Page |1

LIFE SCIENCE

Revamped

COMPILATION OF BIOLOGY NOTES

IN YOUR QUEST TO EXCEL

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 Page |2

IN THIS FOLDER!!!

CELL PROCESSES……………………………………………………………………… 3 to 9

BIODIVERSITY………………………………………………………………………….. 9 to 20

ENZYMES………………………………………………………………………………..... 20 to 23

PLANT NUTRITION…………………………………………………………………… 23 to 30

ANIMAL NUTRITION…………………………………………………………………. 31 to 40

BREATHING………………………………………………………………………………. 40 to 45

RESPIRATION……………………………………………………………………………..45 to 47

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS…………………………………………………………….. 47 to 50

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS………………………………………………………….. 50 to 64

EXCRETION……………………………………………………………………………….. 64 to 70

HOMEOSTASIS…………………………………………………………………………… 70 to 77

NERVOUS COORDINATION…………………………………………………………. 77 to 81

HORMONAL COORDINATION……………………………………………………… 81 to 87

REPRODUCTION (Asexual & Sexual)…………………………………………... 88 to 87

HUMAN REPORDUCTION……………………………………………………………. 87 to 94

DRUGS………………………………………………………………………………………… 94 to 97

ECOLOGY & CONSERVATION………………………………………………............ 97 to 108

SUPPORT, MOVEMENT & PROTECTION……………………………………… 108 to 111

GENETICS ………………………………………………………………………………….. 111 to 127

BIOTECHNOLOGY……………………………………………………………………….. 127 to 130

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 Page |3

CELL PROCESSES
What is a cell?
It is the basic unit of life

Properties & Functions of parts

STRUCTURE PROPERTIES FUNCTIONS

(Plasma) Cell 2 lipid layer with one protein layer sandwiched in Selects substances entering &
membrane between, its selectively permeable. leaving the cell

Nucleus Contains genetic material (chromosomes) Regulates cellular activities

Cytoplasm Contains water & dissolved substances e.g. Where biochemical reactions take
glucose, minerals, vitamins place

Ribosome Small grains found scattered in the cytoplasm, Responsible for protein formation
some may be attached to endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondrion Surrounded by 2 membranes, inner membrane has Site for aerobic respiration /
folds releases energy

Cell wall Made carbohydrate called cellulose, its freely Protects cell against mechanical
permeable damage & gives plant a
permanent shape

Vacuole Has concentrated solution made of salts, glucose Stores the cell sap (vital
chemicals for the cell)

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 Page |4

Similarities between Animal and Plant cells

Both cells consist of a cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, ribosomes and mitochondria

Differences between the Animal and Plant cells

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Has no cell wall Has cell wall

Has no large vacuole containing cell sap Has large vacuole containing cell sap

Has no chloroplasts Has chloroplasts

Has no fixed shape (Shape tends to Has a fixed shape

vary)

SPECIALIZED CELLS

These are cells which have stopped growing, have a definite shape and perform one specific function.

Examples of specialized cell

Cell Function Relationship between structure & Function.

1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) - Has a biconcave structure that helps it move in the
blood vessels
Responsible for transporting O2 - Has a spongy cytoplasm that helps it to compress
itself in blood vessels with small lumen
- Absence of nucleus increases surface area for
transportation of O2
- Presence of haemoglobin that binds to O2 and
carry it as an
unstable compound called oxyhaemoglobin
2. Muscle cell It moves bones in different - Long & have numerous protein fibres in the
directions (contract / relax to help cytoplasm. (fibre helps to shorten the cell)
move structures)
- Can contract & relax in order to move parts

3. Sperm cell - Has streamlined head to enable it to move towards

ovum with less friction
Fuse with ovum to from a zygote
- Has a tail to help it swim towards the ovum

Nucleus Tail

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 Page |5

4. Ovum

Cytoplasm Fuse with sperm to form a zygote - It has a large food store to provide the zygote with
nourishment before implantation
nucleus

cell membrane

5. White Blood Cells

a) Phagocytes Phagocytes – engulf & digest - Phagocytes are polymorphs; can change shape of
bacteria (pathogens) cytoplasm like amoeba.

- Also have Granular cytoplasm with lobed nucleus.

Lobed nucleus

Granular cytoplasm Lymphocytes – produce Lymphocytes have a larger round nucleus for easy
chemicals called antibodies that proliferation (fast propagation)
b)Lymphocytes kill bacteria
- Have spherical shape
large nucleus

6. Root hair cell - Absorb water from the soil - Large number of mitochondria to generate energy
needed fro active transport of ions
- Absorb mineral ions (salts) from
the soil - Has a finger-like projection that enables to
penetrate tightly packed soil particles
- anchor the plants firmly to the
ground - Have Large concentrated sap vacuole which
Large vacuole ensures water uptake through osmosis

7. Xylem cells

Cylindrical cells with - Transport water & dissolved - Has dead hollow tube without cytoplasm to allow
hollow lumen minerals from the roots to top part flow of water
of a plant
- Walls are lignified (coated with lignin) to withstand
lignified walls - Supports the plant against water pressure
mechanical damage
- cylindrical cells are attached end to end form a
xylem vessel.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 Page |6

8. Nerve Cell (neuron) - Have very long fibres which connect distant parts
of the body
Transmits nerve impulses
(messages) around the body - Fibres are coated with myelin sheath to prevent
loss & distortion of messages.

- Chemical reactions cause the impulses to travel

along the fibre

9. Palisade cell

To make sugar (starch) through - Has lots of chloroplasts to produce chlorophyll

photosynthesis which traps sunlight energy for the process

- Elongated so that they can pack tightly

- Located close to the upper epidermis to receive

more sunlight

11. Guard cells

To regulate the opening & closing - Crescent shaped

of stomata
Stomata - Always paired to form a stomata

- Are able to change shape to close / open

Guard cells depending on whether its day or night.

12. ciliated cells -To sway to & fro, beating up

mucus that traps dust & bacteria
along the respiratory tract -Have tiny projections known as cilia that sway to &
fro to beat mucus out
cilia
- Produces mucus that traps the
dust (i.e. the goblet cells) -Surrounded by goblet cells which produce the
mucus that traps bacteria & dust

Cell Organization

Cells are organized into tissues, organs, systems and ultimately an organism (plant / animal)

 A Cell; is the basic unit of life

 A Tissue; is a group of similar cells carrying out the same function. E.g. xylems cells make xylem
tissue
 An Organ; is a group of tissues which work together to perform a particular function. E.g. the heart is
organ made of nerve tissue, muscle tissue, epithelial tissue etc.
 A System; is a group of organs which work together to perform a particular function. E.g. the digestive
system is made of; stomach, mouth, intestine, liver etc
 An Organism; Is a group of different systems which come together to form a living thing e.g. Human
beings are made of; nervous, skeletal, circulatory, digestive, muscle systems etc.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 Page |7

Movement of Substances in & out of cells

There are three processes that are involved in the movement of substances in & out of cells

 Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active transport

1. Diffusion;

It is the random movement of particles from their region of their higher concentration to their region low
concentration down a concentration gradient until they are evenly distributed.

N.b. Diffusion occurs in all states of matter, but it is much visible in liquids & gases

a) Diffusion in gases

The spread of perfume particles (or air freshener) from the nozzle of the spray tin to fill up the room
occurs through diffusion.

b) Diffusion in liquids

The spread of potassium permanganate from the bottom of a beaker to the top is by diffusion.

Diffusion is affected by;

I. Changes in temperature;
An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles; hence particles will move faster leading
to an increase in the rate of diffusion
II. Particle size
Small particles dissolve faster because they are less dense & have a large surface area hence
can diffuse rapidly from one end to the other.
III. Concentration gradient
This is the difference in the amount of particles between two adjacent areas. Particles move faster when the
difference in the amount of particles is large. The rate of diffusion diminishes as the concentration gradient
reduces.

2. Osmosis;

It is the random movement of water molecules from their region of higher concentration to their region of lower
concentration along the concentration gradient through a partially / selectively permeable membrane.

Similarities between Osmosis & Diffusion

 Particles are moving down the concentration gradient

 Both processes are passive, no energy is expended (used)

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 Page |8

Differences between Osmosis & Diffusion

OSMOSIS DIFFUSION

Occurs mainly in liquids (only water molecules Occurs in all states of matter (any particle is
are moved) moved)

Materials are moved across a barrier (a partially Does not require a barrier (partially
permeable membrane required) permeable membrane)

Osmosis and plant cells;

A cell can be exposed to the following conditions;

 Immersed in pure (distilled) water / dilute solution

 Immersed in a concentrated solution
??? Explain what happens when a plant cell is immersed in pure water / dilute solution

Ans; There will be an influx of water from the container into the cell by osmosis leading to an increase in the contents
of the protoplasm. As a result turgor pressure builds inside the cell membrane causing it to stretch until it touches the
cell wall. When this happens the cell is said to be Turgid. Refer to the figure below

??? Explain what happens when a plant cell is immersed in a concentrated solution.

Ans; the water molecules will move out of the cell by osmosis. The outflux of water molecules will lead to a decrease
in the contents of the protoplasm hence a decrease in turgor pressure. The cell membrane will become flaccid and
pull away from the cell wall. When this happens the cell is said to be plasmolysed.

Refer to the figure below; Osmosis in plant cells

Cell membrane

vacuole

In dilute solution In concentrated solution

Cell membrane pushes Cell membrane pulls

against cell wall as away from cell wall as
vacuole gets larger vacuole gets smaller

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 Page |9

??? Explain what happens when an animal cell is immersed in pure water / dilute solution

Ans; Water molecules will move into the cell by osmosis and due to build up of turgor pressure the cell membrane will
burst (since the animal cell has no cell wall to limit the stretching of the membrane).

??? Explain what happens when an animal cell is immersed in a concentrated solution.

Ans; Due to outflux of water by osmosis, the cell will decrease in size and when this happens the cell is said to be
shrunken.

Refer to the figure below; osmosis and animal cells

In a dilute solution In a concentrated solution

The cell shrinks

The cell swells up

and bursts

3. Active Transport

This is the movement of materials from their region of low concentration to their region of high concentration against
the concentration gradient using energy from respiration. Substances are moved through the aid of protein carrier
molecules and a barrier is not important.

Active transport is different from the other two modes of movement in that;

 Unlike osmosis & diffusion, it occurs against the concentration gradient

 It requires energy
 Mineral ions are moved
 It occurs across a live membrane, (occurs only in living things)

BIODIVERSITY

Diversity refers to a variety of living things.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 10

Organisms are grouped according to common characteristics. Grouping of organisms according to characteristics is
called CLASSIFICATION or TAXONOMY. The main characteristics used to group living things are:

 Feeding
 Structure
 Reproduction
There are 5 major groups (kingdoms) used to classify organisms which are as follows;

1. MONERA e.g. bacteria and blue-green algae

2. PROTOCTISTA e.g. protozoa (animal like) and protophyta (plant like)
3. FUNGI e.g. mushroom, toadstools etc.
4. ANIMALS e.g. vertebrates and invertebrates
5. PLANTS e.g. flowering and non-flowering.

Kingdom is the largest groups of organisms. Species is the smallest group of organisms” capable of producing fertile
offspring”

Viruses do not feed, respire or reproduce on their own as such it is debatable whether they are living or non-living
organisms. They are just in their own class.

MONERA
(blue-green algae, ecoli, spirilium, bacillus)

STRUCTURE

Flagellum

Slime capsule Cell wall

Cell membrane Ribosomes

Glycogen granules

Cytoplasm Chromosome

A) Structural characteristics

 It is a unicellular organism
 Has no nucleus but rather have chromosome which are not enclosed in any membrane
 Their cell walls are made up of lipids, proteins and sugars instead of cellulose
 Each bacteria cell contains a single chromosome consisting of circular strands of DNA

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 11

 Some have filaments (whip like structures) called flagella which aid in movement
 Some bacteria have slime capsule outside their cell walls for protection
 They have different shapes. Some rods, spheres and spirals.
 Some have chlorophyll but not chloroplast.

B) Feeding characteristics

 Some bacteria contain a photosynthetic pigment (chlorophyll) and can build up their own food by
photosynthesis.
Light
(Hydrogen sulphide + carbon dioxide Carbohydrates + water)
Bacteria Chlorophyll

 Most bacteria do not have chlorophyll hence they do not photosynthesize and they can obtain food
from;
a) Other living things (parasites)
b) Dead organic matter (saprophytes)

The saprophytes secrete enzymes onto the organic matter so that digestion is outside the organism. The organism
then absorbs the soluble product of digestion.

C) Reproduction

1. They reproduce asexually by binary fission; each cell dividing in to 2 daughter cells. E.g. each cell division takes
place every 20 minutes. DNA bodies divide equally during cell division with half going to each daughter cell.

Bacterial cell Chromosome replicates Cell divides & the cycle continues

2. Sexually by genetic recombination (transfer of DNA between bacteria through special tubes).

USEFUL AND HARMFUL BACTERIA

Only a tiny minority of bacteria are harmful. Most of them are harmless or extremely useful. Bacteria which
feed saprotrophically bring about decay. They secrete enzymes into dead organic matter and liquidify it.
The decay bacteria also release essential elements from dead remains.

Humans exploit bacterial physiology and the concept is discussed in the course of BIOTECHNOLOGY.

The bacteria which cause diseases are called PATHOGENS. The organism in which they live and
reproduce is called a HOST. Most bacteria also produce poisonous waste products called TOXINS. The
toxins are produced by the CLOSITRIDIUM bacteria (which causes tetanus). It is as little as 0.0002g and is
very fatal.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 12

Examples of bacteria

Spherical shaped Spiral shaped Rod shaped

Staphylococcus Treponema Bacillus anthrax

Streptococcus Vibrio Salmonella

VIRUSES

STRUCTURE

Envelope (from host cell)

Protein coat (called capsid)

Made from capsomeres

RNA strand

They are on the border line between living and non-living because they can only survive and reproduce
inside the living cells e.g. herpes, influenza and polio viruses.

A) Structural characteristics

 Non cellular (not cells) and do not have nucleus , cytoplasm, cell organelles or cell membranes
 Very tiny particles, much smaller than bacteria ( 50 times smaller than bacteria) and can only be seen
by an electron microscope( 20-300 nm)
 Consists of genetic material (either DNA or RNA) forming the central core of the virus
 DNA or RNA is surrounded by a protein coat called capsid made from capsomeres
 Found in different shapes; can be rod like, spherical or hexagonal (has a tail).

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 13

B) Reproduction

In order for the virus to reproduce they must penetrate into a living cell by first attaching to the cell
membrane of the host cell & then either;

 Injects its DNA / RNA into the cell’s cytoplasm or

 The whole virus may be taken in, after which it gets uncoated in the host cell.
The genetic material replicates & multiplies inside the host cell; it takes over the cell’s activities. Eventually
the cell bursts & releases the new virus which can infect other cells.

Virus attacks the host cell virus protein coat breaks DNA / RNA replicates
to release DNA or RNA inside host cell

host cell breaks open and Viral DNA / RNA directs host cell
New viruses escape to form new protein coats
C) Nutrition

Viruses do not feed.

How viruses are useful to man;

 They are used to make vaccines for hepatitis

 Viruses may be used to deliver recombinant DNA in genetic engineering.

How viruses are harmful to man;

 They cause diseases such as HIV / AIDS, influenza etc.

Human viruses include the common cold, poliomyelitis, measles, mumps, chickenpox, rubella, influenza & HIV. Etc.

FUNGI

Fungi ranges from the unicellular yeast to the large toadstools, puffballs, mushrooms etc, which occupy a very wide
range of habitats, both aquatic & terrestrial.

A) Structural Characteristics

They lack chlorophyll

Have rigid cell walls containing chitin (a nitrogen – containing polysaccharide)
Body is usually a mycelium, a network of fine tubular filaments called Hyphae
They are non-motile (cannot move)

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 14

B) Reproduction

Some reproduce sexually by conjugation e.g. moulds

Some asexually by forming spores e.g. penicillium, mushroom etc. when a spore lands on a suitable organic
matter or new host it germinates to produce mycelium without involvement of gametes.
Some through budding e.g. yeast
C) Nutrition

Since fungi do not contain chlorophyll they cannot make their own food, hence depend on other organisms for food.
Unlike animals which ingest food & later digest before absorption, fungi absorb soluble food products which they do
not need to digest. If digestion is required then it is done externally using extra cellular enzymes (enzymes secreted
onto the food material to digest it outside their cells).

Some fungi are saprotrophs (saprophytes), they feed on dead organic matter. This kind of fungi produces a
variety of digestive enzymes. E.g. Penicillium, mucor, yeast etc.

Some are parasites which feed on living plants & animals. Some of these parasites may cause diseases or
eventually kill the host & feed on the dead remains. E.g. ringworm is caused by fungi.
Penicillium is a genus of a mould, fungi that grow on decaying vegetable matter, damp leather and citrus fruits. The
mycelium grows over the food, digesting it & absorbing nutrients. The vertical Hyphae grow from mycelium & at their
tips produce chains of spores. Refer to text books on structure of Fungi.

PROTOCTISTA (Protists)
PROTOZOA

These belong to a kingdom of organisms called Protoctista. Protozoa have features close to those of animal cells.

Examples;

Nucleus cilia

Amoeba Paramecium Vorticella

A) Structural Characteristics

 They are unicellular

 They do not contain chlorophyll
 They have a nucleus, cell membrane but no cell wall.
 They have vacuole by which they remove excess water (contractile vacuole)
 They move by flowing movements of their cytoplasmic fluids and by the use of cilia (tiny hairs found on their
surfaces)

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 15

B) Nutrition

They are heterotrophic – they feed on ready made food materials or other organisms such as bacteria, algae,
decaying organic matter.

C) Reproduction

They reproduce asexually by binary fission whereby – the parent organism duplicates its genetic material & then
separate into two organisms.

Protozoa can cause diseases such as malaria.

Malaria

It is a disease caused by a protozoan parasite called plasmodium. The plasmodium is transferred from one person to
the next by a female mosquito called Anopheles mosquito. An adult mosquito bites an infected person and takes the
blood, thus ingesting the parasite.

The parasite enters the mosquito intestines and develops

Parasites move to the salivary glands of the mosquito
Infected mosquito bites another human being, secretes saliva to prevent blood from clotting
Parasite in mosquito saliva enters the blood circulation & and reaches the liver
Plasmodium enters liver cells & reproduce asexually
Daughter plasmodium produced break out of the liver cells and invade red blood cells
Infected red blood cells are destroyed whenever new cells are produced

i) Symptoms of Malaria

Chills
Violent shivering
Profuse (excessive) sweating
Fever
Tiredness, increased pulse rate and anaemia
ii) Cure

Malaria can be treated through the use of drugs, e.g. chloroquine

iii) Prevention & Control

Through the use of drugs

Disturbing the life cycle

iv) Life cycle of a mosquito

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 16

v) Ways of disturbing the life cycle

Spraying insecticides to kill the adult mosquito

Applying oil over stagnant water disables the pupa from breathing thus killing it.
The use of these two methods can be problematic in that the insecticides & oil might pollute the water
OR kill other organisms indiscriminately. Also the mosquito larva / pupa can eventually develop
resistance to the insecticides, making control difficult.

By draining swamps, this prevents the mosquito from breeding, i.e. no where to lay eggs.
This can be a problem in that animals will not have water to drink & some aquatic organisms will lose
their habitat.

Biological control – where organisms such as fish can be introduced in swamps to feed on the
larvae and pupae
PROTOPHYTA

Protists that are plantlike i.e. are both motile and photosynthetic are called protophytes.
Examples;

Contractile Flagella
vacuole

Chlorophyll nucleus

nucleus

Euglena Chlamydomonas

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 17

Other examples include; The plantlike protists include the golden algae (phylum Chrysophyta), dinoflagellates
(Pyrrophyta), cryptomonads (Cryptophyta)

PLANTS
ANGIOSPERMS (FLOWERING PLANTS)

More than 80% of plants are angiosperms.

A) Structural Characteristics

Have large leaf surface which allows high rate of photosynthesis

Have vascular system – to transport water, ions & organic solutes
Have cuticle (water proof) – to reduce water loss to the atmosphere
Have ovary – to protect the ovules & developing embryo
They range small herbs to big trees
There are two groups of angiosperms

1) Monocotyledons
2) Dicotyledons

MONOCOTYLEDONS DICOTYLEDONS

Have one seed leaf (1 cotyledon) Have two seed leaves (2 cotyledons)

Vascular bundles are scattered on the stem The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring

Have narrow leaves with parallel veins They have broad leaves with a network of veins

(i.e. parallel venation) (i.e. Reticulate venation)

Have adventitious roots from the base of the stem giving Have a tap root system that develops lateral roots
rise to a fibrous root system

B) Nutrition

There are autotrophic, i.e. can photosynthesize to produce their own food

C) Reproduction

They reproduce sexually because they produce male & female gametes.

GREEN ALGAE

They are believed to be the most immediate relatives of the green land plants. They belong to the phylum
chlorophyta, and are mostly found in aquatic environments. They can live virtually wherever there is sunlight and

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 18

adequate moisture. Algae are found in freshwater lakes, ponds, streams, swamps, on moist soil, wood, and
throughout the sunlit zones of the marine environment, as well as on the snowfields and in thermal hot springs.

A) Structure

Have photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll in chloroplasts

Store carbohydrates as starch
They are of a large range of types e.g. unicellular, filamentous, colonial & thalloid
They have cellulose cell wall
Some have pigment spot (red eye spot) to detect light and move towards it. E.g. Chlamydomonas
Examples of green algae

Chlamydomonas – a unicellular motile algae

Spirogyra – filamentous algae
Ulva (sea weed) – a thalloid marine algae

B) Reproduction

This can either be (i) sexual or (ii) asexual

(i) Sexual reproduction – This involves the combination of genetic material from two individuals of the same
species as in spirogyras & Chlamydomonas.

(ii) Asexual reproduction

a) Fragmentation – this occurs in filamentous algae such as spirogyra. The filament breaks in a
controlled manner somewhere along its length to form two filaments.
b) Binary fission – a unicellular organism divides into equal halves. The nucleus divides through
mitosis.
c) Zoospores – these are motile flagellate spores produced by algae e.g. Chlamydomonas.

C) Nutrition

They are autotrophic – can make their own food through photosynthesis.

