BPCE-142

FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Swaraj Basu, Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Prof. Purnima Singh,
Former Director, School of Faculty, Discipline of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Social Sciences, IGNOU, Psychology, IIT Delhi
Delhi School of Social Sciences,
Dr. Smita Gupta, Faculty,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Discipline of Psychology,
Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan,
Dr. Swati Patra, Faculty, School of Social Sciences,
Former Former Emeritus IGNOU, New Delhi
Discipline of Psychology,
Professor, Discipline of
School of Social Sciences, Dr. Monika Misra (Convenor),
Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU,
IGNOU, New Delhi Faculty, Discipline of
New Delhi
Psychology, School of Social
Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE COORDINATOR
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar
Faculty, Discipline of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
General Editor
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar
Faculty, Discipline of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
Acknowledgement
We acknowledge the help provided by Ms. Shivani Arora, Research Scholor, Ph.D. in Psychology in
editing process of this course material.

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block/ Unit Title Unit Writer

Block 1 Block 1 Forensic Psychology : An Introduction

Unit 1 Introduction to Forensic Dr. S. L Vaya (Adapted from Unit 3, Block 4 of
Psychology BPCE021) and Prof. Dipesh Chandra Nath, (Adapted
from Unit 1, Block 1 of BPCE021)

Unit 2 Role and Functions of Forensic Prof. Dipesh Chandra Nath (Adapted from Unit 4,
Psychologist Block 1 of BPCE021).

Unit 3 Assessment and Evaluation in Dr. Bibha Rani (Adapted from Unit 3, Bloc 3 of
Forensic Psychology BPCE021)

Block 2 Criminal Psychology

Unit 4 Introduction to Criminal Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan

Psychology
Unit 5 Theories Applied to Criminal Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Psychology
Unit 6 Offender Typologies and Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Criminal Profiling

Block 3 Police, Investigative and Correctional Psychology

Unit 7 Police Psychology Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan

Unit 8 Investigative Psychology Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Unit 9 Eye-witness and Witness Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Protection
Unit 10 Correctional Psychology Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Block 4 Areas of Application of Forensic Psychology
Unit 11 Applications of Forensic Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Psychology in Civil and
Criminal Proceedings
Unit 12 Forensic Psychology and Child Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Related Issues
Unit 13 Juvenile Delinquency Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Unit 14 Psychopathology of Homicide Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Unit 15 Dynamics of Serial Killings Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Unit 16 Public Policy and Forensic Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan and Prof. Suhas
Psychology Shetgovekar

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Indira Gandhi National Open University, July 2022
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 CONTENTS
Block/ Unit Title Page No.
BLOCK 1 FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION 11
Unit 1 Introduction to Forensic Psychology 13
Unit 2 Role and Functions of Forensic Psychologist 31
Unit 3 Assessment and Evaluation in Forensic Psychology 42

BLOCK 2 CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY 55

Unit 4 Introduction to Criminal Psychology 57
Unit 5 Theories applied to Criminal psychology 69
Unit 6 Offender Typologies and Criminal Profiling 86

