographic approach is characterized by
or needs. efforts to learn about each individual’s
○ Certification both have a pass/fail unique constellation of personality traits,
equality. with no attempt to characterize each person
○ Selection is similar to certification in according to any particular set of traits.
that it confers privileges such as the
opportunity to attend a university or to
INFERENCES & DECISIONS IN ASSESSMENT
gain employment.

DIAGNOSIS BASE RATE

● Diagnosis is determining the nature and ● Base Rate is an index, usually expressed as a
source of a person’s abnormal behavior proportion, of the extent to which a particular
pattern within an accepted diagnostic trait, behavior, characteristic, or attribute
system. exists in a population.

SELF-KNOWLEDGE HIT RATE

● In some cases, the feedback a person ● Hit Rate is the proportion of people a test or
receives from psychological test results is so other measurement procedure accurately
self – affirming that can change the entire identifies as possessing or exhibiting a
course of a life. particular trait, behavior, characteristic, or
attribute.
PROGRAM EVALUATION
● Social programs are designed to provide MISS RATE
services which improve social conditions ● Miss Rate is the proportion of people a test
and community life. or other measurement procedure fails to
● Types of program evaluation include: identify accurately with respect to the
○ Diagnostic Evaluation refers to possession or exhibition of a trait, behavior,
evaluation conducted before characteristic, or attribute.
instruction.
● A "miss" in this context is an inaccurate ● Moreover, following appropriate
classification or prediction and can be administration practices satisfies widely
classified as: accepted ethical standards and codes of
○ False positive (Type I Error) is an responsibilities required for test
inaccurate prediction or classification administrators.
indicating that a test taker did possess
a trait or other attribute being measured
PROCEDURES BEFORE TESTING
when in reality the test taker did not
○ False negative (Type II Error) is an ● Materials should be stored in locked files or
inaccurate prediction of classification storage cabinets that are accessible only to
indicating that a test taker did not authorized personnel.
possess a trait or other attribute being ● No reproduction of test materials is allowed
measured when in reality the test taker in any form or by any means, electronic or
did mechanical.
● The materials should be released only to
CROSS-CULTURAL TESTING persons who are qualified to interpret and
use them properly, who have a professional,
● Some tests are favorable or unfavorable to responsible interest in their use, and who
some groups or individuals agree to safeguard their security and
● Problem: Subcultures/Minority VS. Dominant integrity.
Culture ● The test administrator is also responsible for
● Differences in ability may not be due to true preparing test takers for the assessment. For
differences but due to cultural differences maximum performance in a psychological
● Parameters where cultures vary: test, those who are responsible for
○ Language administering the assessment must provide
○ Test Content them with basic information that they
○ Education require, including:
○ Speed (“Tempo of Life”) ○ when the assessment will be
administered,
CULTURE FREE TESTS ○ the content and abilities that will be
● An attempt to eliminate culture so nature assessed, what the assessment will
can be isolated emphasize,
● Impossible to develop such the interaction ○ the standard or level of performance
between nature and nurture is cumulative expected,
and not additive ○ how the assessment performance
will be scored, and
CULTURE FAIR TESTS ○ how the results of the assessment
● These tests were developed because of the will be used to make decisions
non- success of culture-free tests. ● Persons administering a standardized
● Nurture is not removed but parameters are assessment should familiarize themselves
common and fair to all with the materials and procedures well in
● Culture-fair tests are formulated using three advance of the testing periods. They should
approaches: carefully read and examine the directions for
○ Fair to all cultures administering, test booklets, answer
○ Fair to some cultures documents, and any other materials provided
○ Fair only to one culture for testing.
● Test materials must be prepared in advance.
CULTURE LOADINGS ● The testing room must be prepared,
considering the number of test takers.
● The extent to which a test incorporates the
vocabulary, concepts, traditions, knowledge,
and feelings, associated with particular PROCEDURES DURING TESTING
culture.
● During testing, the test administrator should
follow the directions for administering
exactly as written.
● Provide needed materials such as scratch
TESTING & ADMINISTRATION papers, pencils, etc.
● The way in which the test is administered is ● Extra materials required by the students
important. By carefully adhering to should be kept on hand and distributed as
administration practices, a test user can necessary.
contribute to the validity and reliability of ● A “do not disturb” sign should be available to
results. hang on the door to the testing room.
● The physical conditions of the room should
PROCEDURES AFTER TEST ADMINISTRATION
be carefully controlled during testing.
● Test takers should be seated in an ● Collect all test materials, answer sheets, etc.
arrangement that prevents them from seeing to ensure security and test integrity.
the work of others. ● Prepare scoring keys / stencil keys. Follow
● Desks and work spaces should be clear with manual guidelines for scoring answer sheets.
sufficient room for the test booklets and
answer sheets.
● Cover any materials and information on the
walls, bulletin boards, and chalkboards that TOPIC 3: Intake Interview
might help students to answer questions. Psychological Assessment
● The testing room should have sufficient light (PSY 9) SEM 1
and ventilation and be free from noise.

READING DIRECTIONS INTAKE INTERVIEW

● While administering the assessment, the ● Assessment begins in the first session
test administrator should read the directions ● Tasks of the first meeting:
exactly as written, using a natural, deliberate ○ Establish rapport and trust
tone of voice and manner while enunciating
○ Review informed consent and limits of
clearly.
confidentiality
● The directions should not be repeated unless
○ Begin identifying collaborative goals
a mistake is made in the initial reading or
○ Gather information about history
the directions for administering say to do so.
○ Make initial DSM diagnosis
● The test administrator may attempt to clarify
● Intake interviews usually take longer than
any directions that test takers do not
regular sessions and are billed differently
understand and repeat the instructions, if
○ 90 minutes vs. 60 minutes
necessary.
○ 60 minutes vs. 45 minutes
● Except in the case of sample and practice
● Balance assessment with building the
items, the test administrator should not
therapeutic alliance
answer questions about the correct
○ collaborative rather than interrogation
responses to specific test items.
● Focus on content and process
○ what they say and how they say it
OBSERVING TESTING ● Structured vs. unstructured
● Useful to have client complete psychosocial
● During testing, the administrator and
history and questionnaires prior to session.
proctors should move around the room to
Interviewing varies by therapist, though
observe the testing situation and to make
conventionally consists of exploring..
certain that the students are following the
directions, working on the correct tests, and ○ Source of referral
marking the responses correctly on the ○ Presenting problem
answer sheet. ○ Medical history
● The test administrator and assistants should ○ Mental health history
be visibly engaged in the testing by ○ Family history
observing all aspects of the process. ○ Occupational/educational history
○ Legal history

