DESIGN GUIDE

Precast Concrete
Building Concepts
Written by Barry Crisp

Ph: (03) 9369 4944

www.hollowcore.com.au
@hollowcoreconcrete
©2020 Hollowcore
Ihit quo et laniminum quos dis in plicilit,
sin conse excepudae volectiur sinum re nis
estionecto tempere veniendest et laci aut et
 FOREWARD
This document is intended to show how these precast
concrete elements are incorporated into the various
types of precast concrete structures that are built
in Australia. In other words, how precast concrete
elements are assembled to construct complete
buildings.

This document is inspired by and is based on and the

‘Planning and Design Handbook on Precast Building
Structures’, published by the fib [1] Commission on
Prefabrication, Task Group 6.12, convened by Arnold
Van Acker. I wish to acknowledge the input provided by
Mr. Van Acker and Dr Kim Elliott and fellow members
of fib Commission 6 and to the authors and publishers
of other fib documents that have been used as source
material. Without their input this document would not
have eventuated.

This document has also been written as a companion

document to the National Precast Concrete Association
Australia ‘Precast Concrete Handbook’ [2].

This is a practical ‘how to’ document rather than an

engineering design text and wherever possible detailed
design issues are referenced elsewhere, particularly
to the ‘Precast Concrete Handbook’ and relevant fib
publications. The Australian Concrete Structures Code,
AS3600, barely mentions precast concrete so most
design methods are based on European or United
States of America sources.

Barry Crisp, FIE(Aust)

INTRODUCTION
The use of precast concrete in building construction
is an economical, durable, environmentally friendly,
structurally sound and architecturally versatile form
of construction. The precast concrete industry is
continuously making efforts to meet the demands of
modern society such as environmental friendliness,
off-site prefabrication, affordability, technical
performance and safety.

Prefabrication of concrete structures is an

industrialised process. Like every construction
system, prefabrication has its own characteristics,
which to a greater or lesser extent influence the
structural lay-out, span width, stability, etc. For the
best results a design should, from the very outset,
respect the specific and particular demands of
the intended structural system. Unfortunately,
prefabrication of concrete is often considered by
uninitiated designers as a variant of cast in-situ
construction whereby only parts of the structure are
precast in specialised plants. Assembled afterwards
on site in such a way that the initial concept of a
cast in-situ structure is emulated. This approach will
rarely produce the most economical solution.

This Design Guide is intended to fill this knowledge

gap by providing a detailed review of this subject
and thereby promoting a greater awareness and
understanding of how precast concrete buildings
are constructed. It will concentrate on discussing
the concepts of precast concrete buildings but
will refer to referenced documents for the detailed
design. It has been written particularly for those
already familiar with this form of construction but
do not have the detailed knowledge of the detailing
required to plan and design a complete precast
concrete building.
CONTENTS
1
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRECAST CONCRETE 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Advantages & Limitations 2
1.3 Opportunities with prefabrication 3
1.4 Quality assurance and product certification 6

2
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND PROCESS 7
2.1 Design considerations 7
2.2 Design considerations in moderate seismic areas 12
2.3 Design process 16

3
PRECAST BUILDING CONCEPTS 19
3.1 General 19
3.2 Structural systems 20
3.3 Applications of precast structural systems 25

4
PRECAST STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 31
4.1 General 31
4.2 Walls 32
4.3 Columns 38
4.4 Beams 41
4.5 Floor slabs 46
4.6 Balconies  52
4.7 Stairs  54
5
STRUCTURAL STABILITY  55
5.1 General 55
5.2 Un-braced Precast Structures 56
5.3 Braced precast structures 58
5.4 Floor plate action 61
5.5 Connections 64
5.6 Tie systems 69
5.7 Design for accidental actions 73

6
BRACED WALL STRUCTURES  81
6.1 General 81
6.2 Design Concepts 82
6.3 Connection details 85

7
SKELETAL STRUCTURES 91
7.1 General 91
7.2 Design concepts 92
7.3 Connection details 95

8
LOADBEARING WALL STRUCTURES 107
8.1 General 107
8.2 Design concepts 108
8.3 Connection Details 111
8.4 Design of welded plate connections 118
9
MIXED STRUCTURES 121
9.1 General  121
9.2 Design concepts 122

10
FIRE RESISTANCE 127
10.1 General 127
10.2 Basic requirements 129
10.3 Fire actions 130
10.4 Global structural analysis 134
10.5 Member analysis 135
10.6 Fire resistance of structural connections 139
10.7 Establishing FRP by testing  142
10.8 Conclusion  142

11
DEMOLITION AND DISMANTLING 143
11.1 General  143
11.2 Structural assessment for demolition 144
11.3 Safe design for demolition 145
11.4 Demolition or dismantling process 146

12
REFERENCES & LITERATURE 147
12.1 References  147
12.2 Literature 149
1 CHARACTERISTICS OF
PRECAST CONCRETE

1.1 General In this Chapter

1.1 General 1
Although precast and insitu concrete buildings are 1.2 Advantages & Limitations 2
constructed from the same basic materials, namely
1.3 Opportunities with prefabrication 3
concrete and steel, the design methods, construction
process and the in-service performance of the finished 1.4 Quality assurance and product
structures are completely different. certification 6

The advantages of building in precast concrete include,

manufacture off site in a stable working environment,
economy of the project, speed of erection and low
labour demand on site.

The main characteristic of precast concrete buildings is Continuity of reinforcement through the joints results in
they comprise a series of discrete elements assembled bending and torsional moments, along with shear and
and connected on site to form a complete structure. axial forces being distributed throughout the structure
Connection between elements is critical and continuity by frame action.
between elements can be difficult to achieve. Realisation
of a three-dimensional framework is seldom applied A common misconception is that precast concrete has
unless specifically required. Stability can be provided by little or no flexibility in design. Modern precast concrete
in-plane stiffness of shear walls, braced frames, restraint buildings can be designed safely and economically,
of columns in foundations, diagonal bracing, floor and with a variety of plans (figure 1.1) and with considerable
roof diaphragms, or combinations of the above systems. variation in the treatment of the elevations (figure 1.2).
Technically there is no limit to the building height that
Conversely cast in-situ concrete structures are monolithic can be constructed in precast concrete; the limitation is
and behave as three-dimensional frameworks. generally one of logistics and material handling on site.

Figure 1.1 Irregular Layouts. complex plans with simple framing Figure 1.2 Complex elevations in precast concrete

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 1

 1.2 Advantages &
Limitations
Most buildings are suitable for construction in precast to floor height this can be minimised or eliminated by co-
concrete either in part or as a whole. Buildings with ordination of the structure with services requirements to
an orthogonal plan are of course ideal for precasting, produce an appropriate overall solution.
because they exhibit a degree of regularity and repetition
in their structural grid and spans and member size. Another major difference between precast and cast in-
However irregular layouts are on many occasions equally situ concrete lies in the fact that everything to be cast
suitable for precasting, if not totally, then certainly into the precast elements needs to be planned at an
partially. Irrespective, when designing any building, the earlier stage. The current method of defining a broad
design team should always strive for standardisation and outline and leaving the detailed design to later does not
repetition in the context of economical construction, not work with prefabrication. Both the architect and services
only in precast concrete, but in any design. Precasting engineer must be ready to define their requirements in
should not be ignored at the concept design stage of time for the precaster to prepare drawings. Therefore,
buildings, either for the total structure or for parts of the the final study of the building services has to be made
structure when mixed with other materials. earlier than in conventional construction, but this could
be seen equally as an advantage.
A major advantage of precasting is that the
manufacturing process is performed under controlled For wall structures precast concrete offers considerable
working conditions in a factory environment. Material advantages over masonry or lightweight construction by
handling is optimised by the industrialised process and allowing for rapid construction of the structure combined
quality control is centralised. The effects of weather on with improved thermal and acoustic performance.
production and quality are eliminated and the workforce
can be arranged into specialised teams to perform Precast buildings can also be erected without a fully
specific tasks. Down time can be minimised leading to enclosed perimeter protection system because perimeter
greater productivity and more economical production. handrails can be pre-installed and erected with the
precast elements.
A perceived limitation concerns the lack of structural
flexibility, the multiplicity of precast elements offered
by different manufacturers and that long lead-in times
are necessary to allow for the design and manufacture.
Such misconceptions are not justified in Australia where
most manufacturers either have in-house designers
and/or work closely with their consulting engineer to
rapidly produce concept and final design solutions to the
requirements of the project consultants. Thanks also to
computer aided design, building information modelling
(BIM) and modern production and manufacturing
techniques, flexibility combined with short delivery
times has become a major commercial advantage of
prefabrication.

One limitation of a precast skeletal frame compared with

insitu concrete is beam depth. To erect a precast frame
without falsework requires beam depths typically greater
than those of an equivalent insitu beam poured on
falsework. Although this has the potential to add to floor
Figure 1.3 Flexibility in design allows irregular Buildings

2 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

1.3 Opportunities with
prefabrication
Compared with traditional construction methods and • High performance concrete
other building materials, prefabrication as a construction High performance concretes, including high flow
method, and concrete as a material, have a number or self-compacting concrete (SCC) have been
of positive features. It is an industrialized way of developed over the last decade and have a significant
construction, with inherent advantages: beneficial impact on the production process.

• Factory made products SCC needs no or minimal vibration and thus minimises
The only way to industrialize the construction process labour requirements and creates advantages such as
is to shift the work from the site to permanent low noise level during casting, less mould pressure,
factories. Factory production means rational and rapid casting, easy casting when using dense
efficient manufacturing processes under controlled reinforcement or with thin or complicated cross-
conditions, skilled workers, repetition of actions, sections, less air pores at the surface and easy pumping.
quality surveillance, etc. Automation of production
is an area offering significant advantages. Examples High strength concrete with cylinder strength greater
already exist in Europe where preparation of the than 65MPa is common in prefabrication and most
reinforcement, assembly of moulds, concrete casting, factories are using it daily. The major benefit for
surface finishing and de-moulding is fully automated. building structures concerns the improved structural
efficiency enabling more slender elements and
• Optimum use of materials optimum use of materials.
Prefabrication has much greater potential for economy,
structural performance and durability than cast in- • Prestressing
situ construction because of the higher potential to Pre-tensioning of steel tendons, either small diameter
optimise materials in individual elements. Additives wires or compound helical strands, are often applied
and admixtures are used in the mix design to obtain in precasting due to the ability to use long-line
the specific mechanical performances needed for prestressing beds and tendons anchored by bond.
each product. Casting and compaction of the concrete This technique gives not only all the construction
is performed under controlled working conditions advantages of prestressed concrete, but also improves
with optimum equipment. The water content can be economy at manufacture because of the low labour
reduced to a minimum, and compaction and curing are input and the absence of expensive anchorage devices
done in controlled environments. and duct grouting required in post-tensioning.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 3

 • Quality cost penalty compared with shorter spans. On
The term quality has a broad meaning, the apartment buildings, precast floors can span the
final aim being to supply products and services clear distance across the apartment, allowing all walls
that meet the expectations of the customer. within the apartment to be non-loadbearing and
Prefabrication in a controlled environment offers the therefore be easily relocated or moved at any time.
customer marked advantages with respect to assuring
that the products and services provided meet their Compliance with the Code of Practice, Tilt-up and
expectations. Factory quality control consists of Precast Concrete in Building Construction, [3] requires
procedures, instructions, regular inspections, tests and buildings to be designed so that they can be dis-
the utilization of the results to control equipment, raw assembled and will lead to the ability to re-cycle
materials, other incoming materials, the production precast concrete building elements. This is already
process and the final elements. This process is usually occurring on industrial buildings where wall panels are
based on a system of self-control, with or without being re-used when buildings are extended.
supervision by a third party. The results of the process
are recorded and available to customers. • Fire resistant construction
Precast structures in reinforced and prestressed
• Good, clean architecture concrete normally have a fire resistance rating of 60
The design of a precast concrete building need not to 120 minutes or more. This is easily obtained by
be fixed by rigid concrete elements and almost every increasing the concrete cover to the reinforcement to
building can be adapted to the requirements of the comply with code requirements.
architect or the builder. Prefabrication no longer means
industrialised production of large numbers of identical • Shorter construction time
units; on the contrary, an efficient production process Projects are becoming more and more complex,
can be combined with skilled design and workmanship leading to longer construction cycles for cast insitu
to permit a modern architectural design without extra construction. Prefabrication shortens activity onsite
cost. allowing work to proceed both on and off site

• Structural efficiency • Environmentally friendly way of building Preserving

Precast concrete offers considerable scope for the environment is becoming globally increasingly
improving structural efficiency. In office buildings the important. In the context of environmental friendly
trend is to construct large open spaces. Long spans and construction, the precast concrete industry is
shallow construction depths can be obtained by using showing the way by reduced use of materials,
precast prestressed concrete for beams and floors. For reduced use of energy, increased use of recycled
car parks, precast concrete can provide occupiers with material and reduced waste at demolition.
greater parking densities, because of the large span
possibilities and fewer columns. In industrial buildings, In future, all waste materials from building sites will
perimeter walls can be loadbearing to support the be required to be recycled. In Europe some plants
roof structure and so eliminate internal wall framing. are already working as a closed production system, in
In structures such as medium density apartment which all waste material is processed and reused. This
buildings, wall panels can be loadbearing to support is being driven by the requirement to account for life-
precast floors, eliminating column and beam framing cycle costing in establishing green energy credentials.
systems.
• Appearance and surface finishing
• Flexibility and adaptability Precast concrete components can be produced with
Certain types of buildings are frequently required a wide variety of finishes. These range from carefully
to be adaptable to the user’s changing needs. The moulded surfaces to high quality visual concrete.
solution to this problem lies in designing a building Considerable architectural freedom and range of
that can accommodate future renovations or expression can be obtained. This technique is called
refurbishment without demolition of the structure. architectural precast concrete, to indicate that the
The most suitable solution to this is to create a large material and the way of production and application
free internal space. This is possible with precast floors contribute to the architectural and aesthetic function
that can span 12-16 metres without a significant of the project.

4 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

• Transport and site erection • Building services
Transportation of precast elements to site is normally by Building service requirements can be integrated into
truck with the majority of precast elements being used the precast building system. Elements can be provided
within a few 10’s of kilometres of the manufacturing with a variety of holes, fixings can be cast in the units,
location. The maximum economical distances for and in some instances non-structural finishes can be
transport will vary depending on the type and incorporated and erected with the precast element.
weight of elements, traffic infrastructure, commercial Pre-glazed façade elements are a good example of this.
competition etc but can range up to several hundred
or more kilometres. There are limitations on the size of Precasting also offers certain advantages with respect
the elements that can be transported and these must to building performance. For example, thermal mass
be established before commencing the final design. of concrete is being used to store thermal energy in
hollow core floors, leading to substantial savings on
The erection procedure is closely related to the heating and cooling costs.
maximum weight of the elements and depends on
accessibility to the site and the capacity of the lifting
crane. Establishing the maximum possible weight
and size of the elements requires close coordination
with the proposed erection process and should be
determined before commencing the final design.

Figure 1.4 Hollowcore slabs used for heating and cooling

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 5

 1.4 Quality assurance and
product certification
Quality assurance and plant certification are important In Australia there are currently no specific quality
items in prefabrication. They are a response to an ever- assurance and plant certification programmes available.
increasing demand from the market place for quality of The procedures to be followed for the quality control
products and services. are normally based on ISO 9001 standards. The Precast
Prestressed Concrete Institute, USA, [4] has published
Quality assurance and quality control of precast concrete quality control manuals for plants and production of
elements are based on two levels: an in-house quality precast and prestressed concrete elements. The fib
assurance programme with continuous in-house control, Commission on prefabrication has published a Guide
and plant certification with quality control supervised to good practice on ‘Quality Assurance of Hollow Core
by an independent body. Slab Floors’ [5] and the fib Bulletin 41 ‘Treatment of
Imperfections in Precast Structural Elements’ [6].
Quality control requires much more than achieving
concrete strength. Many other factors are involved in the
control of quality of precast concrete products. Some of
the most important include:
• Completeness of work orders.
• Clarity of the drawings and specification for
preparation of the shop drawings.
• Testing and inspection of the materials selected for
use.
• Accurate manufacturing equipment.
• Proportioning and adequate mixing of concrete.
• Handling, placing and consolidation of concrete.
• Curing of concrete.
• Control of dimensions and tolerances.
• Handling, storing, transportation and erection of
members.

6 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
AND PROCESS

2.1 Design considerations

Before commencing a design in precast concrete the
possibilities, restrictions, and advantages of precast
concrete including the design process, manufacture, In this Chapter
transport and erection and serviceability stages should
have been considered by the project team. 2.1 Design considerations 7
2.1.1 Safe design 8
The project design team should make themselves aware 2.1.2 Respect the specific design
of the product information that is available from the philosophy 8
precasting industry. This will ensure that all parties are
2.1.3 Modulation 8
aware of the preferred methods to be adopted in all
phases of the project, leading to maximum efficiency 2.1.4 Standardization 9
and benefit. This is particularly important with the 2.1.5 Detailing 10
manufacturing and erection stages. It should be born
2.1.6 Dimensional deviations 10
in mind that in the case of prefabrication it is difficult
to make additions or changes once construction has 2.1.7 Industrialization of the process 11
started. 2.2 Design considerations in moderate
seismic areas 12
It is also very important to realize that the best design for 2.2.1 Structural simplicity 12
a precast concrete structure is arrived at if the structure
2.2.2 In plan uniformity 13
is conceived as precast from the very outset and is not
merely an adaption of a traditional cast in-situ building. 2.2.3 In-height uniformity 13
2.2.4 Torsional resistance and stiffness 14
The major benefits of a precast concrete solution will be
2.2.5 Connections 14
met when at the conceptual design stage the following
points are considered: 2.2.6 Infills partitions and claddings 15
2.2.7 Foundations 15
2.3 Design process 16
2.3.1 Design team 16
2.3.2 Concept design 16
2.3.3 Design development 17
2.3.4 Final design 18

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 7

 2.1.1 Safe design 2.1.2 Respect the specific design
The safe design of the structure requires consideration philosophy
of a broad range of objectives including practicability, One of the most important objectives of this Design
aesthetics, cost and functionality. Each of these need to Guide is to explain the specific design philosophy of
be balanced against the requirements to produce a safe precast structures, since it is the key to efficient and
design. economical construction.

Safe design means that early in the design process of Generally in all cases the objective of the design team
a building, control measures need to be implemented is to develop a structural system characterized by
to identify workplace hazards during the construction structural simplicity and geometric clarity, providing
and life of the building and to eliminate or minimise, short and direct paths for the transmission of the vertical
so far as is reasonably practicable, the risks associated and horizontal actions, thus minimizing uncertainties
with those hazards. Managing this risk is a systematic concerning the modelling, analysis, dimensioning and
process that is usually easier and cheaper to achieve detailing for the construction. This can be obtained by;
at the design stage than trying to make changes later • Optimising the spans for each element.
when the hazards become real risks in the workplace. • Minimising the number of building elements.
• Using simple lateral restraining systems.
Precast concrete construction can be a high risk • Providing for structural integrity.
process that requires serious consideration of these
issues by all relevant people involved in the work, Structural simplicity in turn, is best characterized
including the principal contractor, designers, engineers, by uniformity and regularity in the geometrical
prefabricators, and erectors. configuration of the structural system in plan and
elevation. Load transfer should be avoided or otherwise
Safe design starts at the concept design stage when limited and if required specially treated at one level.
consideration needs to be given to materials, methods
of construction, maintenance and eventual demolition
or dismantling. This topic is discussed in detail in the
2.1.3 Modulation
Code of Practice, Safe Design of Structures [38] and in Although modulation, designing the building on a
AS3850. [35] rigid module, can be an economic factor in designing
and constructing buildings, it should not be the over-
riding factor. The precasting industry in Australia has
developed in response to architectural requirements
and few buildings are constructed to a rigid module.
Grid layouts and dimensions are usually based on site
limitations or car park dimensions.

8 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

2.1.4 Standardization Wall elements usually have a range of standard
thicknesses but the height and width are flexible within
Standardization and modulation are often used to mean certain limits that are dictated by transportation or
the same. In prefabrication they are significantly different. erection. Facades are always designed individually for
Section profiles and details can be standardised without each project but wall panels for industrial buildings are
being limited to a set dimensional module. sometimes available in standard dimensions. Within
limits, wall thicknesses have little influence on the
Standardization of products and processes is wide erected cost of the wall. It is usually more economical
spread in prefabrication. Precast manufacturers have to provide extra thickness with less reinforcement than
standardized their components by adopting a range of the opposite.
preferred cross-sections for each type of component
and all Manufacturers have their own detailing manuals, In addition to the already mentioned components, the
for example the Hollow Core Concrete ‘Detailing Manual’. precast industry also produces other purpose-designed
[29] Standardization is generally limited to connection elements, for example stairs and landings, balconies,
details, cross-sectional dimensions and geometry, but special shaped sections, etc.
seldom to the length of the units. Typical standard
elements for buildings are walls, columns, beams and Standardization constitutes an important economic
floor or roof slabs. factor in prefabrication. Repetition resulting from
standardisation has a beneficial effect when
Standard products are cast in existing moulds. Each manufacturing any series of identical elements, resulting
precast manufacturer will have a preferred range in a significant reduction of the cost of moulds and
of dimensions for each element cross-section that labour input per element.
combined with variations in reinforcement content will
provide the full range of required capacities.

The designer can establish the required length of

the element and then select the dimensions and
corresponding load bearing capacity. Information on
preferred cross-section dimensions can be found in
product catalogues from the precast manufacturer. The
‘Precast Concrete Handbook’ [2] also provides guidance
for establishing section dimensions and capacities.

Figure 2.1 Common examples of standard cross-sections

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 9

 2.1.5 Detailing 2.1.6 Dimensional deviations
A good design in precast concrete should use details There will be inevitable differences between the specified
that are as simple as possible. Connection details that dimensions and the actual dimensions of the elements
are too elaborate or difficult to implement should be and the finished building. These deviations, often referred
avoided as they are expensive and time consuming on to as tolerances, must be recognized and allowed for.
site. Precast concrete is generally manufactured with relatively
small dimensional variations, but designers should take
In terms of this Design Guide the following definitions a realistic view of dimensional variability. It is essential
are used. to consider this from the very outset and to discuss
• Joint. The interface between two discrete precast tolerances as early as possible with the precast producer.
elements, or between a concrete element and
some other portion of the structure. Dimensional variations occur at both the precasting plant
• Connection. Method by which one or more concrete and on site.
or steel elements are joined together to transfer
loads and/or provide stability. Production tolerances at the plant include dimensional
• Fixings or fitments. The hardware components deviations of the products, non-linearity, non-flatness,
of all connections including bolts, washers, weld non- orthogonal cross-section, camber deviations of
plates and anchors. prestressed elements, position of cast-in fixings, etc.

Site tolerances include variations on the setting out of

construction axis and levels. In addition, during erection,
deviations will occur with respect to position and
alignment of the elements.

Figure 2.2 shows the relationship between the various

deviations and how they interact within the total building.
Manufacturing, setting-out and erection tolerances all
need to be taken into account in the total building.

Information concerning allowable tolerances can be

found in the ‘Precast Concrete Handbook’ [2] and relevant
Australian Standards [7].

Figure 2.2B Combination of construction tolerances

10 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

2.1.7 Industrialization of the process

Precast concrete production should be based on

industrialization with the objective to minimise labour
requirements. This is partly influenced by the design.
For example:
• Standardise components and details to enable
standardization of the production process. This
allows simultaneous manufacture of elements for
a range of projects.
• Detail elements such that they can be set-up,
poured and de-moulded within a 24 hour period. It
is often more economical to simplify and use extra
material if it results in more efficient production
and mould utilisation.
• Use prestressing to enable long-line production of
elements.
• Simplify reinforcement to minimise labour and set-
up time.
• Avoid complex details that require high labour
input and tight tolerances.
• Simplify documents to help avoid mistakes. Shop
drawings should be standardised so that each type
of element is presented in a similar way for every
project.
• Avoid last minute modifications that affect the
production planning and can lead to mistakes.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 11

 2.2 Design considerations in
moderate seismic areas
Although this document does not cover specific 2.2.1 Structural simplicity
earthquake design requirements, most areas of
Australia are subject to mild to moderate earthquakes. Structural simplicity and geometrical clarity of a structural
This means that buildings are likely to be subjected to system is essential for providing direct or alternative paths
lateral displacement and induced forces and designers for the transmission of the seismic loads. The uncertainties
should take this into consideration when conceiving in the modeling, analysis, dimensioning, detailing and
and detailing a building. This is important for precast prediction of the seismic response of the structure are
structures as the seismic response of an assembly of minimised with a simple structural system.
discrete precast elements is quite different to that of
a monolithic structure. It is therefore important in the Structural simplicity is characterized by the uniformity and
conceptual design to incorporate some basic earthquake regularity in configuration of the structural system in plan
design principles. Doing so, will in most cases satisfy the and/or elevation as shown in Figure 2.3.
fundamental requirements of non-collapse and damage
limitation, within acceptable costs and to meet the
requirements of the BCA [10]. A more detailed coverage
of this topic is given in the fib technical report, ‘Precast
Buildings in Seismic areas – practical aspects’ [8].

Where seismic design becomes the critical design case a

more detailed analysis in terms of actions and behaviour
of the structure must be carried out by the structural
engineer. However, at the conceptual design stage it is
essential that the following points are considered. These
concepts apply equally to all structural systems and not
just to precast concrete.

Figure 2.3 Two schematic examples of structural simplicity

12 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

2.2.2 In plan uniformity 2.2.3 In-height uniformity
Uniformity in plan is affected by the geometrical For a building to be characterized as regular in elevation
configuration of the building which in turn is imposed by all lateral resisting systems such as cores, structural
architectural aspects. However re-entrant corners, edge walls, or columns in frame systems, should run without
recesses and non-uniform shapes should be avoided interruption from their foundations to the top of the
or otherwise limited and specially treated. To minimise building.
torsional effects the centre of mass and centre of stiffness
should be closely symmetrical in plan with respect to two Both the lateral stiffness and the mass of the individual
orthogonal axis. levels should remain constant or reduce gradually
with height. A reduction in stiffness at a single level,
The maximum building’s length to width ratio should particularly ground level, should be avoided. This is
not be greater than about 4:1. In this respect, it may be commonly known as a ‘soft storey’ as shown in Figure
necessary to subdivide the entire structure into dynamically 2.4.
independent units by means of seismic joints.
A natural flow of forces should be ensured by avoiding
In-plan uniformity and regularity leads to the uniform staggered beams, or worse, staggered columns.
distribution of the structural elements in plan and reduces
possible torsional effects.

Figure 2.4 Building examples of soft storey ground floors and soft storey upper floors to be avoided

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 13

 2.2.4 Torsional resistance and 2.2.5 Connections
stiffness The connections in precast buildings are often designed
Each structural system should be able to resist seismic only for gravity loads without any consideration of lateral
actions in two orthogonal directions by providing similar sway. Such connections can therefore be very vulnerable
resistance and stiffness in both directions. to lateral displacement due to seismic events. For this
reason all connections should be designed for ductility
Torsional irregularities should be avoided as much as so they have post-yielding capacity under load reversal.
possible. In all cases, special care should be given to the Cast-in fixings in particular are vulnerable and should
position of the lift-shafts and staircases. These parts of never be the weak link. They should be designed in
the building which are usually provided by structural walls accordance with the capacity design method.
around their area contribute significantly to the torsional
behavior of the structural system. Figure 2.5 Lack of concrete confinement in connections, short support
lengths, weak or missing dowels, and unsatisfactory
The analysis and observation of structures in past overturning restraints of beams are frequently the cause
earthquakes has identified a group of common causes of of collapse.
damage as follows;
• Soft storey ground or upper floors due to discontinuity In the case of precast floors an adequately reinforced
of stiffness. (Fig. 2.4) concrete structural topping should cover and connect the
• Asymmetrical positioning of lateral bracing elements. floor elements in order to guarantee a diaphragm action.
(Fig. 2.5) Diaphragms also need to be adequately tied into the
• Short columns due to unintended restraint, for shear walls or frames especially where openings such as a
example by spandrels. (Fig. 2.6) stair core may make these connections difficult.
• Poor connections of floors to walls and lift shafts and
the like. (Fig 2.7) In precast braced wall buildings, such as single storey
• Inability of the floor to act as a diaphragm to distribute industrial buildings, it is recommended that the wall-to-
horizontal loads to the lateral restraining elements. roof connections are designed to accommodate lateral
displacement without failure. These connections are
particularly sensitive to unintended loads from deflections
of the steel roof diaphragm or thermal movement.

Experience from past earthquakes shows that inadequate

connection details between cladding panels and the
corresponding structural elements can lead to collapse
of the panels during the seismic event. (Fig 2.7) where
external wall panel connections failed due to their inability
to accommodate in-plane displacement.

Figure 2.5 Shear wall configurations to be avoided due to the fact that they are not symmetrical in plan with respect to two orthogonal axes.

14 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

2.2.6 Infills partitions and claddings 2.2.7 Foundations
When designing precast structures and particularly frame In seismic situations, the interaction of the soil with
systems the interaction of non-structural secondary the superstructure should be carefully studied. The
elements such as infills, partitions and claddings under response of a building to earthquakes is very dependent
seismic action should be given particular attention. The on the founding conditions. Generally, the design and
torsional response of the structure can be changed by construction of the footings should ensure that the
these elements providing unintended stiffness. whole building is subject to a uniform seismic excitation.

Generally, non-structural secondary elements need to

be connected with the structural elements in a way
that they will not affect the anticipated response of the
structure during the seismic event.

Appropriate measures should be taken to avoid brittle

failure of secondary elements and special care should be
given to the detailing of their connections.

In the case of rigid infills, the possible shear failure of

columns under shear forces induced by the diagonal
strut action of the infills should be taken into account.
(Fig 2.6)

Figure 2.7 In-plane failure of cladding panel connections

Figure 2.6 Building example with column failure due to spandrel infills

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 15

 2.3 Design process
The design process for a building has a great influence 2.3.1 Design team
on the success of the subsequent construction and final
product. There are a number of ways of facilitating the In all cases the project design team should consist of at
design and the construction process but all start with least the Client or building owner, Architect, Structural
a client who identifies the need for a building and Engineer, Services Engineer, other specialist consultants
prepares a brief based on quantifiable requirements and possibly a Cost Planner and Project Manager.
such as space and budget. This process is the same for
all type of building structures. Precast concrete construction lends itself to some
form of ‘design and construct’ process. From a precast
The brief, prepared by the client or his representative manufacturers point of view this is the preferred
should set out the type of building required, the option due to particularities from both architectural
proposed method of procurement, budget constraints, and structural point of view caused by the precast
program requirements and any other client issues construction technique. This in turn leads to the
related to the proposed building. recognition that from the very beginning of the project
the design team should include input on precast
From here there are numerous ways of proceeding with concrete design and precasting techniques. Precast
the design and construction of the building ranging manufacturers with access to their own designers may
from the traditional full design and tender process via become part of the design team and carry out the
an architect as the principal consultant through to the structural design of the precast elements under the
appointment of a builder/project manager to ‘design and direction of the Project Structural Engineer.
construct’ the building. Contractual arrangements under
a ‘design and construct’ process can vary considerably Irrespective of the procurement arrangement the
design process of any building can be divided into three
Irrespective of the delivery method, a project design separate phases as follows.
team needs to be established to design and document • Concept design.
the building. • Design development.
• Final design.

2.3.2 Concept design

Concept design, or schematic design, is usually
based on vague and limited information and initial
structural design should therefore be simple quick and
conservative without being heavy handed. Detailed
analysis of framing systems or elements is not warranted
as the final form of the building is almost certainly still
evolving.

Ideally, if precast concrete is being considered for the

structural system a decision in principle should be made
to this effect as part of this phase. This then allows future
decisions to be based around the unique attributes of
prefabricated construction. Sufficient structural design
needs to be carried out to ensure that the concepts
proposed are feasible.

