Appendix A

Fluid Property Data

Specific Gravity A.1
Specific gravity data for several common liquids and solids are presented in Figs. A.1a
and A.1b and in Tables A.1 and A.2. For liquids specific gravity is a function of
temperature. (Density data for water and air are given as functions of temperature in
Tables A.7 through A.10.) For most liquids specific gravity decreases as temperature
increases. Water is unique: It displays a maximum density of 1000 kg/m3 (1.94 slug/ft3)
at 4
C (39
F). The maximum density of water is used as a reference value to calculate
specific gravity. Thus
ρ
SG 
ρH2 O ðat 4
CÞ

Consequently the maximum SG of water is exactly unity.

Specific gravities for solids are relatively insensitive to temperature; values given in
Table A.1 were measured at 20
C.
The specific gravity of seawater depends on both its temperature and salinity. A
representative value for ocean water is SG 5 1.025, as given in Table A.2.

785
786 Appendix A Fluid Property Data
1.000

0.990

(referred to water at 4⬚C)

Specific gravity, SG
0.980

0.970

0.960
For water at 4⬚C, ρ = 1000 kg/m3

0.950
–20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature, ⬚C
(a) Water

13.60
(referred to water at 4⬚C)
Specific gravity, SG

13.50

13.40

For water at 4⬚C, ρ = 1000 kg/m3

13.30
–20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature, ⬚C
(b) Mercury
Fig. A.1 Specific gravity of water and mercury as functions of temperature. (Data from Refer-
ence [1].) (The specific gravity of mercury varies linearly with temperature. The variation is given
by SG 5 13.60 2 0.00240 T when T is measured in degrees C.)

Table A.1
Specific Gravities of Selected Engineering Materials
(a) Common Manometer Liquids at 20
C

Liquid Specific Gravity

E.V. Hill blue oil 0.797

Meriam red oil 0.827
Benzene 0.879
Dibutyl phthalate 1.04
Monochloronaphthalene 1.20
Carbon tetrachloride 1.595
Bromoethylbenzene (Meriam blue) 1.75
Tetrabromoethane 2.95
Mercury 13.55

Source: Data from References [13].

 A.1 Specific Gravity 787

Table A.1
Specific Gravities of Selected Engineering Materials (continued)
(b) Common Materials

Material Specific Gravity (—)

Aluminum 2.64
Balsa wood 0.14
Brass 8.55
Cast Iron 7.08
Concrete (cured) 2.4a
Concrete (liquid) 2.5a
Copper 8.91
Ice (0
C) 0.917
Lead 11.4
Oak 0.77
Steel 7.83
Styrofoam (1 pcfb) 0.0160
Styrofoam (3 pcf) 0.0481
Uranium (depleted) 18.7
White pine 0.43

Source: Data from Reference [4].

a
depending on aggregate.
b
pounds per cubic foot.

Table A.2
Physical Properties of Common Liquids at 20
C
Liquid Isentropic Bulk Modulusa (GN/m2) Specific Gravity (—)

Benzene 1.48 0.879

Carbon tetrachloride 1.36 1.595
Castor oil 2.11 0.969
Crude oil — 0.820.92
Ethanol — 0.789
Gasoline — 0.72
Glycerin 4.59 1.26
Heptane 0.886 0.684
Kerosene 1.43 0.82
Lubricating oil 1.44 0.88
Methanol — 0.796
Mercury 28.5 13.55
Octane 0.963 0.702
Seawaterb 2.42 1.025
SAE 10W oil — 0.92
Water 2.24 0.998

Source: Data from References [1, 5, 6].

a
Calculated from speed of sound; 1 GN/m2 5 109 N/m2 (1 N/m2 5 1.45 3 1024 lbf/in.2).
b
Dynamic viscosity of seawater at 20
C is μ 5 1:08 3 1023 N  s=m2 . (Thus, the kinematic viscosity of sea-
water is about 5 percent higher than that of freshwater.)
788 Appendix A Fluid Property Data