ANIMALS

VERTEBRATES

General Characteristics

Have endoskeleton
Have backbone (vertebral column)

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 19

FISH AMPHIBIANS REPTILES BIRDS MAMMALS

- Have 4 fins - 4 limbs in adults - 4 limbs except in - 2 legs & front - Have 4 limbs
- Wet scaly skin - wet smooth skin snakes limbs which form - Hair (fur) on skin
- Have gills for - Gills in tadpoles & - Dry scaly skin wings - Have lungs
STRUCTURE breathing lungs in adults - Have lungs - Have feathers - Have mammary
glands

NUTRITION - Carnivores & - Carnivores - Carnivores - Omnivores - Carnivores

herbivores
- Herbivores - Herbivores - Herbivores
e.g. feed on
plankton -Omnivores

- Eggs develop inside

- lay eggs in - Lay eggs - Lay hard shelled - Lay hard the females
water - Fertilization is eggs on land shelled eggs on - Internal fertilization
- Fertilization is external - Fertilization is land - Embryo grow inside
REPRODUCTION external - Little or no care for internal - Fertilization is the female’s body
- Little or no care young ones - There is little care internal until birth
for young ones for the young ones - The eggs & - Much care given to
young ones are young ones
fully cared for

INVERTEBRATES

ARTHROPODS

General Characteristics

Have exoskeleton made of chitin

Have segmented body
Have jointed legs

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 20

INSECTS ARACHNIDS MYRIAPODS CRUSTACEANS

Examples Roaches, beetles, Spiders, scorpions, Centipedes, Crabs, lobsters,

butterflies, houseflies, ticks, etc millipedes crayfish
ants, bees

- Have 3 body segments; - Have 2 body sections; - Have 2 body

Head, Thorax, Abdomen Cephalothorax, sections; Head, - Have 2 body sections
- Have 6 legs (3 pairs) Abdomen segmented body - No wings
- Have 2 pairs of wings - Have 8 legs (4 pairs) - No wings - 2 pairs of antennae
- Have a pair of antennae - No antennae but have - Many legs
STRUCTURE - Compound eyes chelicerae instead - One pair of antennae
- No wings - Have simple eyes
REPRODUCTION - Sexually - Sexually - Sexually - Sexually

NUTRITION - Heterotrophic , i.e. - Heterotrophic - Carnivores e.g.

some feed on leaves, centipedes
nectar, plant sugar, - Saprotrophic
blood - Herbivores, e.g
millipedes

ENZYMES
What are enzymes?

These are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions without being used up.

Types of reactions

a) Anabolic reaction

These are reactions that involve the synthesis of macro molecules from micro molecules e.g. starch is made by
joining up glucose molecules.

b) Catabolic reaction

These are biochemical reactions which involve the breakdown of macromolecules into micromolecules. e.g. digestion
of starch into glucose.

Types of Enzymes

a) Intra-cellular enzymes

They catalyse reactions in the cytoplasm of the cells that formed them.

b) Extra-cellular enzymes

They catalyse chemical reactions outside the cells that have formed them. E.g. digestive enzymes.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 21

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

 All enzymes are protein in nature

 They are reaction specific
 Enzymes are substrate specific
 They are recycleable
 The are affected by temperature
 They are affected by pH
Most enzymes’ names end with the suffix “–ase” e.g. amylase, sucrase, lactase, maltase, lipase, carbohydrase,
catalase

How Enzymes Work

Substances which are acted upon by enzymes are called SUBSTRATES and they have specific shapes.

- Enzymes catalyse reactions by binding at their active site.

- The shape of the active site corresponds to the shape the molecules of the substrate
- The substrate molecule will only fit perfectly to a specific enzyme if their shape corresponds like a LOCK and KEY
- The reaction is then catalysed when the Enzyme-substrate complex is formed
- The product is then released and the enzyme is free to catalyse the next reaction

The LOCK and KEY model (hypothesis) explains enzyme action because;

- Only the correct enzyme-substrate combination can work.

Refer to the figure below, which of the two substrates “M or N” would fit into the active site of the enzyme?

Enzyme N

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

- Very low temperatures inactivate enzymes which results in very low rates of chemical reactions.
- An increase in temperature speeds up the activity of an enzyme, therefore increasing the rate of reaction. Enzymes
work best at temperatures called the optimum temperature.
- Temperatures above 50 degrees denature enzymes, i.e. leads to a change in the protein structure of the enzyme,
this result in reactions proceeding very slowly to maintain life. Most organisms are killed by very high temperatures
due to extremely low chemical reactions which cannot maintain life processes.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 22

GRAPH SHOWING EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

i) At low temperatures A
- Enzymes are inactive; they do not catalyze any
C reaction
ii) Increase in temperature B
Rate of Reaction

- Enzymes become active and increase in activity as

Optimum temperature
temperature increases.
B D
iii) Optimum temperature C
- At this point enzyme activity is at its optimum best
iv) Temperature above optimum temperature D
A - When the temperature increases beyond the optimum
level, the enzyme activity drops because the enzyme is
5 15 30 45 60 now denatured
Temperature

ACTIVITY; Action of Enzyme amylase on starch

Aim; To determine how different temperatures affect the rate of enzyme activity involving starch & amylase.

Background; Amylase breaks down starch into maltose and glucose

- Iodine solution (reddish brown in colour) turns blue-black in starch

- It would turn back to reddish brown after starch has been digested.
Apparatus; Amylase, starch solution, test tubes, stop watches

Procedure;

- place equal amounts of amylase in 3 test tubes labelled A,B,C

- place equal volumes of starch in 3 test tubes labelled 1,2,3
- place the test tubes in different water baths as follows;
Test tubes A & 1 in water at 0oC
Test tubes B & 2 in water at 37oC
Test tubes C & 3 in water at 50oC
- add 3 drops of iodine solution to test tubes containing starch
- after 10 minutes pour the starch + iodine sol into the test tubes containing the enzymes amylase and simultaneously
switch on the timer, (stop watch)
- Record the time taken for the blue-black colour to change to reddish brown.
In which test tube was starch digested?
???Explain why the enzyme and substrate are not mixed immediately in the experiment above.

EFFECT OF pH ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

Different enzymes are affected differently by different pH conditions. A rise or fall in pH condition affects the activity of
enzymes. Some enzymes work best under acidic conditions whereas others prefer neutral or alkaline conditions. The
pH at which an enzyme would catalyse a reaction most effectively is called its OPTIMUM pH.

e.g. - Amylase works best at pH 7-8 whilst Pepsin works best at pH 2

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 23

GRAPH SHOWING EFFECT OF pH ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

Rate of Reaction Pepsin Amylase

Optimum pH
Optimum pH

Acidic Neutral Alkaline

ACTIVIY; Effect of pH on action of pepsin

Aim; To determine the effect of pH on the activity of the enzyme pepsin
Background; Pepsin is a digestive enzyme that breaks down protein into peptides. Copper sulphate & sodium hydroxide
solutions are used to test for the presence of proteins in a food sample, and positive results gives a purple colour. A light
blue colour shows the absence of proteins.
Apparatus; Pepsin, Egg albumen, Hydrochloric acid, Copper sulphate, test tubes, Sodium hydroxide, pH indicator
Procedure;
- prepare a solution of egg albumen and place equal volumes in 2 test tubes labelled A, B
- Add 5 drops of copper sulphate and sodium hydroxide to both test tubes to verify the presence of proteins
- Add 5 drops of hydrochloric acid test tube “A” and 5 drops of sodium hydroxide to test tube “B”
- Use a pH indicator to check the pH of the two solutions
- Add equal amounts of enzyme pepsin to each test tube and observe any colour changes
- Record the results as shown
TEST TUBE pH ORIGINAL FINAL
COLOUR COLOUR
A 2 Purple Light blue
B 8 Purple Purple
CONCLUSION;
In which test tube was protein present? Give reasons to your choice
In test tube were proteins absent? Give reasons.
In which test tube was there enzyme activity?

NUTRITION

What is nutrition?

It is the uptake of substances by organisms from which energy is obtained to be used in maintaining life processes
(characteristics of living things)

Modes of Nutrition

These are principles of obtaining nutrients.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 24

Two modes of nutrition are;

a) Autotrophic- whereby organisms (plants) build up all their food i.e. making organic molecules from simple
inorganic substances.

Auto- means self and trophos means feeding; thus autotrophic means self feeding

b) Heterotrophic- whereby organisms (animals) use ready made organic substances as their source of food. These
organic substances are originally from autotrophs

Hetero means different or other; thus heterotrophic means feeding on another / different organism

Why do organisms need nutrition?

They need it to make new tissues for growth and replacement of worn out tissues but most of it is used to provide
energy.

PLANT (AUTOTROPHIC) NUTRITION

Why are plants referred to as producers?

: Because plants are able to make (produce) their own food through the process of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is defined as;

 The process by which green plants make their own food using water and carbon dioxide in the presence of
sunlight.
 The process by which green plants fix complex organic substances such as carbohydrates from inorganic
substances such as carbon dioxide and water.
Materials & Conditions needed for photosynthesis are;

 Carbon dioxide
 Water
 Sunlight
 Chlorophyll
How do plants obtain these raw materials?

Carbon dioxide - diffuses through the stomata found on leaves and some stems.

Water – it is absorbed from the soil by the root hair cells through the process of osmosis. Water moves
between the cell walls through to the xylem tissues which is responsible of transporting water and dissolved
mineral salts.

Sunlight – it is trapped by the green pigment called chlorophyll

Chlorophyll – is a green pigment found mostly in leaves and is made by chloroplasts.

The process of photosynthesis can be summarized through the following equations;

Word equation;

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 25

Sunlight

Carbon dioxide + Water chlorophyll Carbohydrates + Oxygen

Chemical symbol equation;

Sunlight

6CO2 + 6H2O chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2

The importance of photosynthesis

Almost all forms of life depend on the chemical energy found in carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis.

The oxygen produced by photosynthesis is essential for the process of respiration

The process of photosynthesis uses the atmospheric carbon dioxide thus maintaining an ecological balance and

minimizes the green house effect.
Although photosynthesis occurs mainly in the leaves, any part of the plant that contains chlorophyll will also photosynthesize.

The Leaf Structure

When scientists say something is adapted they mean that its structure is related and suited to its function. A detailed structure of
the leaf which enables it to perform its photosynthetic function is described below.

 Most leaves are thin thus carbon dioxide can easily diffuse across the short distances to reach the inner cells
 Intercellular air spaces provide an easy passage for diffusion of gases.
 There are many stomata on the lower epidermis to allow for exchange CO2 & O2 and minimize loss of water by
transpiration
 There are more chloroplasts on the upper cells (palisade) than on the lower cells (spongy)
 The branching network of veins (xylem & phloem) provides transport system for good supply of water to the cells and
carrying away of nutrients from the cells.

Leaf Structure

Cuticle

Upper epidermis

Palisade mesophyll
Vascular bundle

Xylem Spongy mesophyll

:. :: ::

Phloem :: .: Intercellular airspaces

Lower epidermis

O2 CO2 Guard cells Surrounding a stomata

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 26

1. Cuticle- this is a waxy layer on the upper epidermis which prevents water loss by transpiration
2. Epidermis- found on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. It helps to keep the leaf in shape and protects the
inner parts of the leaf from infection by micro-organisms. Also reduces desiccation.

3. Mesophyll – is the tissue between the epidermal tissues.

a) Palisade mesophyll tissue – Column-shaped (or elongated) cells which contain lots of chloroplasts to
ensure maximum absorption of light. It is the main site for photosynthesis.

b) Spongy mesophyll tissue – irregularly shaped cells which fit loosely to create air spaces which allow for
easy gaseous exchange.

4. Vascular bundle – contains the mains transport tissues

a) Xylem vessels – transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves through the transpiration
pull.

b) Phloem vessels – transports manufactured food to growing parts of the part.

5. Guard cells – in most plants there are mainly on the lower epidermis. They surround small openings called
stomata through which gases diffuse in and out.

Refer to the figure below on guard cells and stomata

The figure below explains how glucose is used after photosynthesis.

Sunlight absorbed by
Chlorophyll to photolyse water
Carbon dioxide + Water

CO2 H2O

CO2 + H2 O2 (released as a by product)

Glucose – used in respiration

Cellulose –for making cell wall
C6H12O6 Proteins – for enzymes, cytoplasm
Fats & Oils – for cell membrane

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 27

Testing Green leaf for starch

Background information

The leaf manufactures carbohydrates through the process called photosynthesis. First, plants manufacture sugars which are
later converted to starch for storage in the cells, hence to find out if photosynthesis has taken place we test the leaf for starch.

Apparatus; 2 Beakers, test tube, burner, leaf, white tile, ethanol, water, testing reagent- iodine solution

Procedure;

1. Boil the leaf for 3 minutes in water in order to break open the cells. This also helps to kill the cell cytoplasm and make the leaf
permeable to iodine solution.
2. Boil the leaf in ethanol (alcohol) for 2 minutes to remove the chlorophyll.
Caution; ethanol is flammable; therefore do not heat it directly.
3. Put the leaf in warm water to soften it. Ethanol makes the leaf hard and brittle.
4. Place the leaf on a white tile and add 2-5 drops of iodine solution.

Results
If starch is present the decolourised leaf will turn blue-black and if there is no starch it will just stain reddish brown.

Investigating the conditions necessary for photosynthesis.

- Sunlight
- Chlorophyll
- Carbon dioxide
- Water
These investigations are done using 2 sets of experiments

 The Main experiment – which has all the factors required except the one being investigated.

 The Control experiment – which has all the factors including the one being investigated.
Therefore the results obtained will be due to absence of the factor being investigated.

1. Investigating if sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

Procedure;

- A potted plant is destarched by keeping it in the dark for a day. Then the plant is exposed to sunlight for
about an hour with one leaf covered with an aluminium foil to keep light away (as seen in the figure below).
- Take the leaf that was covered and test it for starch following the procedure laid out above.

Figure showing the set up used to investigate effect of sunlight on photosynthesis

Aluminum foil

Stains blue-black

brown

b)Leaf after testing for starch

a)Leaf blocked from sunlight

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 28

Results;

The part of the leaf that was covered would not change colour whilst the part exposed to sunlight would turn blue-black.

Interpretation / Conclusion

Since the starch test proved positive only for the part of the leaf that received sunlight, we can conclude that sunlight is needed
for photosynthesis.

Investigating if Carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis

Apparatus; Two potted plants, soda lime, sodium hydrogen carbonate, petri dish, plastic bags apparatus for starch
test

Procedure;

- Two destarched potted plants are covered with plastic bags.

- In one plant place a petri dish with soda lime and the other plant should have sodium hydrogen
carbonate
Note; Soda lime is a chemical that absorbs carbon dioxide whilst

Sodium hydrogen carbonate serves to release the gas carbon dioxide.

- Expose both plants to sunlight for 3 hours and then take a leaf form each plant and test it for
starch

Sodium
Soda lime
Hydrogen
carbonate

Follow the procedure for testing a green leaf for starch

Results;

The leaf that had soda lime did not change colour whilst the leaf that had sodium hydrogen carbonate had turned to blue-black.

Interpretation;

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 29

Since the leaf from a plant with soda lime which served to absorb carbon dioxide did not stain blue-black, but only that from a
plant with sodium hydrogen carbonate which supplied carbon dioxide we can conclude that carbon dioxide is necessary for
photosynthesis.

Determining if chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

Apparatus; variegated plant, Apparatus for starch test.

A variegated plant is one with uneven distribution of chlorophyll, i.e. it has chlorophyll only in patches.

Procedure;

- The plant is first destarched and then placed in sunlight for 2 hours
- Take one leaf and test it for starch
Variegated leaf – shown before and after testing for starch

Blue -black
Green
Brown
White
a) Leaf before testing b) Leaf after testing for
for starch starch
Expected results
The area of the leaf that had chlorophyll would stain blue-black whilst the other area remains brown.
Interpretation;
Since the leaf stained blue-black only on areas with chlorophyll we can conclude that chlorophyll is necessary for
photosynthesis.

Mineral requirement

Plants also need some mineral ions in order to manufacture other important substances needed. Mineral ions are
absorbed through active transport.

Examples of ions needed by plants;

a) Nitrogen – It is absorbed from ammonium compounds

- Nitrogen is used to make plant protein and when in shortage, it leads to stunted growth and pale yellow of leaves.

b) Magnesium – absorbed from magnesium ions and it is used in the manufacturing of chlorophyll.

-Lack of magnesium results in yellowing of leaves and weak stems (leaf chlorosis)

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 30

LIMITING FACTORS

A limiting factor is that factor which directly affects the rate of a chemical reaction if its quantity is changed.

The raw materials of photosynthesis become limiting factors of the process when they are in less supply

 Light intensity
 Carbon dioxide concentration
 Chlorophyll concentration
 Temperature

Example;
This figure shows that light intensity only affects the
process of photosynthesis up to a certain level, beyond
Rate of photosynthesis

which the rate of photosynthesis does not change even

though light intensity is increased. This implies that it’s
no longer light that is limiting the process but rather
that; may be;

 chlorophyll has been bleached by light

 Chlorophyll is fully saturated with light.
 The process is now affected by other limiting
factors
Light intensity

The graph shows that CO2 is limiting the process of

Rate of photosynthesis
Rate of photosynthesis

photosynthesis only to a certain level, where the line graph

levels off. There may be a high concentration of CO2
available,

> But maybe the temperature is too low & is now the
limiting factor.

CO2 Concentration > Or may be All the cells are saturated with CO2

The graph shows that temperature is limiting the process

of photosynthesis only to a certain level, beyond which
the rate of photosynthesis drops. This shows that
Rate of photosynthesis

temperature is no longer the limiting factor.

> This maybe because higher temperatures denature

enzymes.

Temperature

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 31

ANIMAL NUTRITION

What is a balanced diet?

A meal that contains all the necessary nutrients in correct proportions, i.e. carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins & minerals,
water and fibre.

Why should energy intake relate to the following?

Gender;

Men should be given more food than women because they have a large body.

Age;

Young children require more energy for their size than adults do. This is because children are still growing and are more active.
Also, extra proteins are required for making new tissues as the child grows. In addition, more calcium, iron and vitamin A are
needed for bone formation, red blood cells and disease resistance respectively.

Occupation;

The amount of energy people use in physical activity varies according to how active they are, i.e.

 Sedentary work (office workers, clerical services) needs less amount of work
 Moderately active – light industry workers need more energy than sedentary workers.
 Very active – (e.g. mine workers, builders, steel workers) need more energy than the other groups above.

Pregnancy;

Energy requirements are increased during pregnancy to allow for the growth of the baby and the adjustment of the mother’s body
to pregnancy. Pregnant women require more supply of calcium, proteins, iron and vitamin D.

Lactation;

Lactation means the production of breast milk for feeding the baby. Extra energy is required for the production of milk. Fats are
laid down during pregnancy as an energy store. A lactating mother’s diet should contain protein, calcium and vitamin A and D.

The main food groups are;

Carbohydrates Proteins Fats / oils

=There are the major energy sources for =Replace and repair worn out tissues =It is a good energy source
the body. =Essential in the manufacture of hormones, =Fats are usually solids whilst oils
=Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen antibodies and enzymes are liquids and insoluble in water
=Exist in two types; =Excess is stored as an energy source =Fats consist of carbon, hydrogen
(i)Sugars and (ii) Starch =Are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and oxygen elements
elements =A fat molecule is made of a
=Also contains small amounts of Sulphur, iron, glycerol molecule and three fatty
phosphorus acids
Proteins are made of smaller units called amino
acids

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 32

Food tests

Food Nutrient Methodology Positive Result Expected

Starch - Place a food sample on a white tile

(Use Iodine Solution) - Add 3 drops of iodine solution on the piece of Blue-black colour
food

Glucose - Put a food solution in a test tube Brick red colour

Also called Testing for reducing - Add 5 drops of Benedict’ s soln, shake & (Also, green, orange and yellow
sugars place the mixture in a hot water bath for 2 indicate presence of glucose in small
minutes amounts)
(Use Benedicts’ Solution or
Fehling’s solution)

Protein - Put the food solution in a test tube

Also called the biuret test - Add 5 drops of Copper sulphate and shake Purple colour

(Use Copper sulphate solution & - Add 5 drops of Sodium hydroxide and shake
Sodium hydroxide solution)

Fats -Place a food sample in test tube & add

ethanol and shake
(a) Emulsion test (Milky) white colour
- Allow the mixture to settle and then decant
(transfer) the top layer into another tube with =============================
water

………………………………………………
………………………………………….
- Place a food solution on a filter paper and
(b) Using Filter paper Greasy mark appears on paper.
leave it to dry

Digestion

It is the breaking down of large insoluble food substances into smaller soluble particles that can be absorbed.

This process takes place in the alimentary canal (gut), which is a tube that extends from the mouth to the anus.
When straightened, a mature gut measures between 7.5m and 9.0m long

Types of digestion

1) Physical digestion (mechanical digestion)

The breaking down of food substances through the action of teeth and muscular contractions.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 33

It involves the processes of chewing, churning and peristalsis. During chewing the teeth tear, cut, crush / grind food
into smaller particles with a large surface area for enzyme action.

2) Chemical digestion

The conversion of large food substances through the action of enzymes.

Stages involved in the human digestion.

1. Ingestion; the taking in of food through the mouth

2. Digestion; the breaking down of large insoluble food molecules into smaller soluble particles.

3. Absorption; the passage of digested food through the intestinal walls (in the ileum) to the body fluids. i.e. the
circulatory system

4. Assimilation; the building up of body’s own materials from the absorbed food substances. i.e. usage of the
absorbed food substances.

5. Egestion; The discharge of the undigested, unabsorbed material form the alimentary canal. This is done through
the anus.
Structure of the alimentary canal)

Salivary glands

Oesophagus Liver

Stomach Gall bladder

Bile duct

Pancreas Duodenum

Ileum

Colon

Rectum

Anus

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 34

Functions of parts;

a) The mouth;

Ingestion and mastication (chewing) takes place in the mouth (buccal cavity).

 Teeth serve to grind food into smaller particles for easy swallowing and increasing the surface area for
enzyme activity.
 The saliva moistens / lubricates the food
 The tongue helps to work the food into a ball called food bolus to be swallowed easily.
The enzyme salivary amylase produced by salivary glands under the tongue begins the chemical digestion of starch
into maltose.

When food is swallowed, the soft palate closes the opening of the nasal cavity and epiglottis closes the opening of
the trachea to avoid choking. The food bolus is then pushed down through the oesophagus by the process of
peristalsis as shown on the figure below.

Peristalsis is a wave of involuntary muscle contractions that transport food, waste matter, or other contents
through a tube-shaped organ such as the intestine.

