The Circulatory System

Components of Blood and Lymph (Detail Study)

Need for Transport inside Our Body

• In Digestive System: The nutrients absorbed from the digested food need to be transported to
each cell to perform their functions.

• In Excretory System: All the wastes generated need to be collected from whole body and
flushed out.

• In Endocrine System: The hormones produced need to be sent to each and every part of our
body.

• In Respiratory System: The oxygen and CO2 need to be transported through out the body.

Blood: Connective tissue consisting of fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements

Functions of Blood

(i) Transportation

• Transport of digested food from alimentary canal to tissues

• Transport of oxygen from lungs to the tissues
• Transport of carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs
• Transport of excretory material
• Distribution of hormones from endocrine glands
• Distribution of heat throughout the body

(ii) Protection

• Formation of clot in case of cut, thus preventing blood loss

• Protecting body from bacteria
• Production of antitoxins and antibodies

Components of Blood: It consists of fluid part, called plasma, and cellular elements that consist
of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

Plasma

• 55% of blood
• Plasma = 90-92 % water + 6-8% proteins
• Proteins present
Fibrinogen − blood clotting
 Globulins − defence mechanisms
Albumins − osmotic balance

• Also contain mineral, glucose, amino acids, and lipids in traces

Blood clotting factors are present in inactive form in plasma.

• Serum = Plasma − Clotting factors

Formed Elements

Formed elements (45% of blood)

Platelets
Erythrocytes Leucocytes
(Thrombocytes)

Relatively lesser in
1.5−3.5 × 105/mm3 of
Most abundant: 5−5.5 million/mm3 of blood number: 6000−8000/
blood
mm3 of blood

Formed in red bone marrow; average life span

Have different sites for Formed in
is of 120 days; destroyed in spleen, hence
formation megakaryocytes
spleen is called the graveyard of RBCs

Biconcave and devoid of nucleus Nucleated Anucleated

Contain haemoglobin and hence involved in

transport of respiratory gases
Play major role in Involved in blood
defence system of body clotting
Average value of haemoglobin − 12-16
gm/100 ml of blood

Red Blood Cells (RBCs) - These are responsible to carry oxygen through the body.

• Haemoglobin : A chief chemical constituent of RBCs. It is present inside stroma - a spongy

body of RBCs.
• It is made up of iron and protein.

• It easily combines with oxygen forming oxyhaemoglobin, an unstable compound that easily
donates oxygen to the needy tissues.
• It also carries a small amount of CO2 in the form of carbaminohaemoglobin.

• Carbon monoxide Poisoning

• Haemoglobin has high affinity towards carbon monoxide as it forms a more stable
compound carboxyhaemoglobin (HbCO).

• It results in decreased efficiency of oxygen transport by blood, leading to less supply of oxygen
in the body.

• It may result even in death.

Increased Efficiency of RBCs

The mammalian red blood cells are more efficient as compared to others as they lack certain cell
organelles. The factors that makes them more efficient are:

• Loss of nucleus: This makes them biconcave in shape hence, increasing their surface area to
volume ratio to maximise oxygen absorption.

• Loss of mitochondria: Lack of mitochondria means that no cellular respiration can occur in the
RBCs. Thus all the oxygen absorbed from the lungs are transported to the tissues as they don't
need it for themselves any more.

• No endoplasmic reticulum: It results in increased flexibility for their movement through the
constricted capillaries.

Functions of Leucocytes (WBCs)

The basic function of white blood cells is body defence.
• Phagocytosis: This is a defence mechanism in which the WBCs engulf the solid substances like
bacteria.

• Inflammation: Inflammation is a result of reaction of tissues to injuries and to localised invasion

of germs. The leucocytes (especially monocytes and neutrophils) reach the inflamed area by
migrating through blood vessel walls (diapedesis). They can then fight against the disease
causing germs and also destroy the damaged cells by phagocytosis.

• Formation of Antibodies: These are produced by WBCs (lymphocytes) to kill or neutralise the
germs and poison from them. These are stimulated by introducing weakened germs through
vaccination.

Lymph

• Lymph is the fluid released out of blood capillaries leaving behind larger proteins and formed
elements.
• It consists of water and some water soluble substances.
• It has some mineral distribution as present in plasma.
• The network of lymph vessels composes lymphatic system.

Uses

• Lymph contains lymphocytes that are involved in immune response.

• Lymph carries nutrients, hormones, etc.
• Lymph absorbs fats in lacteals found in intestinal villi.

Blood Coagulation:

• Clotting is required to prevent excessive loss of blood from the body.

• Blood clot - formed by threads of fibrin in which formed elements are trapped.
• Prothrombin (inactive form) thrombin (active form)
• Fibrinogen (inactive form) fibrin (active form)
• Mechanism of coagulation is a cascade of reactions involving several clotting factors.
• Calcium plays an important role in blood clotting mechanism.
• Serum : The Clear liquid squeezed out of the network of fabrin in which the blood cells are
trapped is called Serum.