Table A.3
Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere
Geometric Altitude (m) Temperature (K) p/pSL (—) ρ/ρSL(—)

2500 291.4 1.061 1.049

0 288.2 1.000a 1.000b
500 284.9 0.9421 0.9529
1,000 281.7 0.8870 0.9075
1,500 278.4 0.8345 0.8638
2,000 275.2 0.7846 0.8217
2,500 271.9 0.7372 0.7812
3,000 268.7 0.6920 0.7423
3,500 265.4 0.6492 0.7048
4,000 262.2 0.6085 0.6689
4,500 258.9 0.5700 0.6343
5,000 255.7 0.5334 0.6012
6,000 249.2 0.4660 0.5389
7,000 242.7 0.4057 0.4817
8,000 236.2 0.3519 0.4292
9,000 229.7 0.3040 0.3813
10,000 223.3 0.2615 0.3376
11,000 216.8 0.2240 0.2978
12,000 216.7 0.1915 0.2546
13,000 216.7 0.1636 0.2176
14,000 216.7 0.1399 0.1860
15,000 216.7 0.1195 0.1590
16,000 216.7 0.1022 0.1359
17,000 216.7 0.08734 0.1162
18,000 216.7 0.07466 0.09930
19,000 216.7 0.06383 0.08489
20,000 216.7 0.05457 0.07258
22,000 218.6 0.03995 0.05266
24,000 220.6 0.02933 0.03832
26,000 222.5 0.02160 0.02797
28,000 224.5 0.01595 0.02047
30,000 226.5 0.01181 0.01503
40,000 250.4 0.002834 0.003262
50,000 270.7 0.0007874 0.0008383
60,000 255.8 0.0002217 0.0002497
70,000 219.7 0.00005448 0.00007146
80,000 180.7 0.00001023 0.00001632
90,000 180.7 0.000001622 0.000002588

Source: Data from Reference [7].

a
pSL 5 1:01325 3 105 N=m2 ðabsÞ ð514:696 psiaÞ.
b
ρSL 5 1:2250 kg=m3 ð50:002377 slug=ft3 Þ.

A.2 Surface Tension

The values of surface tension, σ, for most organic compounds are remarkably similar
at room temperature; the typical range is 25 to 40 mN/m. Water is higher, at about
73 mN/m at 20
C. Liquid metals have values in the range between 300 and 600 mN/m;
mercury has a value of about 480 mN/m at 20
C. Surface tension decreases with
temperature; the decrease is nearly linear with absolute temperature. Surface tension
at the critical temperature is zero.
Values of σ are usually reported for surfaces in contact with the pure vapor of the
liquid being studied or with air. At low pressures both values are about the same.
 A.3 The Physical Nature of Viscosity 789

Table A.4
Surface Tension of Common Liquids at 20
C
Surface Tension,
Liquid σ (mN/m)a Contact Angle, θ (degrees)

Air
(a) In contact with air Liquid
θ

Benzene 28.9
Carbon tetrachloride 27.0
Ethanol 22.3
Glycerin 63.0
Hexane 18.4
Kerosene 26.8
Lube oil 2535
Mercury 484 140
Methanol 22.6
Octane 21.8
Water 72.8 B0

Source: Data from References [1, 5, 8, 9].

Water
(b) In contact with water
Liquid
θ

Benzene 35.0
Carbon tetrachloride 45.0
Hexane 51.1
Mercury 375 140
Methanol 22.7
Octane 50.8
Source: Data from References [1, 5, 8, 9].
a
1 mN/m 5 1023 N/m.

The Physical Nature of Viscosity A.3

Viscosity is a measure of internal fluid friction, i.e., resistance to deformation. The
mechanism of gas viscosity is reasonably well understood, but the theory is poorly
developed for liquids. We can gain some insight into the physical nature of viscous
flow by discussing these mechanisms briefly.
The viscosity of a Newtonian fluid is fixed by the state of the material. Thus
μ 5 μðT; pÞ. Temperature is the more important variable, so let us consider it first.
Excellent empirical equations for viscosity as a function of temperature are available.