Figure showing peristaltic action

Note that the circular

muscles always contract
behind the food bolus, thus
explaining its direction

Food bolus

b) The Stomach;

This is a muscular bag which stores food temporarily and release it in small quantities to the lower alimentary canal.
It produces gastric juices which mix with food and churns it to a watery paste called chyme. Peristaltic action helps to
churn the food.

The gastric juice secreted from the stomach walls contains;

1. Hydrochloric acid – which inactivates the salivary amylase and kills most of the bacteria ingested with
food.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 35

2. Enzyme pepsin – This begins the chemical digestion of proteins to peptides. Pepsin is only active in acidic
conditions.
3. Rennin – only produced in infants, coagulates (clot / thicken) milk thus making it digestible.
4. Mucus – it prevents the stomach from being corroded by its own hydrochloric acid.

c) Small intestine

The upper part is wider and called Duodenum, it is about 20cm long.

The rest of the small intestine is called the ileum and it’s the longest part of the gut, about 6m to 7m.

The final stages of digestion take place in the duodenum.

Duodenum
Bile; a greenish fluid made in the liver and stored in gall bladder, is secreted into the duodenum to emulsify fats;
i.e. making them digestible by breaking them into smaller fat droplets.

Pancreatic juice; an alkaline made by the pancreas and contains a number of enzymes.

Trypsin – This converts some proteins & peptides to amino acids

Pancreatic amylase – Acts on starch converting it to maltose.
Lipase - This breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

A summary of digestive enzymes contained in the pancreatic juice and the intestinal juices is
shown in the table below

LOCATION GLANDS ENZYME SUBSTRATE PRODUCT

Mouth Salivary Amylase Starch Maltose

Stomach Pepsin Protein Peptides

Gastric Rennin Milk protein Coagulated milk

Amylase Starch Maltose

Duodenum Pancreas Lipase Fats Fatty acids & Glycerol

Trypsin Protein & Peptides Amino acids

Lactase Lactose Glucose + Galactose

Ileum Ileum Lipase Fats Fatty acids + Glycerol

Maltase Maltose Glucose + Glucose

Sucrase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

Peptidase Peptides Amino acids

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 36

Note also, that the pancreatic juice contains sodium hydrogen carbonate which is alkaline in order to provide the
suitable pH needed by the request of the enzymes.

Though the cells of the gut are partly made of proteins, they are not attacked by proteases due to the following
reasons;

 The protein enzymes are secreted in an inactive form and only become active when inside
hydrochloric acid.
 There is mucus secretion which also serves to protect the gut cells from self digestion

Ileum
The digestive process of the duodenum continues here shortly and the walls of the ileum also secrete intestinal juice
which completes digestion.

The ileum is the site for absorption of the digested food material. The ileum is adapted to carry out its function
because of the following features;

 It is fairly long thus increasing the surface area for absorption.

 The epithelium cells are very thin for easy and rapid diffusion of food substances.
 It has many folds (finger-like projections called villi) on the inner lining thus increasing the surface
are for absorption.
 It is surrounded by a large network of blood capillaries to allow for easy diffusion and rapid
transport of food substances to other parts of the body.

Structure of a villus as seen through a small section of the ileum.

Epithelium of
Villus (very thin) blood capillary (carrying sugars &
Amino acids)

lacteal (transports glycerol

Fatty acids)

artery

vein

The end products of digestion (glucose, amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids) are absorbed into the blood stream
through diffusion and active transport and they reach the liver through the hepatic portal vein.

ASSIMILATION

This is whereby the end products of digestion are used within the body.

1. Glucose

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 37

 Used by all cells during respiration

 Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver
2. Amino acids

 They are used to make protoplasm (living material), hormones and enzymes
 Used to repair and replace worn out tissues
 Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver to form urea which is excreted in urine
3. Fatty acids & glycerol

 These recombine in the lacteal to form fat globules

 They are stored under the skin and around organs for heat insulation and as an energy store
 Used by cells for respiration when glucose and glycogen are used up.
d) Large Intestine

The large intestine is divided into the caecum, colon, and rectum.

 The caecum is a swollen sac located in the lower right-hand portion of the abdominal cavity.
 The colon plays a very important role in the re-absorption of water from the undigested waste food.
 The rectum, about 15 cm, is the terminal portion of the large intestine. At the exit of the rectum, called the anus,
is a round muscle, the anal sphincter that closes the anus. The rectum stores faeces and release them through
the anus at interval. The release of faeces is called egestion / elimination / defecation

Faeces are a mixture of substances such as;

 Undigested food mainly the cellulose

 Dead and living bacteria from the alimentary canal
 Mucus and dead cells from the gut walls. The cells lining the gut have a limited life span.
 Surplus bile and other secretions which colour the faeces.
The large intestine has a smooth mucosal lining (only the rectum has folds) that secretes mucus to lubricate the
waste materials.

Describe the role of the liver in metabolism

1. Deamination

A process whereby excess amino acids are broken down by the liver into glycogen and urea (nitrogenous waste)

The human body cannot store excess amino acids; therefore they are taken to the liver for deamination where the
amino group is removed and the residues converted to glycogen for storage. The amino group is converted to
ammonia and later to urea which is less poisonous for excretion

2. Fat metabolism

Breaking down of fats into CO2 and H20 to release energy.

3. Detoxification

The conversion of harmful substances into less harmful ones; e.g.

 Chemical substances in drugs and alcohol are broken down into harmless substances.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 38

 Used hormones are broken down into inactive forms

 Ammonia produced during Deamination is converted into less poisonous substance called urea – to be
excreted through the kidneys.
 Dead red blood cells are broken down and the iron stored. The other waste forms bile.

4. Formation of bile

The liver produces bile salts which are important in the emulsification and subsequently absorption of fats

5. Storage organ

A number of substances used by the body (such as bile, glycogen, iron, vitamin A, B, D) are stored in the liver.

6. Regulation of blood sugar

The liver is able to convert glucose, amino acids and other substances to an insoluble carbohydrate called glycogen.
Some of the glucose may be from the hepatic portal vein carrying blood rich in digested food from the ileum to the
liver.

When the glucose level is higher than normal range (80mg /100cm3 to 160mg/100cm3 of blood) the
pancreas secretes insulin hormone into the blood which activates the liver cells to convert excess glucose
to glycogen.
If the concentration of blood sugar falls below 80mg/100cm3 of blood, the pancreas secretes another
hormone – glucagon which activates the liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose.
Refer to the fig below;
Therefore this brings the glucose
GLUCOSE concentration to normal range.
Note; if the blood glucose level rises
Action by

above 160mg/100cm3, glucose is

Insulin

excreted by the kidneys. A Blood

glucose concentration below
40mg/100cm3 affects the brain cells
Normal glucose level adversely leading to convulsions and
coma.
Lack of insulin leads to a condition called
Sugar diabetes.
Action by
Glucagon

GYCOGEN

BREATHING SYSTEM

This system is found in most multicellular organisms. The smaller, less complex organisms do not have it, gases
rather diffuse directly across to and from their environments.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 39

Breathing is also called External respiration; because O2 (a gaseous reactant) enters through this system and CO2 (a
gaseous waste product) is excreted through it.

Structure of the breathing system

Intercostal
muscles

Functions of parts;

1. Nostril – Air enters and leaves through this opening.

2. Nasal cavity – air is warmed, moistened, filtered by hair and the dust in the air is trapped by mucus here in
the nasal cavity.
3. Soft palate and Epiglottis – shut off the nose and trachea respectively during swallowing.
4. Larynx – (the voice box), contains vocal cords made of fine filaments and it vibrates when air passes
through it to produce sound.
5. Glottis – A ring opening into the trachea.
6. Trachea – A tube strengthened with a ring of cartilages to prevent it from collapsing. The inner walls of
trachea is lined with;
cells which produce mucus
Hair called cilia – which “beats” / moves to force the mucus towards the pharynx where it can be
swallowed voluntarily.
7. Bronchus – a tube branching from the trachea, and is similar in structure to the trachea. It directs air to the
lungs.
Bronchus branch into smaller microscopic tubes called bronchioles which lead to a sac like
structure called the Alveolus.
8. Alveolus – Is a collapsible air sac found all over the lung. Alveoli increase the surface area for the exchange
of gases. Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of blood capillaries. Cells in the alveoli are very thin.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 40

9. Intercostal muscles – These are two sets of muscles found between the ribs. The external intercostal
muscles contract to raise the ribcage during inspiration in order to increase the lung capacity whilst the
internal intercostal muscles contract to lower the ribcage during expiration in order to squeeze air out of the
lungs.
10. Pleural membrane and Pleural fluids – Lubricates ribs and lungs to prevent damage during movement.
11. Diaphragm – a muscle sheet at the lower end of the chest cavity which can contract / relax to alter the
volume of the chest cavity.

Gaseous Exchange in the alveolus

Gaseous exchange refers to diffusion of O2 into cells and the diffusion of CO2 out of the cells.

Structure of an Alveolus

Blood from
Pulmonary artery

Red blood cells O2 diffuses in

Oxygen CO2 diffuses out

Carbon dioxide
Moisture film

At the exchange surfaces of the alveoli;

 The body gains oxygen from inhaled air

 The body gives up carbon dioxide produced from respiration to the exhaled air.
Absorption of O2

 From the inhaled air O2 diffuses into moisture film

 O2 then diffuses through the walls of alveoli and capillaries into the blood.
 Low concentration of O2 in the blood causes O2 to diffuse into blood
 O2 then diffuses into the red blood cells where it combines with haemoglobin to form a complex molecule
called oxyhaemoglobin
 At body cells where there is low concentration of O2 the oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release O2
Oxyhaemoglobin Oxygen + haemoglobin

Removal of CO2

 From the body cells CO2 dissolve into the blood and it is converted to hydrogen carbonate ions by enzymes.
 At the alveoli the enzymes (carbonic anhydrase) converts the hydrogen carbonate into CO2

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 41

 CO2 then diffuses down its concentration gradient from the blood plasma across the capillaries walls into the
alveoli.
The proportions of gases in inhaled (inspired) and exhaled (expired) air is summarized in the table below.

Gas Inhaled air Exhaled air Comparison

(%) (%) rationale

Nitrogen 78 78 Nitrogen is not used in

the body
Oxygen 21 16 Some O2 has been used
for respiration in body
tissues
Carbon 0.03 4 CO2 has been released
dioxide from respiration

Water Variable saturated Water is produced

vapour during respiration

Noble gases 1 1 The gases are not used

in the body

Factors that Promote Gaseous Exchange

1. The alveolus has a very thin epithelium that enables gases to diffuse quickly across the membrane
2. There is a network of blood capillaries around every alveolus
3. There are many alveoli which serve to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange
4. There is a thin film of moisture that wets the gases as they diffuse across

What happens during breathing?

INSPIRATION / INHALATION / (Breathing in) EXPIRATION / EXHALATION / (Breathing out)

1. External intercostal muscles contract (whilst intercostal 1. Internal intercostal muscles contract (whilst external
muscles relax) intercostal muscles relax ) and this pushes the ribcage
inwards & downwards
And this pulls the ribcage upwards & outwards

2. The diaphragm muscle contract to flatten the diaphragm thus 2. The diaphragm muscle relax to push it upwards into
increasing the volume of the chest cavity (lungs) dome shape thus decreasing the volume of the chest
cavity (lungs)

3. As a result air rushes into the lungs 3. As a result air is forced out of the lungs

VITAL CAPACITY

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 42

This is the maximum volume of air that can be exchanged during breathing in and out.

In an adult human being, the maximum volume of the lungs when fully inflated is 5litres.

 Only 500cm3 of air can be exchanged at normal breathing

 The normal breathing rate of a person at rest is 16 breaths per minute.
 During exercise, the breathing rate can rise to 20 or 30 breaths per minute. This increase in depth and rate
of breathing ensures that there is adequate supply of O2 to active muscles and fast removal of CO2 from the
body.
DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH THE BREATHING SYSTEM

1. Lung cancer
2. heart disease
3. Emphysema
4. Chronic bronchitis

The diseases mentioned above are caused by substances contained in cigarette smoke, namely;

 Tar
 Nicotine
 Carbon monoxide

1. Lung Cancer;

Tar contains substances known as carcinogens which promote the abnormal multiplication of cells in the lungs
leading to a condition known as lung cancer

2. Heart disease;

The nicotine and carbon monoxide (which has a high affinity to haemoglobin than O2) increase the tendency of the
blood to clot, which blocks the coronary artery. The heart muscles will therefore receive little or no oxygen which
leads to heart failure.

3. Emphysema

This is the breakdown of the alveoli. The irritant substance in tobacco smoke weakens the walls of the alveoli such
that when the person coughs the weakened alveoli breaks. Tar usually accumulates in the air passages and this
irritates a person and thus triggering coughing / sneezing.

4. Chronic Bronchitis;

The smoke stops the cilia from beating and leads to excessive production of mucus in the air passages. The
accumulation of mucus leads to inflammation of the bronchioles, a condition known as bronchitis.

Dangers of Tobacco Smoke to unborn Babies

Nicotine & carbon monoxide can pass across the placenta to the foetus. This can cause serious harm to the baby
such as;

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 43

 Miscarriage These may be due to blocked blood vessels

 Still born

 Underweight babies – due to limited supply of nutrients & O2 to the baby

Major components of cigarette smoke

Carbon monoxide Tar Nicotine

- A colourless poisonous gas - Collects in the lungs when the smoke cools. - It is a drug
- If absorbed into the blood, it binds to the - Tar contains over a thousand chemicals - Affects the nervous system
haemoglobin forming a compound called some of which cause cancer. - It causes addiction
carboxyhaemoglobin - It irritates the air passages - Nicotine causes narrowing of
- It results in the reduction of the red - It makes air passages narrow blood vessels thus leading to
blood cells’ capability to trap & transport - Too much tar triggers “smoke cough” heart diseases
O2

On account of the above, cigarette smokers usually perform poorly in physical activities like sports.

Ventilation

It is the free movement of air in and out of the lungs

Activity; Effect of physical activity on breathing rate & depth

How many times do you breathe in & out in a minute when at rest?_________________________
What can you say about your breathing, is it deeper or shallower?__________________________
Make a short fast sprint (or jump 30 times steadily)

Now count your number of breaths per minute after the short exercise_______________________
What can you say about your breathing, is it deeper or shallower?__________________________
How does your breathing before the exercise compare to the breathing after the exercise?
_________________________________________________________________________________________

The number of breaths per minute is called the breathing rate

- When you breathe fast we say your breathing rate is high

- When you breathe in & out you draw a certain volume of air into or out of the lungs respectively. The depth of your
breath is a measure of the volume of air you take in or out during breathing. The maximum volume of air one can
breathe per single breath is called the Vital volume or Vital capacity.
Note;

Vigorous physical activities like running, swimming & cycling can increase the breathing rate and depth. i.e. during such
exercises you breathe faster and deeper.
A relaxed adult makes 16 breaths per minute and draws  500cm3 of air into & out of the lungs per breath.
During a vigorous activity, the adult makes 30 breaths per minute and draws 3500cm3 of air per breath.
Lebsy Mb document 73280796
 P a g e | 44

RESPIRATION

It is the process by which energy is generated from the breaking down of carbohydrates in living cells.

Uses of energy released from respiration

1. It is used to maintain a constant body temperature

2. It is used during active transport, in the selective reabsorption of vital minerals
3. It is used in the synthesis of macromolecules from micromolecules e.g. synthesis of proteins from amino
acids
4. It is used during mitotic cell division which results in the growth of an organism
5. It is used during transmission of nerve impulses

Types of respiration.

 Aerobic
 Anaerobic

Aerobic respiration

It is the release of relatively large amounts of energy from the breaking down of carbohydrates in the presence of
oxygen.

Word & symbol equation of aerobic respiration

Glucose + oxygen ENZYMES carbon dioxide + water + energy

C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) ENZYMES 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) + 2830KJ/mol

Anaerobic respiration

It is the release of fairly small amounts of energy from the breaking down of carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen.

Word & symbol equations of anaerobic respiration

(In plants)

Glucose ENZYMES carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy

C6 H12 O6 (aq) + ENZYMES CO2 (g) + C2 H5 OH (l) + 118KJ/mol

(In animals)

Glucose ENZYMES lactic acid + energy

C6 H12 O6 (aq) + ENZYMES 2C3H6O3 + 118KJ/mol

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 45

Differences between Aerobic & Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Occurs in the presence of oxygen Occurs in the absence of oxygen

Occurs in the mitochondrion Occurs in the cytoplasm matrix

Releases fairly large amounts of energy Releases fairly small amounts energy
(2830KJ/mol) (118Kj/mol)

Releases CO2 and H2O as by-products Releases ethanol & lactic acid as a by product

Fermentation

It is the release of fairly small amounts of energy from breaking down of glucose by extra -cellular enzymes of micro-
organisms in the absence of oxygen

Both the word & symbol equation of fermentation are similar to that of anaerobic respiration in plants.

Glucose ENZYMES carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy

C6 H12 O6 (aq) + ENZYMES CO2 (g) + C2 H5 OH (l) + 118KJ/mol

How Lactic Acid is produced in muscles during exercise

During exercise, the O2 supply may be insufficient to meet the energy demand. When this happens the cells produce
energy by anaerobic respiration, lactic acid is produced as a by product. The accumulation of lactic acid causes
muscles fatigue but is eventually reduced as oxygen intake returns to normal after the period of exercise. This
shortfall of oxygen is called “Oxygen debt” and can be repaid by increased O2 intake. i.e. the person will continue to
breathe fast & deep in order to draw more O2 into the lungs. This O2 will be used to oxidize lactic acid to carbon
dioxide & water

A Graph Showing the Effect of Exercise on the Lactic Acid Concentration in the Blood.
Concentration of lactic acid

Period of O2 debt
exercise being repaid

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 46

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Plants, like animals have a system of vessels to carry fluids from one part to another. They have two separate
systems or vascular tissues;

- Xylem vessels

- Phloem vessels

The arrangement of vascular tissues in various plant organs. (Roots, Stems, Leaves)

Xylem

Phloem

Xylem Vascular bundles

scattered in the stem
Phloem of a monocotyledon

phloem
Vascular bundles
Xylem arranged such that xylem
forms a star shape in the
core of the root

Xylem Vascular bundles

arranged in ring
Phloem pattern in the stem of a
dicotyledon

Xylem vessels – carry water and inorganic ions from the roots to the leaves

Phloem sieve tubes – carry substances made by photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 47

Transport of water

Plants get water from the soil by the root hair cells through osmosis. The soil water has a higher water potential than
the cytoplasm of the root hair cells. The root hairs greatly increase the surface area of the root which speeds up the
rate at which water can be taken into plant. From the root hair water travels across the cortex cells towards the xylem
vessels in the centre of the root. As the water moves towards the centre of the root some of it goes into the
cytoplasm of the cortex cells (the symplast pathway) and then out again moving from cell to cell.

Much of the water does not go inside the cytoplasm but travel through the cell walls (the apoplast pathway) from cell
to cell until it reaches the xylem.

Probable water pathway

Water in Water moving

the soil upwards in the
xylem vessels

Root hair cell Water moving

absorbing water across the cells
in the cortex

The water then travels up the plant through the xylem vessels which take it to the leaves. In the leaves a tiny a tiny
fraction of water evaporates at the mesophyll cells turning vapour. The water vapour diffuses out of the leaves
through the stomata into the air through a process called Transpiration. As water is lost through transpiration a
suction force (transpiration pull) causes more water to be absorbed from the soil, resulting in a flow of water from the
soil to the roots, stems, leaves and into the air. This movement of water from the roots through to the air is called the
Transpiration stream.

Mineral salts

Experimental data suggests that mineral ions are many times greater in the cells than in the surrounding soil water.
This, therefore further suggests that mineral ions enter the plant cells against their concentration gradient. Mineral
ions are selectively absorbed by active transport which involves the expenditure of energy.

Translocation

It is the movement of organic substances such as sucrose (sugars in plants) through the phloem vessels after the
process of photosynthesis. The sugars are moved through a mass flow in solution.

Transpiration

Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water through the stomata found on their leaves.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 48

Importance of Transpiration

1. Water transport – the transpiration stream moves water up the xylem of the plant.
2. Salt transport – the transpiration stream carries dissolved salts from the roots for the synthesis of complex
compounds in the leaves.
3. Temperature control – the evaporation of water from the leaves requires heat energy and as the process
takes place heat is withdrawn from the leave cells thus the cells get cooled. This process prevents
overheating of the cells.

Factors affecting the rate of Transpiration.

 Temperature
When temperature is high there will be more energy to evaporate water from the leaf cells. (& the reverse is also
true). High temperature increases the rate of transpiration whilst low temperature reduces it.

 Relative Humidity
Humidity means the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. Transpiration is faster when the air is dry and has
less amount of water vapour. At high humidity the rate of transpiration is slow because air is saturated with water
vapour.

 Air Movements
When air moves faster it washes off more water vapour from a leaf surface per given time, therefore transpiration
occurs faster in windy conditions than in cool still air.

 Light Intensity
Light triggers the opening of the stomatal pores and more water is lost into the atmosphere. Also light increases leaf
temperature thus causing rapid evaporation of water from the leaves.

How are plants adapted to control Transpiration?

 Having less stomata

 Stomata mostly found on the lower epidermis
 Seasonal shedding of leaves during winter
 Developing small leaves
 Developing thick cuticle (waxy layer) on the leaves
 Rolling / curling the leaves when it is hot
 Developing sunken stomata
 Having a photosynthetic stems
 Developing thorns / spines instead of leaves

Wilting

Excessive loss of water by a plant without replacing it by absorption makes the plant cells flaccid. Eventually tissues
in the leaves become droopy and limply (i.e. looking tired and lifeless). Leaves which have wilted have a low rate of

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 49

photosynthesis. In order to minimize these undesirable effects of wilting plants use the mechanisms of controlling
transpiration listed above.

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS

The Mammalian Circulatory System

Multicellular organisms need a circulatory system to

1. Supply all the cells within the body with food nutrients so as to carry out their functions.
2. Supply the cells with oxygen is necessary for the generation of energy
3. Get rid of waste products from cells to excretory parts where they can be eliminated out of the body.

Constituents of the Circulatory System

 The Heart (a contractile pump) – to pump the blood and dissolved substances
 The blood (the circulatory fluid) – to carry dissolved substances around the body
 The blood vessels – to carry blood around the body
 The valves - ensure unidirectional flow of blood.