BLOCK 3 POLICE, INVESTIGATIVE AND 109

CORRECTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 7 Police Psychology 111
Unit 8 Investigative Psychology 127
Unit 9 Eye-witness and Witness Protection 161
Unit 10 Correctional Psychology 186
BLOCK 4 AREAS OF APPLICATION OF FORENSIC 201
PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 11 Applications of Forensic Psychology in Civil and 203
Criminal Proceedings
Unit 12 Forensic Psychology and Child Related Issues 224
Unit 13 Juvenile Delinquency 239
Unit 14 Psychopathology of Homicide 248
Unit 15 Dynamics of Serial Killings 256
Unit 16 Public Policy and Forensic Psychology 268
BPCE142: FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
The course on Forensic Psychology (BPCE142) is an elective course offered
in VI Semester of BA Psychology Honours Programme, under Bachelors
Degree Programme of IGNOU. The course is of 06 Credits. The course is
divided into four blocks. The main objectives of this course to explain the
key concepts of forensic psychology and its application to law, to delineate
the roles and functions of forensic psychologist and to introduce the
applications of forensic psychology to policing, crime and civil cases
Each of these blocks represents a specific theme which is discussed in terms
of units. The units are arranged in a logical sequence so as to cover the main
aspects of each theme. Before proceeding to read the units, you are advised
to go through instructions about how to read the course material. Given
below is the explanation of the organization and sequencing of the unit.
Organization and Sequencing of a Unit
The following is the structure of each unit:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Section (Theme of the section)
1.2.1 Subsection of 1 ...................
Check Your Progress I
1.3 Section (Theme of the section)
1.3.1 Subsection of 2 ...................
Check Your Progress II
Let Us Sum Up
References
Key Words
Answers to Check Your Progress
Unit End Questions
As the scheme suggests, each unit is divided into sections for easy reading
and better comprehension. The numbering and length of each section and
subsection may vary from one unit to the other, depending upon the depth of
information in each unit. Each section is indicated by BOLD CAPITALS
and each sub-section by a relatively smaller but bold typeface. Divisions
within the sub-sections are in relatively smaller bold typeface so as to make
it easy for you to understand.
Let us now discuss each section of a unit.
Objectives
We begin each unit with the section Objectives. It tells you briefly about the
objectives of the unit and what you will learn after you study the unit.
Introduction
The section Introduction will mainly focus on introducing the theme of the unit.
Illustration
There are several illustrations in each unit in the form of figures and
diagrams. The main purpose of these illustrations is to make the study
comprehensive and interesting.
Check Your Progress
We have given self-check exercises under the caption Check Your Progress
at the end of main sections. You can provide your answers in the space give
below each question/ exercise.
You will be tempted to have a glance of the main text as soon as you come
across an exercise. But we do hope that you will resist this temptation and
turn to the main text only after completing the answers.
You should read each unit and note the important points in the margin
provided in the course material. This will help in your study. It will also help
you to answer the self- check exercises and the assignment questions, as well
as help in revising your course before appearing for Term End Examination
(TEE).
Let Us Sum Up
Let Us Sum Up summarises the whole unit for the purpose of ready reference
and recapitulation.
References
We have given a list of references at the end of each unit. This is a list of
books and articles used by the course writers to prepare the units. This
reflects that your course material is based on a wide spectrum of literature
available on a particular theme, related to your course. This also informs you
of the wide literature available in the particular area of study. If interested in
widening your knowledge, you may look for the mentioned references. Each
reference mentions the name of the author, year of publication, title of the
book/article, name of publisher and place of publication.
Further readings help you to increase your level of understanding of a
particular theme in each unit.
Key Words
The key words at the end of the unit explain the basic ideas, technical terms
and difficult words.
Answers to Check Your Progress
Answers to Check Your Progress are given under this section.
Unit End Questions
Besides Check Your Progress, we have given Unit End Questions in each
unit. Practicing these questions will help you in answering assignments and
Term End Examination. Though the pattern and style of questions asked may
not be similar.
Audio and Video Aids
Some units have been selected for the audio and video programmes to
supplement the printed material. These will help you to understand the units
with greater clarity.
Apart from this, you may also access IGNOU’s FM radio channel, Gyanvani
(105.6 FM), which is available across many cities in India, for regular
programmes, related to themes on Psychology. You can listen to the live
discussions by faculty and experts on the topic of the day and interact with
them through telephone, email, and through chat mode.
You may also watch Gyandarshan TV channel (free to air educational
channel), for programmes related to topics on Psychology. The schedule of
Gyanvani and Gyandarshan is displayed on www.ignou.ac.in. The radio and
TV channels may also be accessed on Gyandhara, webcast facility for
Gyanvani and Gyandarshan, provided by the University.
Assignment
You will receive a set of assignments for the whole programme. These are
Tutor Marked Assignments, which are to be submitted to the respective
Study Centre after completion. These assignments will be evaluated by
academic counsellor(s) from your Study Centre. Ensure that you complete all
your assignments because the grades that you get in each of these
assignments are included in the final evaluation of your degree. Before
answering the assignments, read all the units and additional material (if
available).
Guidelines for assignments
While working on the assignments, kindly ensure the following points:
1) Clearly write your Enrollment number
2) Answer them in your handwriting and in your own words (do not copy
the sentences from the course material or any other source).
3) Write clearly and neatly so that it is easy to read your answers
4) Leave margins on one side of your answer-sheets so that evaluator may
write his/ her comments on your performance.
5) Organise your answers well based on the question asked.
6) You will submit theassignments at your Study Centre on or before the
date mentioned as per the admission cycle. Kindly check the dates from
www.ignou.ac.in or your Regional Centre website.
Term End Examination (TEE)
Consider the following points while answering TEE.
1) Questions need to be answered in one’s own words and they need to be
focused based on the questions asked.
2) Answer the questions keeping in mind the word limit.
3) Organise answers well based on the questions asked and also keep in
mind any bifurcation given in the marks.
4) Ensure that you mention correct question numbers for respective
answers.
Preparation of Course Material
The syllabus of course material BPCE142 is designed by an Expert
Committee (see page 2 of this course) and prepared by Course Preparation
Team which comprises the author(s) of units, content editor(s), language
editor, and the course coordinator. The expert committee selected the themes
and sub-themes of the blocks and units, keeping in view the prescribed
syllabi of UGC (CBCS model).The authors of units have provided their
expertise in elaborating them in the form of the main text of each unit. The
content editor has carefully examined the course contents and has made an
attempt to make the material clear and comprehendible.
For any query or feedback related to the course, you may kindly contact the
course coordinator at:
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar
Room No. 121, Block-F, School of Social Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi
Email: [email protected]
 COURSE CONTENT
BLOCK 1 FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION
Unit 1 Introduction to Forensic Psychology
Nature and Scope of Forensic Psychology
Sub-specialities in Forensic Psychology
Ethical Issues in Forensic Psychology.
Unit 2 Role and Functions of Forensic Psychologist
Forensic Psychologist’s Role and Functions
Qualifications and Training
Unit 3 Assessment and evaluation in forensic psychology
Role of Assessment and Evaluation in Forensic Psychology
Assessment, Tests and Evaluation in Forensic Psychology
Personality Testing in Forensic Psychology
BLOCK 2 CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 4 Introduction to Criminal Psychology
Nature and Scope of Criminal Psychology
Difference between Forensic and Criminal Psychology
Unit 5 Theories Applied to Criminal Psychology
Psychological Theories
Biological and Integrated Theories
Unit 6 Offender Typologies and Criminal Profiling
Offender Typologies
Forensic Psychology and Crime Investigation
BLOCK 3 POLICE, INVESTIGATIVE AND CORRECTIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 7 Police Psychology
Police Psychology: An Introduction
Police Personality
Police Stress
Police and Human Relations
Police and Special Population
Unit 8 Investigative Psychology
Truth and Deception
Police Interrogation and Truth
Techniques of Interrogation
Unit 9 Eye-witness and Witness Protection
Meaning of Eyewitness and Eyewitness Assessment
Children as Eyewitness
Eyewitness Evidence
Witness Protection
Unit 10 Correctional Psychology
Correctional Psychology: An Introduction
Role of a Forensic Psychologist in the context of Correctional Psychology
BLOCK IV AREAS OF APPLICATION OF FORENSIC
PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 11 Applications of Forensic Psychology in Civil and Criminal
Proceedings
Forensic Psychology and Law
Forensic Psychology in Civil and Criminal law
Forensic Psychology and Assessment of Civil and Criminal Competency
Criminal Responsibility and Insanity Defence
Unit 12 Forensic Psychology and Child related issues
Child Sexual Abuse and Role of Forensic Psychologists
Child’s Rights When Testifying
Child Custody and Related Issues
Unit 13 Juvenile Delinquency
What is Juvenile Delinquency?
Risk Factors Contributing to Delinquency
Role of Forensic Psychologist in Delinquency Cases
Unit 14 Psychopathology of Homicide
Homicide and Heinous Crimes
Psycho-diagnostics of Homicides among Youth and Adults
Unit 15 Dynamics of Serial Killings
Dynamics of Serial Killing
Psychopathology of Serial Killings
Role of a Forensic Psychologist in the Context of Serial Killings
Unit 16 Public Policy and Forensic Psychology
Forensic Psychology and Criminal Justice System
Application of Forensic Psychology in Policy Making and Decision Making
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Dear Learner,
In the sixth semester of BAPCH you will study the elective course BPCE-
142: Forensic Psychology. The main objectives of this course are to explain
the key concepts of forensic psychology and its application to law, to
delineate the roles and functions of forensic psychologist and to introduce the
applications of forensic psychology to policing, crime and civil cases
To provide an overview of this course, the course structure is divided in to
four blocks.
Block 1: Block 1 is titled “Forensic Psychology: An Introduction” and
includes three units, 1, 2 and 3. Unit 1 is titled “Introduction to Forensic
Psychology” and will cover nature and scope; relationship between
psychology and law; sub-specialities in forensic psychology including
investigative psychology; criminal psychology, legal psychology; and
correctional psychology. The unit will also cover ethical issues in forensic
psychology. Unit 2 pertains to the role and functions of a forensic
psychologist and will deal with various roles played by a forensic
psychologists and his/ her functions. Unit 3 focuses on assessment and
evaluation in forensic psychology and will include description of the role of
assessment and evaluation; assessment, in forensic psychology, assessment
tests and evaluation in forensic psychology with a focus on personality tests.
Block 2: Block 2 is titled “Criminal Psychology” and as the name suggests
the focus of this block is on understanding criminal psychology. The block
consists of 3 units, units 4,5 and 6. Unit 4 deals with introduction to criminal
psychology and also focuses on the role and functions of a criminal
psychologist. Nature and scope of criminal psychology will also be covered
in the unit, besides, the difference between forensic and criminal psychology.
Unit 5 includes theories applied to criminal psychology. Unit 6 highlights the
offender typologies and criminal profiling and also discusses about forensic
psychology and criminal investigation, criminal profiling and psychological
autopsy;
Block 3: Block 3 is titled “Police, Investigative and Correctional
Psychology” and includes four units, Unit 7, Unit 8, Unit 9 and Unit 10. Unit
7 pertains to police psychology and includes police personality, police
response to social and community problems; police stress, perception of
policing in India, police & human relations and police and special population.
Unit 8 is about investigative psychology and focuses on truth and deception,
police interrogation and truth and techniques of Interrogation. Unit 9 relates
to the eye-witness and witness pprotection and focuses in the meaning of
eyewitness; eyewitness assessment, eyewitness evidence and child
eyewitness. The last unit of this block is unit 10 and it deals with correctional
psychology. This will cover the role of a forensic psychologist in prison,
court/trials, interrogation, confession; role of forensic psychologist in death
penalty, trials and appeals, sexual harassment and dealing with persons in
conflict with law will also be covered in this unit.
Block4: Block 4 of this course is about the areas of application of forensic
psychology and includes unit 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16. Unit 11 focuses on
applications of forensic psychology in civil and criminal proceedings, unit 12
on forensic psychology and child related issues, unit 13 on juvenile
delinquency, unit 14 on psychopathology of homicide, unit 15 on dynamics
of serial killer and unit 16 on the public policy and forensic psychology
It is very important that you read all the units very carefully and try to
understand the subject matter. You need to first study the psychological
disorders and also understand their treatment.
Some suggestions and tips to enhance your study of this course are as
follows:
1) Ensure that your basic concepts as given in this course, are clear. If you
don’t understand the terms, read again.
2) Answering the exercises given in Check Your Progress (given in each
unit) will help you practice and learn the subject matter.
 BLOCK 1
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY:
AN INTRODUCTION
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC Introduction to
Forensic
PSYCHOLOGY 1 Psychology