COLLECTING TESTING MATERIALS

SOURCE OF REFERRAL
● At the end of a test sitting, test
administrators should immediately collect ● Source of Referral
all of the test booklets, answer sheets, and ○ Self-referred
other testing materials from the students. ○ Parent/guardian referred (children
Doing so is essential to maintaining the and adolescents are less likely to
security of the testing materials. attend therapy on their own volition)
● Moreover, this practice ensures that the ○ Partner referred
testing materials for individual students are ○ Court referred (mandated clients)
kept together so that they can be more easily ○ EAP referral (Employee Assistance
accounted for and checked after test Program)
administration. ○ Transition from inpatient/residential
to outpatient
○ School referral
○ Physician referral
 PRESENTING PROBLEM OCCUPATIONAL/EDUCATIONAL HISTORY
● The client's perspective ● [If minor] Academic history, current grades
● The perspective of others ● [If minor adolescent] post-high school goals
○ Parents ● [If adult] Current job, and satisfaction
○ Friends ● [If adult] Vocational goals
○ Partner ● [If adult with career issues] Job history
○ Children
○ Co-workers
○ Boss
LEGAL HISTORY
○ Probation Officer
○ Physician ● Only salient if client is referred by courts or
their presenting problem is related to legal
issues
HISTORY OF PRESENTING PROBLEM
● When did it begin?
● How often does it happen? (frequency) END OF FIRST SESSION
● How long does it last? (duration)
● How severe does it get? (intensity) ● A summary of the interview (what the client
● How have you coped with it before? said)
● Can you think of a time when you didn't ● Treatment goals
experience the problem? (exceptions) ● Any referrals
● Our plan for the next few sessions (e.g.,
assessment, or our treatment approach)
MEDICAL HISTORY ● Their experience of the interview
● Important to gather information about
medical conditions; these are likely a
component of treatment
○ Chronic pain TOPIC 4: Mental Status
○ Gastrointestinal issues (e.g., Crohn's)
○ Neurocognitive issues (e.g., Lyme's,
Examination (MSE)
Psychological Assessment
HIV/AIDS) (PSY 9) SEM 1
○ Heart attacks or strokes
○ Medications taken
○ Brain injuries
● We may need an ROI for medical doctor MENTAL HEALTH EXAMINATION
● Ask about when client had last physical
● A semi-structured interview intended to
exam. Medical issues mimic mental
facilitate and organize clinical observations
disorders
about the patient’s current mental state.
● Its purpose is to evaluate the current
MENTAL HEALTH HISTORY cognitive processes of a patient.
● Sum total of examiner’s observations &
● We want to know the client's treatment impressions of the patient’s mental
history condition at the time of interview.
○ Previous and current therapists,
psychiatrists, etc.
○ Consider asking for ROIS MAIN CATEGORIES IN MSE
○ Past experiences can inform
treatment planning
APPEARANCE
○ What did you like and dislike?
● Partial manifestation of mental state or
○ What worked for you?
environment/situation
○ Would a comprehensive assessment
● Linked to a mental disorder diagnosis
be helpful?
● Physical characteristics including:
○ body type, posture/poise,
FAMILY HISTORY clothing/grooming, perspiration
○ make-up, body piercing, tattoos, scars
● Relationship with parents, partner, children
○ physical signs related to medical
● Check for family history of medical issues,
status
mental disorders, suicide, substance abuse,
cut-offs.
 OVERT BEHAVIOR ● What the patient is actually thinking about:
● Quantitative & qualitative aspects of motor ideas & beliefs
behavior, including eye contact, mannerisms, ● Delusions, preoccupations, obsessions,
tics, gestures, twitches, echopraxia, compulsions, phobias, plans, intentions,
hyperactivity, agitation, combativeness, recurrent
flexibility, rigidity, gait, agility ● Ideas about suicide or homicide,
● Single symptom or observations may or may hypochondriacal symptoms
not be linked to psychopathology. ● Ideas of reference, ideas of influence

ATTITUDE TOWARD EXAMINER PERCEPTION

● Provides a sense of the complex cognitive, ● involves sensory systems: auditory, visual,
affective and interpersonal components of gustatory, olfactory, tactile
an attitude ○ Hallucinations, illusions,
● Observe physical characteristics, depersonalization, derealization
movements, responsiveness to interviewer ○ Understanding the nature of the
questions (verbal and nonverbal) perceptual disturbance can establish a
● Provide support (AEB) diagnosis.

AFFECT SENSORIUM
● Visible moment-to-moment emotional tone ● assesses brain function, including
that can be observed intelligence, capacity for abstract thought,
● Based on nonverbal behavior and outward and level of insight and judgment
expression of emotion ○ Consciousness
● Content or type. Facial expression, eye ○ Orientation
contact, tone of voice, & body posture, ○ Concentration & attention
movement ○ Memory
● Range and duration ○ Reading & writing
● Appropriateness. Evaluated based on speech ○ Visuospatial ability
content, context of the subject or life ○ Abstract thinking
situation ○ Fund of knowledge
● Depth or intensity
● May or may not be congruent with mood ORIENTATION
● Person, place, time, situation (O x 4)
MOOD ● Assesses confusion or disorientation, which
● Pervasive & sustained emotion that colors is usually associated with an organic process
the person’s perception of the world ● Loss of awareness usually in this sequence:
● Internal, subjective, verbal self-report of situation, sense of time, sense of place,
mood state identity (person)

SPEECH CONSCIOUSNESS
● Rate, volume, quantity, quality ● Assessed along a continuum from alert to
● Provides basis to evaluate thought process comatose
and content ● Disturbances usually indicate organic brain
impairment
THOUGHT PROCESS ○ Alert, confused, clouded, stuporous,
● The client’s form of thinking, the way in unconscious
which ideas & associations are put together;
logical, coherent, illogical, incomprehensible MEMORY
○ Overabundance or poverty of ideas ● The ability to recall experiences.
○ Rapid thinking, flight of ideas, slow ● Types of memory.
thinking ○ Remote memory (e.g., childhood) can
○ Vague or empty, relevant or irrelevant be integrated in the psychosocial
○ Goal-directed thinking, clear history portion of the intake
cause-&-effect relation in the patient’s ○ Recent past memory (e.g., recall of
explanations important events from the past few
○ Loose associations, tangentiality, months)
circumstantiality ○ Recent memory (e.g., dinner in the
○ Neologisms, word salad, clang previous evening)
associations ○ Immediate memory (retention and
recall of information upon exposure)
THOUGHT CONTENT ● Concentration and attention (effort given to
focusing on parts of an experience)
● Reading and writing
● Visuospatial ability
● Abstract thinking is the ability to deal with TOPIC 5: Nature and
concepts, explaining similarities between Uses of Psychological
●
objects, and interpreting simple proverbs
Fund of Knowledge. Intelligence is related to
Tests
vocabulary and general fund of knowledge Psychological Assessment
● Take into account patient’s educational level (PSY 9) SEM 1
and socioeconomic status