The mammalian transport system has a dual / double circulation consisting of;

 Pulmonary circulation
 Systemic circulation

LUNGS
Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein

PULMONARY
CIRCULATION

Vena cava Artery

SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION

Rest of
the body

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 50

The pulmonary circuit supplies the lungs with deoxygenated blood and the systemic circuit supplies oxygenated
blood to the rest of the body. Therefore the blood pressure in the pulmonary circuit is low since blood flows through a
short distance and through delicate capillaries during gaseous exchange and high in the systemic circuit where blood
must be pumped over long distances.

The main blood vessels

LUNGS

PULMONARY PULMONARY
ARTERY VEIN
VENA CAVA AORTA

R. ATRIUM L. ATRIUM

R. VENTRICLE L. VENTRICLE

LIVER

HEPATIC HEPATIC
VEIN ARTERY
HEPATIC
PORTAL VEIN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
(ILEUM)

RENAL RENAL
VEIN ARTERY

R. KIDNEY L. KIDNEY

Lower Body
e.g. Legs

Aorta – main artery carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body
Vena cava - carries deoxygenated from the rest of the body back to heart.
Pulmonary vein – carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
Pulmonary artery – conveys deoxygenated from the heart blood to the lungs

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 51

Hepatic artery – carries blood the liver

Hepatic portal vein – conveys blood rich with absorbed food nutrients from the alimentary canal
Hepatic vein – carries blood from the liver towards the heart
Renal artery – conveys blood to the kidneys
Renal vein – carries blood from the kidneys

The Structure of the Heart

Pulmonary Aorta
artery Pulmonary
vein
Vena cava

Semi-lunar Semi-lunar
valves valves

Right atrium Left atrium

Tricuspid Bicuspid
valve valve

Right ventricle Left ventricle

Septum

Oxygenated blood
Deoxygenated blood

The heart is a muscular organ the size of a human fist. It is divided into the two sides (left & right sides) and four
chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria (or auricles) and the remaining bottom chambers called
ventricles

 Right Atrium (right auricle)

 Left Atrium (left auricle)
 Right Ventricles
 Left Ventricle
The role of the heart is to pump deoxygenated blood from the head & other body parts to the lungs for oxygenation,
and to pump oxygenated blood from the lungs to the head & the rest of the body.

Deoxygenated blood enters the heart from the head & other parts through the vena cava into right atrium. This blood
is then forced down into the right ventricle as the atrium contracts. The tricuspid valve then closes to prevent
backward flow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium. The muscles of the right ventricle contracts to push

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 52

the blood into pulmonary artery which carries it to the lungs. The semi-lunar valves in the pulmonary artery prevent
the blood from flowing back into the right ventricles.

Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the heart at the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. This blood then
passes to the left ventricle when the left atrium contracts. The passage of blood from the left atrium to left ventricle is
controlled by the bicuspid valve. When the left ventricle contracts blood is pushed into the aorta which carries it
towards the head & other body parts. The semi-lunar valves in the aorta also direct the flow of oxygenated blood.

Blood Vessels

a) Arteries

 Have a smaller lumen as compared to veins

 Have thick walls made of many fibrous elastic tissue
 Arteries divide into arterioles (smaller vessels) which have less elastic tissue but more muscle fibres than the larger
arteries.
 Largest artery is called the aorta

The figure shows the structure of an artery

Thick muscular
walls
Thin layer of
fibrous tissue

Small lumen

All Arteries serve to carry oxygenated blood from the heart to different body parts, (except the pulmonary artery)

b) Veins

 Have a wider lumen

 Have thinner walls with fewer fibrous & less elastic tissues.
 Have valves
 Veins divide into venules (smaller vessels)
 Largest vein is called the vena cava

The figure shows the structure of a vein

Thin layer of
fibrous tissue

Valve
Thin muscular
walls

Large lumen

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 53

All veins carry deoxygenated blood from various body tissues to the heart, (except the
pulmonary vein)

c) Capillaries

 These are tiny vessels which are one cell thick (have diameter of about 0.001mm)
 They are semi-permeable to allow tissue fluids and gases to escape through them.
 Blood flows very slowly in the capillaries.

The figure shows the structure of a capillary network

Arterioles Venules

Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins

Capillaries supply all living cells with oxygen and food nutrients, and pick up substances from the cells i.e. allows for
the exchange of substances between the blood stream and body cells.

Transfer of materials at capillaries

The blood pressure in the capillaries forces part of the plasma fluids out through the capillary walls. This fluid is
known as tissue fluids. The tissue fluid is similar to plasma but has fewer proteins and it supplies the cells with
dissolved food substances & O2.

When the tissue fluid returns back to capillary it contains waste products e.g. CO2 from respiration. The
deoxygenated blood then leaves the capillaries through the venules which recombine to form veins.

Pulse

Pulse, in physiology, is the rhythmic expansion of the arteries resulting from passage of successive surges of blood,
produced by continuing contractions of the heart.

(Or simply, the expansion and contraction of the arterial walls that can be felt in all the arteries near the surface of the
skin).

The pulse may be felt wherever an artery passes over a solid structure, such as a bone or cartilage. The crest of the
pulse wave represents the systolic pressure whilst the trough is the diastolic.

Pulse rate is the number of heart beats in a minute. The rate of the pulse varies from 150 beats per minute in the
embryo to about 60 in the aged; however the average pulse rate measures 72 beats per minute in a mature healthy
person.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 54

Physical activity e.g. taking an exercise increases the pulse rate. This is because the rate at which the heart pumps
blood is increased to provide the body with enough oxygenated blood to cope with activity undertaken as well as to
remove the CO2 that may be accumulating in body cells.

Coronary Heart Disease

Coronary heart disease is a disease caused by the occlusion or blockage of coronary arteries (Coronary artery is an
artery branching from the aorta and supplies the heart muscles with food & oxygen).

Causes of coronary heart disease

 Blood clot
 Diet
 Stress
 Smoking
 Lack of exercise
Atheroma (also called atherosclerosis or arteriosclerosis) is a disease caused by deposits of fatty substances in the
lining of the arteries.

Blood clot

If the blood clots it blocks the coronary artery and starves the heart muscle of oxygen and nutrients as a result the
heart may stop beating. Due to this the brain is deprived of oxygen resulting in stroke or death

Diet

Too much fatty foods taken result in excess fat accumulating in the lining of the arteries,
narrowing their lumen and eventually blocking them. If these fats become rough patches they result in the formation
of thrombus (blood clot) due to the breaking down of blood platelets. This blockage of the artery again results in no
oxygen & nutrient supply to the heart muscles.
Stress

Emotional stress (or when a person is immobilized for long time) often leads to a raised blood pressure. High blood
pressure may increase the rate at which thrombus is formed in the arteries.

Smoking

Carbon monoxide and other chemicals in cigarette smoke may change the lining of the arteries, allowing atheroma to
form. These harden up the arteries resulting in breaking down of platelets as they pass along the rough surfaces of
the arteries. The platelets release enzymes which aid in blood clotting & consequently lead to occlusion of the
arteries.

Note; Smokers are 2 to 3 times more likely to die from a heart attack than non-smokers of the same age.

Lack of Exercise

A sluggish blood flow resulting from lack of exercise may allow atheroma to form in the lining of the arteries. Regular,
vigorous exercise reduces the chances of a heart attack due to an improved coronary blood flow.

Preventing Coronary Heart Disease

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 55

 Avoid being immobile or isolated, communicate your stressful situations to relief yourself.
 Avoid smoking
 Avoid fatty foods especially animal fat.
 Take regular body exercises.

Blood Components

 Plasma
 Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
 White blood cells (leucocytes)
 Platelets (thrombocytes)

Plasma - Is a pale yellow liquid part of the blood. It consists of 92% water and many important dissolved substances
including the products of digestion, albumin, fibrinogen, antibodies, hormones, waste materials like urea & CO2.
Plasma can be forced through the blood vessels under high pressure, carrying with it food & O2 from the tissue fluid
which bathes every cell in the body. This fluid is constantly circulating among body cells supplying food & O 2 and
removing waste products.

Function of Plasma;

It transports blood cells, ions, end products of digestion, hormones, vitamins & plasma proteins. & excretory materials
like CO2 & urea.

Red blood Cells;

Biconcave disc Non nucleated discs

 These are biconcave disc-like structures formed in the bone marrow.

 Extremely small
 Have no nucleus (non-nucleated)
 Flexible, so they can squeeze through narrow blood vessels
 Live for about 120 days and later destroyed in the liver

Function of Red blood cells;

They are responsible for the transport of O2 around the body.

White blood Cells;

These cells are larger in size but fewer in number than the red blood cells.

The two most common & important types of white blood cells are the phagocytes & lymphocytes

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 56

Phagocytes;
They are irregular in shape & can change
their form
Lobed nucleus
They have a lobed nucleus.
Granular cytoplasm
The cells move by the flowing action of
their cytoplasm and can sometimes pass
through the capillary walls.

They are made in the bone marrow.

Function of phagocytes.

They accumulate on the site of injury / infection in order to attack the invading bacteria. They destroy bacteria & deed
tissue cells by flowing around, engulfing and digesting them, and this action is known as phagocytosis. This helps to
prevent the spread of harmful bacteria & accelerate the healing process.

 Lymphocytes

They are spherical & smaller than

large nucleus phagocytes.

Have a round nucleus which occupies

most of the cell

They are made in the spleen & the lymph

nodes

Function of lymphocytes;

The lymphocytes produce chemical substances called antibodies which attack foreign substances called antigens in
the body. The antibodies can adhere to the surfaces of the micro-organism, making them clump together
(agglutination) or cause them to disintegrate (lysis). The remains of the micro-organisms are then ingested by the
phagocytes.

(Tissue rejection)

This happens if a living tissue is transplanted from an individual to another, and the recipient recognizes the foreign
antigens in the transplanted tissue and reject (destroys) it. Transplanted organs such as kidneys & hearts are usually
rejected unless the two individuals share exactly similar antigens, i.e. when they are genetically identical.

Platelets

These are tiny irregular shaped structures (particles) made in the bone marrow.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 57

Function of platelets

They help in clotting in wounds or damaged blood vessels walls to prevent excessive loss of blood & entry of germs.
The formation of blood clot involves the following stages;

 When the skin cut & blood is flowing out, the platelets are exposed to air, they disintegrate & release an
enzyme called thrombokinase, into the plasma.
 Thrombokinase in the presence of calcium ions found in the blood can now change the plasma protein
prothrombin to an active enzyme thrombin.
 Thrombin reacts with the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen and changes it to insoluble fibrin which forms a
network of fibres around the injured part.
 The blood cells become trapped in the fibres, dry up, die and harden to form a scab under which the wound
can heal & prevent entry of foreign particles.

BLOOD GROUPS

Although red blood cells look alike under a microscope, they may carry different substances (antigens) called
antigen A & antigen B on their cell surface. Plasma contains antibodies called anti-A or anti-B which attack foreign
red cell antigens but does not contain antibodies which would attack a person’s own red blood cell antigens.

The table below shows possible antibody-antigen combinations which would otherwise determine a person’s blood
group.

Explanation of the table:

Blood type A has A antigens on its red cell surfaces & anti-B antibodies in its plasma, therefore Blood type B & AB
cannot donate blood to A since they have B antigens which will easily be detected by anti-B antibodies in blood
type A. The antibodies will clump on the antigens hence causing agglutination.

Blood type AB has no antibodies in its plasma hence cannot detect foreign blood, therefore can receive blood from
ALL other groups,

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 58

Blood type O has no antigens on its red blood cells hence cannot be detected, therefore can donate blood to ALL
other groups.

Before a person can receive blood transfusion it is important to know if the donor’s blood is compatible with that of
the patient. If not, then the patient’s red blood cells will clump together in the blood vessels causing serious harm.

If a donor’s blood causes the patient’s blood to clump (agglutination) their blood groups are said to be incompatible.

Blood groups, compatibility, between donor & recipient.

Blood Group Donates to Receives from

A A & AB A&O

B B & AB B&O

AB AB All groups

O All groups O

The red cells from group O can be given to any other group because they have neither the A nor B antigens, and so
cannot be clumped, hence known as the universal donors

Group O can only receive blood from their own group because their plasma contains both ant-A and anti-B
antibodies. Although group O possesses a & b agglutinins (antibodies), there will be very little agglutination of the
recipient’s blood because the donated plasma is diluted so much by the recipient’s cells that it is ineffective in
agglutination activity.

Group AB people having neither anti-A and anti-B antibodies in their plasma, can receive blood form any other group
hence they are called Universal recipients.

BLOOD RELATED DISEASES

1. Leukaemia
2. Aids
3. Anaemia
4. Malaria

Leukaemia;

This is a condition in which large numbers of immature white blood cells are produced & released into the blood
stream. Over production of abnormal white blood cells results in less formation of the red blood cells and hence an
imbalance in the composition of the blood cells. These immature white blood cells will not be able to carry out their
role effectively, i.e. being unable to protect the body against infections. Leukaemia can also be termed “cancer of the
blood”.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 59

(i)Cause;

Radiation is the primary cause of this disease. Radiation may be from UV rays, nuclear power stations & stored
radioactive wastes.

(ii)Treatment;

 Leukaemia can be treated using drugs such as interferon

 Can also be treated by radiotherapy & chemotherapy

(iii)Prevention

Avoid prolonged exposure to radiation.

(iv) Symptoms of leukaemia

Fever

Tonsillitis (infectious signs in the mouth)

Genital & anal ulcers

Swollen glands

Possible bleeding of gums, nose, retina, uterus, kidney &organs of the digestive system

Enlargement of the liver & spleen

Anaemia

(i) Cause

It is a disease which occurs as a result of deficiency of iron in the body, which results in insufficient haemoglobin
which will affect oxygen transportation.

Other factors leading to anaemia are;

 Failure to produce enough red blood cells

 Uncontrollable destruction of the red blood cells
 Excessive loss of blood e.g. due to accidents
(ii) Treatment

 If the condition is not that serious, a person can be given iron supplementary tablets and be advised to eat
food rich in iron
 If its serious he / she can be can be given iron syrup or an injection
 Extreme cases are treated through blood transfusion
(iii) Prevention

Eating food rich in iron e.g. liver, meat and green vegetables.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 60

AIDS

(i) Cause

It is caused by a virus called Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

HIV is transmitted from one person to another through;

 Unprotected sexual contact

 Mixing of infected blood with a non-infected one, e.g. by blood transfusion, sharing unsterilized sharp
instruments like needles & blades.
 Mother to child during pregnancy by breast feeding
(ii) Treatment

AIDS has no treatment; however, its unpleasant effects can be alleviated through the use of antiretroviral therapy.

(iii)Prevention

 Abstinence
 Using a condom during sexual contact
 Avoid sharing needles & blades
 Screening of blood before transfusion.
Malaria (as discussed under the topic Biodiversity)

i) Cause

it is caused by protozoa called plasmodium

(ii) Symptoms of Malaria

Chills
Violent shivering
Profuse (excessive) sweating
Fever
Tiredness (fatigue), increased pulse rate and anaemia
Kidney failure
Coma
death
Symptoms of malaria generally begin from 7 to 15 days after a bite from an infectious mosquito—about the
time when the red blood cells burst. The bursting cells release wastes and toxins (poisonous substances)
along with merozoites. Fever develops as the immune system responds to the toxins in the blood. In the
brain, the condition can develop into cerebral malaria and lead to coma and, if not treated, to death. If the
kidneys are affected, kidney failure may follow
(iii)Treatment

Malaria can be treated through the use of drugs, e.g. chloroquine and quinine
(iv) Prevention & Control

Through the use of drugs e.g. Dleldrin, Malathion

Disturbing the life cycle

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 61

Ways of disturbing the life cycle

Spraying insecticides to kill the adult mosquito

Applying oil over stagnant water disables the pupa from breathing thus killing it.
The use of these two methods can be problematic in that the insecticides & oil might pollute the water
OR kill other organisms indiscriminately. Also the mosquito larva / pupa can eventually develop
resistance to the insecticides, making control difficult.

By draining swamps, this prevents the mosquito from breeding, i.e. no where to lay eggs.
This can be a problem in that animals will not have water to drink & some aquatic organisms will lose
their habitat.

Biological control – where organisms such as fish can be introduced in swamps to feed on the
larvae and pupae

Immunity

This is a biological term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defences to avoid infection, disease or
unwanted invasion.

There are different forms of immunity

 ACTIVE IMMNITY

It is immunity acquired as a result of catching a disease or receiving a vaccine as the individual produces his
or her own antibodies.

 PASSIVE IMMUNITY

It is a temporary immunity obtained by getting blood serum from a person who has already produced
antibodies for the disease and then administer it to a patient who has not yet produced the specific
antibodies.

 NATURAL ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

It is immunity acquired by being exposed to a disease first then developing a defence system first against it.
In case of infection the antibodies already produced will attack the antigens & thereby preventing the build
up of a disease.

 ARTIFICIAL ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

It is the immunity produced by a vaccine. A vaccination is made of harmless forms of bacteria or viruses
which are introduced into the body to activate the lymphocytes to prepare the required antibodies.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 62

???? Explain why immunity results after infection or vaccination

Ans: The body needs to be exposed to an antigen before it can produce antibodies to them. The antibodies produced live long in the
body “as memory cells” thus providing prolonged immunity against the disease. An infection or vaccination therefore serves to
stimulate the body to become immune to the same disease.

EXCRETION

This refers to the removal of metabolic waste from the body. There are several organs which play an important role in
this process.

EXCRETORY ORGAN EXCRETORY PRODUCT

Lungs Carbon dioxide

Kidneys Nitrogenous waste, water, toxins, spent

drugs & hormones,excess salts.

Liver Bile pigments

Position of Kidneys in the body

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 63

Functions of parts

i) Blood vessels

Renal artery; brings oxygenated blood to the kidneys from the aorta. This blood is rich in food materials,
oxygen & waste substances such as urea.
Renal vein; carries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the vena cava.
ii) Kidneys

These are bean shaped organs found in the abdomen towards the back. They filter the blood and remove any waste
to form a substance called urine.

iii) Ureter

This is a tube that emerges from of the two kidneys and serves to transport urine from kidneys to the bladder.

iv) Bladder

It is a muscular organ that stores urine. It is kept closed by a ring of muscles called sphincter muscles, which relax
at certain times to let urine out of the bladder. An adult’s bladder can hold between 450-500ml of urine.

v) Urethra

It is a tube that carries urine to the outside of the body. In females it carries urine only, whilst in males it transports
both urine & semen but at different times.

Structure of Kidney & Nephron

Approximately one million nephrons (right) compose each bean-shaped kidney (left). The filtration unit of the nephron, called the
glomerulus, regulates the concentration of important substances such as potassium, calcium, and hydrogen, and removes
substances not produced by the body such as drugs and food additives. The filtrate, urine, leaves the nephron through a long
tubule and collecting duct. Chemical signals triggered by the body’s need for water and salt cause the walls of the tubule to
become more or less permeable to these substances, which are reabsorbed accordingly from the urine.

The main function of the kidneys is to remove urea & other waste from the body as urine. The kidney has two
regions; the cortex & the medulla. The cortex appears dark red since the glomerulus is located in this region. The

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 64

medulla is lighter than cortex this is where the rest of renal tubule lies, towards the ureter. A nephron is the smallest unit that
makes urine. It consists of a cup-shaped structure called the Bowman’s capsule , which encloses highly coiled capillaries called
the Glomerulus. Extending from the bowman’s capsule is a long coiled tube called the renal tubule.

The nephron makes urine through these main processes;

 Ultra filtration
 Selective reabsorption
Ultra filtration

An arteriole brings blood (dirty) into each of the glomerulus in a kidney. The blood is from the aorta hence it under high pressure.
The rapid coiling of afferent artery in the glomerulus further raises this pressure. The raised pressure of the blood forces the
liquid part of the blood into the bowman’s capsule and this is called ultra filtration. This fluid is now called the glomerular filtrate.
The glomerular filtrate trickles down the renal tubule extending from the glomerulus coiled around the capillaries. The glomerular
filtrate has both useful & waste substances dissolved in it.

Selective-Reabsorption.

As the glomerular filtrate moves down the renal tubule some water, glucose & other useful salts are reabsorbed back into the
blood by the capillaries coiled around the renal tubule. The process of choosing which substances are taken back into the blood is
called Selective-Reabsorption. The waste materials will be left behind to exit the renal tubule through the collecting ducts. The
substance is now called urine.

If the blood becomes too concentrated (has less water) a hormone called Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) is released. This will
stimulate the nephron to allow for reabsorption of most of the water back into the blood. If the blood is dilute (has more water) the
production of ADH stops. The nephron will then leave most of the water in the glomerular filtrates therefore more urine is made.

KIDNEY FAILURE

Kidneys may not perform their function if they have been affected by diseases or as a result of sudden drop in blood pressure,
maybe due to road accidents. If the kidney fails one can have a kidney transplant or use an “artificial” kidney or dialysis machine.
During a kidney transplant a close relative is usually the best candidate. Sometimes the patient’s immune system can resist the
transplanted kidney, therefore immunosuppressant drugs are used to minimize rejection.

Dialysis machine

Dialysis solution out

Urea diffuses out
into dialysis soln
Pump

Dialysis
Bubble
tubing
trap
blood
Dialysis returning
solution in to body

Dialysis fluid
How a dialysis machine works

Blood from a patient suffering from kidney failure is led from the patient’s vein into the dialysis tubing which is made
of cellulose material. In the tubing there are submicroscopic pores which allow small molecules such as those of

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 65

salts, glucose & urea to leak out into the water bath (dialysis solution) which the dialysis tubing is coiled in. larger
substances such as proteins are not allowed into out of the dialysis tubing, hence making it semi-permeable.
Because the concentration of the waste substances is higher in the blood than in the dialysis fluid, they will pass
(diffuse) through the membrane into the dialysis fluid. The continuous coiling of the tubing enables a thorough blood
cleansing.

HOMEOSTASIS
This refers to keeping the internal environment stable (constant) or within narrow limits.
In mammals a variety of organs play specific roles in homeostasis.

Organs Concerned Factors controlled

Kidneys Water (osmo-regulation), pH &

urea

Lungs CO2 & O2

Skin & Liver Temperature

Liver & islets of Langerhans Blood sugar / glucose

The Skin Structure

Extracted from internet

 Hair Follicle – This gives rise to the hair found on the surface
 Sebaceous gland – Secretes an oily substance called sebum. This goes onto the skin surface to keep it soft
& supple
 Sweat glands – Absorb excess water and salts from the blood capillaries to make sweat

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 66

 Blood vessels – These supply the skin with useful substances such as food & take away waste such as CO 2
from the skin.
 Nerve endings – These are receptors to touch, pressure, heat etc; they pick up stimuli in the skin & also
bring motor impulses to the skin.
 Adipose tissue – (sub – cutaneous fats found below the skin), it is food store and also insulates the internal
organs & prevents excessive heat loss.