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nature and Scope of Forensic Psychology
1.3 Sub-specialities in Forensic Psychology
1.4 Ethical Issues in Forensic Psychology.
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 References
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.9 Unit End Questions

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to,

• define forensic psychology;

• discuss the nature and scope of forensic psychology;
• describe the sub-specialities in forensic psychology; and
• explain the ethical issues in forensic psychology.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
What comes to you mind when you come across the word “Forensic
Psychology”? May be the word forensic brings to your mind the X files and
crime related series or detective series and movies. Well, to some extent yes,
in these crime related series and movies, there are often individuals involved
who look at the crime or the possible criminal from a psychological
perspective. Though it can be said that forensic psychology is much more
scientific and deeper than what is shown in these series and movies (that are
based on crime and so on).
Forensic psychology can be explained as a branch of psychology and
involves systematic and scientific study of human behaviour in the context of
law, crime and so on.

1
Dr. S. L Vaya, Director and Additional Director, Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Gujarat
Forensic Science University and Directorate of Forensic Sciences. Gandhinagar, Gujarat
(Adapted from Unit 3, Block 4 of BPCE021) and Prof. Dipesh Chandra Nath, Head of
Department of Applied Psychology, Calcutta University, Kolkatta (Adapted from Unit 1,
Block 1 of BPCE021)
15
Forensic Psychology: Let us try to have an idea about forensic psychology with the help of the
An Introduction
following conversation between Anjali and her friends.
Anjali returned home after a much busy day and was now on the way to meet
her school friends, John, Nafisa, Mahima, Garima, Manjit and Lily. It was
like an informal alumni meet and Anjali was looking forward to it. At the
restaurant, one by one all the friends arrived and started interacting with
each other. Let us look at their conversation.
John: Wow, its so nice to meet you all after so long. This was a much
awaited get-together.
Garima: Well, John we could have met earlier, if you did not have a busy
schedule as you do.
John: Well I work for an MNC and you know the pressure. And by the way
you were also in field. so its not my fault entirely that we could not meet.
Garima: Oh yes I was posted in Bangalore. It is just that now i got my leave.
Lily (Smiling): Better late than never.
All in unison: Thats true.
All were busy talking, but Anjali was a bit quiet.
Manjit (Jokingly): Hey guys, be careful about what you speak we have two
psychologists amongst us.
Mahima: Well, don't worry Manjit, Me and Anjali are not judging you And
besides, Anjali is not just a psychologist, she is a forensic psychologist.
Manjit: Wow. Sounds pretty complex.
Mahima: Well it is a very challenging field.
Lily: So Anjali, can you tell us more about this forensic psychology and how
it is different from what Mahima is doing. She is also a psychologist right?
Anjali: Well, forensic psychology is a field where psychology is applied to
the legal system.
Mahima: Lily, I have done my MA in psychology and later did my Ph. D in
psychology and now I am in to teaching. But Anjali after her graduation did
Masters of Science in Forensic Psychology and further trained in the field.
John: Wow, that is really commendable. But what exactly do you do. Do you
test DNA, collect fingerprints and other evidence? Are you like a detective?
Anjali(Laughing): No John of course not. As a forensic psychologist we
have various functions, like carrying out criminal investigation, analysis of
crime, profiling of offenders. We are also involved in detection of
malingering or deception, interviewing eyewitness and expert witness. We
also work in area of police psychology. We basically use the principles,
assessment and techniques from psychology and apply them to legal system.

16 Manjit: Wow thats quite a lot of work. So is it more of an independent work.

Anjali: Actually no, we do work closely with police, lawyers, judges and Introduction to
Forensic
others involved in legal system besides doctors, psychiatrists and even Psychology
clinical psychologists.
John: Well, you seem to be more busy that me.
Mahima: Well, John, that depends on your perspective. All jobs are
important and require you to put in effort. In case of Anjali, being a forensic
psychologist does have its responsibilities as wellbeing and freedom on
individuals could depend on the interpretations made by him/ her.
Lily: Really interesting. And wish you all the best dear Anjali.
Anjali (Smiling): Thanks dear friends. I do need your best wishes.
……………And the conversation between the friends continued.
From the above conversation, you must have developed some idea about
forensic psychology. But let us learn more about this significant brach of
psychology.
In the very first unit of this course, we will try to understand the scope and
nature of forensic psychology and look at its sub- specialities. Ethical issues
in forensic psychology will also be discussed.