16 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

2.3.3 Design development For other building layouts the structural system could
range from a braced wall system for single storey
The design development phase is where the concepts structures to a loadbearing wall system for a wall
that evolved in first stage are developed in more structure or moment resistant frames for an open plan
detail. Architectural sketches of the building will have structure.
been produced showing a general layout of the floors
with possible locations of the fixed vertical elements Fourth step: A preliminary layout is prepared that shows
including shear walls, stair and lift shaft walls etc. the preferred dimensions of the precast elements.
Information about preliminary design of precast
On the basis that the structure of the building is to be components with regard to load and span is available
precast concrete the following stages in developing the in the Precast Concrete Handbook [2], the Hollowcore
design for the structure are recommended. They are flooring technical manual [33] and catalogues and
exemplified on a simple office building given in figure technical brochures from precast manufacturers.[29]
2.8.
Fifth step: The preliminary structural concept is
First step: The various structural options for column and presented to the design team for review and costing as
wall locations established as part of the concept design required.
are reviewed and confirmed.
Note that the building in this example has a layout
Second step: Once the preferred wall and column that is not ideal to resist seismic actions. If this were a
locations are finalised a structural system and requirement, serious consideration would need to be
appropriate structural grid can be determined. given to providing a seismic movement joint across the
re-entrant corner to split the building into two separate
Third step: Methods of providing horizontal stability are structures.
investigated. This will depend on the type of structural
system. For the example given, a skeletal frame braced
by shear walls is the logical solution. The façade cladding
should be investigated and recommendations provided.

9m to 16m

Figure 2.8 Example of possible floor layouts for an office building

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 17

 2.3.4 Final design As part of the manufacturing and erection process for
precast buildings, shop drawings and erection designs
The final design phase is where the chosen preliminary are prepared, usually by the precast manufacturer and
scheme is designed and detailed. Where precast erector.
manufacturers are part of the project team and have
access to their own designers the final design may Individual shop drawings of all precast concrete
include two separate but integrated sets of documents. elements are provided by the precast manufacturer
In this case the structural design of the precast elements to allow the element to be checked by the designers
would be carried out by the precast manufacturer before manufacture. Regulatory authorities [3] as well
under the direction of and in accordance with design as Australian Standards [35] have specific requirements
information provided by the project consulting engineer. for shop drawings. Shop drawings are the responsibility
This requires discussion and agreement between the of the precast manufacturer and are not part of the
two parties to clearly establish the split up of work. If the building design documentation.
design is split it is important that the project consulting
engineer fully coordinates the overall design to ensure Precast concrete buildings are assembled from a series
that it complies with the project design criteria. of discrete elements so they usually require temporary
support or bracing during erection. A separate detailed
Prior to issuing the final structural design the documents design is prepared that determines the erection
should be reviewed to ensure the following. sequence and calculates the bracing requirements for
• That the final documents have been coordinated each element. There are OHS regulatory requirements
to comply with all architectural and other [3] [35] that specify that this design is to be carried out
requirements. by a temporary works or erection engineer. If the project
• The project is fully designed and detailed. It must has special requirements for construction sequence or
be adequately documented by way of drawings other matters that may affect the erection then these
and specifications to allow the structure to be requirements must be clearly detailed on the project
costed and built. consulting engineer’s drawings.
• Confirmation that the design computations and
drawings have been checked in accordance with Erection design of precast concrete buildings is a
quality assurance procedures. specialist field that requires a practical understanding
of both the construction process and OHS issues and
The conclusion of this stage is provision of a detailed is not covered by this Design Guide. Further details can
design that meets the requirements of each member of be obtained in the Code of Practice, Tilt-up and Precast
the design team. The degree of documentation should Concrete in Building Construction, [3] and AS3850 [35].
be such that permit applications can be submitted,
pricing finalised and construction started.

18 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

3 PRECAST BUILDING
CONCEPTS

3.1 General In this Chapter

3.1 General 19
Every construction material and system has its own
characteristics which to a greater or lesser extent 3.2 Structural systems 20
influence the layout, span length, construction depth, 3.2.1 Braced wall structures 20
stability system, etc. This is also the case for precast
3.2.2 Skeletal frame structures 22
concrete, not only in comparison to steel, timber and
masonry structures, but also with respect to cast in-situ 3.2.3 Loadbearing wall structures 23
concrete. Theoretically, all joints between the precast 3.2.4 Cellular structures 24
units could be made in such a way that the completed
3.2.5 Hybrid or mixed structures 24
precast structure has the same monolithic behaviour
as a cast in-situ structure. However this concept of 3.3 Applications of precast structural
emulating insitu concrete, is the wrong approach and systems 25
one which is generally very labour intensive and costly. 3.3.1 Residential buildings 25
3.3.2 Offices and commercial buildings 26
If the full advantages of precast buildings are to be
3.3.3 Hotels 27
realized, the structure should be conceived according to
its specific design philosophy: long spans, appropriate 3.3.4 Hospitals 27
stability concept, simple details, etc. Designers should 3.3.5 Educational buildings 28
from the very outset of the project consider the
3.3.6 Sports halls and gymnasia 28
possibilities, restrictions and advantages of precast
concrete, its detailing, manufacture, transport, erection 3.3.7 Industrial buildings, warehouses 28
and serviceability stages before completing a design. 3.3.8 Shopping centres 29
3.3.9 Car park buildings 29
3.3.10 Grandstands 30

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 19

 3.2 Structural systems
When looking at the precast concrete industry, there 3.2.1 Braced wall structures
are apparently a large number of technical systems and
solutions for precast buildings. This is often a matter of Braced wall structures are designed and constructed in
confusion and distrust for designers who are not familiar a number of ways, the differences being in the manner
with precast concrete, and consider it an insurmountable in which the wall is stabilised, and secondly in the type
handicap to precast design. However, they all belong to of roof structure. The most common is where the walls
a limited number of basic structural systems, of which are both loadbearing and shear walls and support
the design principles are more or less identical. In a a lightweight roof structure. Stability is provided by
similar manner with an insitu concrete building there are bracing the roof to transfer lateral actions to the shear
many solutions, the aim is to provide a system which is walls. A variation of this is where the loadbearing
simple and sensible. walls cantilever from the foundations to provide lateral
stability. Where stability is provided by a complete portal
Consequently, the designer does not need know details frame system the walls can be non-bearing cladding
of all commercial systems to design a project in precast panels, spanning either vertically or horizontally. Wall
concrete, but only the basic principles of precast panels are usually solid, but hollowcore or double Tee
structures. sections can be used.
Some details need not be considered at the initial
design stage but can be resolved in conjunction with the These systems are particularly suited to use on single
precast manufacturer during finalisation of the design. storied buildings but are equally applicable to the top
floor of low to medium rise buildings with a light weight
The most common basic types of precast concrete roof structure. Braced wall structures give a high degree
structural systems are: of flexibility by providing large structure free areas and
• Braced wall structures. combine the advantages of loadbearing walls with the
• Skeletal frame structures. long span capabilities of the steel roof structure. The
• Loadbearing wall structures. individual structural wall elements are well suited to
• Cellular structures. rational and rapid production and erection and give the
• Hybrid or mixed structures. architect a wide choice of fenestration and finishes.

In practice most buildings comprise a combination of Detailed information on braced wall structures is given
the above basic structural types and are completed by in Chapter 6.
using a range of precast elements for the construction
of walls, floors, roofs and façades. Similar concepts can be used on residential buildings
as shown in figure 3.3 where loadbearing wall panels
The selection of a structure for a given project is support a metal framed roof structure which in turn is
based on a number of parameters related to the type, braced to provide lateral stability. The slab-on-ground
occupancy, the needed spans and grids, the applied is often poured and tied into the walls after erection of
solution for the façades, the required fire resistance, the structure.
available lifting capacity during erection, etc. Each of
the above parameters will have an optimum structural
solution and each need to be weighed against the others
in making the final choice.

20 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

Figure 3.1 Horizontal cladding structure Figure 3.2 Braced wall structures

Figure 3.3 Braced wall structure for residential building

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 21

 3.2.2 Skeletal frame structures This is very important in shopping centres, parking
structures, sporting facilities and office buildings. The
Precast skeletal frames consist of a series of columns, skeletal structural concept gives great freedom in
beams and floor slabs assembled and connected to form planning of floor areas that are not hampered by load-
a robust skeletal structure able to support and transfer bearing walls. The individual structural units are suited
vertical and horizontal actions to the foundations. to rational production and erection processes and the
Skeletal structures are most commonly used for low to skeletal concept gives the architect a wide choice for
medium rise buildings of up to 15 storeys. The limiting the facade cladding.
factor for height is not so much technical restrictions
but cranage, material handling and competition with Since the load-bearing system of a skeletal structure is
sophisticated formwork systems that have become very normally independent of the mechanical and electrical
cost effective on high-rise buildings. services and partition walls etc. the buildings are easy
to adapt to changes in use, new functions and technical
Horizontal stiffness and lateral stability can be provided innovations.
in a number of ways. For buildings up to 2 to 3 storeys
with few walls, the structural system can be based on Detailed information on skeletal structures is given in
the cantilever action of the columns, which are fixed Chapter 7.
into the foundations. The most efficient skeletal frame
solution irrespective of the number of storeys is in braced
structures where the lateral stability is provided by stair
or lift shafts or shear walls. In this way, connection
details between beams on columns can be designed as
pinned, greatly simplifying the design and construction.

Maintaining stability of the structure during erection

of the precast is important and erection design
requirements may determine the details used.

Skeletal structural systems are very suitable for multi-

storied buildings requiring a high degree of flexibility.
This is mainly due to the ability to use large spans and to
achieve open spaces without interfering walls.

Figure 3.4 Cantilevered precast skeletal frame Figure 3.5 Braced precast skeletal frame

22 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

3.2.3 Loadbearing wall structures Precast lift and stair shafts are common on commercial
buildings and where necessary individual wall panels
Loadbearing wall structures are obviously ideal for can be connected on site to form ‘box shafts’ or in-plane
buildings with many external and internal walls. Precast shear walls.
bearing walls are also used as cross-walls, walls in stair
and lift shafts, cores and load-bearing facades. This is a Loadbearing wall structures are also suitable for multi-
common form of construction with various combinations storey commercial buildings. With building widths of
of floor to floor or multi-height panels being used. up to 16 metres precast floors can clear span between
loadbearing wall facades on each side of the building.
Precast walls offer the advantage of speed of Walls can be single or multi-level and are often
construction, prefinished surfaces, acoustic insulation architectural panels acting as and both loadbearing and
and fire resistance. shear walls.

Precast bearing wall systems are mostly used in residential Maintaining stability of the structure during erection
construction, both for low and high-rise apartments. of the precast is important and erection design usually
Indeed, the ideal solution on apartments is to build free requires all walls to be braced during construction.
open spaces between the load-bearing perimeter walls
of each apartment and to use light partition walls for the Detailed information on loadbearing wall structures is
internal layout. (Fig 3.6) This offers the possibility to later given in Chapter 8
change the interior layout without major costs.

Figure 3.6 Low-rise apartment building with load-bearing Figure 3.7 High-rise apartment building with loadbearing walls
cross-walls and corridor walls and precast floors

Figure 3.8 Load-bearing facades and clear-span floors

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 23

 3.2.4 Cellular structures 3.2.5 Hybrid or mixed structures
Cellular units are mainly used for parts of a building, The term hybrid construction, or mixed construction,
for example lift or stair shafts, bathrooms and kitchens, is used to describe a type of structure where precast
hotels, prisons and occasionally as modules to make up concrete is used in combination with other building
complete buildings. For example an apartment building materials, such as cast in-situ concrete, steel, masonry or
can be assembled from a series of prefabricated modules timber. The term must not be confused with “composite”
complete with internal finishes. construction, where structural performance relies on the
interaction between two separate materials. Nor does
The advantage of the system lies in the speed of it apply to the common situation where for example
construction, and industrialisation of the manufacture. precast buildings may contain a mixture of loadbearing
For cellular units containing non-structural finishes wall panels and skeletal frames.
these can be completed at the precasting plant and
delivered to site as a finished unit. The disadvantage is The use of the term in this Design Guide applies to
that the size and weight of the unit is often limited by the use of mixed materials within the same structure.
transport and erection considerations. Common examples are; steel frames supporting precast
floors, masonry walls supporting precast floors, precast
walls or beams supporting metal deck floors, precast
walls supporting insitu floors and insitu lift or stair shafts
combined with precast skeletal frame systems. A further
refinement is where a small part of a precast concrete
project may be of some other type of structure.

Hybrid structures are becoming more and more

common and in response to the more complex demands
of modern architecture. The choice of structure for all or
part of a building should be driven by the best solution
for individual parts combined with an overall assessment
of the buildability of the structure.

Most precast buildings will contain some form of hybrid

structure and frequently the most economical structural
solution involves mixing precast with other structural
materials for at least some part of the building.

Detailed information on hybrid or mixed construction

Figure 3.9 Precast concrete cellular systems
is given in chapter 8 and in the fib bulletin 19 ‘Precast
concrete in mixed construction’ [9].

Figure 3.10 Hybrid construction, steel frame roof, timber floors and precast walls

24 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

3.3 Applications of precast
structural systems
The application of the above-described basic structural but prestressed hollowcore slabs, beam-and-infill
systems in buildings is closely related to the type of and prestressed solid slabs are attractive options and
building, which in turn depends on the occupancy. For there are numerous buildings being constructed as
example, housing, offices, commerce, industry, etc. In complete precast structures. Erection times for such
the following, the criteria used to help choose the most precast buildings are considerably faster than for mixed
appropriate precast system for each type of building are construction of precast and insitu.
given. An overlying consideration is the possible need
for future changes or extension of the building. In individual housing, floor systems usually have small
to moderate spans of 4 to 8 metres, light imposed
3.3.1 Residential buildings actions (2kPa) and usually no fire rating requirement.
Other criteria in the choice of the type of flooring are the
Residential buildings contain many internal and presence of large openings in the floors, the requirement
external walls and can be designed as loadbearing for a flat smooth soffit, the available lifting capacity on
wall structures where the walls also act as shear walls. the project and building tradition, etc.
This is a common form of construction and many such
buildings have been constructed in Australia, ranging The use of insitu concrete floors combined with precast
from single dwellings to apartments of 2 to 30 or more walls on individual houses does not seem logical and
floor levels. With increasing emphasis being placed runs counter to the advantages of speed provided by a
on energy consumption, the use of insulated concrete precast system. In these cases prestressed hollowcore
sandwich panels in houses and apartments is becoming floor slabs, with or without structural toppings are more
common. suited to the longer spans and or heavier loading where
moderate lifting capacity is available to handle the
For apartment buildings the optimum solution is a heavier units..
loadbearing cross-wall system with party walls running
across the width of the building with precast floors
spanning between. Other walls can be non-loadbearing
of preferably lightweight construction. The exterior
cladding can be precast concrete or traditional brick
masonry or any other façade material. This solution
provides excellent acoustic and fire performance and
offers the possibility to change the interior layout at a
later stage without major costs.

Alternatively, all walls within the building can be

loadbearing precast with floors normally spanning in
the direction of the shortest span. To optimise the layout
it is possible to the span the floors in different directions
within the apartment.

In apartment buildings, floor spans are typically 8 to

12 metres and large openings and offset loadbearing
walls from level to level are common. The slenderness
of the floor construction, a flat soffit and the speed of
construction are important. Insitu concrete is currently
the most common floor solution for apartment buildings
Figure 3.11 Apartment buildings with loadbearing
and shear walls

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 25

 3.3.2 Offices and commercial Reduced construction depth is an important parameter
for office buildings and beam configuration and
buildings depths should allow for services, particularly major air-
Modern offices and commercial buildings normally conditioning ducts. The traditional office building has a
require a high degree of flexibility and adaptability. The false ceiling below the soffit of the floor where beams
interior space should therefore be as open as possible. and services can be concealed. A recent innovation
Such buildings are usually conceived as skeletal frame that is becoming popular is the use of the floor system
systems with lift and stair shafts providing lateral as a thermal mass to conserve energy use and in this
stability. The facades can be constructed in any case services are often run in a false floor set above
material but lightweight glazed systems are the current the structural floor. There are several variations of this
preference. If precast architectural concrete facades are concept but all involve using the floor as a heat sink.
used they can be either load bearing or cladding panels.

The current tendency for office buildings is to create

large open spaces with floor spans of 12 metres or more.
When the total width of the building lies within these
dimensions, the most appropriate solution is to use load
bearing façades and to span the floors from one façade
to the other. (See figure 3.8) For larger buildings, the
same system is complemented by a skeletal frame of
one or more rows of internal columns and beams. The
cores provide lateral stability with precast walls acting
as both loadbearing and shear walls.

For the longer floor spans, hollow core slabs are the most
suited floor type because of the large span capacity,
slender floor thickness and ease of construction. There
are a range of slab thicknesses available for different
spans but it is common to have hollow core units of up
to 400 mm thickness with a design capacity of 5kPa or
more on spans up to about 16 metres.

Figure 3.12 Example of commercial building with skeletal frame

26 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

3.3.3 Hotels 3.3.4 Hospitals
Hotels are a mixture between an office building and These types of buildings have similar requirements to
apartment building and the optimum structure often office buildings but imposed loads tend to be larger,
reflects this mixture. Areas containing hotel rooms are in the order of 5-8kPa. The projects are often large,
ideally suited to a loadbearing wall structure, such as containing a significant service component and lend
described previously for apartments, while front of themselves to industrialized systems. To accommodate
house and service areas are more suited to a skeletal future changes in technology and service requirements
frame structure as, described for an office building. clear open structures are desirable. Provision is often
Building geometry will usually dictate the solutions. For made within the floor system for future changes to
example if large open areas are required on the lower penetrations.
levels it may be more economical to use a skeletal
frame full height than to provide a transition level to a Such buildings are usually conceived as skeletal frame
wall frame structure on the upper levels. Also a skeletal systems with long span floors and stabilizing cores.
frame provides for future flexibility that is limited with a
wall frame structure.

Figure 3.13 Hotel building with open lower levels and Figure 3.14 Hospital building
loadbearing upper levels

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 27

 3.3.5 Educational buildings 3.3.6 Sports halls and gymnasia
Educational buildings cover a range of different If single level, these building are similar to industrial
occupancies and uses, from classrooms, administrative buildings and typically are conceived as braced wall
areas, auditoria and laboratories. The façades are often structures. Where multi-level, they are similar to
characterized by large window openings. The buildings educational buildings, characterized by moderate to
can also range from low-rise to multi-level structures. large spans, from 8 to 16 metres or more with imposed
To cover these requirements and to allow for future loads in the range of 5kPa. Dynamic performance is
changes, multi-level educational buildings are usually critical and floor stiffness and structural damping are
either skeletal frame or loadbearing wall systems. Single the determining design factors. Skeletal frames or
storey buildings are usually braced wall structures. wall frame structures are a typical solution. As with
educational buildings selection of the floor system will
Floor spans on multi-level buildings are moderate to depend on the spans and the required performance.
large and range from 8 to 16 metres for classrooms to
more than 24 metres for auditoria. Imposed loads are in 3.3.7 Industrial buildings,
the range of 3-5kPa and dynamic performance is often
critical. Selection of the floor system will depend on the
warehouses
spans and the required performance. Industrial buildings are typically single storied with
large spans and simple roofs and facades. The buildings
are normally designed as braced wall systems with
loadbearing concrete walls that also act as shear walls.
Stability is realized by bracing the steel roof structure
to transfer lateral loads to cross walls and shear walls.
Alternative load paths should be provided in any light
roof bracing system to ensure redundancy and in many
cases The Building Code Australia [10] requires that in
the event of a fire, the external walls remain standing, or
if they fail they must fall inwards.

For very large buildings where roof bracing can become

difficult and expensive, stability can be enhanced by
provision of internal columns cantilevering from the
footings.

Figure 3.15 Educational building & auditorium

Figure 3.16 Example of braced wall system on industrial building

28 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

3.3.8 Shopping centres 3.3.9 Car park buildings
Shopping centres generally require large column-free The basic requirements for modern multi-level car
areas. If single storied, they are normally designed as parks are large open spaces with a minimum of internal
braced wall systems with loadbearing concrete walls columns, reduced constructional depth, aesthetic
similar to industrial buildings. outlook, etc. Parking and aisle dimensions dictate the
column grid with common spans being 8.4, 10.8, 12.6
Where multi-storied, these buildings may have to and 16.8 metres. They are usually designed with skeleton
perform several functions, namely car park at the frame systems, in combination with precast stair and
basement, shopping on the lower levels and offices or lift shafts acting as shear walls. In all cases the skeletal
apartments above. The structural concept is usually a frame beams span the shorter dimension. A further
combination of a skeletal structure at the car park and complexity is added by the internal geometry of the
the shopping levels and a loadbearing wall or skeletal circulation and parking space and whether the parking
structure at the above levels. Where appropriate the up- facility is in the lower part of another type of building.
most level maybe a braced wall structure.
The overall stability of car park structures of up to
about three levels is generally assured by cantilevering
columns in combination with lift shafts and stairwells.
With higher structures skeletal frames combined with
loadbearing walls acting as shear walls are used. When
parking structures are built partially or totally below
ground level, it is usual to use the floor system as a
diaphragm to brace the retaining walls.

Figure 3.17 Split level car park system

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 29

 3.3.10 Grandstands
There are many different types of grandstand, each
having their own specific requirements. A modern
tendency is for raking seating areas to be combined
with extensive corporate entertainment areas.

In their simplest form grandstands comprise radial

precast concrete skeletal frames combined with
loadbearing walls. Horizontal floors can be precast
beams with precast floor slabs and raking areas
comprise precast seating elements supported on
precast beams. Floor loads are generally in the range
of 5-10kPa and dynamic performance of the complete
structure is frequently the critical design factor. The
distance between the radial frames varies but should be
dictated by the longest economical span floor unit on
the outer perimeter.

The cantilevering roof above the grandstand and even

the beams supporting the upper level of seating are
often executed with steel beams.

Figure 3.18 Grandstand frame in precast concrete

30 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

4 PRECAST STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS

4.1 General In this Chapter

4.1 General 31
Precast structures are comprised of a small number of
different elements selected and assembled in different 4.2 Walls 32
ways to form the building structure. As shown in Chapter 4.2.1 Basic principles 32
1 the flexibility of use is such that buildings assembled
4.2.2 Design concepts 33
from similar elements can appear to be quite different.
The main structural elements are; walls, columns, beams 4.2.3 Composite wall systems 36
and floor slabs. 4.2.4 Manufacture 36
4.2.5 Erection 37
4.3 Columns 38
4.3.1 Basic principles 38
4.3.2 Design concepts 38
4.3.3 Manufacture 40
4.4 Beams 41
4.4.1 Basic principles 41
4.4.2 Design concepts 43
4.4.3 Manufacture 45
4.5 Floor slabs 46
4.5.1 General 46
4.5.2 Types of precast floor elements 46
4.5.3 Design concepts for precast floor
elements 48
4.5.4 Design of the complete floor 49
4.6 Balconies 52
4.7 Stairs 54

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 31

 4.2 Walls
4.2.1 Basic principles at the precasting plant and particularly the ability to
transport to site. Length can vary up to about 17 metres
Wall panel manufacture in Australia is characterised but typically widths should be limited to about 3.6
by the wide range of dimensions and panel profiles metres. Wider panels can be transported on special
that are used. The great success of the industry is a low-loaders but transport costs increase significantly.
result of providing complete flexibility to produce the Transport regulations vary from State to State and
architectural effect required by the clients. wall panel dimensions should be adjusted to optimise
transportation so that each load is maximised.
Besides the fast and industrialized construction, precast
walls can offer good loadbearing, acoustic and thermal Panel thickness can range from 125-350mm with 150-
properties, high fire resistance and a wide variety of 200mm being the most common. The weight of the
finishes ranging from smooth concrete to polished, panels should generally be in the range of 5-12 tonne
coloured, textured or natural stone appearance. to suit cranage and transport. Optimum panel weight
is a trade-off between cranage costs and time taken for
Wall panels with polished, coloured, textured or each lift. On low-rise projects where mobile cranes are
natural stone appearance are usually referred to as used the optimum panel weight will be at the upper end
“Architectural precast concrete”. Architectural concrete of the range and on projects where fixed tower cranes
is not covered in this Design Guide and is described in are used the optimum panel weight will be at the lower
detail in the ‘Precast Concrete Handbook’. [2] end of the range.

Precast wall elements can be either single or multi- Where high thermal performance is required insulated
storey height. The thickness is a function of requirements sandwich panels are becoming common. These have
related to structural capacity, stability, acoustic generally comprised an inner structural layer tied to an
insulation, fire resistance of the wall, the equipment outer non-structural veneer with insulation between but

Figure 4.1 Typical use of walls on a loadbearing structure

32 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

recent technical advances have led to the introduction AS3600, Section 11 [7] covers the design of two types of
of fully composite sandwich panels. walls as follows;
(a) Braced walls that are subject to in-plane load effects.
Precast walls are mainly used in industrial buildings and (b) Braced walls that are subject to simultaneous in-
housing and apartments, but also in hotels, hospitals, plane and out-of-plane load effects and un-braced or
office buildings and other similar constructions. Precast cantilevered walls.
walls are ideal for fire separating walls when joints are
filled with a suitable fire rated sealant. Neither of these categories specifically covers
Load bearing wall panels can also be used to construct lift precast wall systems that comprise discrete elements.
and stairwell shafts and can be connected after erection Loadbearing walls that have high height-to-thickness
to form composite T, L, U or box-shaped sections. Where ratios (are slender) and low in-plane compared to out-
possible the design should be based on the walls being of-plane effects (high flexure) can generally be designed
individual elements rather than trying to combine them as flexural slabs in accordance with Section 9 of
into a box. Connections between elements on site are AS3600 provided second order effects are considered.
time consuming and the cost of the fixings can become Loadbearing wall structures with low height-to-thickness
very expensive. In some exceptional cases, cell units are ratios (are stiff) and high in-plane compared to out-of-
totally precast or pre-assembled at the plant. plane effects (high axial loads) can generally be designed
as columns in accordance with Section 10 of AS3600.
The advantage of precast cores and shafts over cast in-
situ ones lies mainly in the speed of construction, quality When designing walls as deep beams a strut and
of the surface finish and the improved opportunities in tie analysis may be required. This means walls need
organizing the erection of the structure. to be thick enough to accommodate the necessary
reinforcement, particularly confinement reinforcement
at the supports.

4.2.2.1 Braced wall structures.

On Braced wall structures, (see Section 3.2.1) where wall

panels generally have large height to thickness ratios
and low vertical loads, the panels act more like flexural
members due to out-of-plane loads and eccentricity of
axial load. Second order (P-delta) effects induced by
horizontal actions need to be taken into account in the
design. The design of such wall panels is outside the
scope of AS3600 and the BCA [10]. The Concrete Institute
of Australia [11] and Cement Concrete & Aggregates
Australia [12] both have extensive publications on this
topic that include design methods and design charts.
There are now also a number of software programmes
available that are specifically written for the design of
‘tilt-up wall panels’ that take the second order effects
into account.

Axial load eccentricity should include a realistic value

for construction tolerance as well as roof framing
Figure 4.2 Example of precast core with multi-level panels eccentricity. The bending moment from eccentricity of
the roof framing can be exacerbated if the connection
4.2.2 Design concepts provides any degree of continuity, whether intentional
or not. This highlights the care required in detailing roof
There are several different methods used to design wall framing-to-wall connections to ensure that unintentional
panels. The most appropriate method is dependent on load, particularly flexure is not introduced into the wall.
the panel height to thickness ratio and the ratio of axial Figure 4.3 shows a typical elevation of a braced wall with
to flexural actions. design cases and load model for wall design.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 33

 If vertical dowel connections into ducts in the wall are The design of these wall panels is based on the
used the minimum thickness of the wall panel should principle of hinged connections between the elements.
be 125mm. For panels up to 180mm thick a single layer Wall eccentricities can be critical due to the relative
of reinforcement is generally used and above that two slenderness of the wall element. The following
layers. Note that it is usually more economical to use a eccentricities should be considered in the design of the
thicker panel with a single layer of reinforcement than to walls and the connections to the floor:
provide two layers in a thinner panel.
a) Structural eccentricities.
Overlying the above structural aspects is the Building • eccentricity of the floor support on the lower wall.
Code of Australia [10] requirement to design and • eccentricity of the load from the upper wall unit.
construct perimeter walls so they do not collapse • eccentricity of the self-weight of the panel.
outward if the supporting structure is removed by fire.
This is a performance requirement and there have been b) Eccentricities due to geometric imperfections and
a number of documents published on this topic with construction tolerances.
various solutions on how to comply. The CSIRO Division • variations in panel flatness.
of Building, Technical Report 93/2 [13] discusses this • variations of panel alignment at erection.
topic and describes the likely fire performance of one and • variations due to non-uniform grouting of horizontal
two storey buildings with precast concrete loadbearing joints.
walls or cladding. The detailed solution to meeting this
BCA performance requirement is dependent on the wall a) Structural eccentricities
height, roof framing system and building geometry.
For a precast floor simply supported on the lower wall
4.2.2.2 Loadbearing wall structures. as shown in figure 4.4, the total load is transferred to
the wall with an eccentricity efl. When the floor element
On loadbearing wall structures (see Clause 3.2.3) axial is placed without a supporting pad or mortar, (rigid
loads in wall panels are generally high compared with bearing) the location of (G + Q)floor is at about 1/3 of
in-plane and out-of-plane loads. Loads from floors and the support length. In the case of mortar or bearing
upper wall elements are also transmitted to the lower pads, the contact pressure is assumed to be uniformly
walls with a certain eccentricity and this introduces distributed and the floor load is located at the centre of
bending moments in the walls and tensile forces in the the support.
connections to the floor diaphragm.

Figure 4.3 Design cases and load model for braced wall design

34 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

 b) Eccentricities due to geometric imperfections and
construction tolerances

Allowance needs to be made for an eccentricity

introduced by bowing or lack of flatness of wall panels.
a/3 a/2
a a There are no specific code requirements but the allowable
flatness tolerance can be used as guidance. The Precast
Concrete Handbook [2] nominates a figure of 1mm/metre
height of panel.

The unfavourable effects of possible erection deviations

in the geometry of the structure and the position of
Figure 4.4 Eccentricity of floor load the loads need to be taken into account in the analysis
of members and structures. For members with axial
For precast floors with insitu toppings that provide
compression the forces resulting from any deviations
restrained at supports, the floor load is applied in two
from floor to floor as shown on Figure 4.6 need to be
steps with two different eccentricities. Gfl is the part of
taken into account.
the load which is transferred to the wall before hardening
of the in-situ concrete. The eccentricity is the same as
for simple supported floors. Qfl is the part of the loading
transferred after hardening of the in-situ concrete and is
applied at the centre of the wall. It should be noted that
these eccentricities do not take any possible positioning
tolerances into account. NA

The forces acting on the lower of a series of walls that

also supports a simply supported precast floor are
shown in Figure 4.5. The floor eccentricity in relation to
its support on the corbel is as described above and the
effective design eccentricity for the lower wall panel is NB
calculated from the sum of the individual eccentricities.
Note that the worst case of any possible positioning
tolerances should be taken into account.

es

Figure 4.6 Effect of inclination of wall panels

efl

This construction deviation induces a horizontal force

eG H at floor level that needs to be resisted by the floor
diaphragm. These deviations can also affect the design
eccentricity for individual wall panels. The allowable
tolerance deviation at each floor level can be used as a
guide to calculate H. The Precast Concrete Handbook
gives 20mm as the limit of deviation from the specified
position in plan.