INTELLIGENCE USES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

● General statements about intellectual
functioning are usually made in MSE. ● Earliest use of tests.
● It must be phrased broadly and tentatively ○ to identify mentally retarded persons
● Assessment needs in education include
IMPULSIVITY ○ Intelligence testing
○ Classification of students as to their
● Capable of controlling impulses (e.g., sexual,
ability to profit from instruction
aggressive, etc.)
○ Identification of fast or slow learners
● Related to potential danger to self and others
● Educational and occupational counseling
● Secondary to cognitive and psychotic
● Selection and classification of industrial
disorders or personality disorders
personnel
● Obtained from recent history and from
● Individual counseling
observed behavior during the interview
● Research and data gathering
JUDGMENT
● Social judgment is the ability of the patient WHAT A TEST IS
to understand the likely outcome of his or her
● A test is a measurement device or technique
behavior and his capacity to be influenced by
used to quantify behavior or aid in the
this understanding
understanding and prediction of behavior.
● Evaluated by looking into client’s activities,
(Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2011)
relationships, and vocational choices
● A psychological test is a set of items that are
● Assess judgment is the ability of the patient
designed to measure characteristics of
to predict what he or she would do in
human beings that pertain to behavior.
hypothetical scenarios
(Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2011)
● A psychological test is an objective and
INSIGHT standardized measure of a sample of
● Insight is the degree of awareness & behavior (Anastasi and Urbina, 1997)
understanding about being ill
● Insightful clients are able to discuss the
possibility of emotional or psychosocial ASSESSMENT VS. TESTING & PSYCHOMETRICS
factors contributing to their symptoms and ● Psychological assessment is the gathering
consider psychosocial treatment. and integration of psychology-related data
● Levels of insight. for the purpose of making a psychological
○ Absent. Complete denial of illness evaluation that is accomplished through the
(blame others, defensiveness) use of tools such as tests, interviews, case
○ Poor. May admit to minor problems studies, behavioral observation, and specially
but rely on external (physical, designed apparatuses and measurement
medical or situational, blaming procedures.
others) explanations for symptoms. ● Psychological Testing is the process of
○ Partial. May seek help for a problem measuring psychology-related variables by
but leave treatment prematurely; means of devices or procedures designed to
occasionally talk about emotional or obtain a sample of behavior. (Cohen and
situational factors and own behavior Swerdlik, 2009)
as contributory to problem but ● Psychometrics is the science of
reluctant to focus on these factors. psychological measurement
○ Good. True emotional insight ● Psychometric soundness (of a test) refers to
(emotional awareness of motives & how consistently and how accurately a test
feelings, take personal responsibility measures what it purports to measure.
for modifying behavior or situation)
 future performance, based on their present
DIAGNOSIS VS. PREDICTION
test performance
● A test has diagnostic or predictive value (the ● Diagnosis connotes determining an
degree to which the test serves as an individual’s present condition
indicator of a relatively broad and significant
area of behavior).
● Prediction is commonly connotes a
temporal estimate, i.e., of an individual’s

SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES

All psychological tests require an individual to The behavior they require the test taker to perform
perform a behavior.

The behavior performed is used to measure some The attribute they measure
personal attribute, trait, or characteristic.

This personal attribute, trait, or characteristic is Their content

thought to be important in describing or
understanding behavior.

The behavior performed may also be used to predict How they are administered and formatted
outcomes.

How they are scored and interpreted

Their psychometric quality

TEST ITEM DEFINED

ASSUMPTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
● An item is a specific stimulus to which a
person responds overtly; this response can ● Psychological tests measure what they say
be scored or evaluated. they measure, and any inferences that are
● These are also specific questions that make drawn about test takers based on their test
up the test. scores are appropriate.
● An individual’s behavior, and therefore test
scores, will remain unchanged over time.
TEST ITEM DEFINED
● Individuals understand test items similarly.
● Overt behavior is observable activity ● Individuals can report about themselves
● Covert behavior takes place within the accurately.
individual and cannot be directly observed ● Individuals will report their thoughts and
(feelings, thoughts) feelings honestly.
● The test score an individual receives is equal
to his or her true ability plus some error.
3 DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
ESSENTIAL TEST ELEMENTS
1. First, a good test should representatively
sample the behaviors thought to measure
an attribute or predict an outcome. This STANDARDIZATION
ensures that the test measures what it says ● Standardization implies uniformity of
it measures. procedures in administering and scoring the
2. Second, the behavior samples should be test.
obtained under standardized conditions. ○ Directions
That is, a test must be administered exactly ○ Materials used
the same way to all individuals so that we ○ Time limits
can be confident that a person’s score ○ Oral instructions
accurately reflect the attribute being ○ Preliminary demonstrations
measured or the outcome being predicted. ○ Ways of handling questions from test
3. Third, there must be rules for scoring so that takers
all examiners will score the test in the same ● Establishment of NORMS (imply average or
way. normal performance)
● Psychological tests have no predetermined ○ Familiarity with testing procedure,
standards of passing or failing. An time limits
individual’s test score is interpreted by ● Testing Conditions
comparing it with the scores obtained by ● Introducing the Test
others on the same test. ○ Rapport refers to the examiner’s
efforts to arouse the test-taker’s
OBJECTIVE MEASUREMENT OF DIFFICULTY interest in the test, elicit their
● The administration, scoring, and cooperation, and encourage them to
interpretation of scores are independent of respond in a manner that is
the subjective judgment of the individual appropriate to the test’s objectives.
examiner.
● Difficulty level of the test/test item is CONTROL AND USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
determined based on objective, empirical
procedures like arrangement of order of test ● Effects of certain extraneous factors (age,
items, as well as selection of items for sex, ethnicity, professional/socio-economic
inclusion in a test. status, training and experience, personality
characteristics, appearance)
RELIABILITY ● Self-fulfilling prophecy (i.e., Rorschach case)
● Reliability is the consistency of scores ● Test-takers’ activity prior to the test
obtained by the same persons when retested
with the identical test or with any equivalent EFFECTS OF TRAINING ON TEST PERFORMANCE
form of the test.
● The distinction between coaching and
VALIDITY education:
● Validity is the degree to which the test ● A test score is invalidated only when a
measures what it purports to measure. particular experience raises the score
without appreciably affecting the behavior
domain that the test is designed to measure.
CONTROL AND USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS ● Test sophistication – effect of test taking
1. To ensure that the test is given by a qualified practice
examiner and that the scores are properly
used;
2. To prevent general familiarity with the test
content, which would invalidate the test TOPIC 6: Social and
Ethical Considerations in
MAJOR ASPECTS OF TESTING Testing
1. Selection of the test. Consider technical Psychological Assessment
aspects like validity, reliability, difficulty (PSY 9) SEM 1
level, and norms
2. Administration and scoring of the test; and
3. Interpretation of the test. THE RIGHT OF TEST TAKES