1.2 NATURE AND SCOPE OF FORENSIC

PSYCHOLOGY
The word ‘forensic’ originated from a Latin word ‘forensis’ that meant ‘of
the forum’. It mainly referred to a place where disputes were resolved,
something similar to the courts in the present day (Huss, 2014). A simple
way in which forensic psychology can be described is as application of
principles of psychology to legal system. Many people confuse forensic
psychology with forensic science. Although the two are closely related, there
are many differences. The primary difference is that while forensic scientists
are in the business of applying the chemical and biological sciences to law
enforcement, national security, defence, or intelligence work, forensic
psychologists delve into the psychological perspectives of human behaviour
and apply them to the legal systems. It can also be explained as application of
psychology to the criminal and civil justice systems. Criminal justice system
includes three parts viz. police, court and prison.
Walker and Shapiro (2004, page 3) defined forensic psychology as the study
that involves integration of psychology and law”. Thus, the two fields, that is
psychology which can be described as empirical and systematic study of
human behaviour is merged or integrated with law that can be described as
the study of how individuals rule themselves in social settings. Polizzi and
Draper (2015, page 3) stated that “forensic psychology attempts to provide
expert opinion and explanation based upon established knowledge within the
discipline of psychology as this relates to the topics of criminal law, family
law and civil liability law”.
“Forensic psychology is the professional practice by any psychologist
working within any sub-discipline of psychology(for example, clinical,
17
Forensic Psychology: developmental, social, cognitive) when applying the scientific, technical or
An Introduction
specialised knowledge of psychology to the law to assist in addressing legal,
contractual and administrative matters” (Speciality Guidelines for Forensic
Psychology, APA, 2011, page 1).
Forensic psychology is the intersection between psychology and the criminal
justice system. It involves understanding criminal law in the relevant
jurisdictions in order to be able to interact appropriately with judges,
attorneys and the legal professionals. An important aspect of forensic
psychology is the ability to testify in court, reformulating psychological
findings into the legal language of the courtroom, providing information to
legal personnel in a way that can be understood. Further, in order to be
credible witness, the forensic psychologist must understand the philosophy,
rules and standards of the judicial system.
Questions asked by the court to a forensic psychologist are generally not
questions regarding psychology but are legal questions and the response must
be in language the court understands. For example, a forensic psychologist is
frequently appointed by the court to assess a defendant’s competency to stand
trial. The court also frequently appoints a forensic psychologist to assess the
state of mind of the defendant at the time of the offence. This is referred to as
an evaluation of the defendant’s sanity or insanity (which relates to criminal,
responsibility) at the time of the offence. These are not primarily
psychological questions but rather legal ones. Thus, a forensic psychologist
must be able to translate psychological information into a legal framework.
Forensic psychologists provide sentencing recommendations, treatment
recommendations and any other information the judge requests. Forensic
psychology also involves training and evaluating police or other law
enforcement personnel. Forensic psychologists may also help with jury
selection.
Forensic psychology knowledge is used in various forms, such as in treating
mentally ill offenders, consulting with attorneys (for example, on picking a
jury), analysing a criminal’s mind and intent, and practicing within the civil
arena. A forensicpsychologist may also chose to solely focus his/her career
on research, ranging anywhere from examination of eyewitness testimony to
learning how to improve interrogation methods. Another form of forensic
psychology work is in public policy, where researchers can help in the design
of correctional facilities and prisons. The role of a forensic psychologists in
simple terms can be explained as assisting the legal system.
The forensic psychologist views the client or defendant from a different point
of view than does a traditional clinical psychologist. Seeing the situation
from the client’s point of view or “empathising” is not the forensic
psychologist’s task. Traditional psychological tests and interview procedure
are not sufficient when applied to the forensic situation. In forensic
evaluations, it is important to asses the consistency of factual information
across multiple sources.
Forensic evaluators must be able to provide the source on which any
information is based. Unlike more traditional applications of clinical
18
psychology, informed consent is not required when the assessment is ordered Introduction to
Forensic
by the court. Instead, the defendant simply needs to be notified regarding the Psychology
purpose of the evaluation and the fact that he/ she will have no control over
how the information obtained is used. While psychologists infrequently have
to be concerned about the malingering or feigning illness in non-criminal
clinical setting, a forensic psychologist must be able to recognise exaggerated
or faked symptoms. Malingering exists on a continuum so that forensic
psychologist must be skilled in recognising varying degrees of feigned
symptoms.
Thus, forensic psychologists perform a wide range of tasks within the
criminal justice system. By far the largest is that of preparing for and
providing testimony in the court room. This task has become increasingly
difficult as attorneys have become sophisticated at undermining
psychological testimony. Evaluating the client, preparing for testimony, and
the testimony itself require the forensic psychologist to have a firm grasp of
the law and the legal situation at issue in the courtroom, using the Crime
Classification Manual and other sources.

1.2.1 Relationship between Psychology and Law

As mentioned by us earlier, that forensic psychology is application of
principles of psychology to legal system. Thus, it is important to also focus
on the relationship between psychology and law.
In the past several decades, collaboration between psychology and law has
grown prodigiously. The number of journals, textbooks, and continuing
education workshops available in forensic psychology has increased. In
recent years, there has been a shift in the focus of clinical psychology from
investigating anxiety (neurotic) and schizophrenic conditions to studying
character disorders, examining externalising versus internalising styles of
personality, generally, and criminal and violent behaviour specifically. As the
public’s interest in crime increased, clinical psychologists broadened their
interests to include forensic questions and criminal behaviour.
There are three ways in which psychology and law interact:
a) The practice of psychology in legal settings (psychology in the law).
b) The effects of law on the practice of psychology (psychology by the law).
c) Research and scholarly inquiry as applied to legal issues (psychology of
the law)
There are epistemological differences between law and psychology. Both
lawyers and psychologists need to understand these differences for their
collaborations to meet with success. We can establish a functional definition
of forensic psychology by describing in the above three ways how
psychology and law interact: psychology in the law, psychology by the law,
and psychology of the law. Let us deal with these three ways in some detail.
Some psychologists practice in a legal setting and must be aware of and
knowledgeable about legal issues; expert witnesses are an example. Expert
witnesses must be familiar with legal standards, definitions, and tests and the
procedures by which the law operates. They must be aware of specific ethical 19
Forensic Psychology: parameters that govern forensic psychology practice, particularly where such
An Introduction
practice differs from traditional clinical or experimental practices .
Psychologists must be aware of the way law has increased its influence on
their daily functioning, whether in clinical practice, in academia, or in
research contexts. The psychologist must continue to follow refinements in
the law as they affect practice and, because state law and local customs shape
legal and ethical practice, to learn about the law as applicable where the
psychologist practices.
The third area that is subsumed under forensic psychology concerns scholarly
inquiry into what has been termed “psycholegal issues.” Psychologists have
applied research methodologies to a number of legal questions and practices.
Literature concerning juror selection and jury dynamics, privacy, and
discretion show applications of psychology studying the law.