The eccentricities due to tolerances and geometric

imperfections are not necessarily cumulative and careful
assessment is needed in determining design values. Once
axial load and eccentricity have been established the wall
Figure 4.5 Eccentricities on floor wall system section can be designed in accordance with AS3600.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 35

 4.2.2.3 Precast façade systems. When combining non-loadbearing precast supported
on the ground with precast supported on a floor by floor
CConcrete facades can be designed as load-bearing or basis the relative movements that can occur between
non-load-bearing walls, depending on their function the two need to be taken into account.
within the building,. Being the external face of the
building most facades will have some type of finish,
either applied after erection or preferably integral with
4.2.3 Composite wall systems
the panel. Such finishes are described in detail in the The horizontal stability, or bracing of a loadbearing
‘Precast Concrete Handbook’. [2] wall structure, is assured by means of shear wall action,
usually involving a series of individual or connected
Load-bearing façades support the vertical loads from the walls. Walls resist loads only in their own plane and may
floors and the structure above. They can also contribute need to be combined with other walls perpendicular to
to the horizontal stability of the building. Figure 3.7 their plane or with assembled core structures to provide
shows a loadbearing façade structure. The design the required stiffness. (See Fig. 4.1). Composite action of
concepts for loadbearing facades are as described in adjacent walls forming L, H, or T shapes are possible on
the previous sections. condition that the vertical joints between the panels can
transfer the required forces.
A loadbearing façade can also be composed of load
bearing spandrel panels or beams as shown in Figure 4.7. Wall panels connected to form L, H, or T shapes or box-
Here the spandrel elements act like beams, transferring shaped sections for stair or lift shafts will generally not
vertical loads to the columns. provide the same stiffness as an insitu section. This is
because the connections between elements are discrete
and result in stress concentrations and slight yielding.
This reduced stiffness needs to be considered in the
design.

Behaviour of composite wall systems is discussed in

greater detail in Chapter 5, Structural Stability.

4.2.4 Manufacture
Most precast walls are manufactured on horizontal steel
tables or casting beds. Some manufacturers use tilting
tables to allow early de-moulding but with modern
concrete mix designs, early strengths are usually
sufficient to allow lifting on a one day casting cycle
without needing to tilt the beds. Battery moulds are
rare in Australia and are only used where considerable
repetition in panel size and shape occur.
Figure 4.7 Load-bearing spandrel beams
For reasons of stability at de-moulding and handling,
minimum dimensions of lintels and mullions between
Non load-bearing façades fulfil only an enclosing windows and at panel edges are required. Figure
function. The elements are either individually fixed to 4.8 gives an example of recommended dimensions
the structure of the building or they can be supported for typical 150mm thick panels. On irregular shaped
from the ground or a load transfer element. In the first panels or where minimum dimensions are structurally
case the structure of the building supports the self- insufficient temporary strong-backs can be used to
weight of the cladding elements at each level. In the stiffen the panel to allow lifting, transport and erection.
second case the elements are stacked vertically and are
only anchored horizontally to the structure. In principle, Service ducts and electrical conduits can be incorporated
the shape of the elements can be designed without into the panel prior to casting. The dimensions for door
any restriction. Non load-bearing façade elements are openings and windows are generally unlimited and door
described in detail in the Precast Concrete Handbook [2]. and window frames are often cast-in.

36 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

 200 200

200 200
200 200

300
200 200 200
300

Figure 4.8 Recommended minimum dimension for lintels and

mullions

4.2.5 Erection
This document is not intended to cover the transport and
erection of elements. These aspects are covered in detail
by State and Commonwealth authorities. Many aspects
of erection are also covered by statutory requirements
under OH&S regulations [3] [35]. Reference should be
made to these documents to ensure compliance.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 37

 4.3 Columns
4.3.1 Basic principles with any form of construction it is desirable to keep
the columns in vertical alignment to avoid introducing
PPrecast columns can be square, rectangular or circular, eccentricity of load or transfer structures.
with the size frequently dictated by column-to-beam
connection details. Individual elements can be either The relative difficulty in providing moment capacity in
floor-to-floor height or multi-level. column-to-beam connections means that most column
connections are designed as pinned. The exception
Besides offering fast and industrialized construction, is in low rise structures where lateral stability can be
precast columns can offer a high fire resistance and a provided by cantilevering columns from the footings.
smooth and ready to paint surface finish. Textured or Column-to-column connections are typically grouted
profiled finishes can be provided where specified. dowels projecting from the lower to the upper column.
Where beams are supported on top of the column at
floor levels the dowels project through ducts in the beam
ends. An alternative is to provide a concrete or steel
corbel to allow a continuous column. These concepts
are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 6.

Figure 4.9 Precast columns in frame structure

Precast columns are mainly used in frame structures in Figure 4.10 Multi-level columns with corbels
conjunction with precast beams but can also be used
with insitu concrete floors in hybrid structures or with
wall cladding panels in braced wall structures. 4.3.2 Design concepts
The design of a precast column is the same as that for an
The column size is function of requirements related
insitu column. They are typically designed in accordance
to structural capacity, stability, and fire resistance but
with Section 10 of AS3600 for applied axial loads and
generally a minimum dimension of 400mm is adopted
bending moments that are derived from analysis.
to accommodate column to beam connections. This
minimum dimension can be obtained by providing
Where precast columns are used as part of a skeletal
corbels on smaller or rectangular columns.
frame with pinned connections, the structure is subject
to staged loading and partial continuity. It is therefore
Columns may be of constant dimension for the full height
difficult to establish the continuity and eccentrically
of the building or stepped back at intermediate levels
induced bending moments without carrying out a
to satisfy structural and architectural requirements. As
complex non-linear analysis. A non-linear analysis

38 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

should be carried out whenever the connection contains assumed to be from the column centreline to the
complex geometry or indirect load paths. For simple bearing strip under the precast floor. Once the beam
connections load eccentricities can be determined as is composite with the slab, torsion is resisted by tie bars
upper and lower bound limits as set out in the following (see Section 7.3.6) and the eccentricity of R* due to
section. In all cases the connection between column and the additional imposed actions is assumed to be from
beam also needs to be designed to resist the induced the column centreline to the outer edge of the column.
bending moments. Summing the forces and eccentricity for each case gives
the upper bound design bending moment normal to the
Confinement reinforcement within the beam connection frame.
zone is often critical and can determine the column size.
The most economical column is one that maximises In some cases, particularly for interior columns, the
the concrete strength and minimises the vertical greatest bending moment can be produced during
reinforcement. If available, concrete strengths of 65- erection where the floor is erected and screeded only
80MPa can be used and are usually specified as 56 day on one side of the beam. Beams can be propped
strengths. during erection to reduce the applied bending moment
in the column but in most cases it is more economical to
4.3.2.1 Load eccentricity normal to the frame design the column and the beam-column connection so
that no propping is required.
A bending moment is induced into the column by
eccentricity of load from the floor slab on the supported 4.3.2.2 Load eccentricity in the plane of the frame
beam. There are two cases, an interior column and beam
or an edge column and beam. A bending moment is induced into the column by
eccentricity of load from the supported beams. There
are two cases, an interior column and beam or an end
The above diagrams clearly show that the edge column column and beam.
and beam is the worst case for bending moment normal
to the frame. The applied actions at each stage of a) interior column
assembly of the frame are calculated and the appropriate
eccentricity determined. To establish the upper bound eccentricity it is generally
assumed that one beam reaction is applied at the
For R* due to the precast floor, wet screed and centreline of the column and the other at a distance
construction load, the upper bound eccentricity is of one third of the support length from the face of the

Figure 4.11 Eccentricity normal to frame

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 39

 column. Although this may seem to be conservative 4.3.3 Manufacture
it rarely penalises the column design. With minimum
dimensions, columns on low-rise buildings are Most precast columns are designed as reinforced
generously sized and on high-rise buildings axial load is concrete sections and can therefore be manufactured
the governing case. individually or in gang moulds. Pre-tensioning on a
long line bed is usually not economical and can only be
The case for erection with beam and slab on one side justified for crack control in long slender columns or on
should also be checked but this is not normally critical. columns with significant lateral loads.

b) End column Because of their robustness and the use of high strength
concrete, columns can be easily manufactured on a daily
To establish the upper bound eccentricity it is generally casting cycle.
assumed that the beam reaction is applied at a distance
of one third of the support length from the inner face of
the column.

The final column design is based on biaxial bending

using the critical bending moments about each axis.

Figure 4.12 Eccentricity in the plane of the frame

40 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

4.4 Beams
4.4.1 Basic principles infill concrete and the flooring. Unlike solid beams they
almost always need to be supported on falsework during
There are two basic types of precast beams. Solid beams erection.
and shell beams.
The width and depth of beams is a function of structural
Solid beams are usually designed to allow erection capacity, stability, and fire resistance but is often dictated
without requiring falsework and are available in various by the requirements of supporting a precast floor
profiles and dimensions. They range from rectangular system. Maximum weight for handling and transport is
to inverted T or L shape cross sections and contain all another limiting factor. Typical spans range from 4 to
of the main reinforcement within the solid section. They 16 metres with the range 6 to 9 metres being the most
can be designed to act as either composite or non- common.
composite with the floor system.
Most precast beams are used with precast floors as part
To optimise use of material and labour, beams are of a pin jointed skeletal frame structure but can also be
usually pre-stressed and manufactured on a long line used with insitu concrete floors in hybrid structures.
pre-tensioning bed The use of concrete strengths of Although beam elements usually span from column-to-
50MPa allows early de-stressing and results in fast and column many variations are possible with cantilevers
industrialized production. and infill beams used to optimise the bending moment
capacities. To this end they are frequently designed
Shell beams are composite precast members that can as partially continuous for imposed loads. The most
contain part or all of the main positive reinforcement economical solution is generally obtained by maximising
and stirrups within a minimum volume of concrete the positive bending moment capacity and minimising
for weight and ease of handling. They are generally U the required negative bending moments.
shaped in cross section and act compositely with the

Figure 4.13 Typical precast beam profiles

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 41

 Beam support on columns can be by direct bearing These concepts are discussed in greater detail in Chapter
on top of each column or by half joints on the beam 6.
ends supported on concealed corbels on the columns.
A variation is the use of proprietary concealed steel
corbels and supports cast into the beam and column.
Top bearing simplifies the provision of continuity of
negative reinforcement in the beam but where columns
run past the beams this can be obtained by passing bars
through ducts in the column.

Figure 4.14 Beam variations

Figure 4.15 Beam support

42 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

4.4.2 Design concepts They can be of any profile and the strength of the basic
beam is enhanced by incorporating the floor slab into
The design of a precast beam is the same as for any the beam as a composite profile. Being composite
other flexural section and should be in accordance with means that it is simple to provide continuity over the
Section 8 of AS3600. Where precast beams are used as supports for loads imposed after composite action is
part of a complete floor system, the structure is subject formed. This is referred to as partial continuity because
to staged loading and the beams can be provided with only the superimposed part of the total load produces
partial continuity. The segmental construction and continuity.
staged loading process of a precast structure also means
that the method of analysis is different for different Analysis of composite action requires the effective width
types of beams. of the compression flange to be determined in the same
way as for monolithic structures. Where the floor is a
4.4.2.1 Non-composite beams solid precast slab with topping the section is assumed

Non-composite beams are usually designed to span

simply supported from column to column. They are
typically rectangular and only the strength of the basic
beam is considered with the supported floor slab or any
other loads treated as imposed actions. The analysis and
design of such beams is simple and need only consider
direct and torsional loads. Support conditions and
termination of the flexural reinforcement need more
careful consideration. Where beam connections involve
vertical ducts for dowels, hairpin reinforcement round
the duct can be detailed to act as anchorage for the
flexural reinforcement along with confinement to the
vertical dowel.

4.4.2.2 Composite beams

Composite beams, whether solid or shell profiles, involve

a multi-stage analysis and a design process which
Figure 4.16 Non-composite beam & precast floor
reflects the assembly process of the precast structure.
Flange thickness

Flange width Flange width

Flange thickness

Figure 4.17 Composite beam profiles

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 43

 to be monolithic and the flange width determined in b) Analysis for loads after composite action.
accordance with AS3600, Section 8.8.2 and as shown in
figure 4.17(a). For hollowcore slabs a reduced effective The actions applied to the beam after the composite
flange thickness is used which is based on the geometry section is formed are determined. These actions are
of the cross section as shown in figure 4.17(b). usually the superimposed dead and live loads. Torsional
A more detailed discussion on this topic is given in fib loading may or may not be applicable depending on
Guide to good practice, Composite floor structures. [14] the tie reinforcement detailing between beam and floor.
The positive and negative bending moments and shear
For composite action to occur the interface between forces with the beam as a continuous member are then
the precast units and the insitu topping must be able established. Because the beam-to-column connections
to transfer the longitudinal shear forces. A roughened are designed as non-rigid only the beam is considered
interface on the precast and reinforcement across the and the influence of any columns ignored. Note that
interface is usually required. This can be determined in ‘pattern or skip loading’ on adjacent spans may produce
accordance with AS3600 Section 8.4. the worst case bending moments and give maximum
and minimum values at each location.
The analytical and design process to include composite
action and partial continuity involves the following The final design requirements for bending and shear
staged process. are a combination of a) and b). For the worst case
negative bending, the maximum values obtained from
• Beam analysis for loads before composite action. the analysis for loads after composite action are used,
• Beam analysis for loads after composite action. case b). These may be redistributed in accordance with
Section 6.2.7 of AS3600. For the worst case positive
a) Analysis for loads before composite action. bending, the maximum values obtained from the sum
of a) and b) are used, including any increase due to
The actions applied to the basic beam are determined redistribution of the negative bending moments.
and the bending moments and shear forces established
with the beam as a simply supported member from The above process can be carried out as a staged design
column to column. Unless the beam is supported on as above but there are a number of software programmes
falsework these loads are usually the floor slab, topping that automate the process. Analysis and design as a
screed and construction loads and should include any single composite beam without taking into account the
torsion from load eccentricity. If the beam is supported staged loading process can lead to erroneous results.
on falsework the supported loads do not contribute to
the bending moments induced before composite action.

Figure 4.18 Design model, Beam before composite action

44 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

 Figure 4.19 Design model, composite beam

4.4.3 Manufacture
Most beams are designed as pre-tensioned and therefore
manufactured on a long line casting bed. Bed lengths of
40-60 metres are common and usually allow for two or
three standard beam profiles and widths, and a range of
depths and ledge heights.

Planning the manufacturing sequence to optimise the

use of the casting bed can be complex. Changing the
moulds to suit different beam profiles is expensive and
time consuming so there is good economic reasons to
minimise the number of beam profiles on a project. Also
changing moulds to suit different beam profiles may not
be compatible with the site erection process and can
therefore result in scheduling issues.

Reinforced concrete beams can be cast in individual

forms resulting in much more flexibility in the production
process.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 45

 4.5 Floor slabs
4.5.1 General 4.5.2 Types of precast floor elements
Precast floors slabs offer many advantages over cast
in situ floors. The principal advantages are short Precast floor slabs are described in detail in the Precast
construction time, high structural performance, Concrete Handbook [2]. The main types of precast floor
durability, large span capacity, absence or minimisation elements available on the Australian market are.
of falsework, large variety of types and economy. 1. Hollowcore slabs.
2. Beam and infill slabs.
Precast floors slabs are used extensively in all types of 3. Permanent formwork slabs.
buildings, not only for totally precast structures, but 4. Composite solid slabs.
also in combination with other materials. The choice of 5. Double or single Tee beams.
a flooring system varies in each building and depends
on structural capacity as well as on transport and lifting The self-weight of the floor elements varies considerably
facilities, availability on the market and building. from type to type. This can range from a few 100 kg
for beam and infill to several tonnes for thick solid slabs
The main structural requirements of floors are load and tee units. The choice of the most appropriate floor
capacity, stiffness, transverse load distribution of may therefore depend on the size of the project and the
concentrated loading and distribution of horizontal available lifting capacity.
actions by in-plane diaphragm action. In addition, The soffit of precast floors can be ribbed or flat and with
depending on their use, floors can also fulfil other or without thermal insulation. Thermal insulation may
requirements, such as thermal and acoustic insulation, be required where the floor separates air-conditioned
fire resistance etc. and non-air-conditioned spaces. Flat soffit floors permit
slender floor structures. This is especially the case for
prestressed hollow core slabs

Figure 4.20 Precast floor elements

46 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

All floor types can be designed to cantilever to form 4.5.2.1 Hollowcore slabs
projecting floors or balconies. Some types can be
designed to cantilever directly over edge supports while Prestressed hollow core slabs are usually 1200mm
others can combine separate cantilevering elements wide units with longitudinal cores to reduce the weight
that are erected and supported on falsework until a of the floor. They are prestressed and produced on
reinforced topping screed is completed. long line casting beds using extrusion or slide form
methods. After hardening, the elements are saw cut to
Acoustic property can be an important criterion in the specified length. A rectangular end is standard, but
the choice of the floor type, especially in residential skew or cranked ends, which are necessary in a non-
buildings. Concrete floors can easily accommodate the rectangular floor plan, may be specified. Slabs can be
required performances for airborne capacity but like any cut to width after casting to suit the building dimensions.
other type of slab usually require additional measures The edges of the slabs are profiled to ensure adequate
for contact noise transmission. vertical shear transfer across the grouted joint between
adjacent units.
This Design Guide will focus only on the use of hollowcore
floor slabs. Information on the alternatives shown in Thicknesses vary from 150-400mm and although they
Figure 4.20 is available from each of the manufacturers. can be used as plain sections they are usually topped
with a structural screed to give a composite slab. Span-
to-depth ratios should be limited to about 35:1 but can
be used up to 45:1 if serviceability requirements are
checked.

Hollowcore slabs are designed to be erected and

screeded without requiring temporary support.

Figure 4.21 Cantilevering slab alternatives

Figure 4.22 Comparative spans for hollowcore floor slabs.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 47

 Hollowcore slabs are mainly used in buildings with 4.5.3.1 Prestressed hollowcore slabs
spans in the range of about 6 to 16 metres such as
office buildings, hospitals, schools, shopping centres Prestressed hollowcore slabs are unique in that they
etc. Because of their flat soffit another common use is in have no reinforcement other than the longitudinal
apartment buildings. pre-stressing tendons anchored by bond. The detailed
design of these elements is not covered by AS3600.

Owing to the absence of complementary reinforcement

at the support and in the transverse direction, the tensile
strength of the concrete has to be taken into account for
the determination of the shear capacity and lateral load
distribution. For calculation purposes each hollowcore
slab can be modelled as a series of side by side ‘I’
sections. Shear transfer between adjacent ‘I’ sections is
by aggregate interlock.

As in any prestressed concrete element, the design

shear capacity is calculated for two conditions: the un-
Figure 4.23 Hollowcore floor
cracked section near the support, (shear tension) and
the cracked section in flexure (flexural shear). Zones 1 &
4.5.3 Design concepts for precast 2 in Figure 4.24.
floor elements
Shear tension failure occurs near the support when the
The design and calculation of a precast floor is carried
shear force combined with pre-stressing force exceeds
out in two steps:
the tensile capacity of the concrete and a diagonal or
inclined crack initiates failure.
• The individual slab elements
• The design of the whole floor.
Flexural shear failure occurs when the shear force
exceeds the shear compression capacity and a single
Individual slab elements are dimensioned with respect
flexural crack initiates the shear failure.
to flexural capacity and shear resistance to the applied
loads including torsion when relevant. Once elements
Because of web profile, the classic beam shear equations
are connected together serviceability criteria such
as given in AS3600 do not necessarily give accurate
as deflection, fire resistance, acoustic and thermal
values for shear tension capacity of hollowcore slabs.
properties and durability are checked to ensure they
This is particularly so for elements with depths greater
meet recommended values. Other design criteria
than 300mm and with non-circular cores. For these
that may need to be considered include handling and
elements the calculated capacity can considerably over-
construction methods.
estimated the actual capacity.

The design of the individual elements is in accordance

Classic beam shear equations assume the critical section
with AS3600 or other international standards and other
is at the centreline of the cross-section whereas with
selected literature. [4, 15, 16, 18]
non-circular cores it is much nearer the bottom of the
cross section where interaction with the pre-stressing
Guideline information on performance is available
forces can dominate. Unless an accurate shear analysis
in brochures and technical literature from each of
such as that given in European Product Standard EN-
the manufacturers. [3] These provide pre-calculated
1168 [16] is carried out then a capacity reduction factor
standard performance curves giving the allowable
should be applied to the calculated shear capacity. As
variable load in relation to span length and the
a guide the ACI [17] recommends that if designed in
reinforcement.
accordance with the ACI-318 beam shear equations,
then an additional capacity reduction factor of 0.5 be
The following sections give information on specific
applied to the calculated shear capacity of hollowcore
design rules for hollowcore slabs in so far as they are
slabs with depths greater than 320mm. Although this
not covered by the classical design procedures for
is a significant reduction, shear is seldom critical on
reinforced and prestressed concrete members.

48 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

 Figure 4.24 Cracking zones and pattern in a prestressed hollowcore

typically loaded slabs. Where it is critical, the shear units should be connected together to form a single
capacity can be increased by filling the cores at the ends entity by a tying system.
of the slab with concrete from the topping screed.
Most precast floor systems used in Australia are provided
In most uses hollowcore slabs are designed as composite with structural toppings and these can be reinforced and
with a reinforced concrete topping. The topping is kept used to tie the individual elements together. In the rare
to about 60mm thick, the minimum required to contain cases where no structural topping is used the individual
the topping reinforcement. Thicker toppings do not elements need to be tied together by other methods
necessarily increase the capacity of the composite such as welded connection plates or strategically placed
section and on longer spans may actually reduce reinforcement in the joints and across the ends of the
capacity. Surface roughness and surface preparation elements to prevent lateral displacement and loss of
is important in ensuring full composite action occurs. integrity. This is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5,
Roughness is specified in AS3600 [7] and at the time Structural Stability
of pouring the screed the surface should be ‘surface
saturated dry’, damp but with no water pooling. 4.5.4.2 Diaphragm action

The diaphragm action of floors fulfils an important role

Because of the complexities in the design of hollowcore
in the stability of precast concrete buildings. It assures
slabs most hollowcore manufacturers provide their
the transmission and distribution of all horizontal forces
own design service and the elements are supplied on a
to the stabilising walls or frames.
design and manufacture basis.

Diaphragm action is usually realized with a reinforced

4.5.4 Design of the complete floor structural topping screed, cast over the whole floor
The design of the complete precast floor structure area. The connections of the screed with the stabilizing
concerns the connection of the individually designed components should be designed accordingly. Force
and assembled elements to form a coherent and stable paths and design can be derived from strut and tie
structure. The most important objectives are: models.
• Structural integrity
• Diaphragm action of the floor for the transmission If no structural topping screed is used then peripheral
of the horizontal actions into the stabilising walls tie-reinforcement is required to take up the tensile
or frames. forces arising from the in-plane bending. Shear forces
• Transversal distribution of concentrated loading are concentrated along the longitudinal joints between
• Treatment of openings and cut-outs the floor slabs. Force paths for design can be derived
from strut and tie models.
4.5.4.1 Structural integrity
Diaphragm action of floors is described in greater detail
Floor systems, consisting of individual precast concrete in Chapter 5, Structural Stability

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 49

 4.5.4.3 Transverse distribution of concentrated Transversal load distribution may be taken into account
loading if the following conditions are fulfilled:
• The longitudinal joints or infills between the
Floors are usually designed not only to carrying elements are designed to take up vertical shear
uniformly distributed loads, but also concentrated line forces.
or point loads. The degree of load transfer between • The lateral displacement of adjacent elements
adjacent elements of hollowcore slabs depends on the is limited by a structural topping screed or by
torsion stiffness and the longitudinal and transverse transverse tie reinforcement in the screed or at the
flexural stiffness of the elements and how well the lateral support.
displacement in relation to each other is restricted.
Even in the case of cracked joints, shear forces will be The determination of the possible load distribution can
transmitted across the cracks due to the presence of be done either with the help of graphs and tables or by
lateral compressive stresses originating from the torsion more complicated analytical calculations.
of the elements and the shear-friction mechanism.
Where the ability to distribute load between adjacent In most cases, the use of graphs and tables showing
elements is high the concentrated loading is spread over the relationship between the element span, load
a number of adjacent elements. configuration and load distribution will suffice. Finite
element analysis can also be used but the complexity of
With a concentrated load on the slab, the element the input rarely warrants this approach.
on which the load is applied deflects. Because slab
elements are connected by grouted joints, transverse Load distribution graphs for hollowcore slabs are
ties or an insitu infill the elements adjacent to the loaded provided in the Precast Concrete Handbook. [2]
slab are also forced to deflect and so the effect of a These graphs and tables are based on both analytical
concentrated load is distributed to a wider area than the calculations and tests.
directly loaded slab element.
4.5.4.4 Openings and penetrations
Much research has been carried out on the subject of
transverse load distribution, particularly on hollow-core Openings in precast floors can be provided by a wide
floors. The results show that the concentrated load is variety of methods and in a variety of sizes and positions.
distributed over several adjacent units, almost as in a The methods depend not only on the slab type but on
monolithic floor. The calculation model is based on the size and location of the penetration. It is important
the theory of elasticity. The elements are regarded as to determine the locations of all major penetrations at
isotropic slabs and the longitudinal joints as hinges, the time of design so they can be incorporated prior to
in other words they can transmit shear forces but not manufacture. This also applies to identifying wet areas
bending moments. where multiple plumbing penetrations frequently occur.

Hollowcore slabs
Applied load + topping screed

Load to each element proportional to deflection

Figure 4.25 Load distribution, beam and infill slab

50 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

For hollowcore slabs penetrations are realised in one of gives relatively conservative capacities for smaller
two ways depending on the size. Small penetrations of penetrations where the effect of the discontinuity
less than about 300/400 mm in size may be formed in caused by the penetration in the slab field is small. It
the element during the manufacturing stage and before gives more accurate capacities for larger penetrations
the concrete has hardened or by saw-cutting the slabs where the supporting slab acts more like a single slab
after they are installed and grouted. The maximum size with edge loads than as part of a slab field. When
of the holes depends on the size of the voids in the slab large penetrations occur close to the support the effects
and how much reinforcement may be removed without of torsion and reduced shear width of the supporting
jeopardizing the strength of the unit. As a guide such slab must be taken into account. This topic is covered
penetrations should not cut more than one third of the in detail in fib Precast prestressed hollow core floors
total area of flexural reinforcement in any single slab. manual. [30]
See figure 4.26.
No penetrations should be provided near the edge of An alternative design method involves modelling the
unsupported hollow core slabs when any strands will be slab field and penetration using finite element methods
cut. For slabs with penetrations made before erection (FEM calculations). This is rarely warranted for everyday
the behaviour of the slab during handling, transport slab-systems but can give a more accurate solution if
and erection should be analysed. Small penetrations large openings occur in unfavourable positions. To
can also be added after erection of the slabs by drilling use FEM for the analysis of hollow core floor systems
one or several individual cylindrical holes through the requires a detailed understanding of how individual
cores in slab. Coring or cutting of holes is not permitted hollow core slabs interact to form a slab field.
without the approval of the designer.

Large penetrations or voids that cannot be incorporated

within the hollow-core element can be accommodated
by providing steel trimmer beams or cast in-situ trimmer
beams to carry the supported element as shown in
Figure 4.27.

The method involves designing the trimmer to carry the

self weight and superimposed loading of the trimmed
units and distributing the reaction from the trimmer
beam onto the supporting slab and adjacent elements
in accordance with the theory for a point load on the
edge of a slab. The flexural and shear capacity of the
supporting slab is checked taking into account the
torsional effect of the load on the slab. This method
Figure 4.27 Use of trimmer angles or beams for large voids

Figure 4.26 Example of possible penetrations in hollowcore elements

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 51

 4.6 Balconies
Balconies are an integral part of residential buildings. Where the precast floor elements span in the same
They can be constructed within the floor plate or direction as the cantilever the usual solution is to erect a
cantilevered beyond the wall line. In most cases a set- precast balcony element onto falsework and tie it back
down in floor level is required to provide weathering. into the floor slab via reinforcement in the screed as
Similar situations with cantilevering floors occur on shown in figure 4.30. Detailing of the reinforcement is
other types of buildings and the treatment is essentially particularly important to ensure that cantilever action is
the same. properly achieved.

For hollowcore slabs the treatment depends on the An alternative to the above is to cantilever the precast
direction of span of the floor relative to the cantilever. floor over the loadbearing wall to form the balcony. The
Figure 4.29 shows a typical solution where the floor disadvantages with this solution are in accommodating
spans at right angles to the cantilever span. This the set-down in the floor and the usual need to erect
frequently occurs on apartment buildings comprising formwork on the perimeter of the building to provide an
loadbearing cross walls between apartments and non- appropriate finish on the face of the balcony.
bearing façade walls. A precast floor element that
incorporates the cantilevered balcony spans between
the loadbearing cross walls. The cantilevered portion is
generally pre-finished and the element is tied into the
floor by reinforcement in the screed.

Figure 4.28 Cantilevered balconies

52 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

 Wall line

Floor
Precast floor & screed
& screed
Non-bearing
wall line

Cantilevered
balcony unit
Cantilevered
Loadbearing wall balcony

Section

Plan
Figure 4.29 Floor element incorporating cantilevered balcony

Precast floor
& screed

Cantilevered balcony
Erect onto falsework
Load bearing wall

Section

Figure 4.30 Cantilevered balcony element

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 53

 4.7 Stairs
Although not strictly a structural element precast A more unusual type of stair is the spiral or self-
concrete stairs are often an integral part of precast or supporting stair. The ability to manufacture these units
insitu concrete structures. off site means that they can be an economical solution
compared with cast insitu.
Precast concrete staircases are very popular because
of the ability to erect a finished product that can Stair flights are usually not designed to be part of the
immediately provide access for construction without the lateral load resisting component of the building. Under
requirement for temporary access. lateral load, particularly seismic loads where significant
lateral displacement can occur, it is therefore important
Traditional cast in-situ staircases are very labour to ensure that the bearing lengths of each element are
intensive, additional finishing material is always needed adequate so they can accommodate the displacement
and the effective total cost is often underestimated. without being subjected to axial load or collapsing into
Precast concrete stair units are industrialized products, the shaft.
with a high degree of finishing, ranging from smooth as
cast, to polished concrete. Most manufacturers have a
range of standard stair moulds covering the common
tread and riser configurations and designers should
endeavour to work within these limits.

Although there are a number of possible configurations

for stairs the most common comprise straight stair
elements. They are made out of either individual precast
flights and separate landings or combined flight and
landings. In the latter solution there may be differential
levels at floors and half-landings, necessitating a
finishing screed or other solution on the landing.