COMMUNICATION OF TEST INFORMATION THE RIGHT OF INFORMED CONSENT

(Purpose of Test Communication)
● Test takers have a right to know why they are
● Helps dispel any mystery associated with being evaluated, how the test data will be
testing; used, and what (if any) information will be
● Concern with technical procedures such as released to whom.
reliability, validity, other test properties; and ● Test takers give their informed consent to be
● Familiarize test takers with testing tested.
procedures, dispel anxiety, ensure good ● The disclosure of the information needed for
performance consent must be in language the test taker
can understand.
● Competency in providing informed
TEST ADMINISTRATION
consent:
● A test score helps us to predict how the client ○ Being able to evidence a choice as to
will feel and act outside the test situation. whether one wants to participate;
● Advance Preparation of Examiners ○ Demonstrating a factual
○ Memorize exact verbal instructions understanding of the issues;
○ Prepare test materials
 ○ Being able to reason about the facts
of a study, treatment, or whatever it
is to which consent is sought, and
○ Appreciating the nature of the
situation
● If a testtaker is incapable of providing an
informed consent to testing, such consent
may be obtained from a parent or a legal
representative.

THE RIGHT TO BE INFORMED OF TEST FINDINGS

● Test takers have a right to be informed, in
language they can understand, of the nature
of the findings with respect to a test they
have taken. They are also entitled to know
what recommendations are being made as a
consequence of the test data
● The test user will inform the test taker (and
the parent or the legal representative or both)
of the purpose of the test, the meaning of the
score relative to those of other test takers,
and the possible limitations and margins of
error of the test.

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY

● Privacy right recognizes the freedom of the
individual to pick and choose for himself the
time, circumstances, and particularly the
extent to which he wishes to share or
withhold from others his attitudes, beliefs,
behavior, and opinions
● Privileged information is information that is
protected by law from disclosure in a legal
proceeding.
● Confidentiality concerns matters of
communication outside the courtroom,
privilege protects clients from disclosure in
judicial proceedings.

THE RIGHT TO LEAST STIGMATIZING LABEL

● The Standards advise that the least
stigmatizing labels should always be
assigned when reporting test results.
 MIDTERMS

TOPIC 1: Norms and

Meanings of Test Scores
STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
● Statistical concepts represent our data in
Psychological Assessment
various ways.
(PSY 9) SEM 1
NORMAL CURVE/DISTRIBUTION

WHAT DO TEST SCORES MEAN?

RAW SCORES
● Raw score is the numerical description of
the performance of an individual. Raw scores
obtained via psychological tests are
commonly interpreted by reference to norms.

NORMS
● Norms represent the average test
performance (i.e., what is typical or normal)
of the individuals within a
standardization/normative sample PROPERTIES OF A NORMAL CURVE
(reference group whose scores are the ● Bell-shaped. The top of the curve shows the
standard of comparison for future test mean, mode, and median of the data
takers). collected. Its standard deviation depicts the
● Norms determine what is normal for a bell curve's relative width around the mean.
target/specific population. (eg. tests for 5th ● Bilaterally symmetrical. The two sides of a
grade levels are solely targeted for 5th graders) bell curve is equal.
● Asymptotic. The curve approaches the
DERIVED SCORES horizontal axis but never meets it (aw).
● Derived scores are transformed raw scores ● Mean=Median=Mode. An equal mean,
into a number that more precisely illustrates median, and mode results to a normal
an individual’s exact position relative to the distribution. Otherwise, the curve will be
normative group. skewed.
● Derived scores also make the scores ● Unimodal. There is only one clear peak.
meaningful.
● Purpose of derived scores,
○ They indicate the individual’s relative SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
standing in the normative sample.
○ They provide a comparable measure PROPERTIES OF SCALE
that permit a direct comparison of the ● Magnitude is the property of “moreness”.
individual’s performance on different Numbers are ordered from smaller to larger.
tests or with different people. ● Equal intervals. Difference from two points
○ Derived scores are expressed in two at any place on the scale has the same
ways: Developmental scores which meaning as the difference between two other
pertain to developmental level attained points that differ by the same number of
e.g., age and grade equivalents and scale units.
scores of relative standing which are ● Absolute zero. Nothing of the property being
relative position within a specific measured exists. The data has a possibility
group. of being zero.
 PRIMARY SCALES OF MEASUREMENT SCALING TECHNIQUES

NOMINAL
● A non-parametric measure that is also called
a categorical variable. Simple classification.
eg. sex (Male/Female), nationality (Filipino,
Korean, American).
● It cannot be arranged in any particular order.
● Best measure of central tendency is mode.
● Best measure of spread is none.