The skin has two layers;

1. Epidermis
2. Dermis

Epidermis

This is the outermost layer of the skin. It protects the body from pathogens by forming a barrier on top of one’s body.

Dermis

This tissue has several structures such as hair follicle, sebaceous gland, nerve endings, adipose tissue, blood
vessels etc.

Functions of the skin

a) Protection – the outermost layer of the dead cells of the epidermis helps to reduce water loss & provides a barrier. The
melanin pigment produced by the malpighian layer protects the skin from damage by ultra-violet light rays.

b) Sensitivity – scattered throughout the skin are a large number of tiny receptors which give rise to sensations of pain, pressure,
heat & cold. These make us aware of changes in our surroundings & enable us to avoid danger.

c) Temperature Regulation - Keeping the human body temperature constant is an example of a homeostatic mechanism. The
skin plays an important role in maintaining a constant body temperature by adjusting blood flow near the skin surface & by
sweating.

Maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans;

Overcooling;

If the temperature of blood falls below normal, the Hypothalamus in the brain detects this, impulses are sent to the
skin for the blood’s temperature to be increased. The skin will respond by;

i. Vaso-Constriction – this is the reduction on diameter of the blood vessels running near the skin surface.
This reduces blood flow near the skin surface & thus heat loss (by conduction, convection & radiation) is
greatly reduced.
Less heat lost

Arterioles constrict Epidermis

to reduce
blood flow

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 67

ii. Sweat production stops – heat is conserved when there is no evaporation of sweat from the skin.
iii. Hair on the skin surface stands up. This helps to trap air that insulates the body.
iv. Shivering – shivering is an involuntary muscular contraction in response to a drop in body temperature.
During these muscular contractions a lot of heat energy is released.
Overheating

If the blood’s temperature rises above normal, the thermoregulatory centre of the hypothalamus detects this,
impulses are sent to the skin to cool the blood. The skin responds by;

i. Vaso-dilation – blood vessels in the skin increase in diameter. As a result more blood flows near the skin
surface. More heat is lost (by conduction, convection & radiation)

More heat lost

Epidermis

Arterioles dilate
to allow for more
blood flow

ii. Producing sweat – Sweat glands absorb water, excess salts & urea from the blood to make sweat. This is
transported to the skin surface through the sweat duct to the sweat pore. As the sweat evaporates, it draws
a lot of heat from the blood capillaries and one feels cooler as the temperature falls to normal.
iii. Hair on the skin lies close to the skin surface – these makes the air currents to easily flow close to the skin
surface, collecting sweat & heat energy away from the body.

The role of the brain in temperature regulation

The hypothalamus located in the brain, detects the temperature of the blood. The thermoregulatory centre (in the
hypothalamus) receives sensory impulses from the skin. If the blood is too hot, the hypothalamus sends an impulse
to skin. The effect of this motor impulse will cause the skin to respond through the activities that cool the blood as
outlined above. This mechanism of coordination is known as “Negative Feedback Mechanism”. This whereby the
outgoing impulse counteracts the effects of the received impulse. If the blood is too cold, the outgoing impulse will
make the skin warm the blood.

Osmo-regulation (water balance)

Water balance in the body is achieved by regulating the amount of water in the urine. This is made possible by the
action of ADH – anti-diuretic hormone produced in the pituitary gland.

Importance of water balance

Water is gained by the body from drinks & food and also produced within through respiration.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 68

It is lost through urine, sweat, faeces & as vapour in the exhaled air. It is imperative that there is balance between
water gained & lost. If this balance breaks down then the body cells will either gain or loss water through osmosis
resulting in malfunctioning.

Generally kidneys regulate the amount of water present in the body by variation of the urine produced as depicted in
the flow diagram below.

If blood is concentrated

Kidney tubule cells

Pituitary gland become more
Detected by the Small amounts of Normal amount of
produces ADH permeable to
hypothalamus concentrated urine water in the body
water – more
cells produced
water is re-
absorbed

If blood is dilute
Kidney tubule cells
Detected by the Pituitary gland become less Large amount of Normal amount of
hypothalamus stops producing permeable to dilute urine is water in the body
water – less water
cells ADH produced
is re-absorbed

Regulation of glucose level

The recommended sugar level must be around 160mg/100cm3 of the blood. When the concentration of blood sugar
increases, insulin is released by the islets of Langerhans cells in the pancreas into the blood stream. Upon reaching
the liver, it stimulates the liver cells to take up excess glucose & convert it to glycogen for storage. When the glucose
levels in the blood drop another hormone called glucagon is released to stimulate the liver cells to convert glycogen
back to glucose. Refer to the figure on glucose regulation under animal nutrition.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Response and Coordination

Coordination is a process by which an organism’s activities are organized to increase its chances of
survival.

Coordination is enhanced by the nervous system & the endocrine system.

The nervous system has three primary functions;

 To collect information about conditions outside & inside the body

 To process & analyse this information
 To coordinate an appropriate response

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 69

Structure of the Nervous System

The nervous system consists of;

Spinal cord
Brain Central Nervous System (CNS)
Nerves (neurones) which form the Peripheral Nervous system
Sense organs

The nervous system has millions of nerve cells also called neurons which carry impulses.

There are two types of nerve pathways;

- Voluntary – using the brain & body to take conscious action

- Reflexes (involuntary) – quick automatic response to a stimulus which requires no thinking.
i.e. the spinal cord (& not the brain) is involved in sorting out the best response

Reflex Action Voluntary action

The response is very rapid The response may be slow

Nerve impulses take the shortest Nerve impulses take a long route
route

Spinal cord is involved hence no Brain is involved, hence thinking is

thinking required required

Effectors are visceral muscles & Effectors are skeletal muscles only
glands

Definition of biological terms in coordination

1) Sensory neurone – This is a nerve cell which receive stimulus & changes it to an impulse & conveys the
impulse to the CNS (CNS – Central Nervous System; brain & spinal cord)
2) Motor neurone – This is a nerve cell which takes impulses from the CNS to the effector organs, e.g. muscles
& glands
3) Relay neurone (also called connector / multipolar / interneurone) – connects the sensory neurone & the
motor neurone together.
4) Impulse – The electrical message carried along the nerve cell.
5) Reflex arc – When an impulse re-routes itself through the spinal cord & back the area of stimulation
6) Reflex action – Is a response to the stimulus which does not involve the use of the brain, e.g. sneezing,
coughing, blinking, change of the size of the pupil etc.
7) Axon –An elongated extension from the cell body which conducts impulse away from the cell body
8) Cell body – The mass of cytoplasm (containing nucleus & other cell organelles) from which the braches of
the cell originates.
9) Synapse – areas where nerve cells make close contact with each other.
10) Myelin sheath – A fatty substance (with protein) which surrounds larger nerve fibres & act as an insulator.
11) Reflex – A quick automatic response to a stimulus

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 70

12) Dendron – A short extension of a cell body which is involved in receiving stimuli, i.e. conducts impulses
towards the cell body.
Five key events in the Nervous System.

I. Receptor cells in sense organ detect a stimulus.

II. Nerve impulse travel through a sensory neurone to the CNS
III. Nerve impulse travel through a relay neurone inside the CNS
IV. Nerve impulse travel through a motor neurone to reach an effector organ
V. The effector organ responds, e.g. muscle contracts
(Brain & Spinal cord)
Stimulus →→→ Receptor→→→ Sensory neurone →→→ CNS →→→ Motor neurone→→→ Effector organ
How do Nerve impulses travel?

A nerve impulse is an electrical charge passing through a nerve. It begins at a sense organ, then it travels through
neurones to the CNS, rather like a current passing from a battery around a circuit.

Neurones are not directly connected to each other but are separated by very small gaps called synapse. A nerve
impulse arriving at one side of a synapse causes the secretion of a chemical transmitter (neurotransmitter) substance
which diffuses across the gap & restarts the nerve impulse in the next neurone. refer to the figure on below.

A synapse ensures that nerve impulses travel in one direction only.

Type of Sense Sense organ / Sensory cells Stimulus

Receptor

Sight Eyes Photoreceptors Light {(Cones = colour;

(cones & rods cells) Rods = light)}

Hearing Ears Mechanoreceptors Sound & Pressure

Smelling Nose Chemoreceptors Smell (chemicals in the air)

Touch Skin Thermoreceptors Temperature

Mechanoreceptors Pressure (pain)

Taste Tongue Chemoreceptors Chemicals in food

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 71

Structure of Neurones

a) motor neurone Dendrites

Nucleus

Cell body

Myelin sheath

Nerve fibre

Nerve endings b. Sensory Neuron

Sensory receptors

Nerve fibre

Myelin sheath

Cell body

dendron Nucleus

Nerve endings

Dendrites

c. Relay Neuron (Connector neuron / multi-polar neuron)

Differences between Sensory & Motor neurones

Feature Sensory Neurone Motor Neurone

Cell body - It is located to the side of the nerve fibre - It is terminal with dendrites
projections from its surface
- It has a smooth surface without dendrites

Nerve fibre - It has both the Axon & Dendron - It only has the Axon

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 72

Nerve endings - Its nerve endings are attached to sensory organs - Its nerve endings are attached to
the effector organ.

The nervous pathway of a reflex action is known as a Reflex arc, and it allows for a rapid response to a stimulus.

Example; Knee jerk

1. The stimulus is a tap on the knee

2. Receptor cells in the muscle detect the stimulus.
3. An impulse is conveyed along the sensory neurone to the spinal cord
4. In the spinal cord the impulse is on to the motor neurone
5. The motor neurone then conveys the impulse from the spinal cord to the effector organ; muscles of the leg.
6. The muscles respond by contracting & so the lower leg jerks up

Functions of the Spinal Cord

 It conducts sensory impulses from the muscles to the brain

 It carries motor impulses from the brain to the trunk limbs
 It is responsible for reflex actions involving body structures below the neck
The brain structure

a) The Pituitary gland-The gland produces many hormones, some of which act on the endocrine glands stimulating
them to produce their own hormones. Examples;

Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) – acts on the kidney to regulate the amount of water reabsorbed in the kidney
tubules
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) – which makes the follicle in the ovary to become mature & produce
oestrogen
Thyroid Stimulating hormone (TSH) – acts on the thyroid gland & makes it produce thyroxine

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 73

b) The Cerebrum

This is the largest part of the brain which divided into the left & right cerebral hemispheres. The nervous tissue of the cerebral
cortex increases the surface of the area & hence its capacity for complex functions. The cortex is formed of grey matter (cell
bodies of neurones) as distinct from the inner part which is composed of white matter (nerve fibres of neurones).

Different areas of the cortex contain distinct functions, Examples;

The largest part of the human’s cerebral cortex is concerned with intelligence, memory, reasoning ability &
acquired skills
There are the sensory areas which control sight, hearing, taste, smell & skin sensation.
The motor areas which control muscles of legs, arms, face, eyes & head
c) Cerebellum

it is the part of the brain which controls posture, balance & coordination of movement of the body in relation to its surroundings.
Therefore it is involved in the coordination of muscular activity. (it receives sensory impulses from the skeletal muscles & sends
motor impulses out to them).

d) Hypothalamus

This is the reflex centre concerned with a number of homeostatic mechanisms such as temperature control, water balance & CO 2
levels in the blood. In some of these it works hand in hand with the pituitary gland. Information from the hypothalamus is relayed
to the effectors through medulla & spinal cord. Other areas of the hypothalamus contain specific centres for the initiation of
feeding (control hunger), drinking (control thirst) & sleeping.

e) Medulla

It is the link between the spinal cord & the brain hence relays information between these two structures. It has a number of reflex
centres which control heart beat, blood pressure, breathing, coughing, swallowing, sneezing, yawning & vomiting.

The Eye – longitudinal Section

Suspensory Ligaments Choroid

Aqueous humour Retina

Iris Blind spot

Pupil

Lens Optic nerve

Cornea

Conjunctiva Fovea

Ciliary body Sclera

Vitreous humour

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 74

Functions of parts of the eye

Sclera – maintains the shape of the eye

Choroids – supply food & O2 to the retina, and also pigments that prevent internal reflection
Retina – a light sensitive tissue where images are formed
Fovea – a region where the greatest colour discrimination occurs due to concentration of cone cells.
Ciliary muscle – controls the length / curvature / shape of the lens for accommodation
Cornea – refracts light passing through onto the lens. The cornea is a clear, dome-shaped surface that
covers the front of the eye. “It is the first and most powerful lens in the eye's optical system”.
Optic nerve – sends impulses to the brain
Vitreous humour – protective fluid helps to maintain the shape of the eyeball
Aqueous humour – supplies the lens & cornea with food & O2.
Lens – Focuses images on the retina
Iris – It controls the size of the of the pupil
Pupil – allows light to enter the eye.

The Eye – Front View

Iris

Pupil

Sclera Lacrimal duct

When the eye is viewed from the front, the only structures visible are;

 The sclera
 The iris
 The pupil
 The conjunctiva

The front of the eye is covered by a thin transparent membrane called the conjunctiva. Dust particles a washed away by a watery
fluid from the tear glands which are under the eye lids. This fluid contains lysozyme, an en enzyme that destroys bacteria.
Blinking helps to spread the fluid across the conjunctiva. When the fluid reaches the lower part of the eye it drains into a tube &
goes down into the nose.

Reflex actions of the Pupil in response to bright & dim light

 The circular muscles of the iris contract.

 The radial muscles relax  The radial muscles contract
 The pupil becomes smaller  The circular muscles relax
 And less light enters the eye, preventing damage to retina  The pupil dilates
 And more light enters the eye, for the image to be formed on the retina.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 75

Accommodation

It is the process of producing a finely focused image on the retina by the action of the ciliary muscles on the lens.

The table below shows accommodation when focusing on objects at varied distances

Focusing close objects Focusing on distant objects

Light is less refracted.

Light must be greatly refracted (bent)
 Ciliary muscles relax, eyeball become spherical
 Ciliary muscles contract, pulling the eyeball inwards.  The ligaments tauten (stretched tight)
 The suspensory ligaments relax  The lens is pulled into a long & thin shape
 The lens becomes short & fat (thick

HORMONAL CORDINATION
A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland carried in the blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific
target organs.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXOCRINE & ENDOCRINE GLANDS

The exocrine glands are those glands which have ducts, i.e. their secretions are passed through ducts onto the epithelial surface
e.g. tear gland, salivary gland etc. The endocrine glands are ductless (do not have ducts) and their secretions are carried by the
blood.

EXAMPLES OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS & THE HORMONES THEY PRODUCE

GLAND HORMONE
Thyroid Thyroxin Legend
;
Adrenal Adrenaline ADH – Anti-diuretic Hormone
FSH – Follicle Stimulating Hormone
Pituitary ADH, FSH, TSH, LH
TSH – Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
Pancreas Insulin, glucagon LH – Luteinizing Hormone

Testis Testosterone

Ovaries Oestrogen, Progesterone

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 76

Locations of glands in the human body

Function of Insulin

- Insulin reduces the blood glucose level when its high (regulates the amount of glucose level in the blood) by
stimulating the liver cells to take up glucose from the blood & convert it to glycogen & stored.

Function of glucagon

- it raises the blood glucose level when its low by stimulating the liver cells to convert the stored glycogen to
glucose.
Functions of adrenaline

This is commonly known as Flight or Fight hormone because it prepares the body for action. It has the following
affects;

- It increases the rate & depth of breathing.

- It increases the rate of heart beat
- Constricts the blood vessels carrying the blood to the gut & skin hence diverting more blood to the
muscles
- It also promotes the conversion of the stored glycogen to glucose to raise blood sugar level. (therefore
functions like glucagon)
The above mentioned effects help to provide more glucose & more oxygen to the working muscles.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 77

Function of testosterone

- It controls the production & development of sperms

- Regulates the development of the male secondary sexual characteristics e.g. enlargement of sex organs,
growth of facial hair (beard), muscle enlargement, deepening of the voice etc.

Functions of oestrogen & Progesterone

- It is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females, e.g. armpit & pubic
hair, development of breasts, broadening of hips, enlargement of vagina etc
- It prepares the uterus for implantation by making its lining thicker & rich in blood vessels

Comparison between the Nervous & the Endocrine Systems

NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Information passes as electrical impulses Information passes as a chemical substances (hormone)

Transmission is through the nerves Transmission is through the blood

Rapid Transmission & immediate responses e.g. blinking Slow transmission & usually slow response e.g. growth
of the eye

The response is short lived The response is long lasting

The response is exact since impulses are sent directly to The response is usually widespread because hormones
target organs are dispersed throughout the body

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

This is whereby the incoming message triggers the release of another message, which brings about a negative
change (of opposite effect).

Example;

- When the blood sugar level is high, the pancreas is stimulated to produce insulin which in turn stimulates
the liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen and reduce the blood sugar level.

- The Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the pituitary gland stimulates the ovaries to produce
oestrogen, but the moment the oestrogen level increases the production of FSH stops, which in turn will
lead to a decrease in oestrogen level.

THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN THE TROPIC RESPONSES OF PLANTS

Geotropism – Is the growth response of a plant to gravity

Phototropism – Is the growth response of a plant to light
Chemotropism – a response to chemicals in which the leaves may curl up

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 78

Hydrotropism – a response to water or moisture in which the plant roots grow toward the water source

Geotropism & Phototropism in terms of auxins regulating growth (refer to the figure below)

Geotropism
If a plant is placed with its shoot horizontal more auxin reaches the lower of the shoot. The lower side of the shoot
elongates faster than the upper side of the shoot and the shoot curves upwards as it grows. This also applies to the
radicle which in this case shows positive geotropism.

Phototropism
In phototropism less auxin reaches the illuminated side and more reaches the shaded side. The cells on the shaded
side extend more rapidly than those on illuminated side causing the shoot to grow in a curve towards the light source.

The Effect of Removing the apical bud from a plant seedling

The cells near tip of some growing seedling / shoot produce a chemical substance called auxin, which in certain
concentrations accelerates growth in length. The auxins achieve this effect probably by delaying the loss of plasticity
in the walls of the cells in the region of extension so that at a time when the cells are osmotically active & taking in
water, the increased pressure in the vacuole forces the cell wall to extend.

It has been observed that when the tip of the coleoptile (sheath surrounding & protecting the plumule of some
monocots; especially grasses) is removed, the growth of the plant is arrested (no elongation). If the tip is cut & auxin
applied on the cut / decapitated coleoptile, growth is resumed which shows that auxin is a growth stimulating
hormone.

Study the experimental sets below

Exp 1 Exp 2

Exp 3

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 79

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction refers to the perpetual continuation of life for the survival of a species (i.e organism which share similar
characteristics & can interbreed to produce fertile offspring). There are two types of reproduction;

Asexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Asexual Reproduction

It is the reproduction in which new organisms are formed from a single parent without a gamete reproduction. This is
reproduction without fertilization i.e. no fusion of gametes. The offspring from asexual reproduction are genetically
identical to each other & to the parent organism and are referred to as CLONES.

Examples of Asexual Reproduction in Plants and Animals

1. Vegetative propagation

a. Budding – it is form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism is produced as an outgrowth. The
outgrowth is later released as a self-supporting, identical copy of the parent. Most roses are propagated by
budding on suitable wood stock. Another example is hydra, a simple of marine animal.
b. Cutting – the cutting of about 20cm is trimmed at the base just below a joint & inserted firmly in good moist
soil or water. Most plants e.g. roses are propagated through cutting
c. Grafting – a bud / shoot from the plant is inserted under the bark on the stem of another closely related
variety. The bud then grows using water & nutrients supplied by the other plant, mostly suitable for
propagation of apple trees, pear trees, rubber trees etc.

2. Fragmentation / Regeneration –
It is the breaking of an organism into two or more parts, each of which grow to form a new a individual.
This form of asexual reproduction is common among less differentiated animals. Less differentiated
animals retain strong powers of regeneration from undifferentiated cells. Some animals undergo
accidental fragmentation. E.g. starfish & flatworms.
Commercial Application of Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Refer to grafting & cutting

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

It is the simplest & shortest way of reproduction

The chances of offspring survival are greatly enhanced
There is no danger of gametes getting destroyed before fusion
Ideal for presentation of good characteristics within the population
Possible to produce a large number of offspring within a short time
Disadvantages of Asexual reproduction

Defects from parents are easily passed to offspring

Inhibits evolutionary change

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 80

Sexual Reproduction in Plants.

Petal

Stigma Anther

Style Filament

Ovary Sepal

Ovule Receptacle

Functions of parts Flower stalk

Stigma – receives pollen grains

Style – allows the pollen tube to pass through to the ovary
Ovary – produces female sex cells called ovules
Anther – produces the male sex cells called pollen grain
Filament – holds the anther
Petals – encloses parts of the flower ( protection)
Sepals – protects the ovary (and the general flower during the bud stage)
Flower stalk – holds the flower in position (attaches the flower to the plant)
Receptacle – where all the other parts of a flower are attached

Pollination

It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma

Types of Pollination

 Self Pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma in the same flower, or the transfer of
pollen grains from the anther to stigma of another flower on the same plant.

 Cross Pollination – The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same
species.
Agents of Pollination

Insects
Wind

Characteristics of Flowers

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 81

Wind Pollinated Flower Insects Pollinated Flower

 Have dull petals  Bright coloured petals

 Small or no petals  Have large petals
 Have feathery stigma  Plain stigma
 Light pollen grains  Sticky pollen grains
produced
 Lots of pollen grains  Few pollen grains
produced
 Have no scent  Scented petals
 No nectar  Have nectar

Fertilization

In order for fertilization to occur, pollination must first take place. Fertilization is the fusion of the male nucleus (from
pollen grains) with female nucleus (from the ovules)

Growth of the Pollen Tube (as a vehicle for pollen grains)

Pollen grains

Stigma

Pollen tube

Style

Pollen grain carried

Ovule down the pollen tube

Ovary

The fertilized egg (ovule) develops into an embryo. The embryo has plumule (which develops into shoot) and a
radicle (which develops into roots). The embryo is attached to the cotyledons in – one in monocots & two in dicots.
The embryo is found enclose in seeds.

Nb; after fertilization the petals dry up and fall off leaving the ovary to develop into the fruit & ovules into the seeds.