Figure 4.31 Combined landing, flight and half-landing elements Figure 4.32 Spiral and self-supporting stair units

54 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5 STRUCTURAL
STABILITY

5.1 General In this Chapter

5.1 General 55
Structural stability is a crucial issue in precast concrete
5.2 Un-braced Precast Structures 56
design. It involves a series of steps starting with the design
of the individual elements, (as discussed in the previous 5.2.1 Cantilever action 56
chapter) the connections between them and finally the 5.2.2 Frame action 56
design of the framework in total. 5.3 Braced precast structures 58
5.3.1 Principle 58
Previous chapters have drawn on the importance of a
5.3.2 Core walls and lift shafts 58
correct design philosophy for precast structures and
highlighted the difference from cast in-situ structures. In 5.3.3 Shear walls 59
precast concrete a three-dimensional framework is seldom 5.3.4 Infill walls 60
realized because of the difficulty in achieving moment fixed 5.4 Floor plate action 61
connections between discrete linear members.
5.4.1 Rigid and flexible diaphragms 61

In addition two design stages need to be considered with 5.4.2 Shear transfer between elements 62
precast concrete. Firstly, the temporary stability during 5.4.3 Chord forces 62
construction and secondly the permanent stability, which 5.4.4 Movement joints 63
includes connecting the individual elements together 5.5 Connections 64
and generating horizontal diaphragm action to transfer
5.5.1 General 64
horizontal loading from the horizontal elements to
the vertical bracing element or roof and thus into the 5.5.2 Strength 64
foundations. 5.5.3 Volume change 65
5.5.4 Deformation 65
Provision of structural stability can be achieved by using 5.5.5 Ductility 65
the following concepts:
5.5.6 Durability 65
• Un-braced (or sway) structures, where stability is
provided by the cantilever action of the columns or 5.5.7 Dimensional tolerances 65
walls in the structure or by two dimensional frame 5.5.8 Fire resistance 66
action. 5.5.9 Basic force transfer mechanisms 66
• Braced structures, where resistance against horizontal 5.6 Tie systems 69
actions is provided by shear walls, lift shafts and
5.6.1 Types of ties 70
central cores that provide horizontal support to the
remaining parts of the structure. 5.6.2 Ties in structural toppings 72
5.7 Design for accidental actions 73
In conjunction with the above concepts it is important to: 5.7.1 Introduction 73
• Ensure that horizontal actions are distributed evenly 5.7.2 Indirect design method 74
across the structure by designing the floor or roof
5.7.3 Alternative load path method 76
plates to act as diaphragms.
• Provide connections or ties between the individual 5.7.4 Specific load resistance method 79
precast elements to ensure that the assembled 5.7.5 Risk elimination 79
precast elements act as a coherent structure.
• Ensure that the structure can retain its integrity under
accidental actions.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 55

 5.2 Un-braced Precast
Structures
5.2.1 Cantilever action Geotechnical considerations also need to be addressed
to ensure the ability of the footings and foundation to
Resisting lateral loads by cantilever action is suited resist the bending moments at the column base.
to low-rise structures that contain insufficient walls
to act as shear walls. Low-rise commercial buildings The total horizontal force acting on the building can be
and parking buildings are ideally suited. Single storied distributed to all columns according to their stiffness,
buildings where perimeter walls are required by with roof or floors acting as diaphragms or through
regulation to cantilever from the foundations also fall beams on the frame lines.
into this category. [10]
Combinations of the two methods, braced and un-
The restraint of columns into the foundation is an easy braced, may be used in the same structure in orthogonal
method to stabilize buildings, but the maximum height directions.
of the structure is limited to about 10 m. The reasons
are the limitations on the column size and the allowable 5.2.2 Frame action
deflections. Second order effects due to horizontal
deflections need to be taken into account. For example, When the restraint of the columns into the foundations
as shown in figure 5.1, the rotation between column and does not provide the needed stiffness to the structure,
beam increases exponentially with column height. As for example in case of very slender columns or
the height increases the connections are required to in response to excessive horizontal actions like in
accommodate prohibitively large rotations. Although earthquake, additional horizontal stiffness may be
the beam-column connections are usually designed as obtained by providing rigid connections between beams
pinned, in reality they are semi-rigid due to the limited and columns.
rotation capacity in the ultimate limit state. Design
methods are not sufficiently understood to allow semi- Provision of such rigid connections to produce a fully
rigid action in the post-elastic state to be considered in moment resistant frame in precast is difficult and should
the design of the structure. be avoided wherever possible. If it is required it is usually
only possible to achieve with welded cast-in connection

Figure 5.1 Deflections of unbraced (sway) frame using cantilever

action in columns Figure 5.2 Deflections in a fully rigid frame structure

56 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

brackets or cast insitu concrete infills that emulate cast developed in the USA for earthquake resisting frames
insitu construction. Provision of three dimensional frame but they should only be considered where braced
action in precast structures is very difficult and is not structures are not an option [19]. It should also be noted
recommended. that un-bonded post-tensioning tendons are not allow
under AS3600. [7]
An alternative method of producing a moment resistant
frame is by the use of ‘T’, ‘TT’ or ‘+’ elements in the Other systems exist that develop partially continuous
vertical plane as shown in figure 5.3. With strategic moment connections between columns and beams.
placement the connections between such units can For example a beam column connection may be able to
be simple pinned joints. These types of elements are resist negative but not positive bending.
commonly used to form semi-rigid moment resisting
perimeter frames on buildings in seismic areas. Provision of frame action is usually not necessary on
the typical types of precast structures being built in
Special precast frame systems utilising un-bonded post- Australia as most buildings have sufficient shear walls to
tensioning tendons to provide continuity have been develop a braced structure.

Figure 5.3 Elevation of multiple element semi-rigid frame structures

Figure 5.4 Partially continuous moment connection

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 57

 5.3 Braced precast
structures
5.3.1 Principle 5.3.2 Core walls and lift shafts
In buildings where cantilever action of columns or walls Braced systems are the most effective solution for multi-
are not utilised the horizontal actions may be resisted storey skeletal structures, because stair and elevator
by shear walls formed from lift shafts, stairwells or shafts are already present for functional reasons. The
individual walls. These are connected to the rest of additional cost of utilizing them as stabilizing members
the structure via the floor diaphragm to form a braced is therefore negligible. Two dimensional walls are easy
structure. to manufacture and erect, and can be combined into
three dimensional cores to provide greater stability.
Walls forming these stabilizing elements are usually so
substantial that the stiffness of the frame elements and The most usual precast solution for a precast concrete
their connections is not critical. Bending moments due core is to construct it out of four or more precast wall
to sway are small and columns can only deflect between elements connected to each other so that the vertical
floors as pin ended struts. The concentration of all joints are able to resist shear forces. The subject of
horizontal actions to some selected members permits joint connections is dealt with separately. A precast
smaller columns and simpler connections. Furthermore box for a stair or lift shaft formed from individual walls
the columns will in effect have horizontal support at will generally not have the same stiffness as an insitu
each floor level, which reduces the slenderness of the concrete box. This is due to degradation of connection
columns. stiffness under load reversal. Never the less this is usually
not a problem if properly considered in the design.

Figure 5.5 Example of a braced skeletal structure and deflection profile

58 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

 Figure 5.6 Example of precast central cores Figure 5.7 In-plane action of precast walls

5.3.3 Shear walls

Concrete walls have significant in-plane stiffness. For
this reason they are commonly used as shear walls,
both in precast and cast in-situ concrete buildings, to
stabilize the structure against horizontal actions. The
diaphragm action of the floors plays an important role
in the transfer and distribution of the horizontal actions
over the different stabilizing components.

Where possible precast concrete shear walls should

be designed as individual elements to avoid the high
cost associated with providing connections and the
difficulty in ensuring that connection stiffness does not
degrade with load reversal. Never the less with careful
design, individual shear wall panels can be connected
in such a way at the horizontal and vertical joints that Figure 5.8 Staggered vertical joints in shear walls
the total wall can function as a single cantilevering unit.
The interaction between the individual wall units is
secured by connections and tying systems that transfer
the necessary shear, tensile and compressive forces. If
necessary, tensile reinforcement can be used to anchor
the units to the foundation and to provide continuity
between successive storey-height units.

Stepping or staggering the vertical joints between

adjacent wall panels, as shown in Figure 5.8, is another
very effective method of connecting walls to allow them
to function as a single composite unit.

Individual shear walls are also often used to complement

the horizontal stiffening action of cores, for example
at ends of a long and narrow building with a central
core, or where cores are placed in an eccentric position
(Figure 5.10). Figure 5.9 Example of precast concrete shear walls

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 59

 When walls have large openings, for example lift shaft 5.3.4 Infill walls
doors, the wall should be checked to ensure that the link
part of the wall above the door opening can contribute An alternative type of shear wall may be provided with
to the stiffness. If not, only that part of the wall each the so-called ‘infill’ wall. This is a wall that is constructed
side of the door opening should be considered or the between columns and beams that when subject to
wall should be treated as a linked-wall system. horizontal forces through the floor plate, develops a
diagonal compression strut resisted by the reactions in
The distribution of horizontal loading between shear the beams and the columns. Infill walls can be precast
walls and/or cores depends on a number of factors as concrete, masonry or even timber. Whatever the
follows: material, the wall needs to be constructed tight between
• Stiffness or in-plane deflection of the individual the columns and beam.
stabilizing elements.
• Position of the stabilizing elements. Stabilizing For design, the infill wall is considered to act as a strut
elements should be positioned according to their and the strut size and forces in each component are
stiffness in order to minimise torsional effects on determined by an iterative process in a similar manner
the structure. to that described for concrete in Section 7, AS3600. [7]
• Movement joints in the floor diaphragms. Movement Transfer of forces through the nodes is critical and can
joints are usually provided at about 80 m intervals result in significant shear forces being introduced into
in floor diaphragms if the structure is rectangular the columns and beam.
on plan or at about 60 m intervals if the plan is non-
rectangular. Movement joints effectively break the This type of shear wall is not common in Australia as it is
structure up into separate buildings. usually more economical to provide a loadbearing wall
in lieu of a frame system plus infill wall. Infill walls are
Finally, when locating the stabilizing elements, due more likely to be used unintentionally, for example as
consideration should to be given with regard to infill spandrels or masonry infills. In seismic areas they
dimensional changes. Long term shrinkage of the are the causes of many failures by altering the intended
concrete and thermal expansion and contraction due response of the building. See figure 2.7.
to temperature change needs to be considered. Care
should be taken that these deformations can take place
without causing distress in the structure.

Figure 5.10 Shear walls are needed to balance the torsion

induced by the eccentric position of the core.

60 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5.4 Floor plate action
Horizontal actions from wind and earthquake are as shown in figure 5.11. Diaphragms that are assumed to
usually transmitted to shear walls or moment resisting be rigid should not have large openings or re-entrant
frames through the floor or roof acting as horizontal corners and maximum distances between resisting
plates. Because the floor is a relatively thin membrane elements should be about 40-50 metres for a typical in-
this is commonly referred to as ‘diaphragm action’. plane depth of 6-20 metres. Where multiple stabilising
Diaphragms apply to both insitu and precast structures. elements occur the diaphragm is assumed to distribute
Floors incorporating precast concrete elements, the horizontal forces to the stabilising elements in
including those that do not have a topping screed, can proportion to their relative stiffness.
act as horizontal diaphragms. Section 15 of AS3600
provides guidelines for the design of diaphragms Where a topping screed is used the reinforcement
including a clause on the use of cast-in-place toppings in the floor diaphragm is calculated using classic
on prefabricated floor systems. reinforced concrete design. Where no topping screed
is present, the tensile forces are resisted by peripheral
Most major texts, such as, Guidelines for the use of tie reinforcement of the floor and the shear forces are
Structural Precast Concrete in Buildings [20], Multi- resisted by shear friction, aggregate interlock and dowel
storey Precast Concrete Framed Structures [21], PCI action in the joints between adjacent elements. The
Design Handbook [4], Precast Concrete Handbook [2] most critical sections are the joints between the floor
note the paucity of experimental data on the topic of and the stabilising elements, because the shear forces
diaphragm action of precast floors therefore caution are at their maximum at these locations.
designers to adopt conservative values for shear
resistance. The design of the diaphragm is essentially a connection
design problem. The weak link in diaphragm action is
The floor diaphragm must act in all directions, but is always the connection between the diaphragm and the
normally resolved into orthogonal directions to resist stabilising elements.
horizontal forces and the effects of drift. Load paths
need to be practical and buildable. In many precast For more complex structures, particularly for those with
structures the configuration and behaviour of the large openings or discontinuities in the diaphragm or
diaphragm is simple with rectangular floors or roofs large torsional effects from eccentricity, the diaphragm
spanning between precast walls or frames. However may not act as a rigid element. In these cases, particularly
some structures may include excessive horizontal in seismic areas, it is recommended that a topping screed
spans between stabilising elements, large openings or be used and that a more detailed analysis is carried out
discontinuities in the diaphragm, large torsional effects that takes into account the deflection of the diaphragm.
from eccentricity of the stabilising elements or lateral Strut and tie modelling can be used in these cases. In
transfer requirements due to vertical discontinuities. some instances the diaphragm forces may dictate the
Large openings at stair and lift shafts can make it thickness of the topping screed.
difficult to transfer diaphragm forces into the stabilising
elements. Likewise trenches and chases in the topping Where seismic action is a major consideration special
screed can disrupt diaphragm action. attention needs to be given to the robustness of the
system and the detailing. This includes checking that
5.4.1 Rigid and flexible diaphragms support for floor elements is not lost due to elongation
of supporting beams at plastic hinges and that the
For simpler structures the diaphragm can assumed to composite topping cannot de-bond from the precast
be rigid and be analysed by considering the floor as elements. Designers should refer to the PCI Design
a deep horizontal beam and distributing the tension, Handbook [4] and Precast Concrete Handbook [2] for a
compression and shear forces to the stabilising elements full discussion on the subject.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 61

 Applied actions

Shear force

Chord force

Shear wall

Figure 5.11 Force distribution in simple floor diaphragm

5.4.2 Shear transfer between floor units but Section 8 provides some guidelines. It
is recommended that a conservative value be adopted.
elements Where used without a topping screed the hollow core
Floor diaphragms with a topping screed are generally elements must be restrained from moving apart.
designed on the basis that the precast concrete floor
elements act compositely with the in-situ reinforced Appropriate detailing and care in connection design
concrete topping to prevent buckling while the shear is necessary to ensure that diaphragm forces can be
across joints is assumed to be carried entirely by the transferred to the stabilising elements. Connections that
topping. transfer shear from the diaphragm to the shear walls or
other lateral force resisting elements should be analysed
Floor diaphragms without topping screeds are not in the same manner as the connections between adjacent
common in Australia and when used are generally on one precast elements. Care must be exercised, particularly
or two storied residential buildings with relatively short where there are openings adjacent to shear walls, or to
floor spans. In these cases the shear transfer between other elements which provide stability
elements is accomplished by shear friction, aggregate
interlock or dowel action between adjacent elements. The weak link in diaphragm action is always the
To resist these forces it is necessary that the units be connection between diaphragm and shear resisting
tied together so that shear forces can be transferred elements.
across the joints even when they are cracked.
5.4.3 Chord forces
Because of their edge profile and the grouting of the
longitudinal joints, floors made of hollow core units can Chord forces in the diaphragm are calculated from
be used to act as a diaphragm with or without a topping analysis as a deep beam or by a strut and tie model.
screed. The shear stress in the joints should be calculated Peripheral tie reinforcement is calculated and placed
using a section depth 30mm less than the overall precast as appropriate round the perimeter of the diaphragm
depth to allow for the fact that the bottom of the joint to resist these forces. As with any beam, this tie
does not fill with grout and to account for differential reinforcement needs to be lapped and anchored so that
camber of the elements. AS3600 does not specifically the forces are transferred to the shear walls or other
cover interface shear capacity in joints between precast lateral force resisting elements.

62 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5.4.4 Movement joints Movement joints can be provided in two ways:
• Columns and beams can be doubled at strategic
All buildings need to be designed to accommodate locations to effectively break the structure into
concrete shrinkage, long-term creep and thermal separate smaller sections. This is the preferred
movements. One of the advantages of precast concrete option for seismic areas.
buildings is that the majority of the concrete shrinkage • Sliding or slip joints can be provided at strategic
occurs prior to the elements being installed on site. locations to allow each side of the joint to move
Although the majority of concrete shrinkage and some independently of the other.
of the long-term creep will occur before erection of a
precast concrete building the thermal movement still Movement joints should also be provided at
needs to be considered. Where the plan dimension of discontinuities in plan or elevation of a structure. A
a precast building exceeds about 60 metres the long- detailed discussion on this topic is given in the PCI
term movement can become critical and consideration Design Handbook. [4]
should be given to providing permanent movement
joints within the structure. Where movement joints are
provided in seismic areas they should be detailed to
accommodate the calculated worst case sway between
the two separate parts of the building.

Figure 5.13 Typical movement joints

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 63

 5.5 Connections
5.5.1 General [2] and the fib Bulletin 43, Structural Connections for
Precast Concrete [27] have extensive coverage on this
Connections are among the most essential aspects of topic. However, the design of structural connections is
prefabrication. Their role is to realize out of individual not just a question of selecting an appropriate solution
elements, a coherent and robust structure, able to take from listed standard solutions. The design of structural
up all acting forces, including indirect forces resulting connections in precast buildings must consider a
from shrinkage, creep, thermal movements, fire, etc. variety of criteria related to the structural behaviour,
They also allow precast elements to be manufactured in dimensional tolerances, fire resistance, manufacture,
manageable sizes and joined to form larger units. Precast handling and erection. There are many types of
concrete connections must meet a variety of design, connections but simple proven connections are always
performance and other criteria. Their principal function the best ones to use. They should be standardised and
is to transfer forces across joints, so that interaction made as fool-proof as possible.
between precast units is obtained. This interaction can
have several purposes: The basic principles and design concepts are given in
• Connect units to the bearing structure; this section to enable the designer to understand the
• Secure the intended overall behaviour of each design philosophy of connections in precast structures
precast subsystem, including diaphragm action of in general. Practical examples of connections for specific
floors, shear wall action of walls, etc.; types of buildings are given in Chapters 6 to 9.
• Transfer forces from their point of application to
the stabilizing structure
5.5.2 Strength
Other aspects concerning the function and appearance A connection should be designed to resist the forces
of connections may result in specific design and to which it will be subjected. Some of these forces are
execution requirements, for instance durability and apparent, caused by dead, live, wind and earthquake
visual appearance. The design of connections is not only actions, and soil or water pressure. Others are caused
a question of choosing appropriate fixing methods but by restraint of volume changes in the members, or
detailing them in a way that provides the appropriate additional forces that might appear due to unintended
degree of ductility and transfers the forces into the inclination of load bearing columns and walls and
adjacent element. unintended eccentricities. The design should not only
consider the actual connection and fixings but also the
In terms of this document the following definitions are surrounding areas in the connected concrete elements
used. where stresses can be high. Connections should be
• Joint. The interface, or gap, between two discrete designed to be ductile so they yield before failure and
precast elements, or between a concrete element have a degree of over capacity to ensure that they are
and some other portion of the structure. not the weak line in a structure. As a guide, 15% to 30%
• Connection. Method by which one or more concrete should be considered, depending on how critical the
or other elements are joined together to transfer connection is.
loads and/or provide stability.
• Fixings or fitments. The hardware components of As discussed in Chapter 5.7 the design of connections
all connections including brackets bolts, washers, should also consider the possibility of accidental actions
weld plates and anchors. that can cause severe damage to the building structure
resulting in force redistribution and the requirement for
Examples of standardized types of structural connections alternative load paths that can bridge over the damaged
are usually listed in design handbooks or catalogues from area.
precast manufacturers. The Precast Concrete Handbook

64 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5.5.3 Volume change 5.5.5 Ductility
The combined shortening effects of creep, shrinkage Connections should be designed for ductile behaviour to
and temperature changes can cause tensile stresses avoid brittle failure. Ductility is the ability to undergo plastic
in precast concrete components and in particular their deformation without a substantial loss of load capacity. In
connections. There are principally two ways to take care case of overloading, a ductile connection will reach yield
of volume change, either by allowing the displacements and start to deform plastically. The plastic displacement
to occur at the connections, or by giving the connections will give the necessary relief to allow a new state of
the necessary restraint to prevent displacement. In the equilibrium in the connection. Large displacements will be
latter case the connection must be designed for quite the result, but the force transfer ability remains and brittle
considerable restraint forces. failure and damage of connection zones is prevented.

In practice many solutions allow some relative Ductility can be provided by confinement reinforcement
displacement to occur. For example, elastic deformations in concrete connections or by anchor bars in steel
of structural members or connection fixings will relieve connections. Methods of detailing the confinement
restraint forces. reinforcement required to develop plastic hinges for
ductility in concrete connections is discussed in detail in
In some connections it is not only the force transfer texts on seismic design. [37]
capacity of the connections that is important but also
the stiffness as measured by the load-displacement In connections using steel fixings the anchor bars are the
relationship and the deformability. This is particularly ductile components. To ensure ductile behaviour the other
important in connections that are required to form a components, mainly the welded fixings, should be designed
coherent structure from a series of individual elements. to have higher ultimate capacity than the anchorage bars.
In this case, deformability can lead to a loss of stiffness, The bar should project into the uncracked zone where it is
particularly under seismic loading. properly anchored. Transverse confinement reinforcement
should also be provided particularly close to edges and in
5.5.4 Deformation thin sections.

Movement between adjacent precast elements due to 5.5.6 Durability

service load deflections, concrete creep and shrinkage
and temperature variations needs to be considered or Connections should be designed to provide the same level
there will be a risk of damage to the connection zones. of durability as the individual precast elements as required
This can be satisfied by detailing the connection so that by the BCA. [10] Exposed steel should be provided with
the corresponding movement can take place without permanent protection. This can be achieved by applying a
restraint or by fully preventing movements between layer of epoxy, rust proof paint or bitumen, or by encasing
adjacent precast elements. In the latter case the in concrete or mortar after the connection is secured.
connection and the elements must be designed to resist In more aggressive environments fixings should be hot
the corresponding restraint forces that will develop. dipped galvanised. In highly aggressive environments
stainless steel should be considered even though the cost
penalty is considerable. In the case of dissimilar metals the
risk of galvanic corrosion should be taken into account.

5.5.7 Dimensional tolerances

Dimensional tolerances inevitably occur in the
construction of a building and in the manufacture of
the precast elements. These deviations will normally
be concentrated at the connections and must be
considered in the design of the connections, otherwise
serious problems may occur during the erection of the
structure. An important principle is to ensure that all
fixings of whatever type allow for three-way adjustment
to enable the units to be aligned and levelled.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 65

 5.5.8 Fire resistance tensile capacity of the bar. When this is not possible,
due to limitations in geometry, the tensile capacity of
Connection details, which are vital parts of the structural the connection is determined by cone or splitting failure
system, should be protected to provide the same FRL as of the concrete or by pull-out failure of the bar.
other structural members. Protection can be obtained
by cast insitu concrete, mortar or fire insulating materials. In dowel connections subject to tensile loads the bond
between the concrete of the element and the grout
Many precast connections are not vulnerable to the effect is unreliable if there is any shrinkage. Experience has
of fire and require no special treatment. For example, shown that these dowel holes should be formed by
the bearings between slabs and beams or between corrugated ducts.
beams and columns do not generally require special
fire protection. Steel connections partly embedded in Bars can also be anchored by bar couplers. These are
concrete will have a lower temperature rise than non- proprietary types of connectors that allow a loose bar
embedded steel because of the thermal conductivity of to be connected to the cast in connector. They can be
the surrounding concrete and in some cases may not screwed couplers, grouted sleeves or swaged sleeves.
require additional fire protection. All provide the full design capacity of the bar.

In the case of walls and floors that have an important 5.5.9.3 Dowel action of bars
separating function with regard to thermal insulation
and fire penetration the connections at wall joints and Transfer of horizontal actions from one element to
floors should be designed to prevent the passage of another can be provided in precast structures by
flames and hot gases. means of dowel action. Depending on the strength and
dimension of the steel bar and the position of the bar
More information on the design of fire resistant relative to the element boundaries, several failure modes
structures is given in Chapter 10. are possible. A weak bar in a strong concrete element
might fail in shear of the bar itself. A strong steel bar in
a weak concrete element or placed with small concrete
5.5.9 Basic force transfer cover might result in concrete bearing failure or splitting
mechanisms of the concrete. However, when the bar is placed in
well confined concrete with adequate concrete cover
Structural connections are usually composed of a
or when the splitting effects are controlled by properly
number of components and fixings that assure the
designed confinement reinforcement, the dowel pin will
transfer of forces through the whole connection. The
normally fail in bending by formation of a plastic hinge
transfer of forces from one component to another one,
in the steel bar at some distance above the joint face.
or within a connection as a whole, is based on a number
of principles as outlined below.

5.5.9.1 Concrete infills

A connection can be provided by aligning one component

with another and filling the remaining space with grout
or fine concrete, or even with an adhesive. A classic
example is the connection of precast elements with
insitu concrete infills. Another example is connecting a
precast column into a pocket foundation.

5.5.9.2 Anchorage of tension bars

Reinforcing bars in tension can be anchored by bond,

hooks, bends or studs, or simply by the tensile capacity
of the pull-out cone.

By providing sufficient development length and concrete

cover to the bar, the anchorage capacity will exceed the
Figure 5.14 Principle of force transfer by dowel action

66 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5.5.9.4 Bond will take place when the joint is loaded in shear and slip
occurs along the interface. The joint separation creates
Connection by adhesion and bond between precast tension in the reinforcing bars and the tensile force is
concrete and cast in-situ concrete is only appropriate balanced by a compressive force across the interface.
for small interface stresses, for example in composite Increasing the amount of transverse reinforcement
action between precast floors and topping screeds. increases the frictional coefficient and increases the
shear resistance.
The factors which affect bond and shear transfer at the
interface surface include: surface roughness, surface In a similar manner shear forces can be transmitted
strength, cleanliness and moisture content. Test data across insitu infill joints between wall panels that
indicates that the treatment of the precast surface is at have indented or roughened joint faces. Provided the
least as important as the degree of roughness. Factors elements are prevented from moving apart under shear
such as cleanliness, compaction, curing and wetting of loading the connection will be able to resist shear forces
the surface have a major influence on the shear strength by shear-friction. Reinforcement ties can be provided
of the interface. Of particular importance is the moisture at the top and bottom of the elements or as lapping
content of the surface which should be wet with no reinforcement loops within the insitu infill.
surface water. This is known as ‘saturated surface dry’.
5.5.9.6 Bolting
Australian Standard, AS3600 [7] provides shear plane
surface coefficients for various surface conditions. Bolting is used extensively in connections to transfer
tensile and shear forces. Fixings such as, threaded
5.5.9.5 Friction ferrules, rails or captive nuts attached to the rear of
plates are cast into the precast units to allow a bolt to
Shear forces can be transferred between precast form the connection. Tolerances can be accommodated
concrete and insitu concrete by friction, provided there by using over-sized holes in the connecting member
is some interface roughness and a compressive force and where necessary by welding heavy washers to the
across the joint to create the frictional resistance. This plates to limit movement.
concept is known as ‘shear-friction’.
Capacity of the connection will almost always depend
A permanent compressive force can be provided by on the type of cast-in fixing. Where a fixing such as a
gravity load or by pre-stressing. However, it is also ferrule is provided with an anchor bar that can develop
possible to induce compressive forces by placing its full capacity the tensile capacity of the connection
reinforcement bars across the joint which are strained will be limited by the bolt capacity and the shear
when the connection is loaded in shear. Because of the capacity by the lesser of the bolt or concrete bearing
roughness in the joint interface, a small joint separation on the ferrule.

Where a ferrule, commonly called a foot anchor, has

no anchor bar and only an enlarged base the tensile
capacity of the connection will be determined by the
pull out capacity of the ferrule and the shear capacity by
the lesser of the bolt or concrete bearing on the ferrule.

In both cases the combined tensile and shear loads need

to be checked against the combine tensile and shear
capacities.

This topic is covered extensively in the Precast Concrete

Handbook. [2]

Figure 5.15 Transfer of shear forces by friction

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 67

 5.5.9.7 Welding 5.5.9.8 Post tensioning

Connections can be formed by welding directly to Post-tensioning can be used in segmental construction
protruding steel fixings, for example reinforcement bars and in shear walls of tall buildings. Ducts are installed
that overlap into an insitu infill. The disadvantage of this into the units, and after erection, the pre-stressing cables
is lack of tolerance, particularly if the lapping bars have or bars are placed in the ducts and post-tensioned. The
a short projection length. An alternative is to use an joints between the units are able to resist tension and
intermediate steel section, which is used as a link and shear forces.
welded between the protruding fixings.

Bars can also be welded to anchor plates or angles

embedded in the precast element. In all cases welding
should be carried out by qualified personnel. Site
welded connections should be avoided where possible.
Welding on site and usually at height is expensive and
time consuming.

lW

lW

Figure 5.16 Types of welded connections

68 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5.6 Tie systems
The most essential design purpose of precast structures Chord and shear reinforcement required as part of a
is to realize a coherent entity out of individual precast floor diaphragm or continuity reinforcement across
elements. The principal method to obtain structural beams can be included as part of the tie reinforcement
integrity and robustness in precast structures is through and in some cases these requirements may exceed the
tying systems in the transverse, longitudinal and vertical deemed to comply requirements.
direction. These tying systems effectively interconnect
all the individual elements to ensure stability to the Tie reinforcement requirements can be met either by
structure and to provide redundant load paths. using individual continuous bars or by lapping bars or
mechanically anchoring with the reinforcement within
This issue is not specifically covered by AS3600, but BS the precast elements.
8110 [34] and Eurocode 2 [24] provide simple rules that
are deemed to satisfy these robustness and integrity
requirements. Elliott [21] also provides worked examples
of ties required in a typical building. Ties are in effect
the minimum reinforcement requirements between
and within the elements in a precast structure in the
same manner that AS3600 has minimum reinforcement
requirements for insitu concrete elements.

Where it is deemed that the structure is to be designed

for accidental actions additional ties should be provided
in accordance with Chapter 5.7.

Ties are reinforcement bars or tendons, placed in

longitudinal, transversal and vertical directions to
provide continuous tensile capacity throughout the
structure. Their role is not only to transfer normal forces
between units, originating from wind and other actions,
but also to give additional strength and robustness to
the structure.

Although tie systems are necessary on all precast

concrete buildings there are different requirements
for loadbearing wall structures and skeletal frame
structures. Loadbearing wall structures tend to have
high numbers of lateral resisting elements and usually
only require a minimum of tie reinforcement. Skeletal
frame structures on the other hand with relatively few
lateral resisting elements can require careful placement
of reinforcement over and above that required for direct
structural actions.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 69

 5.6.1 Types of ties 5.6.1.2 Edge ties and Wall ties (types 3 & 4)

To satisfy the deemed to comply requirements of BS These ties are used in skeletal structures and loadbearing
8110 [34] ties should be provided as shown in Figure wall structures to tie the edge beams or perimeter walls
5.17. These requirements are based on fib Bulletin 74, into the floor system. They should be anchored into the
Planning and design handbook on precast building structural topping or the precast floor elements and not
structures. [18] into the joints between the elements.

5.6.1.1 Internal ties (types 1 & 2) The edge ties and wall ties should be capable of resisting
the ultimate tensile force equal to;
These ties are also known as longitudinal and transverse Ftie = 20kN/m along length of edge or wall.
ties. They are placed across the ends as well as
perpendicular to the span of the floor elements. Internal In skeletal structures these ties can be the torsion ties
ties may, in whole or in part, be spread evenly in the that are provided to resist torsion on the edge beam.
floor or may be grouped at or in the joints, tie-beams,
along floor beams, walls or other appropriate positions. 5.6.1.3 Peripheral ties (type 5)

Where a structural topping screed is provided the screed These ties are required around the total precast floor,
reinforcement can act as the internal tie. within a distance of 1.2 m from the edge. Peripheral
ties are made continuous around external corners or
The internal ties should be capable of resisting an by lapping the tie reinforcement with the longitudinal
ultimate tensile force equal to; reinforcement in the precast component. In the latter
Ftie = 20kN/m x s case the precast component can act as the peripheral
Where s = spacing of the ties. tie. At inner corners of the perimeter of structures, the
tie reinforcement should be anchored straight inward on
If type 2 ties cannot be placed within the floor zone both sides.
the ties may be concentrated and added to perimeter
beams as ties type 5 and along the lines of the internal Peripheral ties can also act as the tensile chord of the
beams as ties type 5a. floor diaphragm. Peripheral ties should be capable of
resisting an ultimate tensile force equal to;
Ftie = ℓ x 10kN/m but not less than 70kN.
Where ℓ = length of the longest floor span.

