Chapter I: Overview

1.1: Introduction

GV: Nguyễn Thị Thanh Vân

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Outline

1. What Operating Systems Do

2. Computer-System Organization
3. Computer-System Architecture
4. Operating-System Operations
5. Resource Management
6. Security and Protection
7. Virtualization
8. Distributed Systems
9. Kernel Data Structures
10.Computing Environments
11.Free/Libre and Open-Source Operating Systems

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

1
 Objectives

 Describe the general organization of a computer system and the

role of interrupts
 Describe the components in a modern, multiprocessor computer
system
 Illustrate the transition from user mode to kernel mode
 Discuss how operating systems are used in various computing
environments
 Provide examples of free and open-source operating systems

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware
 The OS controls the hardware and coordinates its
use among the various application programs for
the various users

 Operating system goals:

• Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier
• Make the computer system convenient to use
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

2
 Computer System Structure
 Computer system can be divided into four components:
• Hardware – provides basic computing resources: CPU, memory, I/O devices
• OS: Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various apps and users
• Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are
used to solve the computing problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, games
• Users: People, machines, other computers
 Abstract View of Components of Computer

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

What Operating Systems Do

 User view: Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
• Don’t care about resource utilization (how various HW and SW
resources are shared
 System view: The shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer
(many resources) must keep all users happy
• Operating system is a resource allocator and control program making
efficient use of HW and managing execution of user programs
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated resources
but frequently use shared resources from servers
 Mobile devices like smartphones and tables are resource poor, optimized for
usability and battery life
• Mobile user interfaces such as touch screens, voice recognition
 Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
• Run primarily without user intervention

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

3
 Operating System Definition
 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel,
which is part of the operating system
 Everything else is either
• A system program (ships with the operating system, but not part of
the kernel) , or
• An application program, all programs not associated with the
operating system
 Today’s OSes for general purpose and mobile computing also include
middleware – a set of software frameworks that provide addition services
to application developers such as databases, multimedia, graphics

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

History of Operating System

 The First Generation (1945–55): Vacuum Tubes 7

 The Second Generation (1955–65): Transistors and Batch Systems 8
 The Third Generation (1965–1980): ICs and Multiprogramming 9
 The Fourth Generation (1980–Present): Personal Computers 14
 The Fifth Generation (1990–Present): Mobile Computers 1

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

4
 Transistors and Batch Systems – Gen2

 The First

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Transistors and Batch Systems

 An early batch system.

• (a) Programmers bring cards to 1401.
• (b) 1401 reads batch of jobs onto tape.
• (c) Operator carries input tape to 7094.
• (d) 7094 does computing.
• (e) Operator carries output tape to 1401.
• (f) 1401 prints output.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

5
 Transistors and Batch Systems

 Structure of a typical FMS job.

 They were largely programmed in FORTRAN and assembly language.
 Typical operating systems were FMS (the Fortran Monitor System) and IBSYS,
IBM’s operating system for the 7094.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Multiprogramming – Gen3

 partition memory into several pieces, with a

different job in each partition
 While one job was waiting for I/O to complete,
another job could be using the CPU.
 Some Oss
• UNIX: BSD, SystemV
• MINIX
• Linux

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

6
 Gen4 & 5

 Personal computer
 Network OS: Windows NT, Server
 Distributed OS
 Mobile, PDA…

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Computer System Organization

 Computer-system operation
• One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

7
 Computer-System Organization
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
 A particular device type (disk, audio, display) is be in charge by a device
controller
 A device controller:
• has a local buffer,
• is responsible for moving the data between the peripheral devices that it
controls and its local buffer storage
• OSs have device driver for each device controller
 Operation: (The CPU and the device controllers can execute in parallel)
• CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
• I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
• Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt
=> Organization focusing on 3 key aspects: interrupt, storage & I/O
structure

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Common Functions of Interrupts

 A interrupt is used for the device controller inform the device driver that it
has finished its operation (ex, transfer data from device to local buffer)
 Interrupts must be handled quickly, as they occur very frequently.
• A table of pointers to interrupt routines can be used instead to provide
the necessary speed
 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through
the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the service
routines
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction
 A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an
error or a user request
 An operating system is interrupt driven