Non- Endospermic Seed (Dicot) e.g. bean seed

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 82

Functions of Parts

1. Testa {seed coat} – this is the tough outer cover in seeds. It protects the embryo from physical damage.
2. Cotyledon - this is where food is stored fro the embryo. Non Endospermic seeds (dicots) have two
cotyledons. Endospermic seeds have one cotyledon
3. Micropyle – it is an opening left by the pollen tube on the testa. It allows water & O2 needed for germination
to enter the seed,
4. Embryo is made of the;

 Plumule – which develops into the shoot during germination

 Radicle – which grows in the root system.

Environmental Conditions For Germination

The following conditions must be present in order for seeds to germinate

Water
Oxygen
Suitable Temperature

Water

Adequate water is needed for germination to start & continue. Excess water prevents germination by probably
excluding oxygen. The forces exerted by the accumulation of water into the seed may eventually rapture the testa.
Water is also required to activate the biochemical reactions associated with germination because these take place in
solution.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 83

Oxygen

It is required for aerobic respiration. The energy released is used to run chemical reactions within the cells of the
embryo during its period of growth.

Suitable Temperature

This will make enzymes to be activated thus chemical reactions will occur at the highest rate to make new cells. Each
species of seeds have an optimum temperature for germination; (5 0C– 40 0C) is the temperature range suitable for
seed germination.

The Role of Enzymes in Seed germination

In the early stages of germination, the food reserves in the cotyledons mostly starch & proteins are acted upon by
enzymes and converted to soluble products which pass to, & are used by the actively growing regions where
protoplasms are being made. Glucose is formed from the stored starch & being used in various ways; e.g. In the
synthesis of cellulose & incorporated into cell walls and in the process of respiration to generate energy needed in
the growing regions.

Seed Dispersal

This is the transfer {scattering away} of seeds from the parent plant to new sites. After seed development either the
entire fruit or the seed(s) contained within are dispersed from the parent plant.

Advantages of Seed dispersal

I. It reduces chances of competition for nutrients & space

II. There is also more chance of finding a fresh area to colonize, thus increasing the overall species population
in time. (it promotes plants diversity in different localities)

Disadvantages

I. There is a possibility of not finding a suitable place for germination

Mechanisms of Seed Dispersal.

There are three main external agents (mechanisms) of dispersal, namely;

Animal
Wind
Water

In addition, seeds can be dispersed through self dispersal mechanism, which involves an explosive release of seeds
from the fruit.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 84

1. Animal Dispersed Seeds

Example

They have hooks or spines with which they attach themselves to the skin,
fur or wool of passing animals and thus carried over some distance
before dropping off or being scratched off. E.g. goose grass, buttercup
etc.

Contained in succulent fruits which have edible fleshly parts. E.g.

tomatoes, strawberry, mulberry, wild berries, grapes etc. The fruit is
eaten & digested but the seeds are resistant to digestive enzymes &
pass unharmed through the gut of the animal to be deposited with faeces
often on fertile soils.

2. Wind Dispersed Seeds

Example

Parachute fruits & seed – seeds of willow herb & the fruit of dandelion have
projecting feathery hairs (parachute-like structures) which increase their surface
area. As a result, the seeds floats over long distances before sinking to the
ground. It is therefore likely to be carried a long way from the parent plant by
slight air current.

Winged fruits – Fruits of sycamore & ash trees have wing-like outgrowths from
the ovary walls or leaf-like structures on the flower stalk. These wings cause the
fruit to spin as it falls from the tree & slow down its fall. This delay increases the
chances of the fruit being carried away in air currents.

Pepper pot effect – e.g. poppy has a long flower on which hangs a dry hollow
capsule (formed from the ovary) with one / more openings. The wind shakes the
flower stalk and seeds are scattered on all sides through the openings in the
capsule

3. Self Dispersed Seed

Example;

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 85

Explosive fruits – the pods of flowers in the pea family dry up in the sun and shrivel.
The tough fibres in the fruit wall shrinks & set up a tension forcing the fruit to split in
half down the lines of weakness, the two halves curl back suddenly & flick out the
seed.

5. Water Dispersed Seeds

Some plants e.g. Coconut have a fibrous ovary wall which enables the fruit to float on water so that the seed is water
dispersed.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

The Male Reproductive System

Seminal vesicle

Sperm duct Cowper’s gland

Prostate gland

Urethra

Penis Epididymis

Foreskin Anus

Scrotum Testis

Functions of Parts

1. Testes – they produce sperms & the hormone testosterone

2. Scrotum – a special sac outside the abdominal cavity containing testes. At this position testes are kept at a
temperature slightly below the body temperature. This is the best temperature fro sperm production
3. Sperm ducts – carry sperms from the testes to the urethra
4. Prostate gland – it secretes an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acids in the urethra
5. Seminal vesicle – it secretes a fluid that feeds / nourish the sperm (fluid has sugars & proteins)
6. Cowper’s gland – It secretes alkaline fluid which neutralizes acids in the vagina & thus make sperm
mobility in the female’s body possible.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 86

7. Urethra – it carries urine & semen ( fluid containing sperms) out of the male’s body
8. Epididymis – A coiled tube that stores sperms
9. Penis – It is used to deposit sperms into the female’s vagina during sexual intercourse

The Female Reproductive System

Oviduct
(Fallopian tube) Ovary

Uterus (womb)

Uterus lining

Vagina
Cervix

Functions of Parts

1. Ovaries – they produce ova (eggs) and the hormones oestrogen & progesterone
2. Oviducts – the tube through which the ova pass when released from the ovary. It is also a region where fertilization
occurs.
3. Uterus – the region where the embryo is implanted after fertilization in the oviduct
4. Cervix – A ring of muscle closing the lower end of the uterus where it joins the vagina. It dilates / widens during child
birth.
5. Vagina – it accommodates (receives) the penis during sexual intercourse. It is where sperms are deposited from the
male and also serves as a birth canal.

The Difference Between Female (ovum) & Male (sperm) Gametes

SPERMATOZOA OVUM

cytoplasm
cytoplasm
nucleus
Cell membrane
Cell membrane nucleus
Smaller in size (diameter of sperm head is Larger in size (diameter of 0.05mm)
0.01mm)

Has no food store Has a food store

Has a tail which helps it to swim towards the Does not move by itself (move by the help of

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 87

egg cilia within the oviducts)

Produced in large numbers Produced in small numbers

Life span is 2 – 3 days (i.e. sperms might be able to Has a life span of 24hours after being produced
fertilize an ovum within 2 – 3 days )

How does a sperm meet an ovum in human mammals?

Usually the penis is limply or droopy, but becomes stiff & longer (or erect) when sexually excited (aroused). This happens when
blood fills the spongy tissue of the shaft of the penis. Signs of sexual excitement in women are less obvious, but it has been
observed that the labia also fills with blood & swell a little. Also, the vaginal walls produce a fluid which serves as a lubricant. All
these changes in a man & woman prepare them for sexual intercourse. An erect penis is inserted into the well lubricated vagina
and the paroxysmal movement of the penis in the vagina plus the vaginal muscle contractions stimulates the contraction of the
epididymis & sperm duct thus pushing the sperms through the ducts along which they mix with fluids from the seminal vesicles &
prostate glands. The mixture of sperms & these fluids is now called semen. Continued stimulation results in the release of the
semen into the vagina, this is called ejaculation.

Once deposited into the vagina sperms swim up through the cervix & uterus to the oviducts where they meet with an ovum.
More than 500 million sperms are released from a single ejaculation, but only one sperm is needed to fertilise the ovum. Refer to
the fig below on fertilization

During fertilization the tail of the sperm remains outside as the head travels through the cytoplasm to deliver the
nucleus, thus fertilization is defined as the fusion of the sperm nucleus with the egg nucleus to from a zygote.
Following fertilization the egg membrane changes form in order to prevent further entry of other sperms & then the
zygote divides through mitosis forming an embryo as it travels down into uterus for implantation.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 88

Then a number of changes occur in uterus to allow for a successful growth of the embryo.

These include formation of:

 Placenta – a region that allows for the exchange of substances between mother & foetus
 Umbilical cord - made of umbilical artery which carries deoxygenated blood & waste from foetus & the
umbilical vein bringing oxygenated blood & nutrients from mother to the foetus.
 Amnion - a membrane that surrounds the foetus & produces amniotic fluids As the embryo increases in
size the amniotic sac also expands to accommodate it.
 Amniotic fluid – a watery fluid that protects the foetus from external shock.

Note that from the picture insert below, the umbilical artery and umbilical vein have opposite functions to those of similar vessels elsewhere in the
body

Function of Amnion & Amniotic Fluid

The amnion (also called amniotic sac) is a thin membrane covering the embryo & has a protective function. The sac
is filled with a fluid known as amniotic fluid which supports the embryo & protect it from mechanical shock. As the
embryo increases in size the amniotic sac also expands to accommodate it

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 89

Identical & Non-identical Twins

One egg released from Two eggs released

ovary from ovaries

Egg fertilized by one Each egg fertilized

sperm by different sperm

Fertilized egg Fertilized eggs

Divides into two grow independently

The offspring
are non- identical
Each egg grows
into identical
twins
Fraternal Twins (non-identical twins)
results from two different ova fertilized
by two different sperms. Each embryo
will have its own placenta & amnion. It
Identical twins are twins resulting is possible that they may be of the
from the separation of one fertilized same or different sexes & may not
egg to form two complete individuals. resemble each other.
These individuals may share the
placenta & amnion. They also have
the same sex & closely resemble each
other in every respect.
SPECIAL DIETARY NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

A woman needs adequate supply of food

She must eat plenty of nourishing foods, especially proteins for the growing baby
She needs an increased intake of calcium & vitamin D (i.e. in milk) for the formation of strong bones for the
baby
She must have an increased intake of carbohydrates for the energy needed to carry the growing baby.
She should avoid taking any drug unless seriously necessary & prescribed by a medical practitioner.
She must also avoid alcohol & smoking as these interfere with the growth of the baby leading to
miscarriage still born or children born underweight.

Advantages of Breast Feeding over Bottle Feeding

Breast milk is ready made & cheap

It is always at the right temperature required by the baby
It contains almost all the required nutrients e.g. proteins, fats, sugar, vitamins & salts in correct quantities

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 90

It contains anti-bodies to any disease from which the mother has recovered
It also carries white blood cells which produce ant-bodies or ingest bacteria
It is free from bacteria
It helps to establish an emotional bond between mother & child.

The Menstrual Cycle

Uterine Cycle

Ovarian Cycle

The menstrual cycle is characterized by two cycles, the ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle running simultaneously.

Ovarian cycle

In the ovarian cycle, one ovum is released every 28 days. First two hormones produced by the pituitary gland are
secreted, i.e. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) & Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The Hormone FSH acts on one of the
follicles inside the ovaries to mature & ripen. LH later stimulates the ripe follicle to rupture & release an ovum, this is
known as ovulation. The ovum is then moved into the oviduct by cilia where it can meet with a sperm, but if the
ovum is not fertilized it breaks down & flows out through the vagina in the form of blood.

Uterine cycle

The ruptured follicle then develops into solid body (gland) known as the corpus luteum, which secretes the sex
hormones oestrogen & progesterone which stimulates the uterus lining to thicken & form more blood vessels, The
uterus lining thickens every time during ovulation so that it is ready for the embryo. But if there is no fertilization, the
corpus luteum breaks down & stops releasing progesterone. A drop in progesterone levels then leads to the
constriction of the blood vessels lining the uterus, as a result the thickened lining breaks down & the blood escapes
through the cervix & vagina, this is known as menstrual period.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 91

Note; a fall in the level of the sex hormones triggers the release of FSH & LH which in turn stimulates ovulation,
hence the cycle continues.

Effect of Diet on Menstrual Cycle

Females are advised to eat food rich in iron as they loose a lot of blood during menstruation. Females lacking iron
miss periods during certain months & some may eventually become anaemic. These kinds of people are normally
given iron supplements in the form of tablets & normally advised to eat lots of green vegetables to gain iron.

Effect of Emotional State on Menstrual Cycle

Anxiety, stress & excitement may result in a female having her menstrual periods earlier or later than normal.

Birth Control Methods

This involves using methods of contraception which enable to people to prevent any unplanned / unwanted
pregnancies.

Barrier methods
 Condoms
a) Male Condom is a thin sheath which is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse to prevent the sperms
from entering the vagina. The penis must be removed cautiously from the vagina immediately after ejaculation to
avoid spillage of sperms.

b) Female Condom is also a thin sheath inserted inside the vagina before intercourse to collect the sperms from
the penis.

 Diaphragm (the cap)

A dome shaped device which fits over the cervix to prevent entry of sperms. They come in different sizes & a
woman must be trained how to insert it by a doctor or at a family welfare clinic. Diaphragms offer more protection
when used together with a spermicidal cream. It must remain in place for sometime after intercourse (about 8
hours), and then it can be removed, washed, dried powdered & kept in a container.

 Intra-Uterine Device (IUDs)

IUDs are fitted inside the uterus by a doctor. The IUD touches the wall of the uterus & prevents implantation of
the embryo. The IUD is removed by a doctor by pulling the strings attached to it which pass though the cervix.
IUDs are usually used by women who have already had a child and they remain effective fro 8 - 10 years.

 Chemical / Hormonal Methods

a) Spermicidal creams

A woman uses an applicant to put spermicides insides her vagina just before intercourse to kill sperms.
Spermicides are not very effective on their own & so are often coupled with diaphragms for back up.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 92

b) The Pill

The contraceptive pill contains one / both hormones oestrogen & progesterone. The contraception of hormones
stops the ovaries from producing eggs. The woman takes the pill everyday for 21 days of her menstrual cycle.
When she stops taking this pill menstruation occurs. The woman can then begin taking the pill again on day one
of her next menstrual cycle. If she forgets to take the pill for a day then the protection is incomplete & so another
contraception must be used until the woman’s menstrual cycle.

c) Norplant

It consists of six capsules which are inserted under the skin in the woman’s arm. It contains progesterone which
prevents ovulation. It is effective 24 hours after insertion and remains effective for five years. The norplant also
thickens the cervical mucus making it difficult for the sperm to enter the uterus. It also makes the inner lining of
the uterus unsuitable for the fertilized egg to get implanted.

d) The injection

This contains the hormone progesterone. Once injected into the arm of the woman the hormone is slowly
released into the body for the next 2 – 3 months. The progesterone stops the production of eggs. Injected
contraceptives are useful for women who have difficulties taking the pill or experience problems with other
methods of contraception.

 Surgical Method (Sterilisation)

It involves a minor operation (in men is called Vasectomy; in females its called Tubal ligation). In males the
spermducts are tied & cut by a surgeon. The man can still ejaculate as the ducts are only cut below the seminal
vesicles but the fluid ejaculated will contain no sperms. This prevents the sperms from the reaching the egg.

In females the oviducts are tied & cut to prevent the passage of eggs from the ovaries

 Natural Methods

a) Rhythm method (safe period)

This depends on the woman (and possibly her partner) understanding how her menstrual cycle works. She
should be able to calculate the times at which pregnancy is possible. In addition, the woman may also observe a
slight increase in body temperature when ovulation sets in. (the temperature rise at ovulation is 0.5 0C)
unfortunately the menstrual cycle is always unpredictable especially in teenagers.

b) Withdrawal method

This depends on the men, who should pull out his penis from the woman’s vagina before ejaculation. This is
however an unreliable method because some semen would have long passed into the vagina even before
complete ejaculation.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 93

 Other methods
c) Douching

It involves flushing or washing the vagina after intercourse. This is a useless method because sperms can reach
the upper part of the oviduct within 10 minutes.

d) Abstinence

This is the most effective way to avoid any pregnancy, since there is no sexual intercourse at all.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

1. Syphilis

Caused by; a spirochete bacterium called Treponema Pallidum

Transmission – a) through unprotected sexual intercourse

b) From pregnant woman to foetus across the placenta

Symptoms (In both males & females)

I. First stage – painless sores appear on genitals or site of infection, which can heal after 4 – 8 weeks.
II. Second stage – skin rash, lymph nodes enlarge, headache, aches & pains in the bones.
III. Third stage – brain & heart damage which occur within 10 years of original infection. During birth a
baby’s eyes may become infected as it passes through the cervix & vagina.

Treatment - Can be treated with penicillin

Control

I. Abstinence
II. Condom use
III. Be faithful to your partner
2. Gonorrhea
Caused by; a bacterium called Nersseria gonorrhoeas / gonococcus

Transmission

 through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person

 from pregnant woman to foetus across the placenta
 During delivery
Symptoms

In males
 Yellowish smelly discharge from the penis
 Painful urination
 May lead to the blockage of the urethra and sperm ducts leading to sterility

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 94

In females
 Painful urination
 Yellowish & smelly discharge from the vagina.
 Oviducts may become blocked resulting in sterility
 Bacteria may invade the baby’s eyes at birth & cause blindness.
 May not show any signs at first stage
Treatment – can be treated by using antibiotics like penicillin

Control

I. Abstinence
II. Condom use
III. Be faithful to your partner
3. AIDS
(i) Cause

It is caused by a virus called Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Transmission

 Unprotected sexual contact

 Mixing of infected blood with a non-infected one, e.g. by blood transfusion, sharing non-sterilized sharp
instruments like needles & blades.
 Mother to child during pregnancy & breast feeding

(ii) Treatment

AIDS has no treatment; however, its unpleasant effects can be alleviated through the use of antiretroviral therapy.

(iii) Prevention & Control

 Abstinence
 Using a condom during sexual contact
 Avoid sharing needles & blades
 Screening of blood before transfusion

DRUGS
Definition

A drug is a chemical substance that alters / changes the normal function of the body
A chemical substance that creates physical, mental, emotional or behavioural change in the user.
Any substance taken in from an external source to affect or modify chemical reactions in the body.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 95

Why Use Drugs?

Relief pain
Give excessive energy
To get pleasure / euphoria (ecstasy)
To improve performances
To cure diseases

The use of drugs can be categorized into two

Non –medicinal purpose

Medicinal purpose

Non – Medicinal Drugs

Tobacco
EPO
Nicotine
Cocaine
Mandrax
Heroine
Marijuana

Medicinal Drugs

Antibiotics – drugs that cure bacterial diseases. These are obtained from other organisms e.g. penicillin

Anti-acids – these are drugs taken to neutralize excess stomach acid.

Painkillers – these are drugs taken to alleviate pain or suppress the parts of the brain that sense pain; e.g. aspirin,
morphine.

Sedatives – these are drugs used to calm down a person, or suppress their emotions (tranquilizers)

Drug Dependence

Frequent use of a drug causes the body to develop resistance to the effect of the drug. This leads to the use of
increased dosages of the drug to get the same effect. Eventually this leads to drug dependence – inability of the body
systems to function normally without the drug

Emotional Dependence
The user is emotionally attached to the drug & develops a craving for the drug whenever it is taken. Withdrawal
symptoms are not physical but normally emotional. E.g. loss of temper, headaches and nausea.

Drugs that cause emotional dependence include nicotine

Physical Dependence

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 96

The user develops physical withdrawal symptoms when the drug is withdrawn. This form of dependence is
called Addiction and the withdrawal symptoms include; violent shaking, hallucinations, nausea, headaches.

Drugs that leads to this condition include; cocaine, heroine etc

Drug Tolerance

Frequent use of a drug causes the body to develop resistance to the effect of the drug. This leads to the use of
increased dosages of the drug to get the same effect & eventually culminate in drug dependence. Drug dependence
builds up to drug tolerance.

Drug Abuse

This means drugs for something they were not meant for and is mostly done with drugs that affect the nervous
system, mainly the brain.

Stimulants

These are drugs that speed up the reactions of the nervous system & make the user more alert, e.g. nicotine,
caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines.

Depressants / Sedative

They slow down the reactions of the nervous system & the brain and cause one to become sleepy. They suppress
the brain & cause relief from emotional tension & anxiety e.g. alcohol, valium etc.

Hallucinogens

These are drugs that make one to hear, feel or see things that do not really exist e.g. cannabis (marijuana), LSD,
inhalants like glue.

ALCOHOL

Alcohol is one of the most abused drugs. It is a depressant, i.e. it slows down brain activity & lowers blood pressure.
It slows down transmission of nerve impulses thereby;

Increasing reaction time.

Affecting coordination of all senses e.g. sight (double vision), feeling (false sensation of warmth due to
dilation of arteries below skin).

Resulting in inability to perform activities requiring skill, e.g. writing

Alcohol destroys the liver on a long term basis & result in a disease called Liver Cirrhosis. Then the liver will no
longer detoxify, deaminate & balance blood glucose. This leads to death. It also affects the kidneys.

Social Implications

Impoverish families because a lot of money is used to buy alcohol.

Loss of social dignity

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 97

Allergic Reactions

An allergic reaction is an unusual reaction to any substance. A substance that causes an allergic reaction is called an
allergen. Example allergens are drugs, food, dust particles, pollen grains.

Symptoms of Allergic Reactions

Running nose
Breathing difficulties
Rash
Oedema (unexplained swellings)

ECOLOGY & CONSERVATION

Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with each other & their environment.

TERMS USED IN ECOLOGY

Community – all organisms of all species living in the same habitat

Habitat – the area where an organism lives
Population – a group of organisms of the same species
Species – a group of organisms of the same kind which mate & produce a fertile offspring
Environment – the surroundings where an organisms lives
Ecosystem – consists of a community & its environment
Food chain – a linear feeding relationship between organisms
Food web – a set of linked food chains showing a more complex but realistic feeding relationship
Producer – an organism which makes its own food e.g. plants. (also known as autotrophs)
Primary consumer – an organism that feeds directly on producers; a.k.a. herbivores
Secondary consumers – an animal that feeds on primary consumers a.k.a. meat eaters/ carnivores
Omnivores – an animal that feeds on both meat & plants e.g. man
Tertiary consumers – organisms that normally feed secondary consumers
Decomposers – organisms that normally feed on dead animal or plant matter
Scavengers – animals that feed on the remains of dead animals e.g. vultures & hyenas
Trophic / feeding level – stage in a food chain or food web
Pyramid of numbers – a diagram showing the number of organisms at each trophic level, the length of the
bar is proportional to the number of organisms.
An Ecosystem is a habitat – a place where an organism lives and the physical factors that influence it e.g.
temperature, soil type, rainfall; (or a community of organisms interacting with their environment)

All energy for an ecosystem which flows through an ecosystem comes from the sun, i.e. the sun the principal
source of energy.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 98

Energy is transferred through an ecosystem by feeding, when one organism eats another organism some energy is
passed on.