Blood Groups and Rh Factor

Blood groups

• Widely used blood grouping − ABO and Rh

ABO Grouping
• Surface antigens A and B are present on RBCs.
• Antibodies are produced against corresponding antigens.

Blood Group Antigen on RBC Antibody on plasma Donor’s Group

A A Anti B A, O

B B Anti A B, O

AB A, B Nil AB, A, B, O

O Nil Anti A, B O

• Universal Donor − Blood group ‘O’

• Universal recipient − Blood group ‘AB’

Rh Grouping

• Individuals with Rh antigens present on RBCs are Rh positive and those without it are Rh
negative.

• If Rh −ve mother bears an Rh +ve child during first pregnancy when mother’s blood is exposed
to Rh +ve antigens, then anti − Rh antibodies are produced in her blood.

• During subsequent pregnancies, these antibodies may destroy RBCs of the foetus. This results in
severe anaemia and jaundice to new born. This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis.

• During Rh incompatibility, the first child is safe or may have anaemia.

• However, this condition can be avoided for subsequent pregnancies by administering anti-Rh
antibodies of mother immediately after delivery of first child.

Human Circulatory System

• Humans have a closed circulatory system: Blood pumped by the heart always flows through a
closed network of blood vessels.

• Human circulatory system consists of:

• Muscular, four-chambered heart

• A network of closed, branching blood vessels − veins, arteries and capillaries

• Blood

Blood vessels

Arteries are tough, elastic tubes that carry blood from the heart and supply it to various organs of
the body. As the arteries move away from the heart (i.e., on reaching organs and tissues), they
divide into smaller vessels.

Arteriole is the smallest or the final branch of artery. These are highly muscular and can easily
change their diameter. Arteries are red in colour because they carry oxygenated blood.

The smallest blood vessels are called capillaries. They have very thin walls and lack
muscles. The capillaries can easily dilate (vasodilation) and contract (vasoconstriction), thus
can regulate the blood supply to different organs.

Functions Of Capillaries:

• It allows the outward diffusion of Oxygen

• It allows the WBCs to squeeze out of capillary walls

• It allows inward and outward diffusion of urea, glucose, hormones etc.

Capillaries in organs and tissues gradually reunite and increase in size. The smallest of the united
common branch are called a venule. The venules then join to form the veins. Veins collect blood
from different organs and tissues and transport it to the heart.

They are thin-walled as compared to arteries. This is because they bring back blood from the
organs to the heart and blood is no longer under pressure. These veins carry deoxygenated blood
into the heart.

Differences between Arteries and Veins

Artery Vein
Carries blood towards organs and away from Carries blood towards heart and away from
heart organs

Carries fully oxygenated blood (except Carries deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary
pulmonary artery) vein)

Has no valves Has valves to prevent backflow of blood

Has elastic, thick and muscular walls Has non-elastic, thin and less muscular walls

Is deeply placed Is superficial

Branched and decreases in size Unites and increases in size
Can constrict and dilate Cannot constrict
Has smooth and continuous blood flow under
Has jerky blood flow under great pressure
very little pressure

Hepatic portal system

Hepatic portal system consists of a network of veins that facilitate the recirculation of blood to
the liver from digestive tract and spleen. The major blood vessels of this system includes hepatic
portal vein, inferior mesentric vein, superior mesentric vein and gastrosplenic vein.

Significance of hepatic portal system

Hepatic portal system allows metabolization of digested substances in the liver before they are
propagated to the systemic circulation. Certain toxic substances can be inactivated by the liver
metabolism and excreted from the body. Thus, hepatic portal system plays an important role in
the elimination of toxic substances from the body.

Practical significance of hepatic portal system can be observed in the filed of pharmacology.
Many drugs such as nitroglycerine can be inactivated through liver metabolism. Such drugs are
therefore not administered through oral means because hepatic portal system can transfer them to
 the liver and make them ineffective.