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

8
 Interrupt Timeline
 A timeline of the operation:
 the CPU is interrupted, it stops what it is doing
 Immediately transfers execution to a fixed location.
 The interrupt service routine executes; on completion,
 the CPU resumes the interrupted computation

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Interrupt Handling

 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing the
registers and the program counter
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
• Overload (div/0)
• Timer
• I/O
• Hardware failure
• Trap (software interrupt)
 Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken
for each type of interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

9
 Interrupt-drive I/O Cycle

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

I/O Structure
Two methods for handling I/O
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion
• Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
• Wait loop (contention for memory access)
• At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O
processing
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O
completion
• System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O completion
• Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type,
address, and state
• OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify
table entry to include interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

10
 Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
• Typically, volatile
• Typically, random-access memory (RAM) in the form of Dynamic
Random-access Memory (DRAM)
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
 Hard Disk Drives (HDD) – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
• The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
 Non-volatile memory (NVM) devices– faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
• Various technologies
• Becoming more popular as capacity and performance increases, price
drops
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Storage Definitions and Notation Review

The basic unit of computer storage is the bit . A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers, it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made
up of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and
64-bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer
executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally

measured and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes. A kilobyte , or
KB , is 1,024 bytes; a megabyte , or MB , is 1,0242 bytes; a gigabyte , or GB , is
1,0243 bytes; a terabyte , or TB , is 1,0244 bytes; and a petabyte , or PB , is 1,0245
bytes. Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that
a megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

11
 Storage Hierarchy
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy
• Speed
• Cost
• Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory
can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage
 Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
• Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Storage-Device Hierarchy

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

12
 How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

Figure shows the interplay of all
components of a computer system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Direct Memory Access Structure

 DMA is a method that allows an input/output (I/O) device to send or

receive data directly to or from the main memory
• Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close
to memory speeds
 Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to
main memory without CPU intervention - the CPU is available to
accomplish other work.
 Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt
per byte

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

13
 Operating-System Operations

 Computer is powered up => it needs to have an initial program to run

 The first program to run: a bootstrap program,
• typically stored within the computer hardware in firmware: EPROM
 contains mostly static programs and data that aren’t frequently used
 is low speed,
Ex, iPhone uses EEPROM to store serial numbers and hardward information
about the device.
• Initializes all aspects of system, from CPU registers to device controllers to
memory contents
• Loads the OS kernel and load it into memory

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Operating-System Operations (cont)

 Kernel loads and executing,
• it can start providing services to the system and its users
 Starts system daemons (services provided outside of the kernel)
 => the system is fully booted, and the system waits for some event to occur
• Events are almost always signaled by the occurrence of an interrupt.
 Kernel interrupt driven (hardware and software)
• Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
• Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service – system call
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying
each other or the operating system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

14
 Multiprogramming (Batch system)
 Single user cannot always keep CPU and I/O devices busy
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute (keep either the CPU or the I/O devices busy at all times)
• the most important aspects of operating systems
 In a multiprogrammed system
• a program in execution is termed a process
• several processes in memory simultaneously
• OS picks and begins to execute one of these processes.
• Eventually, the process may have to wait for some task, such as an
I/O operation, to complete
 Memory layout for a multiprogramming system:
Operating system
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Process 4
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Batch Processing
 Batch processing is a technique in which an OS collects the programs and
data together in a batch before processing starts.
 Advantages
• takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
• Increased performance as a new job get started
 Disadvantages
• Difficult to debug program. A job could enter an infinite loop.
• Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

15
 Multitasking (Timesharing)
 A logical extension of multiprogramming – the CPU switches jobs so frequently
that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive
computing
• Response time should be < 1 second
• Each user has at least 1 program executing in memory, => called process
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
• Virtual memory allows run programs that are larger than actual physical
memory

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Dual-mode Operation
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
• User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code.
• When a user is running  mode bit is “user”
• When kernel code is executing  mode bit is “kernel”
 Some instructions designated as privileged – protect OS from errant users
• only executable in kernel mode
• If an attempt is made to execute a privileged instruction in user mode, the
hardware does not execute the instruction

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

16
 Dual-mode Operation (Cont.)
 How do we guarantee that user does not explicitly set the mode bit to “kernel”?
• When the system starts executing it is in “kernel mode”
• When control is given to a user program: changes to “user mode”.
• When a user issues a system call it results in an interrupt, which trap to the
operating system => the mode–bit is set to “kernel mode”.