ORDINAL
● A non-parametric measure wherein cases are
ranked or ordered.
● Best measure of central tendency is mode
and median.
● Best measure of spread is IQR. COMPARATIVE AND NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES
OF MEASUREMENT
INTERVAL
● A parametric measure which includes equal
COMPARATIVE SCALES
intervals, wherein the difference between two
values is meaningful.
● Best measure of central tendency is mean, PAIRED COMPARISON
median, mode. ● A comparative technique in which a
● Best measure of spread is range, variance, respondent is presented with two objects at
SD, and IQR. a time and asked to select one object
according to some criterion. The data
RATIO obtained are in ordinal nature.
● A parametric measure wherein this scale is ● It aims to compared two objects at a time
similar to interval but include a true zero based on preference.
point and relative proportions make sense.
● Best measure of central tendency is mean, RANK ORDER
median, mode. ● Respondents are presented with several
● Best measure of spread is range, variance, items simultaneously and asked to rank
SD, and IQR. them in order of priority. This is an ordinal
scale that describes the favored and favored
SEATWORK ANSWERS objects, but does not reveal the distance
between the objects.
● Socioeconomic status - ordinal
● This yields a better result when comparisons
● Amount you spend per month on
are required between the given objects.
entertainment - ratio
● Month of your birthday - nominal
● Birthplace - nominal CONSTANT SUM
● Number of subjects you’re taking - ratio ● A ratio scale where respondents are asked to
● Hair color - nominal allocate a constant sum of units such as
● Amount of rainfall in a month - ratio points, rupees or chips among a set of
● Number of texts you send on your phone stimulus objects with respect to some
each day - ratio criterion.
● Days of the week - nominal ● Respondents might be asked to divide a
constant sum to indicate the relative
● Dress sizes - interval
importance of the attributes.
● Current world rankings of Basketball players
- ordinal
● Average number of words recalled in a Q-SORT TECHNIQUE
memory task - ratio ● It uses a rank order procedure to sort objects
● Military rank - ordinal based on similarity with respect to some
● Marital status - nominal criterion. The important characteristic is that
● IQ score - interval it is more important to make comparisons
among different responses of a respondent
than the responses between different
respondents.
 substitute for the semantic differential
OTHER INFO
when it is difficult to create pairs of
bipolar adjectives. The modified staple
Paired Comparison compares two objects at a
scale places a single adjective in the
time. Rank Order ranks particular objects.
center of an even number of numerical
Constant Sum assigns points to given objects.
values.
Q-Sort Technique sorts objects into a given
criteria.
● Guttman Scale.
○ Also known as cumulative scaling or
scalogram analysis. It is an ordinal scale
with a number of statements placed in a
hierarchical order. The order is arranged
so that if a respondent agrees with a
statement, they will also agree with all of
the statements that fall below it in
extremity.

NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES

CONTINUOUS RATING SCALE

● The respondent’s rate the objects by placing
a mark at the appropriate position on a
continuous line that runs from one extreme
of the criterion variable to the other.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
ITEMIZED RATING SCALE
● A scale having numbers or brief descriptions
associated with each category. The MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
categories are ordered in terms of scale
position and the respondents are required to MEAN
select one of the limited numbers of ● Sum of the scores divided by the number of
categories that best describes the object scores (Average)
being rated. ● Sensitive of extreme scores and to the exact
● Likert Scale. values of all the scores in the distribution
○ Respondents indicate their own attitudes ● Use when the data is approximately normally
by checking how strongly they agree or distributed and does not have extreme
disagree with carefully worded outliers.
statements that range from very positive
to very negative towards the attitudinal MEDIAN
object. ● Arranged in rank, it is the centermost score if
the number of scores is odd. If it’s even, it is
● Semantic Differential Scale. the average of the two centermost scores.
○ This is a seven-point rating scale with ● Less sensitive than mean to extreme scores
end points associated with bipolar labels ● Use when the data is skewed or contains
(such as good and bad, complex and extreme outliers.
simple) that have semantic meaning. It
can be used to find whether a respondent MODE
has a positive or negative attitude ● Most frequent score in the distribution
towards an object. ● Unimodal (one mode) & Bimodal (two
modes)
● Stapel Scale. ● Use when the goal is to identify the most
○ Originally developed to measure the common values in the dataset, especially in
direction and intensity of an attitude categorical/discrete data
simultaneously. Modern versions of the
staple scale place a single adjective as a
 APPROPRIATE USE ACCORDING TO TYPE OF DATA
BEING USED
● Nominal – Mode
● Ordinal – Median
● Interval/Ratio (Normal) – Mean
● Interval/Ratio (Skewed) – Median

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY OR DISPERSION

Variability is a statistic indicating how scores in a
distribution are scattered or dispersed.

RANGE ● Steps in computing SD:

○ Find the mean of the data set.
● A descriptive statistic of variability derived
by calculating the difference between the ○ Subtract each raw score from the
highest and lowest scores in a distribution. mean.
● Range = HS (highest score) — LS (lowest ○ Find the square of the difference of
score) the raw score and the mean.
○ Add all squares.
○ Substitute the formula:

INTERQUARTILE RANGE
● An ordinal statistic of variability equal to the
difference between the third and first
quartile points in a distribution that has
been divided into quartiles.
● Q3 – Q1 = IQR

SKEWNESS
Skewness pertains to a lack of symmetry. In a data
set, it is important for it to be normally distributed,
instead of skewed.

POSITIVE SKEW
VARIANCE ● Positive skew means that there is more low
● A measure of variability equal to the scores than high scores. It also reaches the
arithmetic mean of the squares of the test floor which is the lower limit of the test.
differences between the scores in a ● On a graph, the curve is leaning towards the
distribution and their mean. left.
● A positively skewed test means that the test
STANDARD DEVIATION is too difficult, which doesn’t make it a good
● A measure of variability equal to the square test.
root of the averaged squared deviations
about the mean.
● Eg. Ms. Salas administered a test about
acceleration to her physics class. If the
scores of the students assume a
hypothetical normal distribution, with a
mean = 70, and SD = 15, a square equal to 2
standard deviations may possibly be 100.
 NEGATIVE SKEW ● Determines the proportion of the total area
● Negative skew means that there are more greater than, in between, or less than an
high scores than low scores. It also reaches empirical value (using the z-score table)
the test ceiling which is the upper limit of ○ It transforms the original score into
the test. units of standard deviation. It allows
● On a graph, the curve is leaning towards the us to compare scores that are on the
right. same scale.

LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

EXAMPLE
● Dr. Aranas administered a 100-item exam
about tests to a class of 40 students. To his
surprise, only 5 students passed with scores
of 80, 82, 85, 90, and 99, while others
obtained scores within the range of 20 to 35.
Example.
The shape of the distribution with this set of
In the exam, the mean grade = 78, and the SD = 10.
scores is positively skewed, and the most
advisable measure of central tendency is
1. Z-score of students whose grades are 93 and
median.
62.

OTHER INFO

● Positive Skew. mean > median > mode.

● Negative Skew. mean < median < mode.
● Normal. mean = median = mode

KURTOSIS
Kurtosis is the amount of dispersion of data.