Structure of Heart

Heart

• Location: Thoracic cavity in between the lungs; slightly tilted to the left
• Protected by a double-walled pericardium, enclosing the pericardial fluid
• Has 4 chambers: 2 upper chambers − right and left atria
• 2 lower chambers − right and left ventricles
• Inter-atrial septum: Separates the right and the left atria
• Inter-ventricular septum: Separates the right and the left ventricles
• Atrio-ventricular septum: Separates the atria and the ventricles of the same sides
• Septa have openings through which the two chambers on the same sides are connected.
• Tricuspid valve: Present between the right atria and the right ventricle
• Bicuspid (mitral) valve: Present between the left atria and the left ventricle
• Semilunar valves: Guard the openings of the right and the left ventricles into the pulmonary
artery and the aorta respectively.
• Special cardiac musculature called nodal tissue is distributed throughout the heart.
• Sinoatrial node (SAN): Present at the upper right corner of the right atrium
• Atrio-ventricular node (AVN): Present at the lower left corner of the right atrium
• AV bundle (a bundle of nodal fibres) continues from the AVN and passes through the atrio-
ventricular septa to reach the inter-ventricular septum.
• There, it divides immediately into right and left bundles. From these branches, minute fibres
arise throughout the ventricular musculature. These fibres are called purkinje fibres.
• Right and left bundles + Purkinje fibres = Bundle of His
• Significance of nodal musculature: Auto-excitable; generates and maintains action potential to
sustain the rhythmic contraction activity of the heart
• Pacemaker of the heart − Sino-atrial node (SAN)
• Heart beats 70−75 times/min
 Double Circulation and Cardiac Cycle
Double Circulation

• In human beings, oxygenated blood is received by the left atria while deoxygenated blood is
received by the right atria, which then pass it on to their respective ventricles.

• This prevents the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing. This unique pathway is
called double circulation.

• Double circulation consists of two parts: pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.

• In systemic circulation, the deoxygenated blood is collected from all the body parts and
transported to the heart through vains. The collected blood is poured into the right atrium through
superior and inferior vena cava. Once the blood is oxygenated, it is transported back to various
body parts from the left ventricle of the heart through aorta.

• In pulmonary circulation, pulmonary artery collects deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle
of heart and carries it to the lungs. After gaseous exchange in the blood, the pulmonary veins
collect the oxygenated blood from the lungs and carry it to the left atrium of the heart.

Blood Circulation Pathway

Hepatic Portal System

• Portal Vein : A vein that starts and ends with capillaries.

The veins coming from intestines and stomach does not directly delivers the blood to
the posterior vena cava. Instead, they enter into the liver combined together as hepatic portal
vein, which then splits into numerous capillaries. This is opposite to the characteristic of vein.
Later these capillaries combine to form hepatic vein which later joins the posterior vena cava.
This whole system is known as hepatic portal system.

• Hepatic portal system helps in assimilation of different nutrients absorbed by blood during
digestion process in the liver.

• It also helps in detoxification of blood in the liver.

Cardiac Cycle

• Cardiac cycle is the sequence of events which occur from the beginning of one heart beat to the
beginning of the next heart beat.

• In the beginning, all the 4 chambers of the heart are in a state of joint diastole (relaxation).
• Tricuspid and bicuspid valves open and blood from the veins and the vena cava flow into the
atria, and then into the ventricles because of the opening of the valves.

• SAN generates an action potential, and both atria undergo contraction (Atrial systole).

• The flow of blood into the ventricles increases by 30%.

• The action potential is conducted towards the ventricles through the AVN and the AV bundles,
from where the bundle of His transmits this action potential over the entire cardiac musculature.

• The ventricles contract (ventricular systole) and the atria relax (atrial diastole) as a result of the
conduction of action potential.

• Ventricular pressure increases. Hence, bicuspid and tricuspid valves close, to prevent the
backflow of blood into the atria. Further increase in pressure in the ventricles leads to the
opening of the semilunar valves.

• Blood from the ventricles flow into the pulmonary artery and the aorta, and subsequently into the
circulatory pathways.

• Consequently, the ventricles relax (ventricular diastole), ventricular pressure falls, and the
semilunar valves close to prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles.

• Ventricular pressure further falls. As a result, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves open. This is
because pressure is exerted on the atria by the blood entering them through the veins.

• Once again, joint diastole is experienced and the entire cycle is repeated.
 Pulse

The distension felt because of the contraction of heart, every time when blood passes through the
arteries, is referred as pulse. This alternate expansion and recoil of the arteries occur because of
the elastic nature of artery walls. A pulse rate can give indirect measure of the heart beats.

Blood Pressure

• The pressure exerted by blood through the arteries on their walls.

• There are two limits to the blood pressure:
• Systolic Pressure (upper limit): When fresh blood is pushed through artery due to ventricular
contraction of heart
• Diastolic Pressure (lower limit): When the wave has passed over
• The normal blood pressure for an adult is 120 (systolic) and 80 (diastolic)

Cardiac output

• Heart beats: Average 72 times/minute (heart rate)

• Duration of cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.
• Stroke volume: Amount of blood pumped by the heart in one cardiac cycle
Stroke volume = 70 mL
• Cardiac output = Stroke volume × Heart rate
= 70 mL × 72 times / min
~ 5000 mL

Heart Sounds

• Lub: First heart sound, associated with the closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves
• Dub: Second heart sound, associated with the closure of the semilunar valves
• These heart sounds are of diagnostic significance.