The feeding relationships are shown using food chains & food webs. A food chain is a linear representation of how
energy is passed between organisms, & has one type of organism at each feeding (trophic) level.

A food web is a complex but more realistic way of presenting energy flow – made of several food chains interlinked.

There are usually 4 to 5 feeding levels in a food chain, and these levels are called trophic levels.

The first trophic level is Producers. These are always green plants / green algae which are photosynthetic.
Producers produce food for the next trophic level, which are primary consumers. These are always plant eaters so
they are called Herbivores. The primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers, also referred to as
carnivores because they eat other animals. The tertiary consumers feed largely on secondary consumers.
Producers & all the consumers stated above are fed on by Decomposers.

Sun’s energy Producers Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary Consumers

Decomposers

The arrows show the direction of flow of energy. Energy is not cyclical meaning that it does not return to its source.
Energy is either lost or used up along the food chain.

If Producer Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary Consumers

Has 100KJ keeps 10KJ for growth keeps 1KJ Keeps 0.1KJ

90KJ lost 9KJ lost 0.9KJ lost

Most energy is passed on between producers & tertiary consumers, but also most of it is lost i.e. only 10% of the
energy is passed on from one trophic level to the next as shown above. A very small amount of energy reaches the
tertiary level. After that there is not enough energy to support life at fourth consumer level. More energy is found at
the beginning of the food chain & it decreases up the trophic level.

This means that there are more producers & a few consumers. This can be illustrated using a pyramid of numbers as
shown below

Tertiary consumers

Secondary consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 99

Energy cannot be recycled in an ecosystem but nutrients can be recycled, carbon & nitrogen for example, can be
used again & again in different forms in an ecosystem.

ENERGY FLOW

Energy flow refers to the movement of energy from one trophic level to another. The sun is the principal source of
energy for all biological systems. i.e. plants & animals. Refer to the fig below

The Sun (principal source o f energy)

Green Plants (photosynthesis)

Herbivores (starch eaters)

Carnivores (meat eaters)

Decomposers (carcass eaters)

Non – Cyclical flow of Energy

Energy does not flow backwards & return to the sun therefore we say that the energy flow through the ecosystem is
non-cyclical

Food chains – a linear feeding relationship between organisms

Should always begin with a producer

Should have arrows to indicate the direction of energy flow

producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer

e.g.

1. grass zebra lion vulture

2. algae tadpole water scorpion perch

Grass Locust Scorpion Baboon

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 100

Food web – It is made of many food chains linked together. Refer to the fig below

ENERGY LOSES IN FOOD CHAINS

The plants in field use a lot of sunlight & convert it into chemical energy in food. Every time energy passes from one
organism to the next in a food chain, quiet a lot of energy is wasted. On average only about one tenth of the energy
from trophic level is passed onto to the next trophic level.

Energy from
Producer Primary Secondary
the sun consumer consumer 0.1%

100% 10% 1%

90% lost 9% lost 0.9% lost

When herbivores eat the plants they do not get all the energy from them. Only a part of the energy is passed onto the
herbivores.

There are several reasons to this;

1. the plants will have used some of the energy for themselves
2. the herbivores may not eat all of the plants e.g. may only eat leaves
3. the herbivores may not be able to digest all parts of the plants

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 101

Pyramid of Numbers

Algae tadpole water scorpion perch

Perch
Water scorpion

Tad poles

Algae

The bar for producers is always at the bottom of the diagram. Pyramids of numbers are usually a typical shape with a
broad base, but in certain circumstances they are in wrong shape, e.g.

Eagle

birds This happens when the producer is a

large with lots of smaller consumers
Caterpillar
feeding on it
Large plant

Parasites

This happens when one of the

consumer bars is made of parasites
e.g. ticks / fleas. Lots of these tiny
animals can live on a host
Pyramids of Biomass

These are diagrams that show the mass of organisms at each trophic level. The length of the bar is proportional to
the mass of organisms
Perch

Water scorpion

Tadpole

Algae

NUTRIENT CYCLES

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 102

Although energy is non cyclical, nutrients are themselves cyclical in an ecosystem

1. The Carbon Cycle

There is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is used by plants to make carbohydrates through
photosynthesis. Therefore green plants remove carbon from the atmosphere.
Plants are eaten by animals, so the process of feeding passes carbon from plants to animals.
Plants and animals respire all the time when there are alive, and respiration releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
When plants & animals die, they are decomposed by bacteria & this causes decay. This process also
releases CO2 to the atmosphere. Through these processes the carbon cycle is balanced
Photosynthesis is balanced naturally by Respiration & Decay
However, human beings have upset the cycle by adding more CO2 to the air. This is caused by combustion
of fossil fuels like; natural gas, crude oil, coal.

Refer to the figure below of the Carbon cycle

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CO2 in the atmosphere Plants use the atmospheric
RESPIRATION CO2 to make carbohydrates
DECAY

EATEN
COMBUSTION

FOSSILISATION
DECAY Animal tissue formed from
RESPIRATION eating plant tissue

Fossil fuels; e.g.

natural gas, Coal,
Crude oil

Carbon, used by all living organisms, continuously circulates in the earth’s ecosystem. In the atmosphere, it exists as the gas carbon
dioxide, which is used by plants in the process of photosynthesis. Animals acquire the carbon stored in plant tissue when they eat and
exhale carbon dioxide as a by-product of metabolism. Although some carbon is removed from circulation temporarily as coal,
petroleum, fossil fuels, gas, and limestone deposits, respiration and photosynthesis balance to keep the amount of atmospheric carbon
relatively stable. Industrialization, however, has contributed additional carbon dioxide to the environment.

2. The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen forms 78% of the atmosphere and is an essential element in proteins. However plants cannot readily use
nitrogen, it should rather be converted to nitrates which soluble in water.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 103

How nitrates are made available to plants;

1. Fixations by bacteria in the roots of legumes – some plants have nodules (swellings) on their roots
which contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria convert gaseous nitrogen into nitrogen compounds
from which plants can synthesize proteins. (e.g. peas, beans clover)
2. Fixation by lightning – nitrogen & oxygen combine in the atmosphere during a thunder a storm (and in the
vehicle engines during combustion). The nitrogen oxide formed dissolves in rain water & is converted to
nitrates in the soil
3. Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium salts into nitrates – animal excreta and decaying animal & plants
contain ammonium salts which can be converted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria freely living in the soil
4. Addition of ammonium fertilizers to soils – farmers add both nitrates & ammonium salts as to the soil as
fertilizers.
How nitrates are removed from the soil;

1. Leaching – the washing away of nutrients from the soil.

2. Denitrification – a process by which some bacteria convert nitrates and ammonium salts back to nitrogen
3. Absorption by plants
Fig showing the Nitrogen cycle

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 104

noodles of some legume plants

Converted by bacteria living in root

in soil
Nitrification by bacteria freely living

Ammonium in the
Nitrates
soil (From excreta &
in the soil
decayed organisms)

Eaten
by animals

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON THE ENVIRONMENT

There is a natural balance between plants & animals, as shown by food webs & food chains. However human
activities upset the balance, harming the environment & posing many problems to human beings themselves.
Examples are given below

How Poor Agricultural Practices Result in the Destruction of Ecosystems

1) Monoculture
This means growing one type of crop on the same piece of land year after year. Such crops cannot support a mixed
population of organisms. It also leads to the displacement of the natural plants & animals, as the land will be cleared
for growing that particular crop. Monoculture also results on the use of pesticides to control pests affecting that crop,
but this often kills not only the pests but also other beneficial organisms.

2) Overstocking

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 105

This means keeping a large number of livestock with a small area. This leads to overgrazing which might lead to soil
erosion. Overgrazing leads to the destruction of habitats for small organisms.

3) Deforestation

This refers to the cutting down of too many trees (for the purposes of building industries, residential houses,
construction of roads & other things) without replacing them. As a result most habitats are destroyed & also certain
plant species are destroyed. The noise caused during the construction away drive some animals & hence disturbing
the ecosystem.

4) Pesticides

Some insecticides such as DDT are non-biodegradable, i.e. cannot be decomposed by biological organisms.
Therefore they enter the smaller organisms in the food chain. The concentration of this insecticide increases up the
trophic levels hence the tertiary consumer may die due to higher concentrations of the insecticides,
(Bioaccumulation)

Scenario on bioaccumulation

A lake was sprayed with an insecticide to control mosquitoes. The diagram shows how the insecticide passed from
organism to another in a food chain.

Mosquito larva small fish large fish fish eagle

Fish eagle Consumes many organisms which also

had fed on more organisms with high
concentrations of the pesticides
Large fish

Small fish

Mosquito Treated with pesticides & therefore

more small organisms will be affected
by the pesticide
5) The use of Fertilizers

Fertilizers are very rich in nitrates & phosphates, and they are normally used to enrich the soil for better crop yields. If
these nitrates & phosphates are drained into rivers due to running water, they promote the growth of green algae.
These green algae will flourish & cover up the surface of the water and prevent the plants beneath from receiving
sunlight; as a result these plants may eventually die because they will not be able to make themselves food. When
they die, they get decomposed by the bacteria & this process uses lot oxygen from the water. As a result there will be
insufficient oxygen supply to the marine animals, e.g. fish. These animals will then suffocate & die. This whole
process is called EUTROPHICATION

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 106

PROBLEMS LEADING TO FAMINE

 Unequal Distribution of Food

The country may have enough food but not equally distributed among the whole population. There are certain areas
where people are extremely poor due to lack of food while in other areas in the same country people have more than
enough.

 Natural Disasters
Certain areas may experience heavy rainfall resulting in floods, which may destroy many houses & vegetation.
People will remain poor without shelter & food. In certain areas it may be very hot & dry without any rain which will
make farming impossible. Since many people rely on farming, they will starve because livestock will be destroyed &
no crops will be grown.

 Increase in Population
If there are too many people in a given area & less resources, there will be a serious problem because there will be
acute shortage of food supply.

POLLUTION

It is the presence of harmful substances in an environment

OR

It refers to bringing about changes that are destructive to both living & non-living things in an environment.

These harmful substances are called POLLUTANTS

Types of Pollution

Air Pollution
The presence of pollutants in the atmosphere causes air pollution. E.g. poisonous gases from industries results in the
pollution of air. One of the most common gases released from industries is Sulphur dioxide. When this gas combines
with the moisture in the atmosphere, it falls down as acid, which corrodes buildings & destroys vegetation.

Excess CO2 in the atmosphere can also bring about some problems. An increase in CO2 may be due to burning fuels;
e.g. fire wood, fossil fuels etc. at a higher rate & also due to the cutting down of trees which could otherwise help in
reducing the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. CO2 has the ability to trap a lot of heat energy & allow little to
escape the atmosphere. If the concentration of CO2 is very high it means more heat will be trapped leading to a rise
in the earth’s temperature. This is known as Global Warming. This rise in temperature may result in the melting of ice
in the arctic poles raising the sea levels, which may even lead to floods.

Some oxides such as lead oxide released from car exhausts may also pollute the air & are harmful to people when
inhaled.

Water Pollution
 Sewage Disposal

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 107

Some waste materials from toilets and kitchens when drained into rivers will cause water pollution. This waste
contains disease causing micro-organisms which may result in people catching diseases if they use this
untreated water, e.g. cholera, bilharzias etc.

 Inorganic wastes
These are usually the waste materials from industries which when discharged into rivers, pollute the water. This
waste may contain poisonous chemical substances such as mercury, lead etc. If they enter the food chain e.g.
e.g. from small fish up to human beings, they may cause serious health problems such as cancers or even
death.

Land Pollution
The land may be polluted by litter e.g. tins, papers, glasses etc, which may end up acting as breeding places for
disease causing micro-organisms. The land may also be polluted by disposed chemicals, which may destroy
beneficial organisms.

CONSERVATION

This involves preserving habitats & protecting individual species of plants & animals.

Advantages

1. it ensures biodiversity
2. it ensures the protection & keeping of species with survival value
3. It preserves the different habitats

Reasons for Conserving Organisms

1. they are a source of food e.g. Mowana & Mosukujane

2. For medicinal purposes e.g. sengaparile (devil’s claw) & monepenepe
3. For tourist attraction e.g. rhinos, cheetahs, lions etc.

Material Recycling

This is one way of conserving materials & it involves the use & reuse of materials (i.e. reprocessing of used
materials to be used again).

Reasons For Recycling

1. Reduces littering & pollution

2. Saves money because there is no need to make new materials
Examples of Recyclable Substances

 Organic waste can be fermented to produce methane gas, which is used in cooking and other things.
 Empty bottles can be cleansed and reused in the packaging of drinks, like at kgalagadi breweries
 Scrap metals & tins can be heated up & re-moulded to make new items.
 Old newspapers can be used to make toilet paper.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 108

SUPPORT, MOVEMENT (LOCOMOTION) & PROTECTION

The Human Skeleton

 It protects delicate organs & structures of the body;

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 109

Lungs – protected by the rib cage

Brain – protected by the skull
Vertebral column – protects the spinal cord

 Allows for free movement through the muscles across the joints
 Forms some blood components – Red blood cells & some white blood cells
 Acts as a framework that supports the soft tissues & thus give the body its shape
 Store & releases minerals from bone tissues

The table shows the number of bones at different parts of skeleton

PART OF SKELETON NUMBER OF BONES

Axial skeleton

Skull 29
Spine 26
Rib cage 25
Total 80

Appendicular skeleton

Pectoral girdle 4
Pelvis girdle 2
Arms 60
Legs 60
Total 126

The Main bones of the Forelimb of a Mammal

Joints Formed By the Bones of the Forelimb

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 110

Ball & socket joint

Scapula

humerus

The ball & socket joint allows movement in three planes. It is formed by the humerus & scapula at the shoulder.

Hinge joint

Hinge joint at
the elbow

It allows movement in one plane and formed by the ulna & humerus

The surfaces of the heads of bones which move over each other are covered with cartilage – which is soft slippery &
smooth thus minimizing friction.

Each joint in the body is filled with synovial fluid. The synovial fluid lubricates the cartilage to ensure friction free
movement. Refer to the synovial join below

Humerus bone

Muscle

Synovial joint(with fluid)

cartilage Radius bone

Tendon Ulna bone

Ligaments are tough structures that hold bones of the joint together. It prevents dislocation of the bones during
movement.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 111

A tendon connects a bone to a muscle to ensure movement when the muscles contract & relax.

Antagonistic Muscles of the Forearm

Muscles cause movement through contraction & relaxing. They cannot elongate. Most muscles work in pairs, one of
them producing the opposite movement of the other. Such muscle pairs are called Antagonistic muscles. Refer to the
figure below.

Figure showing muscles working in pairs

Tendons

Biceps Triceps

Tendons

In case of the limb they may be called Flexor & Extensor muscles based on their effect on the limb. Flexor muscles
bend the limb while extensor muscles straighten the limb.

Example; the biceps muscle flex the arm at the elbow & antagonizes the triceps. The biceps serve both to rotate the
lower arm & flex the elbow. Biceps flex the arm only when the palm is facing upwards.

When the biceps contract to lift the arm up the triceps relaxes. When the triceps contract to straighten the arm the
biceps relax. The biceps which flex the arm is larger & more powerful than the triceps which extend it.

GENETICS, INHERITENCE & NATURAL SELECTION

INHERITANCE

The study of the transmission of characteristics from one generation to next (from parent to offspring) is called
inheritance, Heredity or Genetics.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 112

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. A Gene is a basic unit of inheritance for a given characteristic. It may be defined as the unit of inheritance which is
passed from parents to offsprings. The chemical which forms the genes is called the DNA. The genes are arranged
along the length of each chromosome like a string of beads. Each gene controls specific characteristics, but
sometimes a characteristic may be controlled by several genes acting together.
Genes are a section of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which is part of a chromosome. Genes determine the presence
or absence of a certain characteristic in organisms.

2. A DNA consists of large complex molecules made up of smaller molecules of compounds called nucleotides. A
nucleotide consist of;

A five Carbon sugar (Deoxyribose)

A base e.g. Thymine, Cytosine, Adenine, Guanine
A phosphate group

It is the functional unit of chromosomes which determine the individual’s characteristics.

3. ALLELES Each gene can exists in a number forms e.g. TT, Tt, tt. The different pairs of the same genes are
called alleles. They are found at the same locus (position), but on different chromosomes of the homologous pair.
Alleles therefore control alternate characteristics e.g. tallness and shortness. In the case of eye colour one allele may
be for blue eyes and the other for brown eyes.

4. LOCUS (Plural = LOCI) is a position occupied by a gene along a chromosome

5. CHROMOSOME are thin threads like structures which are found in the nucleus of the cells, they carry genes. In
ordinary resting cells, chromosomes cannot be seen, but when the cell is about to divide, chromosomes condense
and become visible.

Chromosomes coiled up Chromatid - forming chromosomes

In the nucleus

Chromosomes exist in homologous pairs – i.e. being identical in length and gene number. One chromosome of the
pair comes from the father parent the other from the female parent.

6. HOMOZYGOUS – Possessing a pair of identical genes controlling the same characteristics; will breed true for the
characteristics.
E.g. TT – Homozygous dominant (homozygote)
t t – Homozygous recessive

7. HETEROZYGOUS – Carrying a pair of contrasting genes for any heritable characteristics: will not breed true for
the characteristics. Both alleles are present at a locus

e.g. Tt - Heterozygous

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 113

8. MITOSIS – This is the type of cell division that occurs in the ordinary body cells during growth. When cells are
about to divide, chromosomes become more visible. Mitotic division occurs in stages (namely; Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, and Telophase). During mitotic division the daughter cells end up with the same number of chromosome
as their parent cell. The entire set of chromosomes in an organism is known as the Diploid number, (2n).

Importance of Mitotic cell division

 The process leads to cell multiplication, hence growth of the organism

 It makes asexual reproduction, regeneration & cell replacement possible
 The process maintains a genetical stability within a population

9. MEIOSIS – This is the type of division that occur in the gonads during gamete formation. In meiotic division the
chromosome number is halved, therefore known as the Haploid number, (n)

10. GENOTYPE - It is the genetic makeup of an individual. It is the genotype which determines characteristics.
Genotype is controlled by the sequence of bases in a DNA strand.

If both alleles are the same, for example; BB for brown eyes, bb for blue eyes, the genotype for this
characteristic is termed homozygous
If the alleles are different, e.g. Bb; one for each colour, then the genotype is termed heterozygous

11. PHENOTYPE – The physical appearance of the characteristic, i.e. observable features of an organism e.g.
Height, eye colour, hair colour, ear shape etc.

12. DOMINANT – The allele whose characteristic appears in the called dominant. In genetic terms, dominant alleles
show their characteristics whether their homozygous or heterozygous.

13. RECESSIVE – The allele which is not expressed phenotypically when inherited in the heterozygous condition. It
is suppressed by the dominant allele. Recessive alleles show their characteristics when their genotype is
homozygous

F1. GENERATION -The offspring produced after one generation of breeding are known as the first filial generation
and this is usually abbreviated as F1 generation.

F2 . GENERATION –The offspring resulting from the interbreeding of the F1 generation are called the second filial generation
abbreviated F2 generation

SYMBOLS – alleles are usually represented by letters as symbols, where the dominant alleles are shown by the
upper case whilst the recessive ones are indicated by the lower cases.
In the example of eye colour in humans, brown eye is dominant to blue eye. So the capital letter B can be used to
represent brown and small letter b to represent blue. E.g. refer to the fig below.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 114

HOMOZYGOUS HETEROZYGOUS

Brown Eyes Blue Eyes Brown Eyes

Phenotype

Genotype BB bb Bb

Dominant recessive dominant

HYBRID CROSSES (Also called “ Single-factor inheritence)

The process of sexual reproduction in both plants and animals in genetics is called crossing.
 A cross in animals involves the fusion of sperm and ovum, and in plants, the fusion of pollen grain nuclei and
ovule nuclei.
 The way in which a single characteristic e.g. eye colour is passed on from parent generation to offspring
generation is called a monohybrid cross.

Example of monohybrid inheritance

Brown X Blue

(1) BB X bb

Gametes B B

b Bb Bb

b Bb Bb

When two homozygous parents BB and bb cross, the genotype of all offspring is

heterozygous Bb. The phenotype of all offspring is brown eyed.

If these parents that are each heterozygous are allowed to mate as shown below;
(2) Bb X Bb

Gametes B b

B BB Bb

b Bb bb

This shows a ratio of 3 individual with brown eyes to 1 individual with blue eyes. The ratio will be 3: 1 in the phenotype.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 115

(3) A cross between a person who is heterozygous Bb and a person who is homozygous recessive bb

Bb X bb

Gamete B B

b Bb Bb

b Bb Bb

This gives a ratio of 1: 1 of brown eyes to blue eyes.

Why Observed Ratios Differ From Expected Rations

Observed ratios sometimes differ from expected ratios especially when there is small number of progeny, also it is
because fertilization between sperm & ovum is a matter of chance, you can never tell whether a B sperm or b will
fertilize a B or b ovum. It is possible that out of six offspring, only one may have a certain defect

BACK CROSS (TEST CROSS)

The way to discover an unknown genotype is by carrying out a further cross known as the test cross. The test cross
is used to determine the genotype of a dominant phenotype. It always involves crossing of the unknown genotype to
the homozygous recessive. This is the genotype of one the parents in the standard monohybrid cross and that is why
it is also known as Back Cross.

Example;
From the earlier example given under monohybrid inheritance, a brown eye colour may result from BB or Bb,
therefore the exact genotype is not apparent from the phenotype, unlike the genotype of a blue eye which can only
be from bb.

Refer to the genetic diagram below;

The outcomes of two possible crosses are shown;

i) Involving genotype B B

Parental Phenotype brown eyed Blue eyed

Parental Genotype BB bb

Back cross progeny genotype; Bb Bb Bb Bb

Progeny phenotype; (all brown eyed)

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 116

If the unknown genotype is BB, then all the back cross progeny will inherit a B from the parent and will show a dominant trait which
is brown.

ii) Involving genotype B b

Parental phenotype Brown eyed Blue eyed

Parental genotype Bb bb

Back cross progeny Genotype; Bb Bb bb bb

Progeny phenotype; (2 Brown eyed and 2 blue eyed)

If the unknown genotype is Bb; each of the offsprings has a 1 in 2 chances of receiving a B and the same chance for receiving a b.

Therefore on average, the offsprings of a heterozygous and a homozygous recessive show a ratio of

1 heterozygote : 1 homozygote recessive

PEDIGREEES FOR MONOHYBRID CROSSES

A Pedigree is a record of the ancestry of an individual. A pedigree in the form of a chart can be used to illustrate the transmission
of a heritable condition in a family.