Figure 5.17 Tie locations and tie types

70 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5.6.1.4 Internal ties (type 5a) 5.6.1.7 Vertical wall ties (type 8)

Internal ties are required along the internal beam lines Vertical wall ties should be provided between
and are provided either by passing the ties through a superimposed walls to ensure there is a minimum
column to column connection, by passing ties through a tensile capacity vertically through a building. Normally,
sleeve in the column or placing ties symmetrically either continuous vertical ties should be provided from the
side of the column. Internal ties also act as the internal lowest to the highest level.
tensile chord of the floor diaphragm.
The vertical ties should be capable of resisting an
Internal ties along beam lines should be capable of ultimate tensile force per metre length of wall equal to:
resisting an ultimate tensile force equal to; Ftie = the maximum design ultimate vertical permanent
Ftie = (ℓ1 + ℓ2) /2 x 20kN but not less than 70kN. and imposed load per metre length applied to the wall
Where ℓ1 & ℓ2 are the span lengths in metres either side from any one storey.
of the beam.
Ties can be spaced equally along the length of the wall
5.6.1.5 Corner column ties (type 6) or grouped at not greater than 2.5 metre centres along
the wall.
These ties provide horizontal restraint to the corner
column by tying the floor system into the supporting 5.6.1.8 Vertical column ties (type 9)
structure. The corner column ties should be capable of
resisting an ultimate tensile force equal to; Vertical column ties should be provided between
Ftie = 150kN in two perpendicular directions or superimposed columns to ensure there is a minimum
equivalent placed diagonally. tensile capacity vertically through a building. Normally,
continuous vertical ties should be provided from the
Reinforcement provided for peripheral ties that is within lowest to the highest level.
1.2 metres of the column can be used as part of this
requirement The vertical ties should be capable of resisting an
ultimate tensile force equal to:
5.6.1.6 Edge column ties (type 7) Ftie = the maximum design ultimate vertical permanent
and imposed load applied to the column from any one
These ties provide horizontal restraint to the edge storey.
columns by tying the floor system into the supporting
structure. The edge column ties should be capable of
resisting an ultimate tensile force equal to;
Ftie = 150kN perpendicular to the edge.

Where it is not possible to provide a direct tie between

the column and floor slab the tie force may be distributed
for a distance of 1.2 metres each side of the column and
anchored into the edge beam. Reinforcement provided
for edge ties that is within 1.2 metres of the column can
be used as part of this requirement

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 5.6.2 Ties in structural toppings
Due to local construction techniques, most buildings in
Australia are provided with a structural topping screed,
although this is not always structurally necessary.
However toppings should always be provided where
there are heavy concentrated loads, where there are
moving loads such as those from forklift trucks, where
a fire rating is required, where seismic design governs
and where design against accidental actions is specified.

Where structural toppings are provided the ties may be

placed wholly within the concrete topping as part of
the topping reinforcement. Structural toppings should
always be continuously reinforced with a steel mesh
or bars of sufficient cross section to resist shrinkage
cracking and thermal movement or the requirement for
diaphragm action. The area of mesh or bars should also
be sufficient to resist the maximum tie forces but not
less than the requirements of AS3600 [7] clause 9.5.3.

For edge beams it is important that the mesh is lapped

with the tie bars projecting from or otherwise anchored
to the edge beams. For internal beams the mesh can lap
across the top of the beam.

Where composite action is required and ties are within

the topping screed, bonding between the topping and
the precast element is critical. Care needs to be taken
to ensure that the precast surface is in accordance with
design requirements before the topping is placed.

Figure 5.18 Example of internal and vertical ties

72 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5.7 Design for accidental
actions
5.7.1 Introduction buildings are classified in so-called consequences classes.
Eurocode EN 1991-1-7 [22] has specific requirements for
All building structures are designed to respond to all building types and the fib Design of Precast Concrete
normal load conditions without damage, but local and/ Structures against Accidental actions [25] provides
or global damage cannot be avoided under the effect guidelines for precast concrete structures. Effectively the
of an unexpected, but moderate degree of accidental fib document recommends that all buildings other than
overload. No structure can be expected to be totally single occupancy houses of less than 4 floors, agricultural
resistant to actions arising from an unexpected extreme buildings and buildings into which people rarely go
cause, but it should not be damaged to an extent that is should be designed for accidental actions. .
disproportionate to the original cause. [40] Uncontrolled
collapse or progressive collapse should not be allowed to Designing a building for seismic action will, in most cases,
occur. [41] unintentionally increase its resistance against accidental
actions but seismic events are global and affect the whole
Types of hazards that can result in accidental loads building whereas accidental loads are usually severe and
include, design or construction error, overload due to localised. In each case the building response is quite
misuse, gas explosion, bomb explosion, vehicle impact, different.
storage of hazardous material, aircraft impact or fire.
These events can occur randomly in space and time, and Nevertheless, although there is some overlap between
other than fire, data on their incidence, magnitude and the disciplines in the area of prevention of progressive
structural effects are rarely available. collapse, seismic resistant buildings are unlikely to
The design of a structure to mitigate the risk of progressive resist totally the direct effects of blast loading acting
collapse after severe initial local damage requires a on the exterior skin of a building and much less to resist
different approach to that of traditional building design. completely an explosion or vehicle impact etc.
The reason lies in the large variation and magnitude of
accidental actions and possible reaction of the building Figure 5.19 shows a comparison between the actions of
structure. Therefore the guidelines focus primarily on an earthquake and an explosion on a structure.
design philosophy rather than well-defined and exact
design procedures.

Extensive research has been carried out overseas on this

topic and one of the best sources of information is the
National Institute of Standards and Technology, document
NISTIR 7396, Best Practices for Reducing the Potential for
Progressive Collapse in Buildings. [42]

Australia Building Codes currently have no requirements

to design against accidental actions although some
Transport Authorities have design guidelines for vehicle
impact on structures.

American and European building standards prescribe a

minimum level of protection of building structures against
accidental actions as a function of possible consequences,
primarily depending on the size (more specifically
the height) and the occupancy of a building. Usually,
Figure 5.19 Seismic versus blast loading

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 73

 The effects of accidental actions on multi-storey Chord and shear reinforcement required as part of
buildings are much more significant than on single- a floor diaphragm can be included as part of the tie
storey buildings but design requirements are equally reinforcement and in some cases may exceed the
applicable to both. The following sections will only deemed to satisfy requirements.
discuss multi-storey buildings but the design philosophy
for both is the same. The Eurocode, EN 1991-1-7 requirements for ties reflect
the different responses between skeletal structures and
Where it is deemed appropriate to design for accidental loadbearing wall structures that are subjected to an
actions there are three design alternatives that can be accidental load and are treated differently.
used to reduce the risk of progressive collapse. The
choice of which alternative to use depends on the 5.7.2.1 Skeletal structures. Internal and Edge ties.
function of the building, the height of the building and (type 1, 2 & 3)
the possible consequences of an accidental action and
These ties are also known as longitudinal ties and
the level of protection required. The alternatives are;
transverse ties. They are placed across the ends as well
• indirect design method
as perpendicular to the span of the floor elements.
• alternative load path method
Internal ties should be spread evenly in the floor but
• specific load method.
may be grouped at or in the joints, tie-beams, along
floor beams, walls or other appropriate positions.
It is allowable to apply different methods to different
parts of the same structure but not permitted to mix the
The internal ties edge ties should be capable of resisting
methods on the same part of the structure. In all cases
an ultimate tensile force in the direction of the tie which
it is recommended that a structural topping screed be
is the greater of;
provided
Ftie = 0.8 (G + ψQ) x ℓ kN/m
OR
5.7.2 Indirect design method Ftie = 75kN/m
With Indirect Design, also called ‘Tie Force Method’,
G and Q are respectively the permanent and imposed
resistance to progressive collapse is considered implicitly
loads.
through provision of minimum levels of strength,
ψ is the load reduction factor for the accidental design
continuity and ductility through the whole structure.
situation. See AS1170. [23]
The fully tied solution is based on the assumption that
ℓ is the floor span in the longest direction.
through a system of structural ties, a precast structure
will have increased ability to prevent spread of local
5.7.2.2 Skeletal structures. Peripheral and Beam
damage, facilitating alternative load paths and increase
ties. (type 5 & 5a)
robustness, after a moderate degree of accidental
action. Ties are required around the total precast floor, within a
distance of 1.2 m from the edge. Peripheral ties are made
The approach is similar to that for the provision of continuous around external corners or by lapping the
minimum ties as described in Chapter 5.6 but for tie reinforcement with the longitudinal reinforcement in
accidental loading the tie forces are higher than those the precast component. In the latter case the precast
given for normal loading. The types and location of the component can act as the peripheral tie. At inner corners
ties shown in Fig. 5.17. of the perimeter of structures, the tie reinforcement
should be anchored straight inward on both sides.
This method can be used on buildings where the risks of Peripheral ties can also act as the tensile chord of the
and consequences of an accidental action are classed as floor diaphragm.
low to medium and is limited to buildings of less than 15
storeys and to buildings that do not have large numbers Ties are also required along the internal beam lines
of occupants. and are made continuous at columns either by passing
the ties through a column to column connection, by
Recommendations on building types and risk and passing ties through a sleeve in the column or placing
consequence classifications are given in Eurocode EN ties symmetrically either side of the column. Internal
1991-1-7 [22] and the fib Design of Precast Concrete ties also act as the internal tensile chord of the floor
Structures against Accidental actions. [25] diaphragm.

74 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

These ties are in addition to the internal ties and should 5.7.2.5 Loadbearing wall structures. Internal ties
be capable of resisting an ultimate tensile force along (type 1, 2 & 4)
the line of the beam which is the greater of;
Ftie = 0.4(G + ψQ) x ℓ kN/m Internal ties can be divided into longitudinal ties,
OR transverse ties and wall ties. They are placed across the
Ftie = 75kN/m ends as well as perpendicular to the span of the floor
elements. Internal ties should be spread evenly in the
G and Q are respectively the permanent and imposed floor but may be grouped at or in the joints, tie-beams,
loads. along floor beams, walls or other appropriate positions.
ψ is the load reduction factor for the accidental design
situation. See AS1170. [23] The internal ties should be capable of resisting an
ℓ is the floor span in the longest direction. ultimate tensile force in the direction of the tie which is
the greater of;
5.7.2.3 Skeletal structures. Column ties (types 6 & 7) Ftie = Ft kN/m
OR
These ties provide horizontal restraint to corner and Ftie = Ft(G + ψQ) x Z /(7.5 x 5)kN/m
edge columns by tying the floor system into the
supporting structure. Reinforcement provided for edge Ft is the lesser of 60 or (20 + 4 x N) where N is the
ties within 1.2 metres each side of the column can be number of storeys.
used as part of this requirement. Corner columns should G and Q are respectively the permanent and imposed
be tied into the structure with the nominated tie force loads.
in each direction. Column ties should be capable of ψ is the load reduction factor for the accidental design
resisting an ultimate tensile force which is the greater of; situation. See AS1170. [23]
Ftie = 0.03(G + ψQ) kN Z is the lesser of 5 times the storey height in metres or
OR the longest floor span in metres.
Ftie = 150kN
5.7.2.6 Loadbearing wall structures. Peripheral ties.
G and Q are respectively the permanent and imposed (type 5)
loads.
Ties are required around the total precast floor, within a
ψ is the load reduction factor for the accidental design
distance of 1.2 m from the edge. Peripheral ties are made
situation. See AS1170. [23]
continuous around external corners or by lapping the
0.03 represents 3%
tie reinforcement with the longitudinal reinforcement in
the precast component. In the latter case the precast
5.7.2.4 Skeletal structures. Vertical ties (type 9)
component can act as the peripheral tie. At inner corners
Vertical column ties should be provided between of the perimeter of structures, the tie reinforcement
superimposed columns to ensure there is a minimum should be anchored straight inward on both sides.
tensile capacity vertically through a building. Normally, Peripheral ties can also act as the tensile chord of the
continuous vertical ties should be provided from the floor diaphragm.
lowest to the highest level.
These ties are in addition to the internal ties and should
The vertical ties should be capable of resisting an be capable of resisting an ultimate tensile force equal
ultimate tensile force equal to the largest design to ;
ultimate vertical permanent and imposed load applied Ftie = Ft kN
to the column from any one floor.
Ftie = (G + ψQ)kN Ft is the lesser of 60 or (20 + 4 x N) where N is the
number of storeys.
G and Q are respectively the permanent and imposed
loads.
ψ is the load reduction factor for the accidental design
situation. See AS1170. [23]

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 75

 5.7.2.7 Loadbearing wall structures. Vertical wall 5.7.3 Alternative load path method
ties (type 8)
The alternative load path approach method presumes
Vertical wall ties should be provided between that a critical element is removed from the structure,
superimposed walls to ensure there is a minimum due to an accidental action, and that the structure
tensile capacity vertically through a building. Normally, is required to redistribute the gravity loads to the
continuous vertical ties should be provided from the remaining undamaged structural elements.
lowest to the highest level.
The method involves notional removal of a critical
The vertical ties should be capable of resisting an element – e.g. a column, load bearing wall, etc. from
ultimate tensile force per metre length of wall equal to: the structure. It is an analytical exercise that ignores
Ftie = (G + ψQ)kN/m all other damage to the structure that may accompany
the removal of a critical unit. For each plan location of
(G + ψQ) is the design ultimate vertical permanent and a removed element, an alternative load path analysis
imposed load per metre length applied to the wall from is performed for every floor, one at the time and the
any one storey. remaining structure is checked to ensure it is capable of
ψ is the load reduction factor for the accidental design redistributing the applied static and dynamic loads and
situation. See AS1170. [23] that the extent of any local collapse does not exceed
allowable limits. The success of this approach depends
on the assumptions of acceptable local damage.

This method should be used on all buildings of more

than 15 storeys and on buildings where the risks of
and consequences of an accidental action are classed
as medium to high. Recommendations and design
guidelines are given in Eurocode EN 1991-1-7 [22] and
the fib Design of Precast Concrete Structures against
Accidental actions. [25]

The alternative load path method implies that:

• the local damage must be bridged by an alternative
load-bearing system and that the transition to this
system is associated with dynamic effects that
should be considered
• the connections and tie reinforcement should be
designed to resist the resulting actions
• the structure as a whole must be shown to be
stable with the local damage under the relevant
load combinations.

An advantage of this method is that it is quite clear

and can be used in the very beginning of the structural
design process. Disadvantages are that the analytical
procedure can be very tedious and that the demands
on the remaining structure can be unrealistically large
leading to possible over-mitigation and unnecessary
additional costs. Where notional removal of a particular
element results in damage in excess of acceptable limits
then that element should be designed in accordance
with the specific load approach.

76 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5.7.3.1 Skeletal structures Suspension from the upper levels.
The intact upper structure above the damaged area can
The following mechanisms can be used to provide alternative support the damaged area below. This is provided by
load paths in multi-storied precast skeletal structures. These vertical ties from the foundation to roof level in all columns
are covered in detail in the fib Design of Precast Concrete and walls.
Structures against Accidental actions. [25]
Membrane action of floors and roofs.
Catenary action. Floors and roofs can be designed to act as suspended
In the event of accidental damage to a column such that it membranes to span across damaged areas. As with
can no longer carry any of its original load, the design force catenary action large horizontal forces can be generated at
must be distributed to other members to avoid progressive the edges of the membrane and need to be appropriately
collapse. The loss of support means that the beam has anchored.
effectively doubled its span length. With appropriate tie
reinforcement the excess forces in the system can be partly
carried through catenary action of the floor beams.

Catenary action needs anchorage. Removal of penultimate

columns one bay from an edge means that catenary action
perpendicular to that edge will impose a large horizontal
force on the edge column which must then span two or
more stories vertically to transfer that load. The horizontal
reaction from the catenary force could be taken up by the
diaphragm action of the floor above, but not necessarily by
the floors above due to the damage caused by the column
removal.

Cantilever action.
In case of failure of a corner column the surrounding
structure can be supported by cantilever action. For
example the horizontal tie reinforcement on top of the
floor beam can function as cantilever reinforcement. To this
effect the tie-reinforcement should be inside the projecting
stirrups at the top of the beams.

Figure 5.21 Alternative mechanisms for alternate load path in skeletal structures

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 77

 5.7.3.2 Loadbearing wall structures Cantilever action of the wall assembly.
At the end of a series of wall panels the intact panels
The following mechanisms are generally available in above the damaged area can be designed to cantilever
wall framed structures to provide an alternative load as a single assembly through provision of vertical ties
path in case of notional removal of a load bearing panel. between each panel and ties parallel to the wall at each
These are covered in detail in the fib Design of Precast floor level.
Concrete Structures against Accidental actions. [25]
Catenary and/or membrane action of floors.
Cantilever action of individual walls. Successive spans of the floor elements above the
At the end of a series of wall panels the intact panels damaged wall can be designed to carry the wall
above the damaged area can be designed to individually panels across the damaged area by provision of tie
cantilever through provision of horizontal ties between reinforcement in the floor with appropriate connections
each panel and into each floor level. to the walls.

Beam and arch action of the wall panels.

Where a panel within the length of a wall is damaged
the panels above can be designed to span or arch across
the damaged area through the provision of appropriate
panel connections.

Vertical suspension of the walls.

Where a panel within the length of a wall is damaged,
the undamaged panels each side can be designed to
support the panel above the damaged area through
provision of appropriate panel connections.

Figure 5.22 Mechanisms for alternative load path in wall frame structures

78 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

5.7.4 Specific load resistance 5.7.5 Risk elimination
method A better strategy to cope with the problems of key
The method of specific load resistance requires element design or the difficulty of providing alternative
identification of all key gravity load-bearing elements load paths is to modify the structural arrangement of
and designing and detailing them to resist a postulated the building.
abnormal load. Key elements are defined as structural
elements whose notional removal would cause BS8110 [34] and the fib Design of Precast Concrete
unacceptable collapse. Structures against Accidental actions [25] recommend
that for buildings with high occupancy such as stadia
As a guide, BS8110 [34] requires the key elements in all or for buildings where dangerous processes are carried
buildings not covered by the indirect design or alternative out and for buildings where the consequences of
load path method be identified and that these elements accidental actions can be significant, a systematic risk
be designed to resist a postulated abnormal load. The assessment of the building should be undertaken and
other parts of the structure should then be designed the required improvements based on this assessment be
according to the alternate path method. implemented.

Key elements should be capable of sustaining an

accidental design action applied in horizontal and
vertical directions (in one direction at a time) to the
member and any attached components having regard
to the ultimate strength of such components and their
connections.

The difficulty with strengthening key elements is that

it must be done with a specific threat in mind. Many
standards, however, do not define values for accidental
actions, but leave it to the designer to nominate. The
exception is structures subject to impact from vehicles
where specific actions can be determined.

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80 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
6 BRACED WALL
STRUCTURES

6.1 General In this Chapter

6.1 General 81
As described in Chapter 3, Braced wall structures consist
of a series of wall panels connected to a lightweight 6.2 Design Concepts 82
roof structure. There are a number of variations on this 6.2.1 Loadbearing walls 82
concept but the most common is where the walls are
6.2.2 Non-loadbearing walls 83
loadbearing and support a lightweight roof structure.
Wall panels are erected and braced and the roof 6.3 Connection details 85
structure is then erected to connect all elements. 6.3.1 Wall to footing connection 85
6.3.2 Wall to roof connection 86
Stability is provided by bracing the roof to transfer
lateral load to the cross walls. A variation of this is where 6.3.3 Wall to wall connection 88
the loadbearing walls cantilever from the foundations to 6.3.4 Cladding panel connections 89
provide lateral stability. Alternatively stability can be
provided by a complete portal frame system with the
walls non-loadbearing cladding panels.

This document does not address the design of

roof structure but assumes the designer will apply
established engineering principles to ensure lateral
loads from the walls can be transferred through the
braced roof structure.

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 6.2 Design Concepts
For most buildings the selection of the structural system 6.2.1 Loadbearing walls
will depend on the functional requirements, layout of the
building and the wall heights. The roof framing module Wall panels are full height and support the roof
does not need to match that of the walls so the design structure. Roof connections to the wall should be
of each should be optimised. designed as pinned to minimise induced bending in
the walls. Where necessary a steel eaves tie, connected
Broadly there are two structural options, loadbearing to the rafters, can provide lateral support to the top of
and non-loadbearing walls. Each can cover a number the wall panels. Wall panel thickness is determined by
of variations with the choice usually depending on their height and the lateral and vertical actions. Lateral
economics and buildability issues. actions are transferred to the walls by roof bracing and
walls can either resist these in-plane forces as a series
Wall panels are usually solid, but hollowcore or other of individual panels or be connected to act as a single
profiles can be used. On loadbearing panels, slenderness element.
is critical and the design needs to take into account
P-Delta effects. In most cases axial loads are small and As an alternative, where the roof load requires an
panels act more like flexural members than compression excessive wall thickness a thicker panel/column can be
members. The design of the individual wall elements is provided at that location.
covered in detail in Chapter 4.2.

Typically the most economical solution is where the

walls are loadbearing and support the roof structure.
This makes use of the inherent load carrying capacity
of wall panels to support the roof without additional
columns.

Roof designed to transfer wind

load to end walls

Wind load acting on

side wall of building
End walls act as shear walls
to resist wind loads
PRINCIPLE
Roof Rafters

Bracing in roof plane to transfer

lateral loads to end walls

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
Figure 6.1 Loadbearing wall structure

82 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

6.2.2 Non-loadbearing walls Where wall panels are horizontal and non-loadbearing
they span horizontally between and are laterally
Where wall panels are vertical and non-loadbearing they supported on a portal frame structure. It is important
are supported by a portal frame and eaves tie system. to align the bearing pads between panels to ensure
Vertical actions are carried directly to the footings. that vertical actions are carried directly to the footings.
Lateral actions on the building are resisted by the portal Where cladding panels are erected onto the edge of a
frames and wall bracing or by shear wall action in the suspended floor the erection load case of the panels
plane of the wall panels. supported on two discrete bearing pads needs to be
checked.

Portal raft
er
Free standing steel frame
Portal raft constructed first
er

Eaves tie beam

Precast cladding panels attached

by clips to frame and eaves/tie beam

Floor tie bars

Dowel bars or similar

Strip footings, pad footings,

bored piers or similar

Figure 6.2 Vertical non-loadbearing panels

Standard clips into M20

ferrules cast in panel

Steel columns

Horizontal cladding panels

Floor slab Vertical load to footings

Figure 6.3 Horizontal non-loadbearing panels

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 83

 As noted above, lateral stability of braced wall structures In seismic areas careful attention needs to be given to the
is usually provided by a roof diaphragm that transfers stiffness of the roof diaphragm to limit overall sway of
lateral actions to the wall panels. In-plane forces in the the building. The resulting distortion of the connections
panels generally result from these lateral forces causing to the panels on the tension and compression flanges of
the panels to act as shear walls. In non-seismic areas it is the roof diaphragm can lead to failure. Flexibility of the
rare for the shear stresses in the wall panel to be critical. roof diaphragm is a common cause of failure of braced
The critical factor is usually stability of the compression wall structures.
edge of the panel and this should be checked for
buckling due to induced axial forces. The simplest In all cases the roof diaphragm should be designed
method of checking for lateral buckling is to calculate with redundancy to ensure that complete collapse of
the reaction induced at the base of the compression the building cannot occur due to failure or removal of a
side of the panel by the combined imposed axial forces single member.
and in-plane forces. This reaction is distributed up the
panel as shown in Figure 6.4.

Where it is necessary to connect adjacent panels together

to provide greater shear wall resistance the connection
between panels needs to be designed to resist the
induced vertical shear forces. These connections also
need to take into account the forces induced by thermal
and shrinkage along the length of the wall. These later
forces can be quite significant and can be minimised by
limiting the number of panels connected together.

V This edge to be
checked for stability

Critical section for

design at
mid-height

Reaction distributed at 60°

Bearing Length

60°
60°

T
Footing
C

Figure 6.4 In-plane forces

84 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

6.3 Connection details
Some examples of typical connections in braced wall
structures are given in this section. The intention is not
to show a complete overview of all existing solutions,
but to make the designer familiar with some common
types of connections. The principles applied in the
majority of solutions are valid both for low-rise buildings
and the upper level of multi-storey buildings.

Wall panels
Wall to raker
Wall to eaves tie
Eav
es ti
e
Ra ker Wall to rafter
er
Raft

er
Raft
Wall to wall

Wall to footing

Figure 6.5 Wall connection types

6.3.1 Wall to footing connection An alternative connection is a welded fixing as shown

in Figure 6.6 b). This is usually more expensive than the
The most common wall to footing detail is shown in dowel but is often used in combination with dowels to
Figure 6.6 a) and can be used for both loadbearing provide base fixity to the wall panel.
and non-loadbearing wall structures. Care needs to be
taken in detailing to ensure that the dowel is restrained Tie bars as shown in Figure 6.6 c) can be used where
by reinforcement to prevent side breakout particularly high lateral restraint is required or in combination with
where dowels are drilled and driven into snug tight dowels to provide base fixity. This solution requires
holes in the footing. either the whole floor or an infill floor strip to be poured
after the panels are erected.
A similar detail can be used with cast-in dowels to
provide base fixity for cantilevering panels. In this case
it is recommended that the calculated development
length of the dowels into the ducts be increased by 50%
to account for the lack of confinement reinforcement.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 85

 Wall panel Threaded bar into
ferrules cast into
panel
Dowel holes in Loose plate site
panel filled with welded between
flowable grout cast-in plates
Reinforcement
to resist
breakout
Infill strip.
Poured after
erecting wall
Dowel in snug tight
hole or grouted in
place
a) Dowel b) Welded c) Tie bars

Figure 6.6 Wall to footing connections

6.3.2 Wall to roof connection

If cast-in plates are used in the wall panel it is usual for
Wall to roof frame connections form a vital part of a steel corbel to be provided at the appropriate height
braced wall structures. They have a major influence on to act as support during erection of the rafter and as a
structural behaviour. Although it is possible to design bolting bracket for final fixing. See Figure 6.7 a).
connections within the full range from pinned jointed to
fully rigid, simplicity of execution is far more important The alternative directly bolted connection requires
than complexity in design, and in this context pinned an end plate on the rafter with over-sized holes and
connections are the preferred choice. heavy washers on the bolts to accommodate tolerance.
This type of connection also requires some allowance
There are two basic locations of wall to roof connections. between end plate and wall panel for construction and
They are rafter to a side wall panel and gable raker beam manufacturing tolerance. See Figure 6.7 b). In both
to an end wall panel. cases it is difficult to avoid site welding, either to weld
the corbel or to weld the heavy washers to the rafter
Rafter connection. end plate.
With this connection the steel rafter is supported on
the loadbearing wall panel by way of welded or bolted
connection. See Figure 6.7. In either case the connection
should be designed and detailed as pinned to minimise Wall panel
induced bending in the wall panel. This is accomplished Eaves tie Wall panel Eeaves tie
by providing fixings only at one horizontal location over
the depth of the rafter.
Rafter Rafter and
end plate
As noted above, the roof module does not need to Steel corbel bolts into
match that of the wall panels so it is almost certain that cast-in ferrules Bolts into cast
the optimum roof module will be much greater than or weld to cast in plate in ferrules
that of the wall panels. Whether the rafter connection a) Corbel fixing b) Endplate fixing
should occur at panel joints or within a panel is open
to some debate and the final decision on joint location
may depend on buildability issues such as optimising
wall panel widths. Figure 6.7 Rafter connections

86 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

 Various other types of proprietary fixings such as
Both types of connections are required to exhibit ductile expansion anchors or cast-in toothed channels can
behaviour and at the least this will require cast in plates be used in these connections but must be specifically
or ferrules with anchor bars that can develop their manufactured for use as structural connections and have
full capacity after local failure of the concrete at the adequate capacity to resist unintentional overloading.
connection. Because of their limited ductility, drilled-in They have the advantage of accommodating tolerance
expansion or chemical anchors are not recommended as but can suffer from a lack of ductility. For this reason
fixings for these connections. they should be used with care and are not recommended
where design for seismic action is required.
Where rafters are pitched to an apex the connection
needs to be able to accommodate the rotation due Eaves tie to panel connection
to the outwards deflection of the ends as the roof is Eaves ties are steel members spanning horizontally
loaded. Note that this is also an issue with the bracing of between rafters to transfer horizontal forces from the
the wall panels during construction where the erection top of the wall panels to the roof bracing system. These
braces can be overloaded by outward deflection of the ties are usually steel channel or universal beam sections.
ends of a pitched rafter. Failures can occur as a result of They need to be designed not only for horizontal load
this mechanism and care must be taken when designing from the walls but for their self-weight in the vertical
the erection braces, particularly with long-span pitched direction.
rafters.

Raker beam connection

Rakers are steel members fixed to the end walls to
support the end bay of the roof structure. Consequently
the load on the raker beam is relatively small. The
usual detail is for a continuous steel angle or channel
to be fixed to the wall at regular intervals. Fixings are
generally bolted or welded as shown in Figure 6.8. Even
with bolting, welding is often required either to prevent
the washer slipping in the oversized holes required for
tolerance or to prevent the clip fixing rotating or slipping
off the raker during a fire.

Gable wall panel Gable wall panel

Gable wall panel

Line of roof purlin Line of roof purlin Line of roof purlin

Steel L or PFC welded Steel angle raker

to cast-in plates with clip fixing.
Steel PFC or L raker,
bolts into cast-in ferrules Bolts into cast in
ferrules

Figure 6.8 Raker beam connections

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 There are three basic types of fixings used in these 6.3.3 Wall to wall connection
connections.
• • Welded fixings formed between cast-in steel Wall to wall connections are common within the precast
plates and the steel eaves tie. A disadvantage industry and every consulting engineer and precast
of this fixing is that temporary support maybe manufacturer seems to have their own favourite. The typical
required until the weld is completed. concept is to have a steel plate, complete with anchor bars,
• • Bolted fixing through a cleat welded to the cast into the edge of each panel. After erection a stitching
steel tie and into a cast-in threaded insert. This plate is bolted and/or welded across the joint to form the
does not require temporary support for erection connection. Because of the cost of the plates and the need
but tolerance requires over-sized holes in the cleat to site weld at height these are expensive connections and
that may necessitate welding the washer to prevent should be only used where needed for structural reasons.
movement after erection. A variation of this is to Each additional plate in a wall panel can add several dollars
use post installed expansion or chemical anchors in per square metre to the cost of the panel.
lieu of the bolt into an insert. The disadvantage is
the limited anchor capacity and the lack of ductility There are a number of proprietary panel connection systems
in this type of connection and as noted above such available that allow the installation of precast concrete
fixings should be used with care. panels on site without the need for welding or bolting. These
• • Clip fixings are often used because they provide usually involve some type of dowel or bracket into a pocket
ample tolerance but they need to be detailed to that is grouted after erection.
ensure that the clips cannot rotate or slip off the
tie when subject to cyclic or fire load. This is best Insitu concrete stitch joints between panels can be used but
accomplished by welding the clip to the steel tie. are seldom justified on braced wall structures. The exception
The use of two bolts prevents the clip from rotating is where large vertical shears need to be transferred across
but does not ensure the clip cannot slip off the tie. the panel joint. Insitu concrete stitch joints are expensive and
time consuming to form and pour on site.
As with the previous connection details it is difficult to
avoid site welding on these connections. The concepts for corner panel connections are the same as
for panel to panel connections. As shown in Figure 6.10 they
are often required at mid-height of tall panels to restrain
outward bowing of the corner due to thermal gradients. In
such cases the forces can be very high and the connection
should be designed accordingly.

Panel to panel connections are described in greater detail in

Chapter 8.

Gable wall panel Gable wall panel

Gable wall panel

Line of roof purlin Line of roof purlin Line of roof purlin

Steel L or PFC welded Steel angle raker

to cast-in plates with clip fixing.
Steel PFC or L raker,
bolts into cast-in ferrules Bolts into cast in
ferrules

Figure 6.9 Eaves tie connections

88 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

6.3.4 Cladding panel connections As required by the Building Code of Australia [10] these
connections also need to be detailed to accommodate
The most common connection for cladding panels thermal movement and possible collapse of the roof
involves a fixing between a steel portal column and structure during a fire.
precast wall panels that span horizontally between
columns. In most cases the wall panels are stacked one Cladding panels can act as shear walls by positively
above the other and the panel load is carried directly connecting each panel to the steel frame or by providing
to the footings. The connections are therefore only grouted dowel connections in the horizontal panel joints
required to carry horizontal forces. so that a series of individual panels act as a single panel.