PLATYKURTIC
● Data has the highest dispersion, making it
flat.
● Positive kurtosis = CK < 3 2. The grades of students whose z-scores are
0.6 and 1.2
MESOKURTIC
● Data has a normal curve
● Normal distribution. CK = 3

LEPTOKURTIC
● Data has the lowest dispersion, making it
more curved.
● Negative kurtosis. CK > 3

STANDARD SCORES

PERCENTILES
Z-SCORE ● Percentiles are the expression of the
● Also known as the standard score, a percentage of people whose score on a test or
statistical measure that quantifies how measure falls at or below a particular raw
many standard deviations a data point is score.
away from the mean of a data set ● Measure of relative performance, and at
ordinal level.
 EXAMPLE
● Maia and Mia are seatmates who recently TOPIC 2: Test Analysis
received their scores for their exam. Their Psychological Assessment
professor gave their scores in terms of (PSY 9) SEM 1
different standard scores. Assuming a
normal distribution with a mean = 70, and SD
= 8, Maia received a z-score of 0.8 while Mia
has a T-score of 60. A “GOOD” TEST
● Therefore, Mia received a higher raw score
● The psychometric properties of a good test
than Maia.
include:
○ Norms
○ Reliability
○ Validity
● Basically, it can accurately differentiate high
scorers and low scorers.

RELIABILITY
● Reliability pertains to the stability and
consistency of the measurement
● Reliability Coefficient (r) is the ratio
between true score variance on a test and
total variance

Total Variance = True Variance + Error Variance

SEATWORK
Compute a z-score of 2, to the following: where true variance are true differences which are
stable, while error variance is the variances from
1. Raw score (mean = 50; SD = 10) other sources.
2. T-score (mean = 50; SD = 10)
3. IQ Plot ERROR VARIANCES
● Content / Item Sampling Error is the
variation among items within or between
tests. It is how items are worded and in the
exact content sampled.
● Test Administration Error influences the
test taker’s attention or motivation.
○ Test environment which includes
temperature, lighting, ventilation, noise,
writing conditions.
○ Test taker variables such as emotional
problems, physical discomfort, etc.
○ Examiner-related variables such as
examiner’s physical appearance and
demeanor, nonverbal cues.
● Test Scoring and Interpretation Error
pertains to scorers and scoring systems,
subjectivity of scores, hand scoring, and
technical glitch.
● Time Sampling Error pertains to the
fluctuation in test scores obtained from
repeated testing of the same individual.

RELIABILITY ESTIMATES

TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY
● Coefficient of Stability typically measures
stable variables e.g., traits
● It compares the scores of individuals who
have been measured twice by the instrument
● This is not applicable for tests involving APPROPRIATE MEASURES USED TO ESTIMATE
reasoning and ingenuity ERROR
● Longer interval will result to lower
correlation while shorter interval will result
to higher correlation Source of Error Measure
● The ideal time interval for test-retest
Inter-scorer & Inter-rater reliability
reliability is 2-4 weeks
Interpretation Sampling
● Source of error variance is time sampling
Error
error and test administration error
Time Sampling Error Test-Retest Reliability
PARALLEL/ALTERNATE FORMS RELIABILITY
● Coefficient of Equivalence where same Content Sampling Error Parallel/Alternate Form
persons are tested with one form on the first Reliability or Split Half
occasion and with another equivalent form Reliability
on the second.
○ Parallel Form: Different versions of the test
developed to be as similar as possible in RELIABILITY RANGES
terms of content, format, difficulty.
○ Alternate Form: Different versions of the test
that allows for slight variability in terms of
content and wording, as long as they
remain conceptually equivalent.
○ Immediate alternate forms. Source of error
variance is content sampling
○ Delayed alternate forms. Source of error
variance is item sampling and content
sampling
● Its advantage is that it prevents practice
effect, but it is impractical (disadvantage). LOW RELIABILITY
● Increase the number of items
SPLIT HALF RELIABILITY ○ It provides more opportunities to
● Coefficient of Internal Consistency. Two assess the construct of interest. In
scores are obtained for each person by general, longer tests tend to have
dividing the test into equivalent halves higher reliability.
○ Odd-Even Split: Divided based on item ● Use factor analysis and item analysis
numbers (even-numbered items are ● Use the correction for attenuation formula
correlated with odd-numbered items)
○ Top-Bottom Split: Divided based on FACTORS AFFECTING RELIABILITY
content and difficulty (first half is 1. Test Format
correlated with second half) 2. Test Difficulty
● The reliability of the test is directly related to 3. Test Objectivity
the length of the test 4. Test Administration
● The source of error variance is content/item 5. Test Scoring
sampling error 6. Test Economy
7. Test Adequacy
INTER-RATER RELIABILITY
● It pertains to the degree of agreement
between raters on a measure VALIDITY
● The source of error variance is content ● Validity pertains to the judgment or estimate
sampling error of how well a test measures what it purports
to measure in a particular test.
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
● It assesses the correlation between multiple TRINITARIAN VIEW OF VALIDITY
items in a test that are intended to measure ● The trinitarian view of validity is an
the same construct approach that considers criterion-oriented
○ Homogenous Test: Tests that measure (predictive), content, and construct validity
one variable for the assessment of test validity.
● The source of error variance is content
sampling error
 ● Types of Criterion Validity include:
○ Concurrent Validity is the extent to which
test scores may be used to estimate an
individual’s present standing on a
criterion
○ Predictive Validity pertains to how scores
on a test can predict future behavior or
scores on another test taken in the future
○ Incremental Validity is related to predictive
validity wherein it is defined as the
degree to which an additional predictor
explains something about the criterion
TYPES OF VALIDITY
measure that is not explained by
predictors already in use.
FACE VALIDITY
● Face validity is the least stringent type of CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
validity, whether a test looks valid to test ● A construct is an informed scientific idea
users, examiners, and examinees. developed or hypothesized to describe or
● An IQ test has good face validity because it explain a behavior
clearly measures memory, verbal reasoning, ● “Does the construct we want to measure
etc, while a word association test has bad really exist?”
face validity because it is not clear. ● It is designed to measure a construct must
estimate the existence of an inferred,
CONTENT VALIDITY underlying characteristic based on a limited
● Content validity pertains to whether the test sample of behavior
covers the behavior domain to be measured ● A test has a good construct validity if there is
which is built through the choice of an existing psychological theory which can
appropriate content areas, questions, tasks support what the test items are measuring.
and items ● Evidences of construct validity include:
● This considers the adequacy of representation ○ Evidence of Homogeneity which measures a
of the conceptual domain the test is single construct
designed to cover. ○ Evidence of Changes with Age where score
● “Do the test items (content) reflect the increases or decreases as a function of
behavior being measured?” age, passage of time, or experimental
● Determination of content validity is often manipulation
made by expert judgment. A panel of experts ○ Evidence of Pretest-Posttest Change where
can review the test items and rate them in difference of scores from pretest and
terms of how closely they match the posttest of a defined construct after
objective or domain specification. careful manipulation
● Issues arising from a lack of content ○ Convergent Evidence where a test
validity: correlates highly with other variables
○ Construct underrepresentation - Failure to with which it should correlate
capture important components of a ○ Discriminant Evidence where test does not
construct (e.g. An English test which only correlate significantly with variables
contains vocabulary items but no from which it should differ
grammar items will have a poor content ● Example:
validity.) ○ The professor announce that his class’
○ Construct-irrelevant variance - Happens when 100-item exam will cover 10 chapters of
scores are influenced by factors irrelevant the reference. Tina only studied 5
to the construct (e.g. test anxiety, reading chapters, but still managed to have the
speed, reading comprehension, illness) highest score. Therefore, the exam
lacked content validity.
CRITERION VALIDITY
● Criterion is a standard against which a test TEST FAIRNESS
or a test score is evaluated ● Test Fairness is the extent to which a test is
● “How similar/dissimilar would the score be if used in an impartial, just and equitable way.
we will compare it to another test related to ● Factors influencing test validity:
what is being measured?” ○ Appropriateness of the test
● It indicates the test effectiveness in ○ Directions/Instructions
estimating an individual’s behavior in a ○ Reading Comprehension Level
particular situation ○ Item Difficulty
● It tells how well a test corresponds with a ○ Test Construction Factors
particular criterion.
 ○ Length of Test BARNUM EFFECT
○ Arrangement of Items ● This refers to when individuals believe that
○ Patterns of Answer generic information, which could apply to
anyone, applies specifically to themselves.
TEST BIAS AND RATING ERRORS
● It pertains to a judgment resulting from the SOCIAL DESIRABILITY
intentional or unintentional misuse of rating ● Social desirability is the tendency for people
scales. to present themselves in a generally
favorable fashion.
SEVERITY/STRICTNESS ERROR
● iT IS type of rating error in which the ratings SOCIAL ACQUIESCENCE
are consistently overly negative, particularly ● The response set called acquiescence, for
with regard to the performance or ability of example, refers to one’s tendency to respond
the participants. with “true” or “yes” answers to questionnaire
● It is caused by the rater's tendency to be too items regardless of what the item content is.
strict or negative and thus to give
undeservedly low scores. NON-ACQUIESCENCE
● This is the exact opposite of acquiescence
LENIENCY/GENEROSITY ERROR bias where the participant seeks to disagree
● It means the rater is lenient and is going “too with every statement or question the
easy” on the person they are rating. That researcher makes.
means all scores will be very high.
FAKING-GOOD
CENTRAL TENDENCY ERROR ● It refers to a behavior in which subjects
● The central tendency bias causes some present themselves in a favorable manner,
raters to score every question on a scale near endorsing desirable traits and rejecting
the center. A rating of “3” on a 5 point scale undesirable ones
for every question is a clear example of the
central tendency bias at play. FAKING-BAD
● It refers to attempts to appear worse than
PROXIMITY ERROR actually is the case.
● This occurs when a rating made on one item
or dimension of a rating scale affects the
rating of the following or nearest
item(s)/dimension(s). TOPIC 3: Test
PRIMACY ERROR
Development
Psychological Assessment
● This refers to the tendency to recall
information presented at the start of a list
(PSY 9) SEM 1
better than information at the middle or end.