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

a. Gases
All gas molecules are in continuous random motion. When there is bulk motion
due to flow, the bulk motion is superimposed on the random motions. It is then distributed
throughout the fluid by molecular collisions. Analyses based on kinetic theory predict
790 Appendix A Fluid Property Data
pffiffiffiffi
μ~ T
The kinetic theory prediction is in fair agreement with experimental trends, but the
constant of proportionality and one or more correction factors must be determined;
this limits practical application of this simple equation.
If two or more experimental points are available, the data may be correlated using
the empirical Sutherland correlation [7]
bT 1=2
μ5 ðA:1Þ
1 1 S=T

Constants b and S may be determined most simply by writing

bT 3=2
μ5
S1T
or
 
T 3=2 1 S
5 T1
μ b b

(Compare this with y 5 mx 1 c.) From a plot of T 3/2/μ versus T, one obtains the
slope, 1/b, and the intercept, S/b. For air,

kg
b 5 1:458 3 1026
msK1=2

S 5 110:4 K

These constants were used with Eq. A.1 to compute viscosities for the standard
atmosphere in [7], the air viscosity values at various temperatures shown in
Table A.10, and using appropriate conversion factors, the values shown in Table A.9.

b. Liquids
Viscosities for liquids cannot be estimated well theoretically. The phenomenon of
momentum transfer by molecular collisions is overshadowed in liquids by the effects
of interacting force fields among the closely packed liquid molecules.
Liquid viscosities are affected drastically by temperature. This dependence on
absolute temperature may be represented by the empirical equation

μ 5 AeB=ðT2CÞ ðA:2Þ
or the equivalent form
μ 5 A10B=ðT2CÞ ðA:3Þ

where T is absolute temperature.

Equation A.3 requires at least three points to fit constants A, B, and C. In theory it
is possible to determine the constants from measurements of viscosity at just three
temperatures. It is better practice to use more data and to obtain the constants from a
statistical fit to the data.
However a curve-fit is developed, always compare the resulting line or curve with
the available data. The best way is to critically inspect a plot of the curve-fit compared
with the data. In general, curve-fit results will be satisfactory only when the quality of
the available data and that of the empirical relation are known to be excellent.
Data for the dynamic viscosity of water are fitted well using constant values
A 5 2:414 3 1025 Ns=m2 , B 5 247.8 K, and C 5 140 K. Reference [10] states that
using these constants in Eq. A.3 predicts water viscosity within 62.5 percent over the
temperature range from 0
C to 370
C. Equation A.3 and Excel were used to compute
 A.3 The Physical Nature of Viscosity 791
4

1 N·s/m2 = 0.0209 lbf·s/ft2

2

1.0 Glycerin
8
6

4 Castor oil

2
SAE 30 oil
–1
1⫻10
8
6 SAE 10W-30 oil
4
Absolute viscosity, μ (N · s/m2)

2
SAE 10W oil

1⫻10–2
8
6

2
Mercury
Octane
1⫻10–3
8 Kerosene
6
Water
Carbon
tetrach
4 loride
Heptane

1⫻10–4
8
6

4
Methane Carbon dioxide
Helium
2
Air
1⫻10–5
8 Hydrogen
6
–20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature, T (⬚C)
Fig. A.2 Dynamic (absolute) viscosity of common fluids as a function of
temperature. (Data from References [1, 6, and 10].)

The graphs for air and water were computed from the Excel workbook Absolute
Viscosities, using Eq. A.1 and Eq. A.3, respectively. The workbook can be used
to compute viscosities of other fluids if constants b and S (for a gas) or A, B, and
C (for a liquid) are known.

the water viscosity values at various temperatures shown in Table A.8, and using
appropriate conversion factors, the values shown in Table A.7.
Note that the viscosity of a liquid decreases with temperature, while that of a gas
increases with temperature.