The remaining types of cladding panel connections,

vertical panel to eaves tie, panel to panel and corner
Wall bow out due to
thermal gradient panel connection are all similar to those used for
loadbearing walls as described in Chapter 8.

Restraint required

Figure 6.10 Corner panel connection

Although there are a range of connection types used,

such as bolts through cleats or welded cast-in plates by
far the most common is a steel clip fixing as shown in
Figure 6.11. Clips need to be detailed to ensure that they
cannot rotate and slip off the tie due to movement in
the structure. This can be accomplished by using two
bolts per fixing or by welding the clip to the column
after erection.

Cladding panels

Clip fixing with bolts

into cast in ferrules

Portal frame column

Plan

Figure 6.11 Horizontal panel connection

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90 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
7 SKELETAL
STRUCTURES

7.1 General In this Chapter

7.1 General 91
As described in Chapter 3 skeletal frames consist of series
of columns, walls, beams and floor slabs, assembled and 7.2 Design concepts 92
connected to form a robust structure able to support 7.2.1 Framing grid 92
and transfer vertical and horizontal actions from floors
7.2.2 Establishing the grid layout 93
and facades to the foundations.
7.2.3 Bracing method 94
The design of the individual elements comprising a 7.3 Connection details 95
skeletal frame structure is described in Chapter 4.
7.3.1 Column to footing connection 95

This chapter will focus on skeletal structures used for 7.3.2 Column to column connection 98
low to medium rise buildings. Technically there are no 7.3.3 Column to beam connection 99
constraints to the height that can be constructed but 7.3.4 Beam-to-beam connection 101
currently in Australia material handling issues dictate a
maximum practical height limit. 7.3.5 Beam to wall connection 103
7.3.6 Floor slab to beam connection 104
The most efficient skeletal frame solution irrespective 7.3.7 Floor slab to wall connection 106
of the number of storeys is in braced structures where
the horizontal stiffness is provided by stair or lift shafts
or shear walls. In this way, connection details between
beams on columns can be designed as pinned, greatly For buildings up to 2 to 3 storeys the structural system
simplifying the design and construction. can be based on the cantilever action of the columns or
walls, which are clamped into the foundations.

Moment resisting skeletal frames are not common

in Australia due to the high cost of the connections.
Provision of such rigid connections to produce a fully
moment resistant frame is difficult and should be
avoided wherever possible. The use of cast-in and
welded connection brackets or cast insitu concrete infills
that emulate cast insitu construction is an option where
a small number of rigid connections are required but
is generally not an economical solution for a complete
building.

Special precast frame systems utilising un-bonded

post-tensioned tendons to provide continuity have
been developed in the USA for earthquake resisting
frames but for Australian conditions they should only be
considered where braced structures are not an option.
[19]
Figure 7.1 Precast skeletal frame structure with stabilising core

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 91

 7.2 Design concepts
For most buildings the selection of internal frame to dominate on longer spans. All precast floors have
elements is governed by the demands of the layout, specific advantages and the choice often depends on
such as the need for clear floor areas, the location, size features within the projects related to cost, availability
and orientation of lift shafts and stairwells, and major and erection issues.
subdivisions of the building. The choice of perimeter
elements is governed by the facade, and the designer 7.2.1 Framing grid
is able to specify an external frame that is, in the main,
different from the internal arrangement, and to adjust The basic concept in selection of the framing grid is to
the frame elements to suit both internal and external optimise the costs of the beams and floor slabs. Beams,
requirements. Beam alignments need not be parallel with their supporting columns are relatively expensive
and changes of direction within a beam line can be used compared with floor slabs so the objective should be to
to accommodate offset column positions. minimise the ratio of beam length to floor slab area. This
requires an understanding of the relative performance
Columns can be floor to floor or multi-level. The choice as well as the cost of each of these elements.
depends on a number of factors related to cost of
manufacture, cost of beam to column connection and Various beam profiles and design methods are discussed
erection costs per element. On low-rise buildings where in detail in Chapter 4.4.
the column loads are relatively small floor-to-floor Figure 7.2 gives an example of load capacities verses
columns are often be the best option. span for a range of inverted-tee beams. This shows that
for typical beam loads of about 150-250kN/m optimum
To optimise the precast concept the walls are usually spans are in the order of 8-10 metres. Greater spans
precast. They can be single or multi-level and act are possible but beam depths and therefore cost can
individually or connected to form lift and stair shafts to become excessive.
provide lateral stability to the structure. They can also
be insitu concrete. Establishing the optimum building grid is very much
dependent on choice of floor slab. There is no simple
Beams can be of inverted Tee, L-shaped or rectangular solution, but maximising the span of the floor slab
cross-section. To provide minimum structural depth, and minimising the span of the supporting beams will
the beams should be composite with the floor slabs generally give the most economical outcome. In other
and placed to span the shorter grid with the floor slabs words run the beams on the short span and the floor on
spanning the longer grid. To further reduce the structural the longer.
depth the beams can be designed to be continuous for
imposed loads that are applied after composite action is Applying the above guidelines will allow the internal grid
formed. Structures using shell beams or solid beams with of the building to be established. Unless constrained by
insitu concrete joints are not covered by this chapter. the physical layout the traditional 8.4x8.4 grid is not
These types of structures emulate insitu concrete and the most economical for a precast structure. Certain
the concepts and detailing of the joints is similar to that types of buildings lend themselves to particular grids.
for insitu concrete. For example on a building containing car parking on
the lower levels a grid of 8.4x10.8m or 8.4x12.6m is a
Although there are several precast floor slab systems good solution. On a multi-level carpark building a grid
available that can be incorporated into a skeletal frame of 8.4x16.8m is an ideal solution.
structure this chapter will focus on the use of hollowcore
slabs. Each type of precast floor has its optimum As noted above, the perimeter grid need not match the
range of spans and load capacities and although internal grid and should instead be optimised to suit
interchangeable to a certain extent hollowcore tends the façade. If the façade is lightweight then a perimeter

92 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

 d

Figure 7.2 Indicative load verses span data for composite prestressed concrete inverted-tee beams

skeletal structure is the obvious solution and this can Given the above constraints the solution for the grid
be dimensioned to suit the architectural requirements. layout and framing is as follows.
If a concrete façade is nominated consideration should • The column locations dictate longer grid dimensions
be given to using loadbearing precast concrete wall in the east/west direction and determine the floor
panels. Where this is not possible, façade or spandrel should span east/west and the beams north/south.
panels that are supported on a skeletal structure at • The central core can provide lateral stability and
each level can be used. A common solution is to have allow the structure to be a braced skeletal frame.
an upper loadbearing façade supported on a transition • The blank west wall lends itself to a loadbearing
level above the ground floor. This can be an economical precast concrete wall.
solution provided the spans of the transition beams are • Internal beams can be inverted Tee beams and
limited. splayed from the grid to be supported on the
central core.
7.2.2 Establishing the grid layout • The east perimeter beams can be L beams with
spans to suit the façade module.
By way of example this section outlines the typical • The glass curtain wall can be supported off the floor
process that can be carried out by the project consultant slabs eliminating the need for perimeter beams on
to establish the grid layout for a building. the north façade.
• Beams on the south side of the central core can
The building shown in plan in figure 7.3 has the following either span from the south wall to the core or be
planning and architectural requirements. supported on an internal column as shown. In the
• Building footprint set by site limitations. latter case the short beam can be very shallow to
• Internal column and core locations are set by allow large service ducts to exit from the core.
basement carparking. • The south wall can be spandrel beams that span
• North and East walls are glass curtain wall. from grid to grid.
• South wall has horizontal glazing with up-stand • On these spans hollowcore slabs with a topping
spandrels. screed is probably the most economical floor
• West wall is a blank wall on the boundary. system.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 93

 Figure 7.3 Grid layout for commercial building with lower level carpark

7.2.3 Bracing method

The bracing method used to resist lateral loads on a
building will be governed by the demands of the layout.
If the building is 2 to 3 storeys, with few walls the
structural system can be based on the cantilever action
of the columns, which are fixed into the foundations.

Taller buildings have escape stairs and lift-shafts that

can be used as shear cores or shear walls to provide
a braced frame structure in the same manner as for
an insitu concrete structure. Braced frames require
stabilising walls/cores in both orthogonal directions
in the building plan, typically no more than 30-50m
apart. This may present some problems in determining
the number and the best positions for the shear walls/
cores that suit the architectural and building services
requirements.

Placement of the shear cores within the structure is

important to ensure that the torsional behaviour of
the building is not compromised. The example given in
Figure 7.3 is not ideal as the offset central core and west
wall will introduce high torsional loads. This is described
in detail in Chapter 2.3

94 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

7.3 Connection details
Examples of typical connections in skeletal structures 7.3.1 Column to footing connection
are given in this section. The intention is not to show
a complete overview of all solutions, but to make the The most common column to footing connection is
designer familiar with common types of connections. shown in Figure 7.5. The connection is realised by
The principles applied in the majority of solutions are bars protruding from the footing and inserted into
valid both for low-rise and multi-storey buildings. In the ducts in the bottom of the column to lap with the main
total structure, these examples are complemented with reinforcement. The diameter of the ducts should be
other examples relative to floors, walls and façades as oversized to allow for placing tolerances and for the use
shown in Chapter 8. Additional connection details are of a flowable grout. The solution is also applicable for
available in manufacturers technical manuals. circular columns.

Figure 7.4 shows a typical skeletal frame and identifies Where large numbers of protruding starters are required
the main connection types as follows. the projecting lengths should be staggered to facilitate
• Column to footing. positioning into the column ducts.
• Column to column
• Column to beam. Additional tie reinforcement should be provided at the
• Beam to beam bottom of the column to resist splitting forces induced
• Beam to wall. by the reinforcement discontinuity.
• Floor slab to beam.
• Floor slab to wall

Figure 7.4 Skeletal frame connection types

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 95

 There are several variations of this detail that can be • A moment-resisting connection can also be realised
used in different circumstances. by casting or grouting the protruding starter bars
• In most cases of braced frame structures the column into the footing and lapping them into corrugated
base is assumed to be ‘pinned’ and the protruding metal ducts in the column. The lap into the column
bars can be relatively short, allowing the bars to be should be generous to ensure that full development
driven into snug tight holes drilled into the footing is realised with the column reinforcement. Moment
after the footing has been poured. This simplifies capacity can be assessed by modelling a section
the construction and the setting out process. based on the geometry of the column base and the
size and location of the grouted dowels.

An alternative column to footing connection is by

grouting the base of the column into a pocket footing.
This connection detail as shown in figure 7.6 is commonly
used for a moment resisting connection to the footing.
The solution is usually restricted to situations where
concrete pad footings can be founded at shallow depths.

The pocket should be dimensioned as shown and large

enough to enable good structural grade concrete or
non-shrink concrete to be used as the infill.

When the inner surface of the pocket is roughened

to expose the coarse aggregate or castellated with a
shear key the vertical force and bending moments are
transferred successively by shear at the interface. Such
pockets may be considered to act monolithically with
the column.
Figure 7.5 Protruding bars from the foundation into grout ducts
in the column

d
pocket depth
min 1.5 d

Effective area with smooth interface

Effective area with rough interface

Figure 7.6 Pocket footing

96 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

When the inner surfaces of the pocket is smooth the Although the cost of bolted steel base plates is clearly
vertical force is assumed to be transmitted directly greater than that of dowels, the potential cost saving
under the column base and the depth of concrete below is in the speed or erection, and the footing connection
the column needs to be sufficient to transfer the column is immediately stable to allow the floor beam to be
load to the foundations. positioned almost immediately. The moment-resisting
connection into the foundation is realized with anchor
A less common connection between column and footing bolts in a similar manner to that for a steel column.
are bolted steel connections. This connection can also
be used to provide a moment-resisting connection. Where column bases transfer a bending moment into
The steel fitment is cast into the column and the force the footing, the geotechnical aspects of the foundations
transfer is realized through overlapping of the column need to be checked.
main reinforcement bars with steel bars welded to the
fitment. There are various alternative solutions.
• Individual steel shoes as shown in Figure 7.7. Each
shoe consists of a metal fitment with an attached
void former and welded anchor bars. The number
of shoes in the column depends on the dimensions
of the column, moment capacity and type of
column used. The solution is also applicable for
circular columns.
• Base plate with starter bars welded to plate
as shown in figure 7.8. The steel plate is either
overhanging beyond the edge of the column,
typically 100 mm or may be flush. If it overhangs,
the disruption to manufacture of the precast
column may be considerable because the plate
cannot be contained within the internal confines of
the mould.

Figure 7.7 Columns bolted to footing: base plates

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 97

 7.3.2 Column to column connection The load transfer area through a joint can be reduced
significantly by chamfers on the column edges and by
If a full height column is not possible, column-to- the use of foam strips as grout barriers. The effect of
column connections, known as ‘splices’ are required. the construction process on site needs to be taken into
These splices can be either within the beam to column account by the design engineer. Assuming that the full
connection as described in Chapter 7.3.3 or, where the column area is available to transfer the load can lead to
column runs past the beam, they can be above floor significant overestimation of the joint capacity.
level.
The importance of establishing a work process that
In the latter case where there is a direct column to ensures the joints are grouted in accordance with the
column splice the connection is in principle similar to design requirements cannot be overemphasised. Foam
the dowel connection between columns and footings. ‘donuts’ around dowel bars should only be used where
The lower column is provided with projecting dowels specifically detailed by the design engineer.
which are grouted into ducts in the base of the upper
column. As described in Chapter 5.6.2.4 the capacity Structural failures have occurred due to improper
of the dowels in tension should not be less than the grouting and this process should not be left to
reaction applied to the column from any single storey inexperienced or unskilled tradespeople.
of the building.
AS3600 [7] requires minimum reinforcement in
In all cases of concrete to concrete connections care columns and Clause 17.7.3 requires minimum tension
needs to be taken with detailing to ensure that edge capacity across joints. Elliott [21] suggests that the
spalling does not occur. Spalling can be avoided by splice zone should be checked as a ‘short column’ using
using neoprene bearers or chamfering contact edges of the configuration of the dowels and the grout strength
the elements. as the design model. As note above this design should
take into account any reduction in effective area of the
The National Precast Concrete Association Australia column due to the grouting procedure.
have produced a grouting guide for loadbearing joints
that covers this topic in some detail. This document, As with the column to footing detail additional column
‘Understanding Grouted Precast Joints, a guide for ties are required to resist splitting forces induced by the
Engineers and Contractors’, [43] highlights the need discontinuity of reinforcement.
for careful design and detailing of the load transfer
mechanism through grouted horizontal joints.

98 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd

7.3.3 Column to beam connection With connection Type A, the beams are directly
supported on the lower column. It is a simple connection
Column to beam connections form a vital part of precast to manufacture and erect and is the preferred option
concrete construction. They have a major influence on where the column loads are moderate.
structural behaviour. Simplicity of execution is far more
important than complex design solutions, and in this The connection is realised by dowel bars from the lower
context pin jointed connections as part of a braced column projecting up through ducts in the beams and
frame structure are the preferred choice. into ducts in the bottom of the upper columns. These
dowels are usually proprietary threaded bars to allow
Figure 7.9 shows some of the typical column to beam nuts and washers to clamp the beam to the top of the
connections that are commonly used. lower column. This clamping force can also be designed
to resist any torsional effects due to out of balance
Both type A and type B connections present advantages loading on the beam, particularly during construction.
and disadvantages. Type B gives an excellent force Horizontal reinforcement to provide partial continuity
transfer performance, the joints are easily accessible can be easily provided across the top of the beams.
and large forces in the columns are readily transferred
directly from one column to another. The disadvantage
is in the cost of forming the corbels. Type A, with a
beam passing over the column will give better moment
distribution over the beams, but most probably a poorer
performance at the column connection. The structural
discontinuity in the column formed by the beam-column
connection induces high splitting forces in the ends
of the column and beam and it is difficult to provide
appropriate reinforcement within the ends of the beams
to resist these forces. On taller buildings transferring
high column loads through this type of connection can
become an issue. In this case the preferred option is the
Type B connection with the columns running through
the beam-column connection and spliced column-to-
column.

Figure 7.10 Connection type A

Figure 7.9 Alternative column to beam connections

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 Figure 7.11 Connection Type A. discontinuous beam

The upper column loads are transferred down through A variation of this connection is where the beam runs
the beam ends to the lower column. Although apparently across the top of the lower column. This is a common
a monolithic connection the failure mode depends detail where beams cantilever over a column or where
on the relative strengths of the concrete and grout. beam continuity is used to reduce beam depths.
Typically at ultimate limit state the grout ‘extrudes’
from the joint and induces high splitting forces in the Connection Type B is the preferred option where column
ends of the elements. The flow of forces shows that the loads are high. With this type of connection the beams
column ends are subject to a splitting force that must are supported by corbels on the column. Running the
be resisted by horizontal tie reinforcement at the ends column past the beams avoids the issue of transferring
of the columns. The mechanism resisting the forces high column loads through the beams and allows the
through the ends of the beams can be likened to a column splice to be at any location. Corbels can be
‘bottle strut’ and horizontal reinforcement is required projecting or recessed and either concrete or steel.
to resist the induced stresses. Added to these are the
stresses induced by partial fixity of the beams and the
discontinuity formed by the grouted dowels.

Figure 7.12 Inverted-tee beams designed with a dapped joint Figure 7.13 Connection type B
to create a negative bending moment at the column that will
reduce the depth of the beam

100 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
Concrete corbels are designed in accordance with strut 7.3.4 Beam-to-beam connection
and tie theory. The ‘Precast Concrete Handbook’ [2] has
a detailed example of the design of a typical concrete Beam to beam connections should be avoided if possible
corbel. but where it is necessary, connections can be made as
shown in Figure 7.16. There are two types of beam to
As with the Type A connections dowel bars from the beam connections. The first is where a joint is required
concrete corbel project up through ducts in the beams. along the length of a beam and the second is where two
These bars are usually threaded to allow nuts and beams intersect at right angles.
washers to clamp the beam to the top of the corbel.
This clamping force can also be designed to resist any Both types of connections can be formed either by
torsional effects due to out of balance loading on the concrete or steel corbels or frequently by a combination
beam, particularly during construction of both, with a concrete corbel on the supporting beam
and a steel corbel on the supported beam.
Proprietary steel corbels as shown in figure 7.15 are not
readily available in Australia but specifically designed Concrete corbels, or dapped ends, are difficult to detail
steel insert corbels have been used on a number of on shallow beams as typically used on a skeletal frame
projects. A variation of these is the hanger bracket structure. There are a number of dimensional limitations
described in Chapter 7.3.4, beam to beam connections. in design codes for the geometry of the dapped end.

Figure 7.14 Connection type B. Concrete corbel Figure 7.16 Beam to beam connections

Figure 7.15 Hidden corbels

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 101
 For example the PCI Design Handbook [4] requires the The assembled hanger bracket system comprises;
depth of the extending end to be not less than one half • Steel cantilever bracket(s) with anchor bars cast into
the depth of the beam. Strut and tie methods should the supported beam.
be used to design dapped ends. The ‘Precast Concrete • Bearing bracket cast into the supporting beam
Handbook’ [2] has a detailed example of the design of a ledge.
typical dapped beam. • Torsional brackets (if required) between beams.

Where beams intersect at right angles the connection Pairs of brackets are used with the load to each bracket
design requires special attention, particularly in the being apportioned in accordance with direct and torsional
supporting beam, where the combined effects of loading on the beam. Brackets lengths should be least 1.5
bending, shear, torsion and bearing stresses may cause times the beam depth. The design process is as follows;
problems within the shallow depth. Figure 7.17 shows 1. Design the cantilever of the bracket to resist the
the forces induced in the projecting corbel on the applied combined bending moments and shear
supporting beam. forces. The lever arm is taken from the centreline of
the support to the centre of the anchor bars. Bracket
Steel hanger brackets are the preferred option for beam sections are usually channel or rectangular sections.
to beam connections particularly with shallow beams. 2. Calculate the area of steel required for the anchor
Although they have higher material cost, steel hanger bars. The point of rotation is assumed to be the
brackets are preassembled and cause less disruption end of the bracket. The preferable reinforcement
during manufacture and beams with hanger brackets configuration is to provide a single bar each side of
are easy to install on site. Loads of several hundred kN each bracket.
can be supported by this type of connection. 3. Check and design the supporting beam ledge.
Bearing brackets are usually required and the ledge
and the brackets and the associated hanger ligatures
should be designed in accordance with strut and tie
theory. The ‘Precast Concrete Handbook’ [2] has a
detailed example of the design of a typical beam
ledge.
4. Torsional effects induced in the supporting beam
can be resisted by designing the beam for torsion or
by providing torsion brackets in the bottom of each
beam.
5. After erection the hanger bracket is usually welded
to the bearing bracket and if present, torsion
brackets are connected by a welded plate, usually
before the beams are loaded.
Figure 7.17 Typical intersecting beam connection

Figure 7.18 Steel hanger bracket

102 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
 beam to column connection as described in Chapter
7.3.2 and the same concepts apply. To ensure adequate
bearing and tolerance the nib projection should be
at least 200mm. If the precast wall is multi-level the
discontinuity in projecting nib above the beam needs to
be such that the beam can be inserted and lowered over
short dowels projecting from the lower nib. In this case
the projecting nib should be the full width of the beam
to prevent torsional overturning of the beam.

The pocket in wall connection is usually the simplest

method of supporting beams, particularly with floor-
to-floor height walls. Dowels project from the wall
into ducts in the beam. Bearing on the wall needs to
be checked and confinement reinforcement used if
necessary. This can also dictate the wall thickness and
if this is the case consideration should be given to the
economics of providing a nib, or a combination of nib
Figure 7.19 High capacity steel hanger brackets and pocket.

7.3.5 Beam to wall connection If the precast wall is multi-level the pocket clearance
The type of beam to wall connection is dependent on above the beam needs to be such that the beam can be
the supporting wall. If the wall is precast concrete the inserted and lowered over short dowels projecting from
options are to support the beam on a projecting nib on the lower wall.
the wall or on a pocket in the wall. If the wall is cast
insitu pockets or nibs may be difficult to provide and an An insitu connection is frequently required where
alternative solution is to connect the beam to the wall supporting walls are cast insitu and poured prior to
by an insitu infill. erection of the precast. For example, where a precast
skeletal structure is supported on an insitu concrete
Concrete or steel corbels on the wall can also be used to central core structure.
support the beam but these become substantial and not
economical because of the induced bending in the wall
from the large beam reactions.
The nib on wall connection is effectively similar to a

Figure 7.20 Beam to precast wall connections

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 Figure 7.21 Beam connection to insitu wall

The top section of the beam is recessed for about 1 7.3.6 Floor slab to beam connection
metre at the end with the bottom ‘flange’ containing the
tensile reinforcement and ligatures continuing through Precast concrete floor slabs are typically one-way
to the supporting wall line as shown in figure 7.22. The spanning, and are therefore supported only at the two
beam is erected onto falsework, tie bar reinforcement is ends. Two support conditions occur, an internal beam
provided from the wall and into the pocket in the beam and an edge beam. To provide even bearing, slabs are
and the recess filled with insitu concrete. The design usually supported on neoprene bearing strips on the
method is based on the concept of shear-friction and is beam ledges.
covered in detail in the ‘Precast Concrete Handbook’. [2]
This connection effectively becomes the same as that Internal beams are typically inverted Tee or rectangular
used for connecting insitu concrete beams to previously profiles with the precast floor units supported on ledges
poured insitu concrete walls. or on the top surface. Where structural screeds are
provided the individual elements are tied together by

Figure 7.22 Floor slab connections to beams

104 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
reinforcement in the screed. If there is no screed, which
can be the case with hollowcore slabs, tie bars are
provided either through or screwed into the beam and
into the cores of the slabs that are subsequently filled
with concrete.

Torsion due to out of balance actions on internal beams

during erection needs careful consideration. Although
the beam can usually be designed to resist any induced
torsion, the effect on the beam column connection is
critical. This connection should either be designed to
resist the torsion or the beam should be propped during
erection.

For the service condition high torsion may occur with Figure 7.23 Forces inducing torsion in edge beams
a long and short span either side of the beam. This is
particularly the case with hollowcore slabs and torsion For the erection case, the precast portion of the beam
ties from the side of the beam and into concrete filled should be designed to resist the torsion induced by the
cores in slabs can be provided to resist the torsion. floor slabs without any need for propping.

Edge beams, or more precisely beams with floors With hollowcore slabs it is relatively easy to resist the
supported on only one side, can be either L or rectangular torsion due to the additional loads by providing tie bars
and may project above floor level to form spandrels. into the bottom of cores that are filled with topping
The depth of edge beams is normally not restricted by concrete. The applied loads used to calculate the torsion
headroom, in fact it is sometimes preferable to make the ties are those applied after the topping has been poured
edge beams deeper in order to provide an envelope on and cured.
to which cladding panels or the façade are attached. As
such, edge beams depths of around 1200mm are quite Edge beams can be either the same width as the column,
common. with the beam ledge projecting beyond the column face,
or a smaller width with the ledge inside the column
Torsion due to out of balance actions needs to be taken width. See Figure 7.24. In the first case the floor slab will
into account in the design of edge beams, particularly pass in front of the columns. In the second case it may
with long span floor slabs. Figure 7.23 shows the forces be necessary to cut notches in the slabs at the column
induced in an edge beam due to the applied loads from and possibly provide support for erection and service
the floor slab. loads with some form of corbel on the column.

Figure 7.24 Floor slab detail at columns. (a) wider beam allows floor slab to be uninterrupted. (b) floor slab is notched at the column

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 105
 7.3.7 Floor slab to wall connection insitu part of the floor slab. Where the wall has sufficient
thickness the floor can be supported on a recess in the
This section covers only the typical details that occur on a wall.
skeletal frame structure where walls are supported on or
run parallel to shear wall core structures. In most cases It is possible to support the floor slab without the provision
the floor slab occurs only on one side of the wall. For a of corbels by providing tie bars across the interface to
more detailed coverage of connections between floors transfer the forces in accordance with shear-friction
and walls refer to Chapter 8, Loadbearing Wall Structures. theory. This detail is not recommended for hollowcore
slabs unless the loads to be transferred are very small.
Broadly there are two types of floor to wall connections. As temporary support is required during erection and
The first where the floor is supported on the wall and pouring the topping it is usually more economical to use
the second is where the floor spans parallel to the wall. one of the two previously described details.
Because these cases usually involve tying the floor
diaphragm to the shear wall structure, care is required in Figure 7.26 shows the typical detail where floor slabs
detailing to ensure that the ties can transfer the design span parallel to the wall. Slabs are tied to the wall with
forces into the precast floor. Ductility is an important bent-out bars or screwed-in starters into pockets notched
requirement for this type of connection. Where very in the side of the slabs. Because there is no transverse
high diaphragm forces need to be transferred it may be reinforcement in the hollowcore the lateral load capacity
necessary to locally thicken the insitu portion of the floor of this connection is limited unless there is a topping
to accommodate the heavier reinforcement adjacent to screed with lapping bars provided to tie the wall back to
the shear walls. the screed. The number and length of these starters is
limited by the amount that can be notched in the side of
Figure 7.25 shows typical details where the floor slabs are the hollowcore. Hooked bars are usually provided to lap
supported on the wall. A common detail is to stop the wall with the starters and the topping reinforcement.
at the underside of the floor and provide direct support
for the slabs on the wall. Projecting dowel bars run up
through the floor and into the upper wall. Hairpin bars
are required to lap round the dowels and into the floor
slab. Where the wall has sufficient thickness it is possible
to support the floor on a rebate with a thin section of the
wall running past the floor. This gives a tidier detail and
avoids the need for formwork.

Where the wall is multi-level and runs past the floor slab,
it is common to provide a concrete or steel corbel on the
wall to support the floor. The wall may be precast or insitu
concrete. Tie bars are required from the wall and into the
Figure 7.26 Floors spanning parallel to walls

Figure 7.25 Floors supported on walls

106 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
8 LOADBEARING WALL
STRUCTURES

8.1 General In this Chapter

8.1 General 107
Loadbearing wall structures are obviously ideal for
buildings with many external and internal walls, such as 8.2 Design concepts 108
apartment buildings. They are also suitable for multi- 8.2.1 Apartment buildings 108
level commercial buildings where floors can clear span
8.2.2 Commercial buildings 110
between loadbearing wall facades on each side. They
can be used either with precast or insitu floor systems. 8.3 Connection Details 111
8.3.1 Wall to footing connection 112
Although precast bearing walls commonly occur in
8.3.2 Floor to internal wall connection 112
combination with skeletal frame structures or in mixed
construction this chapter will focus on their use in 8.3.3 Floor to external wall connection 114
bearing wall structures. Similarly the use of bearing 8.3.4 Floor connection parallel to wall 115
walls in cellular structures will not be discussed as the 8.3.5 Wall to wall connections 115
concepts are similar to those where individual wall
panels are used. 8.4 Design of welded plate connections 118
8.4.1 Introduction 118
8.4.2 Design concepts 118
8.4.3 Design method 119

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 107
 8.2 Design concepts
Any building that by its nature requires many internal For envelope wall systems the loadbearing wall
or external walls is well suited to be constructed as configuration depends on the building layout. For a
a loadbearing wall structure. The most economical typical rectangular building the cross walls between
structure is the result of optimising the cost of the two apartments and possibly the corridor walls can be
main components, the walls and the floors. This usually precast with a precast floor system spanning along
results in minimising the number of vertical components the building and across the width of the apartment as
and maximising the spans of the floor system. This will shown in figure 8.1. and figure ??? The façade walls can
also depend on the type and occupancy of the building be either precast or lightweight.
being considered, for example an apartment building
with many walls or a commercial building requiring a This configuration is appropriate for floor spans of up to
minimum of walls. about 16 metres between apartment walls. Where this
span is exceeded and the total width of the building does
8.2.1 Apartment buildings not exceed about 16 metres the precast floors can span
across the width of the building from façade to façade
Walls on apartment buildings can be floor-to-floor or as shown in figure 8.2. Other alternatives are to span the
multi-level, with the decision often dictated by the floor floor across the width of the building from the corridor
system. With precast floors the internal walls usually wall to an external loadbearing façade or to provide an
run floor-to-floor with the floor supported on top of the internal loadbearing wall within the apartment.
wall. External walls can be floor-to-floor or multi-level
and usually run past the edge of the floor. Buildings with There are also numerous variations with precast floors
insitu concrete floors frequently have multi-level walls. to accommodate cantilevered balconies and floor set-
downs. These are described in Chapter 4.
Apartment buildings can roughly be divided into two
categories: Integral wall systems and envelope wall With relatively large numbers of walls compared with
systems the floor area the lateral stability of apartment buildings
is usually not critical. In most cases the wall panels
• Integral wall systems are where all internal and can be erected one above the other with only nominal
external walls are in precast concrete. Some walls tension and shear capacity across the horizontal joints
are load bearing, others perform only a separating and with no shear connections in the vertical joints.
function. The façades are also loadbearing and Where lateral stability is critical, individual wall panels
the floors can be precast or insitu concrete. This can be connected to form larger shear walls as described
was a common form of construction in the early in Chapter 5.
years of precast concrete as it mimicked traditional
construction of loadbearing masonry.

• Envelope wall systems are where only the external

or separating walls between the apartments are
in precast concrete and the internal walls are in
a lightweight partition wall system. The aim is to
create large free spaces inside the apartment with
a minimum of vertical loadbearing walls. As well as
providing more flexibility for the internal layout of
the floor plan it also allows the possibility of easy
modification in the future.