1.2.2 Forensic Psychology and Related Fields

Forensic psychology can be related with various other fields like clinical
psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology and social
psychology. In this section we will discuss about how forensic psychology
can be related to these major branches in psychology.
Within the general field of psychology there are a wide range of different
disciplines. Two such disciplines are clinical psychology and forensic
psychology. Clinical psychology differs from forensic psychology in that the
general purpose of clinical psychology is to diagnose and treat psychological
dysfunction, whereas the purpose of forensic psychology is to provide the
psychological assessments in legal situations. A clinical psychologist is
bound by an oath of confidentiality to the patients that he/ she sees and is
motivated by a desire to help those patients find accurate diagnosis and
appropriate treatment for any emotional or mental issue that is disrupting
their lives. A forensic psychologist acts in the capacity of an expert witness in
psychological matters as they relate to criminal proceedings.
Forensic psychology and clinical psychology
Forensic psychology and clinical psychology both got their start in the same
general time period, the late 1800s. The first true clinical psychologist was
Lightner Witmer, who was a former student of Wilhelm Wundt, the ‘Father
of Psychology’. Witmer was the head of the Psychology Department at the
University of Pennsylvania when he/ she began this ground breaking work
with a boy that had trouble spelling. His tireless work was the first time that
psychological research was applied in the therapeutic setting, and led to him/
her opening the first psychological clinic in 1896 as has already been
mentioned. The first known use of the forensic psychology came when Albert
von Schrenk- Notzing testified at a murder trial on the negative impact of
publicity on the memories of the witness accounts. He/ she was the first to
suggest, in court, that too much press surrounding an event could lead to a
“retroactive memory falsification”. Essentially, his view was that the witness
would have a hard time distinguishing what they actually seen from what had
been reported in the press.

20
This very issue is still at the heart of many legal battles today. It is interesting Introduction to
Forensic
to note that Hugo Munsterberg, who was another student of Wundt, opened a Psychology
clinic in 1892 with the goal of introducing psychology to the courtroom. He/
she was largely laughed at but continued championing his cause for many,
many years.
In the context of how forensic psychology can be related to clinical
psychology, we can also discuss about clinical-forensic psychology. Clinical
forensic psychology is the subfield that most people are familiar with, even
though they are not even aware of it. There are a variety of things to do with
this area. Just like a clinical psychologist, clinical-forensic psychologists are
mainly interested in assessing and treating people suffering from some form
of mental illness. The difference is that the people being treated are also
being assessed because they are somehow involved in the criminal justice
system, mainly because of conviction for some offence. Most people in the
subfield decide to make treatment and assessment the focus of their career in
life. Offenders can be forcibly treated while in prisons, corrections facilities,
as a requirement of parole/ probation, or in a hospital. Alternatively,
offenders could see a clinical-forensic psychologist who operates in private
practice.
Forensic psychology and cognitive psychology:Cognitive psychology is a
discipline within psychology that investigates the internal mental processes
of thought such as visual processing, memory, thinking, learning, feeling,
problem solving, and language.Cognitive psychologists use psychophysical
and experimental approaches to understand, diagnose and solve problems,
concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between
stimulus and response. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems
take the form of algorithms – rules that are not necessarily understood but
promise a solution, heuristics – rules that are understood but that do not
always guarantee solutions. In other instances, solutions may be found
through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships. Modern cognitive
psychology has been deeply influenced by the work of Noam Chomsky,
Albert Bandura, and Ulric Neisser.
Forensic psychology is tied closest to the cognitive perspective. The
cognitive perspective was developed by George Miller, Jerome Bruner, and
Ulrich Neisser throughout the 1990s. It focused on identifying the process of
thinking, language, and dreams, with the main idea that perceptions and
thoughts influence behaviour. Forensic psychologists not only offer their
expert opinion at trials, but can also be found helping a witness identifying a
murderer in a line of suspects. They sometimes hypnotiseindividuals to help
them remember things or interview potential. They could also help jury
members to eliminate those who may be biased. These tasks relate to the
cognitive activities of thinking, memory and perceptions. Other times, they
give their own expert testimony at trails which could result in an individual
being confined to a mental institution, receive huge monitory awards, obtain
custody of a child, or lose his or her life. Legal psychologists play a big role
in the justice system.

21
Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychologists often work within the judicial system in such diverse
An Introduction
areas as determining an inmate’s readiness for parole; evaluation of
rehabilitation programmes; clinical competency; tort liability and damages;
evidence; jury selection; and police training. The evaluations of the mental
state of individuals also communicate the cognitive perspective. They may
also be employed in other areas of jurisprudence, including patent and
trademark disputes, divorce and custody cases, product liability, and taxation.
Psychologists advise their clients in several ways, including diagnostic
appraisals, which may determine the capability of the client to stand trial.
They are also called to provide clinically- based opinions on a wide variety of
issues arising from their diagnoses. Sometimes they obtain hospital records,
police reports, witness statements, and provide relevant research. Beside
submitting these and other findings, they are often required to testify in court.
Forensic psychologist may be hired by a defence attorney to evaluate the
defendant’s mental processes. They administer personality and intelligence
tests after being briefed on the circumstances of the crime and examining
records detailing the mental or emotional problems and treatment. Forensic
psychology can also be tied to ideas of structuralism. That is, structure of
conscious experience (such as witnessing a crime); objective sensation –
seeing, touching, testing, hearing and subjective feelings like memories and
thoughts.
Forensic psychologists determine whether or not people are telling the truth
with the use of polygraph machines (lie detector). The machine records a
person’s physical response to questions. The lie detector measures blood
pressure, breathing, electrical conductivity of the skin, pulse and perspiration
in order to tell if a person is lying or not. This aspect of forensics especially
ties back to the cognitive perspective and conscious thoughts. If the enquired
party does not provide accurate answers, then their body’s reaction gives
them away.
Forensic psychology is most directly related to the cognitive perspective
because most of this profession deals with mentality, memories and
conscious thoughts. Psychologists assess witnesses and suspects for accuracy
in objective thoughts and help enhance memories to uncover the truth and put
away the bad guys.
Forensic psychology and developmental psychology: Developmental
psychology, also known a human development, is the scientific study of
systematic psychological changes that occur in human beings over the course
of their life span. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has
expanded to include adolescence, adult development, ageing and the entire
life span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including
motor skills and other psycho-physiological processes; cognitive
development involving areas such as problem solving, moral understanding,
and conceptual understanding; language acquisition; social, personality, and
emotional development; and self-concept and identity formation.