 Transition from User to Kernel Mode:

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Timer
 Timer to prevent infinite loop (or process hogging resources)
• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
• Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock
• Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

17
 Resource Management
 An operating system is a resource manager.
 The system’s CPU, memory space, file-storage space, and I/O devices are
among the resources that the operating system must manage.
 Resource Management
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• File-System Management
• Mass-Storage Management
• Cache Management
• I/O System Management

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system.
Program is a passive entity; process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
• CPU, memory, I/O, files
• Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of
next instruction to execute
• The execution of a process must be sequential.
• The CPU executes one instruction of the process after another, until
the process completes
 Multi-threaded process has multiple program counters, each per thread
 Typically, system has many processes, some user, some OS running
concurrently on one or more CPUs
• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

18
 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Memory Management

 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory

 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in memory
 Memory management determines what is in memory and when
• Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
 Memory management activities
• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom
• Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and
out of memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

19
 File-system Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
• Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

 File-System management
• Files usually organized into directories
• Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
• OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Mass-Storage Management
 Usually, disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem
and its algorithms
 OS activities
• Mounting and unmounting
• Free-space management
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling
• Partitioning
• Protection

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

20
 Caching

 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware,

operating system, software)
 Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there
• If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
• If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache smaller than storage being cached
• Cache management important design problem
• Cache size and replacement policy

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Characteristics of Various Types of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

21
 Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register

 Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value,

no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

 Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
 Distributed environment situation even more complex
• Several copies of a datum can exist
• Various solutions covered in Chapter 19

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

I/O Subsystem
 One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from
the user
 I/O subsystem responsible for
• Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping
of output of one job with input of other jobs)
• General device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

22
 Protection and Security

 Protection – mechanism for controlling access of processes or users

to resources defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
• Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Protection

 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who

can do what
• User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
• User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
• Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
• Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

23
 Virtualization

 Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes

• Vast and growing industry
 Emulation used when source CPU type different from target type
(i.e., PowerPC to Intel x86)
• Generally slowest method
• When computer language not compiled to native code –
Interpretation
 Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest OSes
also natively compiled
• Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS
• VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization services

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Virtualization (cont.)
 Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple OSes for
exploration or compatibility
• Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest
• Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple
systems
• Quality assurance testing applications without having multiple
systems
• Executing and managing compute environments within data
centers
 VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
• There is no general-purpose host then (VMware ESX and Citrix
XenServer)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

24
 Virtualization Illustration

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Distributed Systems
 Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems networked
together
• Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Network Operating System provides features between systems
across network
• Communication scheme allows systems to exchange messages
• Illusion of a single system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

25
 Computer-System Architecture

 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

• Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
 Multiprocessor's systems growing in use and importance
• Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
• Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
• Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
specie task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all
tasks

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

 All processors share physical memory over the system bus

 Benefit: many processes can run simultaneously
 Limit: one may be sitting idle while another is overloaded, resulting in
inefficiencies

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

26
 Dual-Core Design
 The core is the component that executes instructions and registers for
storing data locally
 Multicore systems can be more eficient than multiple chips with single cores
• because on-chip communication is faster than between-chip
communication
• one chip with multiple cores uses significantly less power than multiple
single-core chips,
 Systems containing all chips
 Chassis containing multiple separate
Systems
 Ex, Dual-Core Design:
• L1-cache (local cache): lower-level:
• L2 cache (shared cache) higher-level

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Note

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

27
 Non-Uniform Memory Access System

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Clustered Systems
 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together
 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
• Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
• Applications must be written to use parallelization
 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting operations

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

28
 PC Motherboard

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Computing Environments

 Traditional
 Mobile
 Client Server
 Pear-to-Pear
 Cloud computing
 Real-time Embedded

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

29
 Traditional
 Stand-alone general-purpose machines
 But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e., the Internet)
 Portals provide web access to internal systems
 Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals
 Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
 Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use firewalls to
protect home computers from Internet attacks

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Mobile Computing

 Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc.