108 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
Corridor Dividing walls
between apartments

Apartment
Figure 8.1 Outline of a building with load bearing cross-walls

Lightweight internal
walls & dividing walls
Load bearing facade between apartments

Load bearing facade

Figure 8.2 Outline of building with clear spans between facades

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 109
 8.2.2 Commercial buildings Floor-to-floor heights of commercial buildings are often
greater than the maximum dimension for transporting
The use of loadbearing walls in commercial buildings panels so there is a tendency to favour the use of
can roughly be divided into two categories: Lift and stair narrower multi-level panels. It is also common to locate
shafts or external walls. the horizontal joint above floor level so that the wall acts
as a safety barrier during construction.
• Lift and stair shafts are an ideal use for precast
concrete, particularly for low to medium rise
buildings where overturning is not a major factor.
Typically panels are connected after erection to
form composite T, L, U or box-shaped sections.
Tension and shear forces across horizontal joints
are resisted by grouted dowel connections
and vertical shear between panels by welded
connections. Panels can be floor-to-floor or multi-
level depending on the floor system be used.

As described in Chapter 5.2.2 staggering the vertical

joints in a ‘brickwork’ pattern or overlapping the corner
joints in alternate directions can provide significant shear
transfer between panels and reduce, or eliminate, the
need for vertical shear connections. Similarly staggering
the height of the horizontal joints can minimise the
requirement for temporary bracing for erection.

• External walls on a commercial building that

have minimum fenestration such as a boundary
wall or ‘punched-hole’ façades are ideally suited
to loadbearing precast concrete. In these cases
loadbearing walls eliminate the need for a separate
support structure for the floor by making use of the
inherent strength of the wall.

Figure 8.3 Staggered panel joints

Figure 8.4 Commercial building with multi-level loadbearing walls

110 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
8.3 Connection Details
Examples of typical connections in loadbearing wall Types 2, 3 and 4 are further sub-divided by use with
structures are given in this section. The intention is not to either a precast or an insitu floor. Type four is further
show a complete overview of all solutions, but to make sub-divided into vertical and horizontal joints.
the designer familiar with common types of connections.
The principles applied in the majority of solutions are
valid for all types of loadbearing wall structures and
both for low-rise and multi-storey buildings.

Connections are classified with respect to location,

direction and function, e.g. interior or external, horizontal
or vertical, wall to footing, wall-to-wall or wall-to-floor.
Within a typical loadbearing wall structure the main
connection types as follows.
1. Wall to footing.
2. Floor to internal wall.
3. Floor to external wall.
4. Floor parallel to wall
5. Wall to wall.

Floor to internal wall

Floor to external wall

Floor parallel to wall

Floor to footing
Wall to wall

Figure 8.5 Connection locations loadbearing wall structure

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 111
 8.3.1 Wall to footing connection 8.3.2 Floor to internal wall
The most common wall to footing detail is a grouted connection
dowel as described in Chapter 6.3.1. The number and There are a number of variations of this detail that
size of dowels will be dependent on the axial forces and depend on the type of floor and the forces to be
the presence or not of tensile or shear forces across the transferred from the upper to the lower wall.
joint. Where compressive forces are high, confinement
reinforcement may be required in the base of the wall Figure 8.7 shows connection details that are typically
panel. used between precast walls and precast floors.

Figure 8.6 Wall to footing connections

Figure 8.7 Precast floor to internal wall connection

112 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
Figure 8.7 a) shows the classic connection detail of a The National Precast Concrete Association Australia
precast floor supported on the lower wall. Grouted have produced a grouting guide for loadbearing joints
dowels run from wall to wall through the floor and that covers this topic in some detail.
tie bars within the floor or structural topping tie the
elements together. Consideration needs to be given to Where loads from the upper walls are very high it
the clamping force due to axial forces from the upper may be necessary to eliminate the sandwich effect of
wall and the resulting negative bending moment and the floor and provided direct bearing wall to wall as
reduced shear capacity that can be induced in the shown in Figure 8.7 c). The supporting corbels can be
end of the precast floor elements. Where a structural either steel or concrete as described below in Chapter
screed is provided the reinforcement in the screed is 8.3.3. Concrete corbels each side of a wall panel is not
usually sufficient to resist this bending moment. For a practical solution and should be avoided wherever
un-screeded floor systems the ends of the precast floor possible. Where steel corbels are used, the FRL of the
elements can be tapered as shown in Figure 8.7 b) to connection for moderate loading conditions can be
ensure a true pinned support condition. achieved by providing dowels that project from the
wall and into the precast floor system. Such dowels are
Bearing length of the floor elements and the effects designed in accordance with shear friction theory to
of tolerances also need to be taken into account and carry the reduced fire load eliminating the need to fire
this may dictate a minimum wall thickness. In multi- protect the steel angle.
storey loadbearing wall structures, the ends of the slabs
together with the jointing concrete or mortar transfer Information on the detailed design of wall connections
the forces from the upper wall element to the lower one. and extensive literature is available on the subject.[4]
[27]
Calculation of the load capacity through horizontal joints
is very complex. Quality of the grouting is important and
bearing is often non-uniform or eccentric and can result
in high splitting forces in the panels even when the
average stress is small. Even where bearing is uniform a
reduction factor of 0.5 is often applied to the calculated
vertical load capacity through the joint.

For horizontal joints with high loads and complex

geometry it is recommended that a detailed finite
element analysis be carried out and if necessary
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement should be
provided in the walls to resist cracking.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 113
 8.3.3 Floor to external wall design for eccentricity of load from the floor. As noted
for internal wall connections the FRL can be achieved
connection without the need to fire protect the steel angle by using
As with the internal wall connections there are a large shear friction design methods.
number of variations of this detail that depend on the
type of floor, the loads to be transferred from the upper In both cases tie bars from the wall into the precast
to the lower wall and the presence or not of a horizontal elements or floor topping tie the elements together. If a
wall panel joint. In all cases the eccentricity of load from horizontal wall panel joint occurs at this location it should
the floor into the wall needs to be taken into account in be positioned at or above floor level. With a stepped joint
the design. Deflection and rotation of the floor can also for waterproofing, care should be taken to ensure that
increase the bending moment in the wall. This is described the wall panel has sufficient thickness to accommodate
in detail in Chapter 4. and provide adequate cover for all the fixings and edge
reinforcement.
Figure 8.8a) shows the connection detail of a precast floor
supported by a concrete Where structural requirements dictate a thick wall, the top
corbel. The corbel is designed in accordance with strut section of the wall can be rebated as shown in figure 8.8 c)
and tie theory and eccentricity of load needs to be taken to provide support for the floor elements. With minimum
into account in the design of the wall. With this detail it is dimensions for the up-stand and floor bearing this detail
easy to produce a ductile connection. This corbel detail requires a minimum wall thickness of about 200mm.
is probably the simplest and most economical of these
support details but it is not favoured by many precast wall Bars projecting from the lower panel are bent down into
manufacturers because of the two stage pouring process the precast floor elements or screed and grouted dowels
and complexity of storing and transporting the element running from the lower panel past the floor and into the
with a projecting corbel. upper panel tie all elements together. The bent down
bars can be eliminated if sufficient dowels are provided
Figure 8.8 b) shows a similar connection detail of a and each is confined by a hairpin bar anchored into the
precast floor supported by a steel corbel. The steel corbel precast floor or screed.
can be either cast into the panel during manufacture or
bolted or welded to the panel before or after erection. As shown in Chapter 7.3.6 it is possible to support the floor
Casting in during manufacture is the most economical slab without the provision of corbels by providing tie bars
option as post fixing, particularly on site after the panel across the interface to transfer the forces in accordance
is erected is a time consuming and expensive process. with shear-friction theory. This detail is not recommended
Because of their lack of ductility, fixing with drilled-in for hollowcore slabs unless the loads to be transferred
expansion anchors is not recommended for such major are very small. As temporary support is required during
and key structural connections. The steel corbel should erection and pouring the topping it is usually more
be designed in accordance with the Steel Structures economical to use one of the previously described details.
Code, AS 4100. [28] Due allowance should be made in the

Figure 8.8 Precast floor to external wall connection

114 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
8.3.4 Floor connection parallel to 8.3.5 Wall to wall connections
wall There are two basic wall to wall connections. They
Where the floor system spans parallel to the wall the two occur at vertical joints and horizontal joints. The forces
elements should be connected together to eliminate any to be transferred by the connections will depend on
differential movement. Although the wall may not be the structural application of the wall but can include
intended to be loadbearing the fact that it is connected in-plane shear, out-of-plane shear, tension and
to the floor means that some load will be transferred. compression. Ductile behaviour is a requirement of all
The magnitude will depend on the stiffness of the floor connections and with relatively thin wall sections this is
and the extent of axial shortening and shrinkage. For often difficult to obtain. Careful detailing of anchor bars
one-way prestressed floor elements it is usual to assume and confinement reinforcement is required to prevent
that the load from a one metre band of floor each side pull-out of the connection fixings. Where significant
is carried by the wall. An alternative and more accurate forces are to be transferred by the connection an insitu
load distribution assumes that only actions applied after infill joint to emulate monolithic construction may be
the two elements are connected are distributed to the necessary.
wall by two way action. Floors such as hollowcore slabs
with high torsional stiffness will distribute higher loads The National Precast Concrete Association Australia
than slabs that tend to have relatively low torsional have produced a grouting guide for loadbearing joints
stiffness. that covers this topic in some detail. This document,
‘Understanding Grouted Precast Joints, a guide for
Figure 8.9 a) shows a hollowcore slab connected to Engineers and Contractors’, [43] highlights the need
the side of an external precast wall. Threaded bars are for careful design and detailing of the load transfer
screwed into ferrules cast into the wall and project into mechanism through grouted horizontal joints. The
slots cut in the side of the hollowcore slab. Because importance of establishing a work process that ensures
there is no transverse reinforcement in the hollowcore the joints are grouted in accordance with the design
the lateral load capacity of this connection is limited requirements cannot be overemphasised. Structural
unless there is a structural screed and lapping bars can failures have occurred due to inadequate grouting
be provided to tie the wall back to the screed. and this process should not be left to inexperienced or
unskilled tradespeople.
Figure 8.9 b) shows the detail where there is hollowcore The use of stepped joints where high vertical loads occur
on each side of an internal wall. The lower wall projects should be given careful consideration as partial grouting
above the soffit of the floor. Dowels or starter bars the width of a joint introduces significant splitting forces
project from the lower to the upper wall and the that can limit the load bearing capacity of the joint.
elements are tied together by and insitu infill. With thin wall sections it is often impossible to provide
reinforcement to resist these splitting forces.

Figures 8.10 a) and b) show typical horizontal

connections. Figure 8.10 a) is for an external wall where
a waterproof joint is required and figure 8.10 b) is for
a typical internal joint. In both cases the connection
is formed by dowels in the top of the lower panel
projecting into ducts in the upper panel. Dowels can be
cast-in, screwed into ferrules or inserted into ducts in the
lower panel. The ducts should be corrugated and be of
sufficient diameter to allow filling with a flowable grout.
The length and capacity of the dowels is dependent on
the tension forces to be transferred but in all cases there
is a minimum recommended as set out in Chapter 5.6.
In some cases the most economical solution is to have
ducts running the full height of the panels.

Figure 8.9 Floor connections parallel to wall

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 115
 With a stepped joint for waterproofing, care should be Connections at the vertical joints between wall units
taken to ensure that the wall panel has sufficient thickness are normally designed to transmit in-plane shear forces.
to accommodate and provide adequate cover for all the Figure 8.11 shows the three typical variations that can
fixings and edge reinforcement. Where out-of-plane forces occur. In all cases the connection is formed by cast-in
occur confinement reinforcement should be provided to fixings and stitch plates. The fixings may or may not be
prevent side breakout of the dowels. recessed for protection or fire rating.

Tension forces can also be transferred by a bolted The basic types of fixings used are;
connection recessed in the base of the upper panel as • Steel plates complete with anchor bars cast into the
shown in Figure 8.10 c) although this connection can be edge of each panel as shown in Figure 8.11. After
difficult to use where a waterproof joint is required. erection a stitching plate is welded across the joint to
form the connection.
Vertical post-tensioning with strand or bar is another • Threaded inserts with appropriate anchor bars are
option that can used to resist high tension forces that cast into each panel and a loose plate is bolted
occur in lift or stair shafts. Vertical ducts are provided across the joint. Bolt holes need to be oversized to
in the wall panels from base to top and strand or bar is accommodate tolerance and this may require the
threaded down and anchored into the footings. The strand plate to be welded to complete the connection.
or bar is tensioned after erection and grouting of the • A variation of the above fixings is to bolt the stitching
complete wall. plate to the cast-in plates as a temporary fixing for
erection and then weld the plate at a later date to
The horizontal joint between lower and upper panels complete the connection.
needs to be filled to ensure axial forces can be transferred.
This is usually accomplished by sealing each side of the Because of the cost of the plates and the need to site weld
joint and filling it with a flowable grout or by dry packing at height these are expensive connections and should
with mortar. The strength of the grout or mortar should be only used where needed for structural reasons. Each
be sufficient to carry the load. Where a waterproof joint additional plate in a wall panel can add several dollars per
is required the backing rod and sealer will reduce the square metre to the cost of the panel.
load bearing area. Filling only part of the joint width can
result in transverse splitting stresses being induced into The use of post installed expansion or chemical anchors
the walls. is not recommended for this type of structural connection
due to the difficulty in providing ductility.
As noted in Clause 8.3.2 horizontal joints with high
loads and complex geometry may require a detailed There are a number of proprietary panel connection
finite element analysis be carried out and if necessary systems available that allow the installation of precast
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement be provided in concrete panels on site without the need for welding or
the walls to resist cracking. bolting.

Figure 8.10 Horizontal wall to wall connections

116 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
 Figure 8.11 Vertical wall to wall connections

Figure 8.12 shows a detail for a ship-lap joint that is suited Figure 8.13 shows variations of an insitu concrete infill
to connecting individual walls to form lift or stair shafts. connection that is intended to emulate monolithic
The advantages are high load capacity, ease of providing construction.
ductility and ability to work on the connection from floor
level outside the shaft. The vertical joint faces are usually indented or intentionally
roughened to increase the shear capacity of the joints.
The size or width of the infill needs to be sufficient to allow
it to be filled with a flowable grout or concrete. Projecting
hairpin ties over the height of the panels are held together
by a continuous vertical bar. The shear capacity of the
connection can be calculated using shear-friction theory.

A range of proprietary components are available to form

these type of connections that include the recess former
as well as the starter bars.

Shear and in-plane forces can also be transferred across

the vertical joint by staggering the ends of the panel joint
Figure 8.12 Vertical Wall to Wall External Fixing
as shown in Figures 5.8 and 8.3.

Figure 8.13 Insitu concrete infill connection

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 117
 8.4 Design of welded plate
connections
8.4.1 Introduction 8.4.2 Design concepts
Welded connections between walls are common within All connections should be robust so that they have
the precast industry and every consulting engineer and the ability to withstand accidental events such as fire,
precast manufacturer seems to have their own favourite. explosions, impact and consequences of human error
In many cases details have been used for many years without causing damage to an extent disproportionate
and repeated from project to project without being to the original cause.
subject to a rational design method to verify capacity.
Robustness infers that the connection is stable, has
This section will set out a design philosophy that gives reserve strength and stiffness, exhibits ductility and
a rational design method for welded connections. Given has redundant capacity. These requirements are often
the critical nature of these connections the approach is difficult to provide in connections in relatively thin
based on a conservative lower-bound design case. concrete sections. Concrete failure is usually the critical
and limiting factor in establishing the capacity of the
An alternative is to carry out a finite element analysis, connection. With a concentration of forces in such a small
but given that the material cost is only a small part of area it is difficult to provide sufficient reinforcement that
the cost of weld plate connections this is rarely justified. can anchor and prevent localised splitting or spalling of
the concrete around the fixings. For example additional
reinforcement other than a long anchor bar has little
influence on the concrete cone failure of a cast-in ferrule.

Given the above, the design concept is to provide a

connection that has sufficient capacity to ensure that
localised concrete failure does not occur under design
actions. In addition the design should ensure that under
overload the anchor bars on the fixings have sufficient
capacity and ductility to sustain the forces without
collapse.

118 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
8.4.3 Design method The stitch plate and associated welding should be
designed to resist the same forces as those calculated
Figure 8.14 shows a diagram of a typical welded plate above.As required by the Building Code of Australia
connection between two panels that are subject to [10] these connections also need to be detailed to
vertical shear. The fixing plates are provided with anchor accommodate thermal movement and possible collapse
bars and a headed stud on the rear. The anchor bars of the roof structure during a fire.
need to be of sufficient length to develop full capacity
and can be either perpendicular to the joint or splayed Cladding panels can act as shear walls by positively
as shown. The fixing plates are recessed to ensure the connecting each panel to the steel frame or by providing
anchor bars occur within the middle third of the panel grouted dowel connections in the horizontal panel joints
thickness. A welded stitch plate forms the connection so that a series of individual panels act as a single panel.
between the two fixing plates.
The remaining types of cladding panel connections,
Vertical shear between panels produces direct shear vertical panel to eaves tie, panel to panel and corner
as well as a rotational moment in the connection that panel connection are all similar to those used for
is resisted by the anchor bars acting in tension and loadbearing walls as described in Chapter 8.
compression. The vertical shear is assumed to act at the
face of the wall joint and the design forces in the anchor
bars are calculated on the assumption that each plate
can rotate about a point where the anchor bars are fixed
to the plate.

Tension or transverse forces that occur across the joint

are additive to the above. Splaying the anchor bars
provides a more efficient connection than perpendicular
bars, particularly with high shear forces, and use of a
headed stud is important where transverse forces can
occur. Stresses in the anchor bars should be limited to
ensure that concrete cracking under service loads is
minimised. The Codes give little guidance on this but
limiting the calculated steel stress in the anchor bars to
0.6fsy should be considered.

Figure 8.14 Forces in welded plate connection

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120 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
9 MIXED
STRUCTURES

9.1 General In this Chapter

9.1 General 121
As noted in Chapter 3 the term mixed construction is
used to describe a type of construction where precast 9.2 Design concepts 122
concrete is used in combination with other building 9.2.1 Steel and precast 122
materials, such as cast in-situ concrete, steel, masonry or
9.2.2 Insitu concrete and precast 124
timber. Common examples are; steel frames supporting
precast floors, masonry walls supporting precast floors, 9.2.3 Masonry and precast 126
precast walls or beams supporting metal deck floors,
precast walls supporting insitu floors and insitu lift
or stair shafts combined with precast skeletal frame
systems.

Most precast buildings will contain some form of mixed

construction and frequently the most economical
structural solution involves mixing precast concrete with
other structural materials for at least some part of the
building.

This chapter will look at the various options available

using a mixture of structural materials. Detailed
information on mixed construction is given in fib Bulletin
19 “Precast concrete in mixed construction” [9].

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 121
 9.2 Design concepts
The optimum structural design of any building is based Setting the precast elements below the top of the steel
on selecting the most appropriate type of structure for beam can make erection difficult and does not suit all
each major part of the building as distinct from allowing types for precast floors.
a single part to dictate the complete structure. Within
this selection process the optimum structural material Composite action with the steel beam is facilitated by
should also be selected for each component. the provision of stud anchors on the beam projecting
into an insitu infill between the ends of the precast
The following sections will give an overview of the use elements. The design process is similar to that for an
of precast concrete with other materials such as steel, insitu concrete floor except for staged loading of the
insitu concrete and masonry. Many of these concepts beam by the precast floor before composite action is
have already been referred to in previous chapters. taken into account. Where hollowcore floor elements
are used, as shown in figure 9.2, the flange width and/
9.2.1 Steel and precast or effective slab depth are modified to account for the
voids in the hollowcore slabs.
Uses of structural steel and precast include steel beams
supporting precast floor elements, steel permanent The effect of the bottom flange of the hollowcore is
formwork combined with precast beams and steel ignored and the width of the infill above the steel beam
elements used to support precast concrete. can be varied by filling all cores with concrete for a
distance each side of the beam. The thickness of the
Figure 9.1 shows steel beams supporting precast concrete flange is the sum of the concrete thickness
concrete floor elements. The beam may be an individual above the core plus the screed thickness. Because the
steel beam or part of a steel frame structure. The floor flange is relatively thin the effective flange width should
elements can be beam and infill, composite floor plates be limited.
or hollowcore. In all cases it is usual, and structurally
more efficient, to detail the two elements so that they Detailed guidelines are given in the fib ‘Guide to good
act compositely. practice, composite floor structures.’ [14]

Figure 9.1 Steel beam and precast floors

122 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
 Figure 9.2 Steel beam and hollowcore floor Figure 9.3 Composite steel beams and hollowcore floor

The design method for edge beams is similar to the Where a shallow floor profile is required, a steel beam
above methods but ties are required from the steel that supports the precast floor elements on its bottom
beam into the precast or screed to prevent horizontal flange can be used as shown in Figure 9.4. The main
movement of the beam. use in Australia has been as trimmer beams at openings
within floor slabs where height considerations preclude
In all cases, particularly edge beams, the stability of the use of a down-turned supporting ledge.
the steel beam during erection and pouring the screed
can be critical and some type of flange restraint or The steel beams can be fabricated sections with a profile
temporary propping or bracing may be required to to suit the particular use. PFC’s with a flange added are
prevent buckling or rotation. Friction between the steel common but they can also be UC or RHS sections with
beam and precast elements should not be relied upon flanges added. They can be detailed as either composite
to provide restraint. or non-composite.

Figure 9.4 Steel trimmer beams and precast floor

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 123
 Use of these types of beams with hollowcore floor 9.2.2 Insitu concrete and precast
elements can result in reduced shear capacity of
the hollowcore due to the fact that deflection of the Insitu concrete flooring can be used with precast walls.
supporting beams induces transverse stresses across The precast walls are erected and braced in position and
the webs of the hollowcore. Where the design is based an insitu or metal deck formwork concrete slab is poured.
on full composite action between beam and hollowcore,
and reinforcement is provided to transfer all forces, Figure 9.6 a) shows the typical situation where an insitu
the reduction in shear capacity can be small. For non- floor slab is poured over the lower wall. Starter bars
composite action the reduction in shear capacity can project from the wall and lap into the slab and dowels
be significant. In both cases the shear resistance can be are cast or drilled into the slab to provide a connection to
increased by filling the cores with concrete at the slab the upper wall. Note the minimum tie force requirements
ends over a length of at least the slab depth. Extensive as set out in Chapter 5.
research has been carried out on this topic and is
available in a number of fib publications. [14, 30] A variation is shown in figure 9.6 b) where a multi-level
wall runs past the floor. In this case the load from the
Where precast floors are supported on insitu concrete floor is transferred to the wall by using the concepts of
walls a steel angle as described in Chapter 8.3.3 is shear-friction. The interface surface is roughened and
commonly used. Eccentricity of load needs to be taken reinforcement is provided across the interface to tie the
into account when designing the angle and fixings. In insitu and precast together. This tie reinforcement can be
all cases bars from the wall into the precast elements or pull-out bars or starters screwed into ferrules cast into
floor topping tie the elements together. the wall. There is no benefit in providing a recess in the
wall as this is not taken into account in the shear friction
design. The most important criteria is the roughness of
the interface. The shear-friction design method is set out
in detail in the Precast Concrete Handbook. [2]

Figure 9.8 shows an insitu floor supported on an external

wall. This detail is essentially the same as that shown in
Figure 9.6 b). The load from the floor is transferred to
the wall using the concepts of shear-friction.

A similar concept is use where an insitu beam is

supported on a precast wall. Tie bar reinforcement as
shown in Figure 9.9 is provided from the wall and into
the beam. These are usually screwed into couplers cast in
to the wall. The design method is based on the concept
of shear-friction and is covered in detail in the ‘Precast
Concrete Handbook’. [2] With appropriate roughening
of the interface and heavy tie bars, loads of several
Figure 9.5 Steel support for precast beam hundred kN can be accommodated.

Precast concrete beams can be similarly supported

on steel corbel brackets or on steel columns as shown
in Figure 9.5. Where beams are supported on steel
columns the eccentricity of load can be an issue. The
beam will almost always be wider than the supporting
column and the effect of loading the beam on one side
during erection needs to be considered. In addition the
erection and location tolerances need to be taken into
account in the design of the column and fixings.

124 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
 Figure 9.7 Insitu floor and precast wall

Figure 9.6 Insitu floor to precast walls

Figure 9.8 Insitu floor to external precast wall Figure 9.9 Insitu beam and precast wall

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 125
 Insitu concrete beams can be combined with precast 9.2.3 Masonry and precast
floors. This combination only becomes economical
if there is considerable repetition of beams or where The use of masonry walls to support a precast
beam depth or span precludes the use of precast beams. floor is common in low-rise domestic construction.
Where this occurs the logical option is to erect the Construction speed is much greater than for an insitu
precast floor elements onto the edge of the supported floor but buildability can be an issue with respect to
beam formwork and then pour the beam and floor crane access. Sufficient walls need to be constructed
topping in a single operation as shown in Figure 9.10. to allow erection of enough precast flooring to justify
The beam is designed as a monolithic section with the mobilisation of a crane.
flange width as described in Chapter 4.4.2. A precast
shell beam acting as permanent formwork is a variation As shown in figure 9.11, the precast floor system can
of this concept. be supported directly on top of the masonry wall in
the same manner as an insitu floor slab. An isolating
The insitu beam allows the design to be based on bearing strip is usually used on top of the wall and in
full continuity, either as reinforced or post-tensioned most cases there is no need to tie the walls into the floor
concrete and is ideal where beam depth is critical. system. The exception is where the floor is required
to act as a diaphragm and lateral loads are transferred
between the floor and walls or where lateral support is
required at the top of the wall.

The use of precast floors supported on unreinforced

masonry walls is not recommended in areas subject to
seismic actions.

Figure 9.10 Insitu beam and precast floor

Figure 9.11 Masonry wall and precast floors

126 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
10 FIRE
RESISTANCE

10.1 General In this Chapter

10.1 General 127
The structural behaviour of a concrete building exposed
to fire is a complex phenomenon and due to the large 10.2 Basic requirements 129
number of intervening parameters the design and 10.3 Fire actions 130
calculation methods related to the analysis of the global
10.3.1 Reduction of material
structure during a fire are still under development. performances 130

The purpose of this chapter is to give the designer 10.3.2 Thermal expansion 132
more insight into the behaviour of a building structure 10.3.3 Thermal deformation of the cross-
exposed to fire, so that they understand what direct and section 133
indirect actions are taking place and how the concrete 10.4 Global structural analysis 134
structure is reacting as a whole. It should enable the
10.5 Member analysis 135
application of specific design philosophy extending
beyond the simple check of the fire resistance period 10.5.1 Beams 135
(FRP) of single concrete elements, as it is often the case. 10.5.2 Columns 136
10.5.3 Walls 136
The requirements with respect to the performance of a
building subjected to fire are set out in regulations such 10.5.4 Floor slabs 136
as The Building Code of Australia [10] and are expressed 10.6 Fire resistance of structural
as the Fire Resistance Level (FRL). They specify how connections 139
long a structure shall resist a normalized fire - generally 10.6.1 Beam to column connections 139
the ISO Standard fire curve. Figure 10.1 shows the typical
10.6.2 Beam to beam connections 139
ISO time temperature curve compared with that for a
hydrocarbon fuelled fire. 10.6.3 Floor to concrete beam
connections 139
The Building Code of Australia requires each of the 10.6.4Floor slab to steel beam
individual elements of a building to have a fire resistant connections 140
period (FRP) for structural adequacy, integrity and 10.6.5 Floor to wall connections 141
insulation that is not less than the required fire resistant
10.6.6Inserts and fixings 141
level (FRL).
10.6.7 Joints 141
10.7 Establishing FRP by testing 142
10.8 Conclusion 142

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 127
 There are two aspects to producing a building with the Section 5 of AS3600 provides for the FRP of a structural
required FRL as nominated by the Building Code of member to be established by empirical methods based
Australia. They are the ‘passive design’ and the ‘active on member dimensions and reinforcement cover. The
design’. designer must check whether the member is able
to meet these requirements. Calculation methods
The passive design refers to the design of the building are acceptable, but no guidance is given other than
structure and envelope. The active design refers to a reference to Eurocode-2. [24] The performance of
measures that are put in place within the building to concrete buildings subject to fire is discussed in detail
enhance its performance in a fire. For example provision in the Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, Fire
of a sprinkler system may allow a reduction of the FRP Safety of Concrete Buildings. [36]
of all or some of the elements in the building.

Common methods of meeting fire code requirements

often include both passive and active design solutions.
This document does not cover active design measures.

1400

1200

1000
Temperature ºC

800

600 ISO-curve
Hydrocarbon-curve
400

200

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Time in minutes

Figure 10.1 Standardised fire temperature curves

128 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
10.2 Basic requirements
In accordance with Eurocode-2 [24] requirements the
capacity of a concrete structure to maintain its load
bearing function during the relevant fire exposure, is
expressed as follows:
Ed,fi(t) < Rd,fi(t)
where Ed,fi(t) is the design effect of actions in the fire
situation at time ‘t’.
Rd,fi(t) is the corresponding design capacity at elevated
temperatures.

The basic criteria for a concrete structure, to comply

with the above conditions for structural adequacy,
integrity and insulation are as follows:
• Structural adequacy is satisfied where the load
bearing function is maintained during the required
time of exposure.
• Integrity, or flame tightness is satisfied where the
separating function, namely the ability to prevent
fire spread by passage of flames or hot gases or
ignition beyond the exposed surface is maintained
during the relevant fire. Practically this means that
precautions must be taken to avoid the passage of
fire through cracks, joints and other openings.
• Insulation is satisfied where the average temperature
rise over the whole of the non-exposed surface is
limited to 140oC, and the maximum temperature
rise at any point of that surface does not exceed
180oC. These temperatures are to be seen as
serviceability limit states related to the occupation.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 129
 10.3 Fire actions
10.3.1 Reduction of material In concrete structures, the situation is completely
different due to the low thermal conductivity of the
performances material. The heating progresses much slower, and in a
When a fire occurs in a building, the temperature non-uniform way over the cross section and length of
rises fast, at least when there is enough combustible the member. For example, after one hour of ISO fire, the
material and oxygen. The exposed structural members temperature in a plain concrete floor slab can be 600°C
will heat according to the thermal conductivity of the at the bottom and only 60°C at the top. The reinforcing
materials: very fast for unprotected steel, rather slowly steel in the lower part of the cross-section warms up and
for concrete. Two phenomena occur simultaneously: a gradually loses its strength. At a certain temperature the
reduction of the material performances and a thermal reinforcing steel is no longer capable of taking up the
dilatation (expansion). Data about material performance stresses and failure occurs. This temperature is called
as a function of the material temperatures are available the critical temperature.
in Eurocode 2. [24]
For example, with a concrete cover to the reinforcement
In unprotected steel structures the temperature will rise of 25mm, the critical temperature of the reinforcing
rapidly over the whole cross-section, because of the steel (500 °C) will occur after about 90 minutes ISO
high thermal conductivity of the material. Depending on fire exposure. For a concrete cover of 35mm the critical
member sizes and fire temperature a critical limit state temperature will be reached after 120 minutes. For
will be reached in which the material strength is reduced prestressing steel the critical temperature is 100 to 150 °C
to about half, and the safety margins disappear. Plastic lower than for normal reinforcing steel. As a consequence
hinges appear everywhere and the structure collapses. the cover on the prestressing reinforcement should be
For light steel structures this can occur within about 15 increased by 10 to 15 mm to obtain the same FRP.
minutes.

Figure 10.2 Example of a fire damaged car park

130 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
In addition to the decrease of the material performance, Braced wall structures consisting of loadbearing concrete
the structure will be subjected to thermal expansion. wall panels and lightweight steel roof structures are a
Beams and columns will expand mainly in the special case where removal of the braced roof by fire can
longitudinal direction while floors and walls will expand result in the instability of the wall panels even though
in both longitudinal and transversal directions. they may not be directly affected by the fire. For this
reason the Building Code of Australia [10] has specific
The above considerations show an important difference requirements that apply to these types of buildings to
between the behaviour of concrete and steel structures ensure stability of perimeter walls after a fire.
at fire. For steel structures, the stability of the structure
depends on the resistance of the individual members
whereas for concrete structures the global behaviour of
the structure is governing, and the fire resistance of the
individual members is seldom critical.