Developmental psychology includes issues such as the extent to which

development occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge versus
stage- like development, or the extent to which children are born with innate
mental structures versus learning through experience. Many researchers are
22
interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individual’s Introduction to
Forensic
behaviour, and environmental factors including social context, and their Psychology
impact on development; others take a more narrowly focused approach.
Developmental psychology can be related to several applied fields, including:
educational psychology, child psychopathology, and forensic developmental
psychology. Developmental psychology complements several other basic
research fields in psychology including social psychology, cognitive
psychology, ecological psychology, and comparative psychology.
Recent developments in the field of forensic developmental psychology
challenge traditional conceptions about the reliability of children’s reports.
The areas covered involve the disclosure patterns of sexually abused
children, the nature of suggestive interviews, developmental differences in
suggestibility, and the amount of suggestion required to produce false reports
and beliefs.
Forensic developmental psychology is a field that has emerged over the past
two decades. The term was developed by Brooke and Poole (2002) and
includes autobiographical memory, memory distortion, eyewitness
identification, narrative construction, personality, and attachment as topics
covered by this field of research.
Forensic developmental psychology is oriented toward children’s actions and
reactions in forensic contexts. The research is grounded in a developmental
framework, and is emerging either from previous studies in basic
developmental science or from related research in the adult literature.The
major topics in this field of research include the conditions that precipitate
false reports, the psychological status of false reports, and developmental
trends in false reports.
Forensic psychology and social psychology: Social psychology studies the
nature and causes of social behaviour. Social psychology is the study of
social behaviour and mental processes, with an emphasis on how humans
think about each other and how they relate to each other. Social psychologists
are especially interested in how people react to social situations. They study
such topics as the influence of others on an individual’s behaviour (for
example, conformity, persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and
stereotypes about other people. Social cognition fuses elements of social and
cognitive psychology in order to understand how people process, remember,
and distort social information. The study of group dynamics reveals
information about the nature and potential optimisation of leadership,
communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the micro-social
level. In recent years, many social psychologists have become increasingly
interested in implicit measures, mediational models, and the interaction of
both person and social variables in accounting for behaviour.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings,
and behaviours are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of
others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of
investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviours include all of the
psychological variables that are measurable in a human being. The statement
that others may be imagined or implied suggests that we are prone to social 23
Forensic Psychology: influence even when no other people are present, such as when watching
An Introduction
television, or following internalised cultural norms.

Social psychologists typically explain human behaviour as a result of the

interaction of mental states and immediate social situations. In Kurt Lewin’s
famous heuristic formula, behaviour can be viewed as a function of the
person and the environment, B = f(P, E). In general, social psychologists
have a preference for laboratory based, empirical findings. Social psychology
Theories tend to be specific and focused, rather than global and general.
Social psychology is an interdisciplinary domain that bridges the gap
between psychology and sociology. During the years immediately following
World War II, there was frequent collaboration between psychologists and
sociologists. However, the two disciplines have become increasingly
specialised and isolated from each other in recent years, with sociologists
focusing on “macro variables” (e.g. social structure) to a much greater extent.
Nevertheless, sociological approaches to social psychology remain an
important counterpart to psychological research in this area.
Social psychology has a vast application in legal set up. A psychologists may
play a role in advising lawyers and courts on matters of witness credibility,
jury selection and how external factors can affect eyewitness memory.
Periodically, social psychologists act as trial consultants or offer counsel
regarding legal policy.
Social psychologists have learned that persons who confess or who provide
information as a result of being subjected to abuse do not necessarily provide
reliable information. The psychology of the false confessions has attracted
considerable research interest in recent years, with the realisation that a
surprising number of suspects confess to crimes they did not commit.
Forensic Psychologists consulting with law enforcement may be able to offer
interrogation strategies that will protect the rights of suspects and minimise
the likelihood that a false confession will occur.
From the above discussion, you must have developed a fair idea about the
nature and scope of forensic psychology. In the next sub-section, we will
focus on various sub-specialities of forensic psychology.

Check Your Progress I

1) What is clinical forensic psychology?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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24
1.3 SUB-SPECIALITIES IN FORENSIC Introduction to
Forensic
PSYCHOLOGY2 Psychology

Let us briefly look at the sub-specialities in forensic psychology. These will

be covered in detail in the rest of the units of this course.
Police Psychology: One of the first sub-specialities that we could discuss is
police psychology. As the name suggests this has to do with police. Police
psychology as a subject focuses in various aspects of enforcement of law that
includes government agencies at local, state and federal levels. Police
psychology also relates to the employment related aspects of police
personnel. Thus, right from recruitment to selection , police personality,
police stress, assessment and evaluation of psychological entities like
intelligence etc. of the police personnel is covered in police psychology.
Police psychologists to a greater extend are also involved in training police
personnel. they may also play a role in provide counselling and therapeutic
interventions to police personnel as and when required. We will discuss
about police psychology in detail in unit 7 of this course.
Investigative psychology: Yet another sub-speciality in forensic psychology
is investigative psychology and this also will be discussed in detail in unit 8
of this course. But to briefly discuss or introduce investigative psychology, it
is application of principles of psychology to the process of criminal
investigation. Thus, it mainly involves gathering of information from crime
scene and decision making in that regard, which is then applied in order to
carry out criminal behaviour analysis. Thus, an investigative psychologists
can play a role in developing greater understanding about criminal behaviour
and they can contribute greatly to the process of investigation. Investigative
psychologists are often involve din examination of patterns and styles as
reflected by the criminal so as to develop a better understanding about the
psychological characteristics and thought process of the criminal.
Criminal psychology: This is a sub-section, that is often interchangeably
used in place of forensic psychology. Though both the fields vary, criminal
psychology is a sub-speciality under forensic psychology. Criminal
psychology will be discussed in detail in units 4 and 5 of this course.
Criminal psychology mainly focuses on the behaviour, thought process and
patterns of the criminal. Criminal psychologists are thus involved in seeking
answers to why the criminal behaved the way he/ she did. Criminal
psychologists are often involve din offerer profiling, consultations and
research, assessment of mental health and other psychological entities,
proving counselling and psychotherapy and they could also be involve din
giving testimonies in the court.
Legal psychology: Another sub-speciality under forensic psychology that is
closely related to forensic psychology is legal psychology. In legal
psychology the concepts and principles of psychology are applied to legal

2
Section 1.3 is authored by Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychology,
SOSS, IGNOU, Delhi
25
Forensic Psychology: system. Legal psychologists often advice judges and individuals from legal
An Introduction
system in making decisions. Eyewitness assessment, that will be covered in
unit 9, can be categorised under legal psychology. To differentiate between
forensic psychology and legal psychology, forensic psychology mainly
focuses on the criminal or the offender and legal psychology focuses on the
through process of the judges, legal process, legal system and so on.
Correctional psychology: The last sub-speciality of forensic psychology
that we will discuss is correctional psychology. The focus of correctional
psychology, as the name suggests, is on treatment and management of the
criminals or offenders. Thus, the concepts and principles of psychology are
applied for correctional purposes. Correctional psychology would include
topics related to the prison and prison set up and also interventions for the
inmates and offenders. Correctional psychology will be discussed in unit 10
of this course.

Check Your Progress II

1) What is the focus of police psychology?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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…………………………………………………………………………….