 What is the functional difference between them and a “traditional” laptop?
 Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope)
 Allows new types of apps like augmented reality
 Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for connectivity
 Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

30
 Client Server Computing

 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs

 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients
• Compute-server system provides an interface to client to request
services (i.e., database)
• File-server system provides interface for clients to store and retrieve
files

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Peer-to-Peer

 Another model of distributed system

 P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
• Instead, all nodes are considered peers
• May each act as client, server or both
• Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with central lookup
service on network, or
 Broadcast request for service and
respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
• Examples include Napster and Gnutella,
Voice over IP (VoIP) such as Skype

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

31
 Cloud Computing
 Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network
 Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the
base for its functionality.
• Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual
machines, petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay
based on usage

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Cloud Computing – Many Types

 Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay

 Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
 Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
 Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via
the Internet (i.e., word processor)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use
via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.64 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

32
 Cloud Computing (cont.)

 Cloud computing environments composed of traditional Oses plus

cloud management tools
• Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
• Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.65 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Real-Time Embedded Systems

 Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers

• Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS, real-time OS
• Use expanding
 Many other special computing environments as well
• Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
 Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
• Processing must be done within constraint
• Correct operation only if constraints met

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.66 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

33
 Free and Open-Source Operating Systems

 Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than

just binary closed-source and proprietary
 Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management
(DRM) movement
 Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft”
GNU Public License (GPL)
• Free software and open-source software are two different ideas
championed by different groups of people
 http://gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html/
 Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of Mac
OS X), and many more
 Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows), Virtualbox
(open source and free on many platforms - http://www.virtualbox.com)
• Use to run guest operating systems for exploration

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.67 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

The Study of Operating Systems

There has never been a more interesting time to study operating systems, and it has never been
easier. The open-source movement has overtaken operating systems, causing many of them to be
made available in both source and binary (executable) format. The list of operating
systems available in both formats includes Linux, BUSD UNIX, Solaris, and part of macOS.
The availability of source code allows us to study operating systems from the inside out.
Questions that we could once answer only by looking at documentation or the behavior of an
operating system we can now answer by examining the code itself.

Operating systems that are no longer commercially viable have been open-sourced as well, enabling
us to study how systems operated in a time of fewer CPU, memory, and storage resources.
An extensive but incomplete list of open-source operating-system projects is available
from https://curlie.org/Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Open_Source/

In addition, the rise of virtualization as a mainstream (and frequently free) computer function
makes it possible to run many operating systems on top of one core system. For example, VMware
(http://www.vmware.com) providesa free “player” for Windows on which hundreds of free
“virtual appliances” can run. Virtualbox (http://www.virtualbox.com) provides a free, open-source
virtual machine manager on many operating systems. Using such tools, students can try out
hundreds of operating systems without dedicated hardware.

The advent of open-source operating systems has also made it easier to make the move from
student to operating-system developer. With some knowledge, some effort, and an Internet
connection, a student can even create a new operating-system distribution. Just a few years ago,
it was difficult or impossible to get access to source code. Now, such access is limited only by
how much interest, time, and disk space a student has.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.68 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

34
 End of Chapter 1.1

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Kernel Data Structures

 Many similar to standard programming data structures

 Singly linked list

 Doubly linked list

 Circular linked list

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.70 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

35
 Kernel Data Structures

 Binary search tree

left <= right
• Search performance is O(n)
• Balanced binary search tree is O(lg n)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.71 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Kernel Data Structures

 Hash function can create a hash map

 Bitmap – string of n binary digits representing the status of n items

 Linux data structures defined in include files <linux/list.h>,
<linux/kfifo.h>, <linux/rbtree.h>

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.72 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

36
 Characteristics of Various Types of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.73 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

37