Another consideration is that high-strength concrete

(HSC) is more sensitive to high temperature than normal
strength concrete. Spalling becomes an issue when
HSC is subject to fire. Spalling results in loss of surface
material, reduction in section size and early exposure
of the reinforcement to excessive temperatures. This
can result in the actual fire performance of the element
being less than that predicted. Codes do not cover this
specific aspect of the performance of HSC but further
information can be found in the Concrete Institute of
Australia publications. [26]

Figure 10.3 Example of heat damaged concrete

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 131
 10.3.2 Thermal expansion When a fire occurs locally in the centre of a large
building, the thermal expansion will be restrained by
During a fire, concrete needs time to warm up so the effect the surrounding cold concrete structure, and very large
of thermal expansion will be much less during a short compressive forces will generate in all directions. When
intense fire than during a longer lasting less intense fire. For the fire occurs at the edge of the same building, the
this reason the ISO fire curve may not necessarily be the horizontal “blocking” will be much lower. The most critical
most unfavourable thermal action. The time temperature situation is when the fire covers a wide surface, resulting
curves on Figure 10.1 show that a hydrocarbon fire can be in large accumulated deformations.
much more intense than a standard ISO fire.
The longitudinal expansion of beams or ribbed slabs will
The most critical situation is when the fire covers a wide be considerably larger than for plain slabs. Beams are
surface, resulting in large accumulated deformations. exposed on three sides to the fire so the thermal gradient
Thermal expansions of 2-3mm per lineal metre can will be more uniform over the whole cross-section.
occur in concrete structures during a fire and parts of
the structure remote from the fire can be subjected to
significant displacement and even failure. In precast
structures cooling and contraction after a fire can
also result in failure by subjecting connections to load
reversals. For example precast floor elements slipping off
supporting ledges.

Figure 10.4 Forces in a frame structure due to restrained thermal expansion

132 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
10.3.3 Thermal deformation of the In a continuous floor structure the downwards
thermal deflection will be resisted by the continuity
cross-section reinforcement at the top of the slab, and the support
In addition to the longitudinal and transverse expansion, moment will increase. The increased support moment
elements subjected to fire on only one side, for example will create additional compressive stresses at the bottom
flat floors, will also undergo a deformation of the cross- of the floor and tensile stresses in the top reinforcement
section. Because of the temperature gradient over above the support will increase and in some cases even
the cross-section, the exposed underside will expand yield. In this case the increased shear induced into the
much more than the cooler upper side. This will force floor unit at the support as well as the flexural capacity
the member to deflect downwards. However, the needs to be checked.
deformation will not be directly proportional to the
temperature gradient, since the latter is generally not
linear over the cross section.

Figure 10.5 Thermal deformation of simply supported floor slab

Figure 10.6 Increase of support moment for continuous structure

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 133
 10.4 Global structural
analysis
The analysis of the global structure of a building or parts In a multi-storey building with a stabilizing stair and lift
of it, should take into account the relevant failure mode shaft, the most favourable situation will be met when the
due to the fire, the temperature-dependent material stabilising core is placed in the centre of the structure,
properties and member stiffness and effects of thermal enabling an even expansion of the surrounding floors
expansion and deformations. Australian Codes do not in all directions. Figure 10.7 shows a structural layout
stipulate how to include these effects and the analysis typical for a precast building, which would probably
for fire safety is restricted to the verification of single react favourably to the thermal expansions during a
structural members to ensure they comply with the fire. The central core will take up the horizontal actions.
cross section dimensions and the minimum concrete All other components are connected to it with hinged
cover on the reinforcement for a given ISO fire exposure joints. During a fire, the restraining forces will be limited,
time. and the connections between the core and the other
structural components (columns, beams, and floors)
Experience in real fires shows that instability of concrete have a statically determined character. Slender columns
structures seldom occurs due to the decrease of material or hinged connections will deform together with the
performances at elevated temperatures, but nearly structure, without causing large blocking forces and
always because of the incompatibility of the structure shear failure. The design should allow for movement
to take the imposed thermal deformations. Fortunately, where possible, to avoid incompatibility of deformations
concrete structures not only have a high inherent fire due to thermal expansion.
resistance but they also have large redistribution
capacities due to robustness and structural integrity. The most important part in ‘fire engineering’ a concrete
Consequently, failure of concrete buildings due to fire building is to assess how the building as a whole will
seldom occurs. deform under elevated temperature and ensure that
these deformations can be accommodated without
Based on research it is possible to outline a design failure occurring. Attention to the design of the
philosophy and guidelines based on practical connections is important to ensure that they can
experiences of real fires and model simulations. accommodate not only the thermal expansion during
• More attention should be given to the overall the fire but also the contraction due to cooling after the
behaviour of the building when exposed to fire.
fire, rather than looking only at the individual
components affected by the fire.
• The shape and dimensions of the building, as well
as the static system are very important in the
behaviour of a building during a fire, especially the
effects of thermal expansion, deformations and
blocking forces. For example in small buildings
the thermal expansion will cause much smaller
blocking forces than in large buildings with a fire
in the centre.
• In buildings with large floor areas and insufficient
movement joints very large expansion may
occur. Not only should the distance between the
movement joints be considered but also the width
of each joint. As a first approximation the effect of
expansion due to a temperature rise of 100-150°C
should be checked. Figure 10.7 Favourable stability lay-out with respect
to thermal expansions

134 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
10.5 Member analysis
According to AS3600, Section 5.3, [7] the FRP of a Holes through the webs of beams do not affect the fire
building element can be determined by tabulated data resistance provided that the remaining cross-sectional
from design codes or methods of calculation. area of the member in the tensile zone is not less than
Ac = 2b²min where bmin is the minimum beam width.
Testing in accordance with AS1530.4. [31] can also be
used but establishment of the FRP from tabulated data The FRP of beams can also be verified by a simplified
is the most commonly adopted method. calculation based on the Ultimate Limit State method.
The load bearing capacity is calculated with reduced
AS3600 provides solutions for the standard fire exposure material characteristics corresponding to their
up to 240 minutes. The data has been developed temperature at a given fire exposure time. The calculation
on an empirical basis confirmed by experience and method is based on the assumption that concrete at a
theoretical evaluation of tests. Minimum dimensions for temperature of more than 500°C is neglected in the
the cross-section of the components and a minimum calculation of the load-bearing capacity, while concrete
concrete cover on the main reinforcement is given. The at a temperature below 500°C is assumed to retain
information in AS3600 is mainly taken from Eurocode its full strength. In other words any concrete with a
2 - Part 1-2. [24] temperature above 500°C is neglected in establishing
the cross section dimensions.
For reinforcement levels which are larger than strictly
needed at ambient temperature, the minimum axis This method is extensively described in Eurocode 2 Part
distances given in the tables may be adjusted 1-2 [24] and in CEB Bulletin 208 [32]. These documents
are referenced in AS3600 Section 5.
For prestressing tendons in beams and slabs, AS3600
requires axis distance to be increased by 10mm. This method using the reduced cross-section may be
The reason lies in the fact that the reduction of steel applied for bending, shear and torsion in the design of
strength as a function of temperature is much faster for beams and slabs, where the loading is predominantly
prestressing steel than for normal reinforcing steel. uniformly distributed and where the design at normal
temperature is based on linear analysis. This is not
Note that by using tabulated methods in assessing the the case with hollowcore floor slabs where the shear
FRP of beams and slabs the applied actions on the capacity is dependent on the tensile strength of the
structure are not taken into account. concrete. This issue is discussed separately in further
detail in Chapter 10.5.4.1
10.5.1 Beams
Fire is considered to be an accidental action. As a result
Using AS3600, Section 5 [7] the FRP for a beam can a reduction factor may be the applied to the imposed
be obtained from a series of tables and charts plotting actions. In accordance with AS1170.0 [23] the applied
axis distance of the reinforcement against the beam action for fire is (G + ψ1Q) where ψ1 ranges from 0.4 for
width. Axis distance is based on the geometry of the residential to 0.6 for storage occupancies.
reinforcement and beam width is measured at the axis
height. Tables and charts are given for both simply
supported and continuous beams and for beams
exposed to fire on all four sides and for the more typical
precast beam case where the top flange is protected by
a slab.

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 135
 10.5.2 Columns 10.5.4 Floor slabs
The FRP of reinforced and prestressed columns is AS3600, Section 5.5, [7] allows for the FRP of one
influenced by several parameters: and two way solid, ribbed and hollowcore slabs to be
• Size and slenderness of the columns. established from tabulated data. The approach is similar
• Magnitude of applied load to that for beams with a further provision for a minimum
• First order eccentricity effective thickness to comply with the insulation
• Concrete strength and aggregate type requirements. For solid and ribbed slabs this is the most
• Reinforcement size and configuration effective method of establishing the FRP of the element.
• Axis distance of the reinforcement
Because of the complex interactions that affect the fire
Complex computer programs now exist, enabling the performance, particularly in the area of the support, the
calculation of the FRP of columns, taking account of the AS3600 requirements do not necessarily reflect the true
above parameters, inclusive of buckling. However, it is behaviour of hollowcore slabs, particularly in shear.
not possible to include all this information in tabulated
data. The topic of flexural and shear capacity of hollowcore
slabs subject to fire is dealt with separately in Chapters
AS3600 provides two tabulated methods to establish 10.5.4.1 and 10.5.4.2
the FRP of braced columns but both are restricted in
their application. Because the majority of precast The reference documents for hollowcore slabs subjected
buildings are braced structures this is a common method to fire are Eurocode-2 Part 1.2 [24] and European
of designing precast columns for fire capacity. Product Standard EN1168. [16]

The values in the tables apply to normal weight concrete 10.5.4.1 Flexural capacity of hollowcore subject to
(2000 to 2600 kg/m³) made with siliceous aggregates. fire
Unlike Eurocode 2, AS3600 makes no distinction
As for all types of floor slabs the FRP of hollowcore
between normal and lightweight concrete.
slabs in flexure is governed by the decrease of the
strength of the prestressing tendons as a function of
Unbraced or sway columns and braced columns that
the temperature. Full-scale fire tests have shown that
fall outside these restrictions require an alternative
the temperature within the vicinity of the prestressing
approach such as that provided by Eurocode 2 Part 1-2.
reinforcement is practically independent of the slab
[24]
thickness and slab profile. For this reason the tabulated
data in AS3600 Section 5.5 can be used to determine
10.5.3 Walls the FRP of reinforced and prestressed hollow core slabs
in flexure. The tables give the equivalent thickness of the
The FRP of walls is established in a similar manner to
slab and the values of the axis distance for reinforcement
that for columns with a further provision for a minimum
as a function of the required FRP for simply supported
effective thickness to comply with the insulation
slabs in normal weight concrete. Note that these values
requirements.
are not applicable to shear capacity.
The requirements are set out in Tables 5.7.1 and 5.7.2 in
The FRP of hollowcore slabs with respect to flexural
AS3600. This is based on the concept of insitu concrete
failure can also be determined by using simplified
and is not always applicable to precast concrete wall
calculation methods as described for beams in Chapter
panels. Precast wall panels usually have pinned ends
10.5.1 and Eurocode-2 Part 1.2. [24]
that determine the effective length, sway and P-Delta
effects.

On braced wall structures with panels designed to

cantilever from the footings the P-Delta effects induced
by curvature due to thermal gradients through the wall
can become critical.

136 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
10.5.4.2 Shear capacity of hollowcore subject to fire Figure 10.8 (a) shows the appearance of vertical cracks
due to differential thermal deformation over the cross-
Prestressed hollowcore floor slabs generally have no section. Figure 10.8 (b) shows propagation of the vertical
shear reinforcement and very short bearing lengths cracks into horizontal cracks due to thermal effects, self-
at supports and this governs the shear capacity of weight and imposed actions. To assure adequate shear
hollowcore slabs subject to fire. Elevated temperatures capacity the FRP is limited so that possible cracks in the
increase the tensile stresses in the profiled webs and webs of the hollow core slabs are kept closed to enable
increase the transfer length of the prestressing tendons shear transfer by aggregate interlock mechanism.
due to possible strand slippage. The European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) in
EN1168:2005+A3:2011 [16] has published an empirical
Calculations show that after about 20 to 40 minutes formula that has been validated by means of FEM
ISO fire exposure, the tensile stresses in the central calculations and fire tests to calculate the shear and
zone of the web exceed the tensile capacity of the anchorage failure for hollowcore slabs subject to fire. The
concrete. At further fire exposure horizontal cracks method is derived from the shear formula in Eurocode-2
originate in the weakest zone of the cross-section for prestressed members at ambient temperature. By
due to shear stresses from thermal origin, self-weight, using this formula it is possible to compare the shear
imposed actions, prestressing and thermal expansion. and anchorage capacities of hollowcore slabs under fire
For circular cores the weakest section is situated in the conditions with those under ambient conditions.
middle of the cross-section, for more rectangular cores,
it is situated towards the bottom of the slab. The failure
occurs when the horizontal cracks meet the vertical
cracks. The phenomenon is of course influenced by
the slab thickness, level of the imposed forces, level of
prestressing and the total web width of the slabs.

Figure 10.8 Failure mode of a hollow core slab during fire

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 137
 Table 10.1 expresses the shear capacity under fire Numerous fire tests in different laboratories have shown
conditions (VRd,c,fi) as a percentage of the shear that the FRP of hollowcore floors can be increased by
capacity in ambient (cold) conditions (VRd,c,cold ) for enhancing the aggregate interlock across cracks. The
a range of slab thicknesses and FRL. This shows that objective is to provide reinforcement and/or clamping
under fire conditions the effective shear capacity of forces that restrict the spread of the vertical and
un-topped hollowcore slabs can be reduced by over horizontal cracks shown in Figure 10.8. Methods used
50% and indicates that great care should be taken in include the following.
assessing shear capacity of hollowcore slabs in fire • a reinforced structural topping to tie the slabs to
particularly with deeper slabs and rectangular cores. the support, and during a fire prevent horizontal
For example a 200mm slab with a FRL90 has only 60% cracks in the lower part of the slab from opening.
shear capacity under fire compared with the calculated Structural toppings improve the fire resistance of
value at ambient temperature. hollowcore floors and are recommended where an
FRP is required.
The values in the table should be used as a guide only • tie bars in joints or in filled cores between the ends
and are based on the following relatively conservative of slabs. In order to decrease the lever arm of the
assumptions. induced force from the thermal curvature of the
• slabs are un-topped, no structural screed. floor, tie bars should be placed in the centre of the
• hollow core slabs are pre-stressed with strands cut hollowcore and not in the structural topping.
at the ends of the elements. • a shear ligature cage of reinforcement in filled cores
• a support length of 70 mm. at the ends of the slabs. The ligatures are designed
• longitudinal tie reinforcement of approximately to carry the full design shear forces.
200mm2/m is provided and placed at approximately • peripheral ties that contribute to the preservation
mid-height of the slab in joints between the slabs of the shear capacity of the hollowcore slabs when
and/or in filled cores. exposed to fire by forming perimeter beams that
• the influence of the concrete in the filled cores with resist directly and indirectly the expansion of the
embedded tying reinforcement is neglected. floor and hold adjacent slabs together.

The effectiveness of most of these methods is difficult to

evaluate and should not be relied on without verification.

VRd,c,fi/Vrd,c,cold [%] Un-topped slab thickness [mm] and core profile

Fire resistance 150 200 240-300 300 360-400

Level [min] circular circular circular rectangular rectangular

FRL 60 70 % 65 % 60 % 60 % 55 %

FRL 90 65 % 60 % 60 % 55 % 50 %

FRL 120 60 % 60 % 55 % 50 % 50 %

FRL 180 45 % 50 % 50 % 45 % 45 %

Figure 10.8 Example of the shear capacity under fire conditions (VRd,c,fi)
as a percentage of the shear capacity in ambient (cold) conditions (VRd,c,cold )

138 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
10.6 Fire resistance of
structural connections
The principles and solutions applied for the fire 10.6.3 Floor to concrete beam
resistances of structural components are also valid
for the design of connections, namely, minimum
connections
cross-sectional dimensions and sufficient cover to the The connections tying precast floors to supporting
reinforcement. The design philosophy is based on the beams are within the depth of the slab and in the colder
large insulating capacity of concrete. Most concrete zone of the structure, and hence not affected by the
connections will normally not require additional fire. The position of the longitudinal tie reinforcement
measures. This is also the case for supporting details (longitudinal means in the direction of the floor span)
such as bearing pads, since they are protected by the should preferably be in the centre of the floor thickness.
surrounding components. Other considerations are
related to the ability of the connection to absorb large In case of slabs that are continuous across the support
displacements and rotations due to thermal movements. sufficient continuous tensile reinforcement should be
Some considerations regarding specific connections are provided in the floor to cover possible induced positive
given below. and negative moments due to thermal movement.

10.6.1 Beam to column connections All of the connection types shown and described in
Chapter 7.3.6 are inherently fire resistant.
Typically beam to column connections are pinned
and perform well during a fire because of their high
rotational capacity. Pinned connections are a good
solution to transfer horizontal forces in simple supports.
They need no special considerations since the dowel is
well protected by the surrounding concrete. In addition,
dowel connections can provide additional stiffness to
the structure because of their semi-rigid behaviour. This
is normally not taken into account in the design, but
provides a reserve in safety. Care should be taken to
ensure that rotation can occur at the connection without
concrete to concrete contact causing spalling.

Although all of the connection types shown and

described in Chapter 7.3.2 are inherently fire resistant,
secondary damage may occur within the connections if
the structure is subject to large thermal movements.

10.6.2 Beam to beam connections

Beam to beam connections formed by concrete corbels
are inherently fire resistant. Steel hanger brackets as
shown in Figure 10.9 are fire resistant due to the fact
that the steel fixing is fully enclosed within the concrete.
Where this type of connection requires a torsion tie
this should be designed to accommodate rotations
due to thermal movement and be recessed to provide
protection.
Figure 10.9 Steel hanger bracket

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 10.6.4 Floor slab to steel beam
connections
In the typical case where a precast floor structure
is supported on top of a steel beam, the beam will
require some type of fire protection to meet any FRP
requirements. The connection between the beam itself
and the precast floor is protected within the depth of
the floor and hence not affected by the fire.

In case of partially encased steel profiles, for example

in slim floor structures or trimmer beams as shown in
Figure 10.11, the temperature rise in the steel profile
within the depth of the floor will be slower than in non-
encased unprotected profiles. This is due to the effect
of the thermal conductivity of the surrounding concrete.
For low to moderate design loads, fire protection of
the exposed steel ledge can be avoided by provision
of reinforcement ties between the floor and the beam. Figure 10.10 Steel beam to floor connection
These ties are designed to support the design actions
for fire by activating shear-friction at the interface.

For hollowcore slabs with high design loads or high FRP

it is recommended that the exposed steel flange be
protected by a fire insulating material. The reasons are
that thermal deflection of the steel beam will introduce
transverse stresses in the webs of the hollow core slabs
which can reduce the shear capacity of the slab.

Figure 10.11 Examples of steel beams within floor structure

140 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
10.6.5 Floor to wall connections 10.6.6 Inserts and fixings
As shown in Chapter 7.3.6 there are many combinations Mechanical fixing devices should be protected to the
of floor to wall connections with different precast floor same degree as other structural members. Steel parts
types and different wall types. All except the steel corbel embedded in concrete will have a lower temperature
detail are inherently fire resistant. rise than non-embedded steel because of the thermal
conductivity of the surrounding concrete. However, it is
Where the precast floor is supported on a steel corbel as always recommended to provide sufficient protection
shown in Figure 10.12 the tie reinforcement and vertical to exposed parts of the connecting items, such as
leg of the corbel are protected by the concrete. bolts, steel angles etc. to ensure that yielding due to
degradation from the fire cannot occur.
For low to moderate design actions, fire protection of
the exposed steel ledge can be avoided by provision of Fixings should also be detailed to ensure that they can
reinforcement ties between the floor and the wall. These accommodate any forces or rotations that result from
ties are designed to support the design actions for fire thermal movement.
by activating shear-friction at the interface.
Chemical fixings should not be used in connections
In the case of hollowcore slabs the cores containing where an FRP is required.
tie bars should be filled with concrete over the critical
transfer length at the support and for hollowcore slabs 10.6.7 Joints
with high design loads or high FRP it is recommended
to protect the exposed steel flange by a fire insulating Joints between precast elements must be detailed in
material. such a way that they comply with the required criteria
for structural adequacy, integrity and insulation.

Longitudinal joints between precast floor elements

generally do not require any special protection. The
condition for thermal insulation and structural integrity
is a minimum section thickness according to the required
FRP. Joints must remain closed and this can be ensured
by provision of tie-reinforcement or topping screeds.

Adjacent panels in firewalls and columns should

be connected to ensure that differential horizontal
movement does not occur at the joints due to thermal
gradients through the wall.

Depending on the required FRP, the joint can be sealed

with a fire rated field moulded sealer or by providing a
special profile within the cross-section of the joint.

Figure 10.12 Floor to wall connection with steel corbel

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 10.7 Establishing FRP by
testing
Tests are usually performed on simply supported Because of the limited size of test furnaces (normally up
elements, with imposed actions corresponding to the to 4 to 6 m length), and the fact that spans of precast
imposed (reduced for fire) action combination. Over elements are ranging from 6 to 20 m, tests are not really
the past 30 years, many tests and associated research relevant to the global performance of the structure and
work on precast beams, columns, double T elements other methods are needed for the assessment of the
and hollow core slabs, have been carried out. The work overall FRP of concrete buildings. This usually requires
covered a wide range of cross-sections together with the designer to look at the issues from first principles
variations in reinforcement quantities and position, and to assess how the building structure will perform
cover to soffit and lateral surface, etc. as a whole.

10.8 Conclusion
As previously noted concrete buildings have an
inherently high FRL and that the global performance
of the building is much more important than the FRP
of individual elements. This is particularly the case
for precast concrete buildings where connections
between discrete elements can be subject to significant
unanticipated load reversals under fire conditions.

In this respect the most logical approach to determining

the FRL of a precast concrete building is to establish the
FRP of individual elements by tabulated methods and to
then calculate the dilation (expansion and contraction)
of the structure during a fire. As a first approximation a
temperature rise and fall of 150-200oC within the area
of the fire can be used to determine the movement.

Connections between all elements should then be

designed to accommodate the calculated movement.

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11 DEMOLITION AND
DISMANTLING

11.1 General In this Chapter

11.1 General 143
All structures should be designed with consideration 11.2 Structural assessment for
being given to future demolition and possible re-use demolition 144
or re-cycling. This is particularly important for precast 11.3 Safe design for demolition 145
concrete structures where the demolition process can 11.4 Demolition or dismantling
result in instability of the partially demolished structure. process 146

A structure should be design to enable demolition

using existing techniques. Designers of new structures
are ideally placed to influence the ultimate demolition
by designing-in features that facilitate the demolition
process. Associated with this, detailed drawings
showing the structural design should be archived for
future reference.

Detailed information on demolition and dismantling of

structures is given in the. Code of Practice: Demolition
Work, [39] and in AS3850. [35]

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 143
 11.2 Structural assessment
for demolition
An integral part of the safe dismantling or demolition The engineer responsible for assessing the demolition
of a precast concrete building is the assessment of process should consider each concrete element
the structure by a designer with expertise in building individually as the scope and nature of the work for each
construction and demolition. Where possible this concrete element may be different. A written statement
should include an assessment of the original structural should be produced that outlines how best to ensure the
design drawings as part of the evaluation process before stability and overall integrity of the building or structure
prescribing the method of demolition. Where original during demolition along with specific processes or
drawings are not available it may be necessary to carry procedures to follow during demolition. The engineer
out an investigation of the structure to determine the as should be satisfied that the prescribed method of
built details. Even with access to the original structural demolition is safe.
design drawings the engineer should satisfy themselves
that the drawings reflect the actual as-built structure.

144 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
11.3 Safe design for
demolition
Based on the proposed demolition sequence a detailed To eliminate or minimise work health and safety risks
design and associated work method statement should that may occur during the demolition process, a hazard
be prepared by the engineer and the demolition identification and risk assessment should be carried out
contractor that clearly defines the demolition process by the engineer and demolition contractor during the
and method. demolition design process.

The engineer is best placed to advise on how to A detailed work method statement should then be
treat connections and associated temporary works prepared that incorporates the demolition design and
requirements and should produce detailed step-by-step step-by-step work sequence.
drawings showing each phase of the demolition process
including how each element is to be lifted from the Further guidance on the safe design of buildings and
structure. structures, including demolition, is available in the Code
of Practice: Safe Design of Structures. [38]

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 11.4 Demolition or
dismantling process
During the demolition or dismantling process adequate
control measures should be maintained to ensure that
all aspects of the structure are as anticipated in the work
method statement. No deviations should occur without
the written approval of the demolition engineer.

For further guidance on the demolition of concrete

elements, refer to the Code of Practice: Demolition
Work. [39]

146 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
12 REFERENCES &
LITERATURE

12.1 References
1. Federation Internationale du Beton. fib. 15. National Precast Concrete Association Australia.
(International Federation for Structural Concrete) International Federation for Structural Concrete.
Lausanne Switzerland. www.fib-international.org Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, USA.
2. ‘Precast Concrete Handbook.’ National Precast 16. ‘European Product Standard EN-1168.2005
Concrete Association Australia, plus amendment A3’ European committee for
www.nationalprecast.com.au standardisation. (CEN)
3. ‘Code of Practice, Tilt-up and Precast Concrete in 17. ‘Building code requirements for structural
Building Construction’ Safe Work Australia concrete. ACI 318’ American Concrete Institute.
www.concrete.org
4. ‘PCI Design Handbook’. Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, USA. www.pci.org 18. ‘Bulletin 74, Planning and design handbook
on precast concrete building structures’ fib.
5. ‘Guide to good practice, Special design
ISBN 978-2-88394-114-4
considerations for prestressed hollow core floors’.
fib. ISBN 978-2-88394-046-8. 2000 19. ‘Precast Seismic Structural Systems (PRESS) frame
systems’. National Science Foundation USA and
6. ‘Bulletin 41, Treatment of imperfections in precast
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, USA.
structural elements’ fib. ISBN 978-2-88394-081-9.
2007 20. ‘Guidelines for the use of Structural Precast Concrete
in Building’s’ New Zealand Concrete Society.
7. ‘Australian Standard, AS3600 Concrete structures
www.concretesociety.org.nz
code’ Standards Australia
21. ‘Multi-storey Precast Concrete Framed Structures,
8. ‘Bulletin 78. Precast concrete buildings in seismic
2nd edition’ Elliott, K S and Jolly, C. John Wiley,
areas. fib. ISBN 978-2-88394-118-2. 2016
London.
9. ‘State-of-the-art report. Precast concrete in mixed
22. ‘Eurocode EN 1991-1-7, Actions on structures’
construction.’ fib. ISBN 978-2-88394-059-8. 2002
European committee for standardisation. (CEN)
10. ‘National Construction Code’ and ‘Building Code of
23. ‘Australian Standard, AS1170, Structural Design
Australia’. Australian Building Codes Board
Actions’ Standards Australia
11. The Concrete Institute of Australia.
24. ‘Eurocode 2, Design of concrete structures’
www.concreteinstitute.com.au
European committee for standardisation. (CEN)
12. Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia.
25. ‘Bulletin 63, Design of precast concrete
www.concrete.net.au
structures against accidental actions’ fib.
13. ‘Technical Report 93/2, Fire performance of one ISBN 978-2-88394-103-8. 2012
and two storey buildings with precast concrete ….’
26. ‘Adverse effects in high strength concrete when
CSIRO division of Building, Construction and
exposed to fire’ Sanjajan G, Concrete Institute of
Engineering.
Australia 2011
14. ‘Guide to good practice, Composite floor structures’
27. ‘Bulletin 43, Structural connections for precast concrete
Fib
buildings’ fib. ISBN 978-2-88394-083-3. 2008

Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd 147
 28. ‘Australian Standard, AS 4100, Steel Structures 38. ‘Code of Practice, Safe Design of Structures.’
Code’ Standards Australia Safe Work Australia. July 2012
29. ‘Detailing Manual’. Hollow Core Concrete P/L 39. ‘Code of Practice, Demolition work.’
Altona Nth, Victoria Safe Work Australia
30. ‘Precast prestressed hollow core floors’ fib. 40. ‘Practical Guide to Structural Robustness and
Disproportionate Collapse in Buildings. October
31. ‘Australian Standard, AS1530.4, Fire test methods’
2010’. The Institution of Structural Engineers, UK
Standards Australia
41. ‘How to Design Concrete Buildings to satisfy
32. ‘CEB Bulletin 208, Fire design of concrete structures’
Disproportionate Collapse requirements’.
European committee for standardisation. (CEN)
The Concrete Centre. UK
33. ‘Hollowcore flooring technical manual’
42. ‘NSTR 7396.Best Practices for Reducing the
National Precast Concrete Association Australia
Potential for Progressive Collapse in Buildings’.
34. ‘British Standard BS 8110, Structural use of concrete’ National Institute of Standards and Technology,
British Standards Institute USA.
35. ‘Australian Standard, AS3850 Prefabricated 43. ‘Understanding Grouted Precast Joints,
Concrete Elements’. a guide for Engineers and Contractors’.
36. ‘Fire Safety of Concrete Buildings’. National Precast Concrete Association Australia,
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia
37. ‘Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete and
Masonry Buildings’. Paulay T and Priestly N J.
John Wiley and Sons 1992

148 Precast Concrete Design Guide © Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
12.2 Literature
Elliott, K.S. & Jolly, C.K. ‘Multi-storey Precast Concrete Fédération Internationale du Béton, (fib), Bulletin 43,
Framed Structures’, Second edition. John Wiley, London Structural Connections for Precast Concrete Buildings,
2013. ISBN 978-1-4051-0614-6. Guide to Good Practice, 370 pp, February 2008

Elliott, K. S., Precast Concrete Structures, 2nd edition. Manual for the design of hollow core slabs - 2nd
CRC Press / Taylor Francis, Florida, edition; PCI Precast Prestressed Concrete Institute
Both these books are excellent reference works covering 175 West Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, Illinois 60604 -
the design, detailing and construction of precast skeletal ISDN 0-937040-57-6
structures. They also contain numerous calculation
examples of precast skeletal structures. Recommendations for design of wall-slab connections
- Matti Pajari, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
National Precast Concrete Association Australia, - VTT Building and Transport.
‘Precast Concrete Handbook’. National Precast Concrete
Association Australia and Concrete Institute of Australia FIP Recommendations “Precast prestressed hollow
core floors” - FIP Commission on Prefabrication,
Federation Internationale du Beton. (fib). Bulletin 74, Thomas Telford 1988 - ISBN 0 7277 1375 2
Planning and design handbook on precast building
structures. ISBN 978-2-88394-114-4. 2014 FIP Guide to good practice “Composite floor
structures” - FIP Commission on Prefabrication,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, ‘PCI Design SETO 1998, ISBN 1 874266 38 7
Handbook’. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, USA
Matti Pajari, Shear resistance of hollow core slabs
Hasan, Elliott and Ferreira. Experimental investigation on beams. Summary of projects FS and FS11.
on the moment continuity of precast concrete Internal report 4/1995. Technical Research Centre
beam-column connections under gravity loads. Finland (VTT)
Fédération Internationale du Béton, (fib) Symposium,
Prague 2011. ISBN 978-80-87158-29-6 Shear resistance of prestressed hollow core floors
exposed to fire - Arnold Van Acker - journal of the fib
Fédération Internationale du Béton, (fib), Bulletin Structural concrete. 2003. 4. N° 2
19, Precast Concrete in Mixed Construction,
State-of-art Report, 68 pp, 2002 EN 1168: CEN Standard Precast concrete products -
Hollow core slabs for floors

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