Effect of Pressure on Viscosity

a. Gases
The viscosity of gases is essentially independent of pressure between a few hundredths
of an atmosphere and a few atmospheres. However, viscosity at high pressures
increases with pressure (or density).
792 Appendix A Fluid Property Data

1⫻10–2
8
6
1 m2/s = 10.8 ft2/s
4

SA
E
30
1⫻10–3

oil
8 SA

Gl
yc
6 E

er
10

in
W
4 -3
0
oi
l
2
Helium
Kinematic viscosity, ν (m2/s)

Hydrogen
1⫻10–4
8
SA
6 E
10
4 W
oi
l Methane
2 Air

1⫻10–5
8
ioxide
6 Carbon d
4

Kero
2 sene
Wa
ter
–6
1⫻10
8
6 Heptane
Octane
4
Carbon te
trachloride
2
Mercury
–7
1⫻10
8
6
–20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature, T (⬚C)
Fig. A.3 Kinematic viscosity of common fluids (at atmospheric pressure) as a function of temperature. (Data
from References [1, 6, and 10].)

b. Liquids
The viscosities of most liquids are not affected by moderate pressures, but large
increases have been found at very high pressures. For example, the viscosity of water
at 10,000 atm is twice that at 1 atm. More complex compounds show a viscosity
increase of several orders of magnitude over the same pressure range.
More information may be found in Reid and Sherwood [11].
 A.5 Properties of Common Gases, Air and Water 793

Lubricating Oils A.4

Engine and transmission lubricating oils are classified by viscosity according to stan-
dards established by the Society of Automotive Engineers [12]. The allowable viscosity
ranges for several grades are given in Table A.5.
Viscosity numbers with W (e.g., 20W) are classified by viscosity at 0
F. Those
without W are classified by viscosity at 210
F.
Multigrade oils (e.g., 10W-40) are formulated to minimize viscosity variation with
temperature. High polymer “viscosity index improvers” are used in blending these
multigrade oils. Such additives are highly non-Newtonian; they may suffer permanent
viscosity loss caused by shearing.
Special charts are available to estimate the viscosity of petroleum products as a
function of temperature. The charts were used to develop the data for typical lubri-
cating oils plotted in Figs. A.2 and A.3. For details, see [15].

Table A.5
Allowable Viscosity Ranges for Lubricants

SAE Max. Viscosity (cSt)b at 100
C

Viscosity Viscosity (cP)a
Engine Oil Grade at Temp. (
C) Min Max

0W 3250 at 230 3.8 —

5W 3500 at 225 3.8 —
10W 3500 at 220 4.1 —
15W 3500 at 215 5.6 —
20W 4500 at 210 5.6 —
25W 6000 at 25 9.3 —
20 — 5.6 ,9.3
30 — 9.3 ,12.5
40 — 12.5 ,16.3
50 — 16.3 ,21.9

Axle and Manual SAE Max. Temp. (
C) Viscosity (cSt) at 100
C

Transmission Viscosity for Viscosity of
Lubricant Grade 150,000 cP Min Max

70W 255 4.1 —

75W 240 4.1 —
80W 226 7.0 —
85W 212 11.0 —
90 — 13.5 ,24.0
140 — 24.0 ,41.0
250 — 41.0 —

Automatic Viscosity (cSt) at 100
C

Transmission Maximum
Fluid (Typical) Viscosity (cP) Temperature (
C) Min Max

50000 240 6.5 8.5

4000 223.3 6.5 8.5
1700 218 6.5 8.5

Source: Data from References [1214].

a
centipoise 5 1 cP 5 1 mPa  s 5 1023 Pa  s ð5 2:09 3 1025 lbf  s=ft2 Þ.
b
centistoke 5 1026 m2/s (5 1.08 3 1025 ft2/s).