1.4 ETHICAL ISSUES IN FORENSIC

PSYCHOLOGY
Professions use ethics codes to regulate, educate, and inspire their
practitioners. When the public grants a trust to a profession, the profession
assumes an obligation to practice in a way that serves the public and not
merely the individual professional’s appetites. Privileged communication is
granted to allow the public to consult professionals without fear that their
intimate disclosures will be revealed. Surgeons are allowed to cut into human
flesh to serve the patient’s medical needs. This trust is not granted
irrevocably or unconditionally; the conditions are that the profession regulate
itself by developing norms, values, standards, and practices that shape the
individual practitioner. The profession does not genetically produce the next
generation of practitioners, but it does produce its next generation of
professionals through socialisation. Although the ultimate responsibility for
ethical conduct is and must remain with the individual practitioner, the
promotion of ethical conduct is the province of the profession.
Yet, codes are restrictive and conserve a profession’s values. While
preserving minimal skill levels to practice, they can be used to stifle
creativity and foster greed.
A forensic psychologist generally practices within the confines of the
courtroom, incarceration facilities, and other legal setting. It is important to
26
remember that the forensic psychologist is equally likely to be testifying for Introduction to
Forensic
the prosecution as for the defence attorney. A forensic psychologist does not Psychology
take a side, as do the psychologists. The ethical standards for a forensic
psychologist differ for those of a clinical psychologist or other practicing
psychologist because the forensic psychologist is not an advocate for the
client and nothing the client says is guaranteed to be kept confidential. This
makes evaluation of the client difficult, as the forensic psychologist needs
and wants to obtain certain information while it is often not in the client’s
best interest to provide it. The client has no control over how that information
is used. Despite the signing of a waiver of confidentiality, most clients do not
realise the nature of the evaluative situation. Furthermore, the interview
techniques differ from those typical of a clinical psychologist and require an
understanding of the criminal mind and criminal and violent behaviour. For
example, even indicating to a defendant being interviewed that an effort will
be made to get the defendant professional help may be grounds for excluding
the expert’s testimony.
In addition, the forensic psychologist deals with a range of clients unlike
those of the average practicing psychologist. Because the client base is by
and large criminal, the forensic psychologist is immersed in an abnormal
world. As such, the population evaluated by the forensic psychologist is
heavily weighted with specific personality disorders. The typical grounds for
malpractice suits also apply to the forensic psychologist, such as wrongful
commitment, inadequate informed consent, duty and breach of duty, and
standards of care issues. Some situations are more clearl-cut for forensic
psychologist. The duty to warn, which is mandated by many states, is
generally not a problem because the client or defendant has already signed a
release of information, unless the victim is not clearly identified and the issue
of identifiability of the victim arises. However, in general the forensic
psychologist is less likely to encounter malpractice suits than a clinical
psychologist. The forensic psychologist does have some additional
professional liability issues. As mentioned above, confidentiality in a forensic
setting is more complicated that in a clinical setting as the client or defendant
is apt to misinterpret the limits of confidentiality despite being warned and
signing a release.
There are five ethical principles in the APA (2002) Principles and Code. The
five ethical principles are these:
1) Beneficence and maleficence: Safeguard the welfare and rights of
others and maintain vigilance in seeing the psychologist’s influence is
not misused.
2) Responsibility: Establish trust with clients, clarify roles and obligations,
coordinate services with other professionals to the client’s benefit, see to
the general ethical probity of colleagues, and provide some measure of
pro bono service.
3) Integrity: Promote truthfulness in research, teaching, and service, avoid
dishonesty, deception, subterfuge, and misrepresenting, and where any
such activities are necessary, be sure the benefits outweigh the costs and
client damage is minimised or repaired. 27
Forensic Psychology: 4) Justice: Allow equal access to services by the advantaged and the
An Introduction
disadvantaged alike, and take reasonable care that any biases and
limitations to competence or expertise do not harm recipients of the
services.
5) Respect for people’s rights and dignity: Respect the dignity, worth,
and rights of all people to privacy and autonomy, apply safeguards to
protect the vulnerable or impaired, maintain awareness for cultural,
individual, and role-driven differences so biases do not adversely affect
the client.
When applying the principles to cases, it becomes clear that they have
considerable overlap and that cases illustrating one principle frequently have
applicability to others. It is only a bit less entangling to see how the ethical
standards help guide the forensic psychologist.

For detailed information on the Principles of Psychologists and Code of

Conduct given by American Psychological Association, refer to the
following link https://www.apa.org/ethics/code

Check Your Progress III

1) List the ethical principles.
…………………………………………………………………………….
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1.5 LET US SUM UP

To summarise, in the present unit we discussed about forensic psychology.
Forensic psychology can be described as the intersection between psychology
and the criminal justice system. It involves understanding criminal law in the
relevant jurisdictions in order to be able to interact appropriately with judges,
attorneys and the legal professionals. The nature and scope of forensic
psychology was also discussed and the unit focused on the relationship
between psychology and law. Forensic psychology and related fields were
also discussed and in this context forensics psychology was related with
clinical psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology and
social psychology. The unit further discussed about the sub-specialities in
forensic psychology including police psychology, investigative psychology,
criminal psychology, legal psychology and correctional psychology. Lastly,
the ethical issues in forensic psychology were discussed.

1.6 REFERENCES
American Psychological Association. (2011). Speciality Guidelines for
Forensic Psychology. American Psychology- Law Association. Retrieved on
28 7/04/2022 https://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/forensic-psychology.
Bartol, C.R. and Bartol, A.M. (2008). Introduction to Forensic Psychology. Introduction to
Forensic
Research and Application. (2nd edition). Barnes & Nobles, NY. Psychology
Canter, D. (2017). Criminal Psychology. New York: Routledge.
Harmening, W and Gamez, A. M. (2016). Forensic Psychology. Delhi:
Pearson.
Huss, M. T. (2014). Forensic Psychology: Research, Clinical Practices and
Applications. USA: Wiley.
Polizzi, D and Draper, M. R. (2016). Forensic Psychology Reconsidered: A
Critique of Mental Illness and the Courts. New York: Routledge.
Shipley, A.L and Arrigo, B. A. (2012). Introduction to Forensic Psychology:
Court, Law Enforcement and Correctional Practices. New York: Elsevier.
Veeraraghavan, Vimala (2009). Handbook of Forensic Psychology. Select
Scientific Publishers, New Delhi.
Walker, L., & Shapiro, D. (2004). Introduction to forensic psychology.
Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers.

1.7 KEY WORDS

Clinical forensic psychology: Clinical forensic psychology is the subfield
that most people are familiar with, even though they are not even aware of it.
Forensic developmental psychology: Forensic developmental psychology is
a field that has emerged over the past two decades. The term was developed
by Brooke and Poole (2002) and includes autobiographical memory, memory
distortion, eyewitness identification, narrative construction, personality, and
attachment as topics covered by this field of research. Forensic
developmental psychology is oriented toward children’s actions and reactions
in forensic contexts.
Forensic psychology: Forensic Psychology is the intersection between
psychology and the criminal justice system. It involves understanding
criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions in order to be able to interact
appropriately with judges, attorneys and the legal professionals.