CONTRAST ERROR STEPS IN TEST DEVELOPMENT

● This error is the tendency to rate people
1. Test Conceptualization
relative to others rather than performance
2. Test Construction
standards.
3. Test Tryout
4. Item Analysis
RECENCY ERROR
5. Test Revision
● The recency effect occurs when a rater gives
greater weight to recent events when
appraising an individual’s performance. A TEST CONCEPTUALIZATION
recent good or bad action is more likely to be
● Test conceptualization is where the idea for
remembered by the rater.
a test is conceived.
● It includes conceptualizing the following:
HALO EFFECT
○ objectives of the test
● The halo effect is the tendency for a single ○ clear definition of the constructs
positive rating to cause raters to inflate all ○ target population
other ratings. ○ test constraints and conditions
○ content specifications
FLYNN EFFECT ○ scaling method
● The Flynn Effect is the tendency of IQ scores ○ test format
to change over time.
 TEST TRYOUT
TEST CONSTRUCTION
● A set of test questions is first administered
● Test construction is a stage in the process of to a small group of people deemed to be
test development that entails writing test representative of the population for which
items (or re-writing or revising existing the final test is intended.
items), as well as formatting items, setting
scoring rules, and otherwise designing and
ITEM ANALYSIS
building a test.
● It includes writing or rewriting test items or ● Statistical procedures used to evaluate that
the item pool (reservoir from which the quality of test items. It helps test developers
items will or will not be drawn or the final make informed decisions about whether to
revision); formatting test items; preparing retain, revise, or eliminate specific items.
test instructions and materials; setting
administration, scoring, and interpretation CLASSICAL TEST THEORY
procedures. ● Classical test theory, also known as true
● In test construction, model theory, assumes that each person has
○ Deal with only one central thought in a true score, T, that would be obtained if there
each item. were no errors in measurement.
○ Be precise
○ Be brief Observed assessment score = “true” exam score +
○ Avoid awkward wordings or dangling measurement error
constructs.
○ Avoid irrelevant information ● Among the tools test developers might
○ Present items in a positive language. employ to analyze and select items are
○ Avoid double negatives ○ an index of the item’s difficulty
○ Avoid terms like “all” or “none” ○ an index of the item’s reliability (the
higher the index, the greater the test’s
TEST FORMATS internal consistency)
● Variables such as the form, plan, structure, ○ an index of the item’s validity (the
arrangement, and layout of individual test higher the index, the greater the test’s
items are collectively referred to as item criterion-related validity)
format. ○ an index of item discrimination

SELECTED-RESPONSE FORMAT ITEM DIFFICULTY

● Items presented in a selected-response ● The proportion of individuals who got the
format require test takers to select a item correctly.
response from a set of alternative responses.
● Multiple Choice.
○ It has transparent clues but more
answer options reduce the chance of
guessing. It is easy to score but
measures narrow facets of
performance. Reading time is
increased. It is difficult to write four
or five reasonable choices.
○ It has 3 elements: stem, a correct
alternative, and distractors.
● True or False. A true/false question should be ● Steps in computing the item difficulty:
constructed so that an incorrect response ○ Score the test
indicates something about the student’s ○ Arrange the papers from highest to
misunderstanding of the learning objective. lowest
● Forced Choice Rating. Test taker must ○ Separate the top 27% and the bottom
choose between unrelated but equally lower 27%
acceptable responses. ○ Prepare a tally sheet
○ Interpret
CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE FORMAT ○ Decide whether to retain, revise, or
● Items presented in a constructed-response reject the item.
format require test takers to supply or to
create the correct answer, not merely to
select it.
 DISTRACTOR ANALYSIS
ITEM DISCRIMINATION INDEX
● It evaluates the ability of test item to ● A distract is an incorrect option, while key is
discriminate high scorers from low scorers a correct answer
● All of the incorrect options, or distractors,
should be equally distracting
● Preferably, each distracter should be equally
selected by a greater proportion of the lower
scorers than of the higher scorers group
● A miskeyed item is where more individuals
from the upper group chooses the incorrect
option
● A guessing item is where Individuals have
equal spread of choices among the
distracters
● An ambiguous item is where more
ITEM EVALUATION Individuals in the upper group equally
choose incorrect options and the keyed
answer