Properties of Common Gases, Air and Water A.5

794

Table A.6
Thermodynamic Properties of Common Gases at STPa
Rb cp cv cp Rb cp cv
      k5      
J J J cv ftlbf Btu Btu


Chemical Molecular kgK kgK kgK lbm R lbm
R lbm
R
ðÞ
Gas Symbol Mass, Mm

Air — 28.98 286.9 1004 717.4 1.40 53.33 0.2399 0.1713

Carbon dioxide CO2 44.01 188.9 840.4 651.4 1.29 35.11 0.2007 0.1556
Carbon monoxide CO 28.01 296.8 1039 742.1 1.40 55.17 0.2481 0.1772
Helium He 4.003 2077 5225 3147 1.66 386.1 1.248 0.7517
Hydrogen H2 2.016 4124 14,180 10,060 1.41 766.5 3.388 2.402
Methane CH4 16.04 518.3 2190 1672 1.31 96.32 0.5231 0.3993
Nitrogen N2 28.01 296.8 1039 742.0 1.40 55.16 0.2481 0.1772
Oxygen O2 32.00 259.8 909.4 649.6 1.40 48.29 0.2172 0.1551
Steamc H2O 18.02 461.4 B2000 B1540 B1.30 85.78 B0.478 B0.368

Source: Data from References [7, 16, 17].

a
STP 5 standard temperature and pressure, T 5 15
C 5 59
F and p 5 101.325 kPa (abs) 5 14.696 psia.
b
R  Ru/Mm; Ru 5 8314.3 J/(kgmol  K) 5 1545.3 ft  lbf/(lbmol 
R); 1 Btu 5 778.2 ft  lbf.
c
Water vapor behaves as an ideal gas when superheated by 55
C (100
F) or more.
 A.5 Properties of Common Gases, Air and Water 795

Table A.7
Properties of Water (U.S. Customary Units)
Dynamic Kinematic Surface Vapor Bulk
Temperature, Density, Viscosity, Viscosity, Tension, Pressure, Modulus,
T (
F) ρ (slug/ft3) μ (lbfs/ft2) ν (ft2/s) σ (lbf/ft) pv (psia) Ev (psi)

32 1.94 3.68E-05 1.90E-05 0.00519 0.0886 2.92E 1 05

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40 1.94 3.20E-05 1.65E-05 0.00514 0.122
50 1.94 2.73E-05 1.41E-05 0.00509 0.178
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
59 1.94 2.38E-05 1.23E-05 0.00504 0.247
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
60 1.94 2.35E-05 1.21E-05 0.00503 0.256
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
68 1.94 2.10E-05 1.08E-05 0.00499 0.339
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
70 1.93 2.05E-05 1.06E-05 0.00498 0.363 3.20E 1 05
80 1.93 1.80E-05 9.32E-06 0.00492 0.507
90 1.93 1.59E-05 8.26E-06 0.00486 0.699
100 1.93 1.43E-05 7.38E-06 0.00480 0.950
110 1.92 1.28E-05 6.68E-06 0.00474 1.28
120 1.92 1.16E-05 6.05E-06 0.00467 1.70 3.32E 1 05
130 1.91 1.06E-05 5.54E-06 0.00461 2.23
140 1.91 9.70E-06 5.08E-06 0.00454 2.89
150 1.90 8.93E-06 4.70E-06 0.00448 3.72
160 1.89 8.26E-06 4.37E-06 0.00441 4.75
170 1.89 7.67E-06 4.06E-06 0.00434 6.00
180 1.88 7.15E-06 3.80E-06 0.00427 7.52
190 1.87 6.69E-06 3.58E-06 0.00420 9.34
200 1.87 6.28E-06 3.36E-06 0.00413 11.5 3.08E 1 05
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
212 1.86 5.84E-06 3.14E-06 0.00404 14.7

Table A.8
Properties of Water (SI Units)
Dynamic Kinematic Surface Vapor Bulk
Temperature, Density, Viscosity, Viscosity, Tension, Pressure, Modulus,
T (
C) ρ (kg/m3) μ (N  s/m2) ν (m2/s) σ (N/m) pv (kPa) Ev (GPa)