The symbols used in a pedigree chart;

= Normal Male = Affected Male

= Normal Female = Affected Female

= Marriage = Heterozygous (carrier) female

A marriage with four children, 1 daughter and 3 sons, 1 of whom is affected by the inherited condition will be shown as follows;

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE: This sometimes means the same as ' Co-dominance', but strictly it applies to a case
where the effect of a recessive allele is not completely masked by the dominant allele. E.g. Sickle cell Anaemia:

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 117

 It affects haemoglobin in red blood cells

 It causes the red blood cells to distort when the blood is deoxygenated

There is an allele in humans which if inherited in the homozygous recessive form gives rise to a condition called

sickle cell anaemia. This is normally shown as;

a) Normal allele: HbA HbA (do not have sickle cell anaemia - Dominant)

b) A sufferer: Hbs Hbs (severe anaemia - Homozygous recessive)

c) Sickle-CelI trait HbA Hbs (mild symptoms of anaemia - Heterozygous) (not completely dominant over recessive
allele)

Incomplete dominance in plant species

In a certain plant species (snapdragons), a red flowered individual when crossed with a white flowered individual, will
produce pink flowered offspring. If these flowers are self pollinated, they will produce an F2 generation with flowers in
the ratio of 1 red: 2 pink: 1 white.

This is incomplete dominance, i.e. whereby the heterozygote produces a condition that is intermediate / between
those produced by the two homozygote. Neither gene nor allele is dominant over the other.

Refer to the example given below

Parent RR x rr
(red) (white)

Gametes R r

F1 Self pollination

Gametes R r
R RR Rr
r Rr rr

F2 phenotypes are; 1Red 2 Pink 1 White

Genotype 1RR : 2 R r : 1 r r

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 118

CO-DOMINANCE

If both genes in a pair produce or show their effects equally in an individual, the alleles are called co-dominant. In some
cases a single characteristic such as blood group in humans is controlled by one gene which has 3 alleles. They can be
represented as follows:
A for blood group A (presence of A – antigen)
B for blood group B (presence of B – antigen)
O for blood group O (no antigen present)
Alleles A and B are dominant to allele O
Alleles A and B are co-dominant.

There are four phenotypic blood groups. A, B, AB, and O. These blood groups are controlled by a single gene which
is normally represented by the letter I. The four blood group phenotypes have the following genotype.

Phenotype Genotype

Blood group A IAIA, IA I0

Blood group B IB IB, IB I0
Blood group AB IA I B
Blood group O I0 I0

Example: a woman with blood group A and a man with blood group B with three children - one with blood group O, the
second child with blood group A and the third one with blood group B.
Explain this pattern of inheritance using a punnet square

Solution; Parental phenotype; blood group A X blood group B

Parental genotype; IA IO IB I

Gamete IA IO

IB IA IB IBIO

IO IA IO I OI O

Offspring genotypes: IAIB, IAIO, IB IO, IOIO

Offspring phenotypes: blood group AB, A, B and O

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

Co-dominance therefore refers to two genes which are pairing in homologous chromosomes and with equal
strength. None of them is dominant over the other.

COMPLETE DOMINANCE
This is a condition where there are two types of genes, a dominant & recessive one. The dominant
gene will show its effects & completely overpower the presence of the recessive gene
MUTATIONS
A mutation is a sudden change in a gene or chromosome which alters the way it controls development

Any change in gene or chromosome usually has a harmful effect on the cell it occurs.
If the mutation occurs in the gametes, it will affect all the cell of the individual which
develops from the gamete; hence the whole organism will be affected.
If the mutation occurs in the somatic cells, it will affect only those cells by mitosis from
the affected cells, e.g. skin cancer

Types of mutations
There are two types of mutations

1. Gene mutation
A gene mutation changes the sequence of bases. This may result in a change of the sequence of amino acids.
These mutations are small and may involve one base. The gene will then produce a different type of protein with
corresponding effects in an organism.

Gene mutation involves;

Addition
Deletions of one or a few base pairs
Substitution (rearrangement) of one base pair for another within the gene

Example: Albinism

Results from a mutation in the genes

Albinos are unable to produce the dark pigment melanin; which controls skin colouration, so that the colour fails
to develop.

e.g. The Albinism allele is recessive to the pigment producing allele.

Parent Aa * A a

Gamete A a

A Aa Aa

A Aa aa
 P a g e | 120

If both parents carry a recessive gene for the albino characteristic, there is a 1 in 4 chances that their child will be
albino

2. Chromosome mutations

Chromosome mutations occur during nuclear division. It result in a zygote with too many / too few / an abnormal
mixture of chromosome
The changes in the number of chromosomes results from the errors occurring during cell division in both sex cells
and somatic cells. The changes in chromosomes number may involve the loss or gain of a chromosome, a
condition known as anueploidy. Chromosome mutations resulting from an increase in the entire haploid sets of
chromosome lead to a condition known as euploidy / polyploidy

Example: Down's syndrome

Down's syndrome is a condition in humans caused by a chromosome mutation during meiosis.
During egg production, two chromosomes fail to separate so an extra chromosome is present in the egg cell. Instead of the egg
cell having 23 chromosomes it will have 24.
The affected child has 47 chromosomes in his or her cells instead of the normal 46.
Types of Chromosome Mutations

Inversion – whereby a region of a chromosome breaks off & rotates through 180 0 before rejoining
the chromosome.
E.g. A B C D E

Being inverted to

A B E D C

Translocation – a region of a chromosome breaking off & and rejoining either on the other end of the same
chromosome or on another non-homologous chromosome.

E.g. A B C D

Translocation A B D C

OR E F G H C

Deletion – it involves the loss of a region of a chromosome, either from the ends or internally. This results
in a chromosome being deficient in certain genes. Deletion can be lethal if it affects the same gene loci on
both homologous chromosomes
e.g A B C D

Deletion A D

Duplication – a region of a chromosome becomes duplicated so that an additional set of genes exists for
the region of duplication. The additional region of genes may be incorporated within or at the end of the
chromosome
e.g. A B C D

Duplication A B C D C D

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 121

CAUSES OF MUTATIONS

The major causes of mutations are chemical substances and radiation. These are called mutagens and they
include;
Ultra-violet radiations from the sun
X-rays, Gamma rays & beta particles from radioactive decay increases the reactivity of atoms in DNA
molecules
Chemicals such as nitrous acid, tar, mustard gas, caffeine, formaldehyde, pesticides. These chemicals
affect the replication process of DNA (by increasing the probability of mistakes)

DETERMINATION OF SEX IN HUMANS

Sex is determined by the sex chromosome

The X and Y chromosome differ in size; the X chromosome is much longer than the Y
chromosome
A woman’s chromosomes are both alike and are called X chromosome, and she has a genotype XX
A man has only one X chromosome and the smaller Y chromosome, and has the genotype XY
When meiosis takes place in the female ovary, each ovum receives one X chromosome
Meiosis in the male testes results in 50% of the sperm getting one X chromosome and 50% getting one
Y chromosome
If an X sperm fertilizes the ovum, the zygote will be XX and grow into a girl.
If a Y sperm fertilizes the ovum, the zygote will be XY and grow into a boy.

e.g.

Female XX * Male XY

Male

Gametes X Y

X XX XY
X XX XY
Female female male

Half the children will probably be male, and the other half female.

SEX LINKAGE

The X and Y chromosome do not only determine sex, they have other genes on them
Some genetic disorders affect many more males than females. E.g. Haemophilia & and colour
blindness. These diseases are called sex linked diseases.
Sex linkage results from the fact that the X chromosome is longer than the Y chromosome.
The presence of a recessive allele on a region of an X chromosome which does not have a
corresponding region in the Y chromosome will result in the appearance of the recessive trait in
the phenotype. This is why sex –linked recessive conditions appear only in males and not
females

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 122

E.g. HAEMOPHILIA

It is a human disease in which blood is slow to clot.

The gene controlling the condition is situated on the X chromosome in the non-overlapping
region with the Y chromosome
The genes appear in two forms; normal (dominant) and haemophilic (recessive)

If a carrier haemophiliac female marries a normal male and has children, then the likely chances of the children
having haemophilia can be calculated and predicted as follows;

Let: H represent normal allele for blood clotting (dominant)

h represent allele for haemophilia (recessive)
XX represent female chromosomes
XY represent male chromosomes
Gamete XH Xh
XH XHXH XHXh
Y XHY XhY
Offspring genotype: XH X H XHY X H Xh Xh Y
Offspring phenotype: Normal Female Normal male Carrier Female Haemophiliac Male

The genetic diagram shows that 1 in 4 of the offspring could be haemophiliac and this could be a male child.
Females can only be carriers (a carrier is someone who has a recessive gene in their cells but has a normal
phenotype).E.g. A woman with the genotype XH Xh seems perfectly normal and her blood clots in the usual way.

There are only two possible genotypes for a man. This is because the Y chromosome does not have a
haemophilia or blood clotting gene of any kind.

Genotype Phenotype
X YH Normal
X hY Haemophiliac

VARIATION

Variation is the degree of differences between a set parents and off-springs. These variations could be inherited
or due to external factors such as temperature, light & moisture for plants.

Types of Variation

Discontinuous Variation

In a population there are certain characteristics which show a limited form of variation. Discontinuous variation
produces individuals showing clear cut differences with no intermediates in between them.
Examples

 The blood groups in humans (A,B, AB, O)

 The wing length of drosophila & sex in animals and plants (males & females)
 Sex is inherited in a discontinuous way, it cannot be altered.
Continuous Variation

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 123

In continuous variation the characteristics in a population show a complete gradation (progression) from one
extreme to other without any break. Characteristics resulting in continuous variation are produced by the
combined effects of many genes & environmental factors.

Examples

 Height
 Weight
 Colour of organism
 intelligence

Theory of Evolution (Darwin / Wallace)

Evolution refers to the development of differentiated organisms from pre-existing (less differentiated) organisms
over the course of time or is the gradual change of species of species over time

The theory proposes that the species change with time. It states that the first living things were quite simple in
structure less varied than at present. It is argued that these simple creatures gave rise to successive
generations, some of which were slightly different & sometimes more complex than their ancestors.

Natural Selection means that nature chooses (selects) those organisms best fitted for survival.

A scientist (Charles Darwin) argued that certain variations help an organism to survive in the struggle for
existence while other variations do not. In each batch of offsprings, favourable variations such as strength &
stamina are more likely to win the competition for food, escape from predators & withstand diseases than their
weaker fellows.

As a result organisms with favourable variations are likely to survive longer & reproduce more often than those
with unfavourable variations. Darwin called this “SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST”

Survival of the fittest means that in the struggle for existence the fittest (those with favourable variations) will
survive while those with unfavourable variations die or are limited in number.

The essential features of the theory put forward by Darwin are;

1. Overproduction of offspring – all organisms produce large numbers of offspring which if they survived
would to a geometric increase in the size of any population

2. Constancy of numbers – Despite the tendency to increase numbers due to overpopulation of offspring
most populations actually maintain relatively constant numbers. The majority of offspring must therefore
die, before they are able to reproduce.

3. Struggle for existence - Darwin decided on the basis of 1 and 2 above that members of a species were
constantly competing with each in an effort to survive, in this struggle for existence only a few would
long enough to breed.

4. Variation among offspring – the sexually produced offspring of any species show individual variations so
that generally no two offspring are identical.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 124

5. Survival of the fittest by natural selection – among the variety of offspring would be some which are
better able to withstand the prevailing conditions than others. That is, some will be better adapted (fitter)
to survive in the struggle for existence.

6. Like produces Like – those which breed are likely to produce offspring similar to them. The
advantageous characteristic which gave the edge in the struggle for existence are likely to be passed to
the next generation

Natural Selection

Selection is the process by which those appear physically, physiologically and behaviorally better adapted
survive and reproduce
Natural selection is the process whereby the natural environment favours those organisms showing the best
adapted phenotypic variations. Natural selection eliminates those individuals that cannot these challenges of their
environment. These organisms pass their genes onto the next generation, and the new offsprings are tested by
the environment. These process continuing over generations means that the genotype & phenotype of these
species can change considerably.

Artificial Selection

When a population increases in size, certain environmental factors become limiting, such as food availability for
animals or light in case of plants. This leads to competition for resources among members of the population.
Those organisms exhibiting characteristics which give them a competitive advantage will obtain the resources,
survive and reproduce. Organisms without such characteristics are at a disadvantage and therefore become
extinct. The basis of natural selection is the natural isolation of populations and selection of organisms showing
characteristics which have some usefulness to humans.

Artificial selection is therefore the selective breeding of organisms to emphasize their desirable features. These
features may result in increased milk yield, or perhaps resistance to high or low temperatures, diseases or
drought.

Application of artificial selection

 Breeding programmes are important to improve agriculture, livestock or crop plants

 Animal breeders will select cows for their high milk yield, sheep for their wool quality
 Plant breeders will select varieties for their high yield and resistance to fungal diseases. It is a practice
by farmers all over the world to produce plants and animals of economic importance.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 125

Summary of Mitosis and Meiosis

These processes occur in a sequence of events, they are divided into four distinct stages

Mitosis
Spindle fibres

Centrioles

1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase

a) Early Prophase – the DNA The nuclear membrane has
has already replicated during disappeared & the chromosomes The chromatids are pulled apart &
interphase & the chromosomes arrange themselves at the equator move to opposite poles
begin to condense. Each (middle) of the spindle
chromosome is a double
structure made from two
genetically identical chromatids.
b) Late Prophase – the nuclear
membrane has disappeared &
the chromosomes continue to
coil and shorten

4. Telophase
Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division) is
beginning. The cell divides into two daughter
cells and the chromatids on either side get
enveloped by new nuclei and become diffuse

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 126

Meiosis

Prophase I Metaphase I
Anaphase I
a) Early Prophase – the DNA The homologous chromosomes align
The homologous chromosome each
has already replicated during themselves along the equatorial
made of chromatids are pulled along
interphase & the region
the spindle fibres towards the
chromosomes begin to
condense. Each chromosome centrioles,
is a double structure made
from two genetically identical Note that chromatids have not
chromatids. separated
b) Late Prophase – the
nuclear membrane has
disappeared & the
chromosomes continue to coil
and shorten

Telophase I
The chromosome gather together in
the nuclei and the cell divides into
two

Metaphase II
Prophase II The chromosome (made of paired
DNA does not replicate during the chromatids) line up across the
brief interphase, but the equator of each cell
chromosomes condense inside the
nucleus

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 127

Telophase II
Anaphase II The chromosome gather together in
The chromatids of the chromosomes the nuclei and the cell divides further
are pulled to either side forming four daughter cells

BIOTECHNOLOGY

It is the application (or manipulation) of biological organisms, systems or processes in the manufacturing &
service industries. Microbes, plant & animal cells are used to make substances that are useful to human beings.

Why Micro-organisms are used in Biotechnology

1. Savings on fuel because they carry out reactions at moderate temperatures.

2. They are very efficient because they produce purer products & less waste.
3. They can be genetically engineered to produce compounds needed for humans.

The Role Of Micro-organisms in Food Production

Making Bread.

The enzymes in yeast act on the sugar added to the flour & ferment it to alcohol & carbon dioxide which
makes the dough to rise.

Sour Milk (madila)

The milk is put into a large container & bacteria (lacto bacillus) are added to ferment the milk. The bacteria
converts the milk sugar (lactose) to lactic acid. The lactic acid will coagulate (solidify) the milk protein. Water
will then remain at the bottom of the container & coagulated protein floats on top. The mixture is sieved to
remove the waste water from the curd or sour milk. At this stage the milk is sometimes stirred to obtain
evenly thick & smooth sour milk. Then the sour milk will be ready for packaging & distribution.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 128

Chibuku ( traditional brew)

Mealie meal, water & malt are mixed & left to ferment & this mixture is called wort. This is the first
fermentation process, the enzymes found in the malt brake down starch (mealie meal) to maltose & glucose
& then ferment these sugars to alcohol. After this fermentation, the mixture is cooked at 970C for about one
hour. Yeast & lactic acid are added. Lactic acid gives chibuku its sour taste. The second fermentation
process will then occur. The yeast cells will then ferment maltose & glucose. (sugars from the first
fermentation) to produce alcohol. After the second fermentation process, the mixture is then served.
Chibuku is pasteurized, before packaging to kill both yeast cells & any other micro-organisms

Single Cell Protein

The aim here is to produce food in bulk using micro-organisms or the organism being the food itself. It can
be used to feed humans & animals. Filamentous fungus which is very rich in proteins can be produced in
large amounts & be used as a meat substitute. It contains a lot of dietary fibre & very little amount of fat.
Unicellular algae, fungi & bacteria have been used.

Wine
It is made from grapes & these are crushed to release sugar. The yeast found on the grape skin ferments
the sugar to make wine.

Yoghurt & cheese

Bacteria are used to ferment milk to form yoghurt & cheese. The bacteria act on the milk sugar (lactose) &
convert it to lactic acid, which in turn coagulates the milk protein, casein to produce a thick creamy
substance (yoghurt). The lactic acid gives the yoghurt its slightly sour taste. In cheese making, the mould
can also be involved e.g. adding spores of penicillium at the fermentation stage to give varieties of cheese.

The Role of Micro-organisms in Fuels & Other Chemicals

 Fuel
In some countries e.g. Brazil, yeast is used to ferment sugar from sugar cane to alcohol (ethanol). The
ethanol is distilled & then concentrated to about 96% alcohol. Pure alcohol will burn in the same way as
petrol. It is used in car engines that are specially adapted. Unlike petrol, it does not pollute the
atmosphere.

Micro-organism can be used for production of bio-gas, e.g. methane gas. This gas can be produced
from decomposing cow dung using bacteria. This gas can be used as a substitute for the gas used for
cooking, (which is a fossil fuel).

 Biological Enzymes & Washing Powders

When washing powders are prepared, some biological enzymes are added to help in removing stains
from clothes, e.g.

 The enzyme lipase will act on fat stains & make it easy to wash the clothes.

 The proteases would act on protein stains & remove them much faster & easier, e.t.c

The Role of Micro-organisms in Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is the transfer of genes from one organism to another of a different species. Genetic
engineering has been found to solve most problems, e.g.

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 129

Making insulin for people who are unable to produce it.

Replacing faulty alleles with normal alleles (Gene therapy)
Producing plants that are often resistant to diseases e.t.c.

Bacteria are simple organisms & are often used in genetic engineering because they are easy to manipulate,
since their DNA called plasmids are not enclosed in a nuclear membrane.

 Insulin Production
A gene for insulin production in humans can be removed from the human cell & be pasted / attached to the DNA
of Escherichia coli (E.coli), a bacterium that lives in the human digestive tract. Special kinds of enzymes called
restriction enzymes are used to cut (in a very precise way), a specific base sequence of the DNA molecule to
remove the targeted gene, which in this case will be the gene for insulin production. This cut of the DNA will then
be attached to a cut portion of the plasmid (bacterial circular DNA) using an enzyme called DNA ligase. The
plasmids with the attached human DNA will then be taken back into the bacterial cell where they start controlling
the activity of the bacterial cell. One of the instructions will be to produce insulin, which can then be extracted and
used to help those people who need it. The bacterial cells divide very rapidly making billions of copies of
themselves and each bacterium will be carrying in its DNA a true copy of the gene for insulin production, i.e. each
bacterium cell inherits the human insulin gene.

 Gene Therapy
It involves the use of genetic engineering to replace defective / faulty genes with normal genes. This is
sometimes done to correct hereditary diseases such as haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis e.t.c.
E.g. Cystic fibrosis is a disease in which the person lacks a gene which encodes for cell membrane protein. This
results in cells, especially in the air passages, producing a lot of thick & sticky mucus. In this case, the normal
gene can be introduced into the patient’ lungs by using a harmless form of flu virus. It is hoped, once inside the
body that the DNA with the normal gene can incorporate itself to the DNA of the body cell & thus correcting the
disease. If a normal gene is inserted in any body cell not a sex cell to correct a particular disorder, it cannot be
passed on to future generations & this is called Somatic gene therapy. If the healthy gene is inserted into the
fertilized egg of a human being or an animal that has a specific genetic defect, then it will be passed to the future
generations resulting in the production of normal offsprings. This is called Germline cell therapy.

 Crop / Plant Resistance

Genetic engineering can be used to induce resistance in plants / crops in terms of resistance to diseases, pests
or environmental conditions such as drought, frost, wind etc. a gene may be inserted into the plant to enable it to
produce an insecticidal crystal protein which may affect the gut of pests e.g. caterpillars so that they cannot feed
& eventually die. Some genes transferred into the plant may make it resistant to herbicides. The field of growing
crops can then be sprayed with the herbicides which will selectively kill the weeds since they do not posses the
resistance gene. Genetic engineering can be used to produce plants with thicker & waxier cuticle which grow well
in more arid areas. Some may be engineered to have stronger stems of a more uniform height to be resistant to
wind damage.

The Role of Micro-organism in the Production of Medicine (Antibiotics & Vaccines)

Vaccines

They are prepared from dead or inactivated (harmless) micro-organisms {germs} and given to people to
immunize them against diseases, e.g. measles, polio, smallpox etc. these germs still have antigens which will

Lebsy Mb document 73280796

 P a g e | 130

provoke the human body to produce antibodies just like active germs do. These antibodies will be ready to fight
germs the moment they invade the body.

Antibiotics

What Are Antibiotics? How Do Antibiotics Work?

Antibiotics, also known as antibacterials, are types of medications that destroy or slow down the growth of
bacteria or are used to treat infections caused by bacteria. Bacteria are microscopic organisms, some of which
may cause illness.

The first antibiotic was penicillin. Such penicillin-related antibiotics as ampicillin, amoxicillin and benzylpenicillin
are widely used today to treat a variety of infections - these antibiotics have been around for a long time.
Penicillin was discovered by a scientist named Alexander, who was growing bacteria on agar plates, but he left
one of the plates open by accident & a mould started to grow on the surface. He noticed that the mould was
stopping the bacteria from spreading; it seemed to be making a substance that killed the bacteria. Eventually the
substance “called penicillin” was extracted from the mould (fungi) & used to cure bacterial diseases.

Compiled By; Mr Lebogang Lebsy Mb

Biology Teacher - Naledi SSS

Edited By; Naledi SSS Biology Department

Copy right ©; 2010

Contacts; 71726846 / 73280796

Lebsy Mb document 73280796