EXAMPLES

HOMEWORK

TEST REVISION
● Based on the results of test tryout and item
analysis, a test developer modifies a test’s
content or format for the purpose of ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
improving the test’s effectiveness as a tool of ● Latent Response Theory (“Modern
measurement. Psychometrics”) is a statistical framework
used to model and analyze the relationship
between individual’s response to test items
and their underlying ability or trait.
 CHALLENGING TRADITIONAL VIEWS: Intelligence
as Multiple Abilities
TOPIC 4: Theories &
Measurement of LOUIS THURSTONE’S MULTIPLE-FACTOR THEORY
Intelligence ● It argues that different aspects of an
individual are distinct enough that multiple
Psychological Assessment abilities must be considered.
(PSY 9) SEM 1

INTELLIGENCE
● Francis Galton. Intelligent people are those
equipped with best sensory abilities.
● Alfred Binet. Intelligence is the ability to solve
problems. It four has components: reasoning,
judgment, memory, and abstraction.
● David Wechsler. Intelligence is the aggregate
capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to
think rationally, and deal with the environment RAYMOND CATTELL’S FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED
effectively. INTELLIGENCE
● Jean Piaget. Intelligence is conceived of as a
● Fluid intelligence is about dealing with new
kind of evolving biological adaptation to the
problems not influenced by past learning and
world. A person moves through the stages of
culture. This can include identifying new
cognitive development through the
patterns and new solutions.
interaction of one’s biological factors and
● Crystallized intelligence is about using
learning.
learned skills, knowledge, and experiences
● Intelligence is the ability to solve problems
influenced by past learning and culture.
we encounter in our environment using our
senses and other mental abilities to survive
CATTELL-HORN-CARROLL MODEL
or live a good life.
● This model is called the Three-Stratum
Theory of Cognitive Abilities, which entails
PERSPECTIVES that intelligence is made up of 3 layers; the
top level (general intelligence), the second
● Factor Analytic Theories is identifying ability
level (consisting of 8 abilities), and the last
or groups of abilities that constitute
level (many level factors linked to each
intelligence. What constitutes intelligence?
ability).
● Information Processing Theories is
identifying the specific mental processes that
constitute intelligence. How does intelligent
work?

TRADITIONAL MODEL: Intelligence as a Single,

General Ability

CHARLES SPEARMAN’s G FACTOR/TWO-FACTOR

THEORY
● The first theory of intelligence
● It claims a general (g) component to ROBERT STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY
intelligence, supplemented by specific (s)
● Analytic Intelligence involves judging,
components or error (e) components
evaluating, comparing information; Ability to
● It implies that all abilities of an individual
analyze information, solve problems, and
can be measured by a single number, but
make decisions
acknowledges that there are specific abilities
● Creative Intelligence is the ability to use
contributing to it
past experiences to solve new problems or
adapt to new situations
● Practical Intelligence is the ability to apply
their intelligence to real-world situations or
solve problems of everyday life efficiently
 INDIVIDUAL INTELLIGENCE TESTS

HOWARD GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE 5

INTELLIGENCES ● Alfred Binet is the father of IQ testing. He
● Gardner’s theory suggests that multiple developed the first true test of intelligence
types of intelligence exist. ● Earlier editions of SB lacks
representativeness and standardization. It
involved many innovations.
● SB 5 is around 2 to 85 years old
● Individuals with intellectual disability scores
2 SDs below population mean
● Ratio IQ is based on “mental age”; the
individual’s chronological age should be
match one’s mental age
● Deviation IQ is based on “standard score”; IQ
reflects a comparison of the performance of
the individual with the performance of others
of the same age in the standardization
sample.

JP DAS’ PASS THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

● The PASS (Planning, Attention,
Simultaneous and Successive cognitive
processing) theory of intelligence identifies
three operational units that are important to STANFORD-BINET FACTORS
understand mental functioning: attention,
simultaneous and successive processing,
and planning.
● In this model, planning refers to strategy
development for problem solving; attention
(also referred to as arousal) refers to
receptivity to information; and simultaneous
and successive refer to the type of
information processing employed.
● Simultaneous (parallel) processing
pertains to processing multiple pieces of
information at the same time. It integrates
STANFORD-BINET CLASSIFICATION
information as a whole, seeing the “big
picture”It involves considerations of multiple
variables. e.g., Analysis of complex tasks
● Successive (sequential) processing
pertains to a step-by-step analysis of
information. It approaches a problem
methodically, focusing on one information at
a time. e.g., Tasks requiring a specific
order/series of steps
 WECHSLER SCALES
● David Wechsler developed new intelligence
scales to measure adult intelligence (WAIS),
then later developed a test for children
(WISC)
● Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) 4 -
16 to 90 years old
● Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC) - 5 - 6 to 16 years old

GROUP INTELLIGENCE TESTS

● Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices
(SPM) is a gold-standard, highly trusted
assessment that helps organizations
measure an individual’s level of general
(cognitive) ability by specifically assessing
abilities that are required for success in
many job roles or training courses.
● Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT) is a
nationally-normed standardized test
designed to measure your child's
achievement against the achievement of all
other children of the same age.
● Culture Fair Intelligence Test is a nonverbal
instrument to measure your analytical and
reasoning ability in the abstract and novel
situations.

CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
● Norms. No must always be considered.
○ There is no IQ test that is culture-free
○ Culture loading - extend on how an
item favors a particular culture. Eg.
“Who is the first prime minister in
Canada?” has a high culture loading
● Language Barrier. Little to no verbal items
(e.g., CFIT, Raven’s) means less culture
loading
● Street Smart. This is a characteristic of a
person who knows their way around the
streets.
● Flynn Effect. A shorthand reference to the
progressive rise in intelligence test scores
that is expected to occur in every generation.
It implies that as time goes by, the average
intelligence scores of humanity increases.