0 1000 1.76E-03 1.76E-06 0.0757 0.661 2.01

5 1000 1.51E-03 1.51E-06 0.0749 0.872
10 1000 1.30E-03 1.30E-06 0.0742 1.23
15 999 1.14E-03 1.14E-06 0.0735 1.71
20 998 1.01E-03 1.01E-06 0.0727 2.34 2.21
25 997 8.93E-04 8.96E-07 0.0720 3.17
30 996 8.00E-04 8.03E-07 0.0712 4.25
35 994 7.21E-04 7.25E-07 0.0704 5.63
40 992 6.53E-04 6.59E-07 0.0696 7.38
45 990 5.95E-04 6.02E-07 0.0688 9.59
50 988 5.46E-04 5.52E-07 0.0679 12.4 2.29
55 986 5.02E-04 5.09E-07 0.0671 15.8
60 983 4.64E-04 4.72E-07 0.0662 19.9
65 980 4.31E-04 4.40E-07 0.0654 25.0
70 978 4.01E-04 4.10E-07 0.0645 31.2
75 975 3.75E-04 3.85E-07 0.0636 38.6
80 972 3.52E-04 3.62E-07 0.0627 47.4
85 969 3.31E-04 3.41E-07 0.0618 57.8
90 965 3.12E-04 3.23E-07 0.0608 70.1 2.12
95 962 2.95E-04 3.06E-07 0.0599 84.6
100 958 2.79E-04 2.92E-07 0.0589 101
796 Appendix A Fluid Property Data

Table A.9
Properties of Air at Atmospheric Pressure (U.S. Customary Units)
Dynamic Kinematic
Temperature, Density, Viscosity, Viscosity,
T (
F) ρ (slug/ft3) μ (lbf  s/ft2) ν (ft2/s)

40 0.00247 3.63E-07 1.47E-04

50 0.00242 3.69E-07 1.52E-04
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
59 0.00238 3.74E-07 1.57E-04
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
60 0.00237 3.74E-07 1.58E-04
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
68 0.00234 3.79E-07 1.62E-04
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
70 0.00233 3.80E-07 1.63E-04
80 0.00229 3.85E-07 1.68E-04
90 0.00225 3.91E-07 1.74E-04
100 0.00221 3.96E-07 1.79E-04
110 0.00217 4.02E-07 1.86E-04
120 0.00213 4.07E-07 1.91E-04
130 0.00209 4.12E-07 1.97E-04
140 0.00206 4.18E-07 2.03E-04
150 0.00202 4.23E-07 2.09E-04
160 0.00199 4.28E-07 2.15E-04
170 0.00196 4.33E-07 2.21E-04
180 0.00193 4.38E-07 2.27E-04
190 0.00190 4.43E-07 2.33E-04
200 0.00187 4.48E-07 2.40E-04

Table A.10
Properties of Air at Atmospheric Pressure (SI Units)
Dynamic Kinematic
Temperature, Density, Viscosity, Viscosity,
T (
C) ρ (kg/m3) μ (N  s/m2) ν (m2/s)

0 1.29 1.72E-05 1.33E-05

5 1.27 1.74E-05 1.37E-05
10 1.25 1.76E-05 1.41E-05
15 1.23 1.79E-05 1.45E-05
20 1.21 1.81E-05 1.50E-05
25 1.19 1.84E-05 1.54E-05
30 1.17 1.86E-05 1.59E-05
35 1.15 1.88E-05 1.64E-05
40 1.13 1.91E-05 1.69E-05
45 1.11 1.93E-05 1.74E-05
50 1.09 1.95E-05 1.79E-05
55 1.08 1.98E-05 1.83E-05
60 1.06 2.00E-05 1.89E-05
65 1.04 2.02E-05 1.94E-05
70 1.03 2.04E-05 1.98E-05
75 1.01 2.06E-05 2.04E-05
80 1.00 2.09E-05 2.09E-05
85 0.987 2.11E-05 2.14E-05
90 0.973 2.13E-05 2.19E-05
95 0.960 2.15E-05 2.24E-05
100 0.947 2.17E-05 2.29E-05