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I
1) What is clinical forensic psychology?
Clinical forensic psychology is the subfield that most people are familiar
with, even though they are not even aware of it.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is the focus of police psychology?
Police psychology as a subject focuses on various aspects of enforcement
of law that includes government agencies at local, state and federal
levels. Police psychology also relates to the employment related aspects
of police personnel. 29
Forensic Psychology: Check Your Progress III
An Introduction
1) List the ethical principles.
The ethical principles are beneficence and maleficence, responsibility,
integrity, justice: and respect for people’s rights and dignity.

1.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the nature and scope of forensic psychology
2) Describe the relationship between psychology and law.
3) Discuss forensic psychology and related fields
4) Describe the sub-specialities in forensic psychology.
5) Discuss the ethical issues in forensic psychology.

30
UNIT 2 ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF Role and Functions
of Forensic
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGIST1 Psychologist

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Forensic Psychologist’s Roles and Functions
2.3 Qualifications and Training
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 References
2.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.7 Unit End Questions

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to,

• discuss the roles and functions of a forensic psychologist; and

• discuss the qualification and training of forensic psychologist.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The work of a forensic psychologist is varied and wide reaching. He/ she
assists the police in investigation, provides advice on interviewing of
suspects or witnesses, works as expert witness in court cases, works in the
rehabilitation of offenders, conducts forensic psychology research or work in
academia. This unit aims to present a balanced view of profession of the
forensic psychologist and to introduce you to the variety of roles within
which the forensic psychologist can, and does work. You will also be
introduced to the specific functions that a forensic psychologist performs
within these roles.

2.2 ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF A FORENSIC

PSYCHOLOGIST
Let us look at the roles of a forensic psychologists and then we will discuss
about the functions.
In 1981 Professor Lionel Haward, one of the UK’s founding fathers of
criminal psychology, described the four roles that psychologists may perform
when they become professionally involved in criminal proceedings.

1
Prof. Dipesh Chandra Nath, Head, Department of Applied Psychology, Calcutta University,
Kolkatta (adapted from Uni t4, Block 1 of BPCE021).
31
Forensic Psychology: The four roles are:
An Introduction
Clinical: In this role the forensic psychologist will usually be involved in the
assessment of an individual in order to provide a clinical judgement. The
psychologist could use interviews, assessment tools or psychometric tests
(i.e. special questionnaires) to aid in his or her assessment. These
assessments can inform the police, the courts, or the prison and probation
services about the psychological functioning of an individual and can
therefore influence how the different sections of the criminal justice system
process the individual in question. For example, a forensic psychologist may
be asked to assess individuals in order to determine whether they are fit to
stand trial or whether they have a mental illness which means that they would
not understand the proceedings.
Experimental: This may involve the forensic psychologist performing
research regarding the case. This can involve carrying out experimental tests
in order to illustrate a point or provide further information to the courts (for
example, how likely it is that someone can correctly identify an object in the
hand of an individual from a distance of 100 metres at twilight). Alternatively
it can involve psychologists providing the court with a summary of current
research findings which may be relevant to the case in question.
Actuarial: In this context the word ‘actuarial’ relates to the use of statistics
in order to inform a case. One example of how a forensic psychologist may
act in an actuarial role is if they are required to present actuarial information
relating to the probability of an event occurring to the court. For example, a
court may wish to know how likely an offender is to reoffend before the
sentence is decided. In such a case, a forensic psychologist could be called
upon in order to inform the pre-sentence report to the court.
Advisory: In this role the forensic psychologist may provide advice to the
police about how to proceed with an investigation. For example, an
offender’s profile could inform the investigation, or advice could be provided
about how best to interview a particular suspect. Alternatively a prosecution
or defence lawyer may ask for advice on how best to cross examine a
vulnerable witness or another expert witness. This role involves the use of the
psychologist’s expertise in order to advice the police, courts or prison and
probation services.
As you can see, psychology thus can be used in a variety of different
scenarios within the criminal justice system and for a number of different
reasons. The next few sub-sections will examine in more detail how
psychologists can and do contribute their expertise to aid the work of the
criminal justice system. This list of role, however, does not claim to be
exhaustive, as there are many more ways in which psychologists play their
part. We have therefore chosen the most well known roles in order to give an
indication of what kinds of roles and functions forensic psychology involves.
Let us now discuss the functions of a forensic psychologist.
Criminal investigations: The role of a forensic psychologist in criminal
investigations can take a variety of forms. Professor Laurence Alison of the
32
University of Liverpool has suggested a number of ways in which the Role and Functions
of Forensic
expertise of a psychologist could aid the police and support the work that Psychologist
they do. According to him, “It is important to appreciate that the ways in
which psychologists can contribute extends well beyond the process of
profiling offenders. Indeed the apprehension of the offender would be
assisted by enhancing police decision-making and leadership-skills,
improving methods of interviewing witnesses and victims, developing
accurate methods of recording, collating and analysing data on pre-
convictions of offenders, developing suspect prioritisation system based on
empirical research and enhancing intelligence-led policing and the use of
informations.” (Alison 2005)
From the list of functions within the quote above, it may be seen that the role
of the psychologist in assisting the police can be wide-ranging.
Crime analysis: Crime analysis (sometimes also called intelligence analysis)
is one field of work which draws upon forensic psychological methods.
Crime analysts are generally employed by the police (or policing agencies,
for example in the UK, the National Crime and Operations Faculty and the
National Crime Squad) in order to analyse crime data to aid the police
carryout their roles. One of the most common roles of crime analysts is that
of case linkage. This process involves the linkage of crime based on the
similarities in the behaviours of the offenders as reported by the victim or as
inferred from the crime scene. For example, let us examine a rape case
committed by a stranger on a woman walking home alone after a night out
with her friends. Crime analysts could use the details of this case – the fact
that she had just left her office, that the rapist took some of her clothing away
from the scene with him, the contents of the threats used towards the woman
– in order to check against an already established database of similar crimes
to see whether there are any similarities to past crimes. If matches are found
– the same threats were used, similar items of clothing taken by a rapist, and
it was in a close geographical location to another rape – then this information
can be used by the police to investigate the potential that the same individual
offender has committed both crimes. This allows the focusing of the
resources of the investigation in order to avoid duplication of work.
Offenders profiling or criminal investigative analysis: Offender profiling
has received a great deal of attention from the media in recent years. Media
reporting of the utilisation of forensic psychologists in high profile cases has
introduced the general public to the notion of offender profiling. While this
has raised the profile of the field, it could be argued that the (largely)
sensationalist portrayal of profiling resulted in a general confusion of what
profiling actually is, how often it is done and who does it. This uncertainty
amongst the general public is not altogether surprising however, as there is an
absence of an agreed definition of the term ‘profiling’, even in academic
circles.
What we can be clear about is that profiling uses information gleaned from
the crime scene relating to the offender’s behaviour during the crime. This
can be pooled with other information, such as victim statements (if
available), in order to draw conclusions about the nature of the person who
33
Forensic Psychology: committed the crime. Was the crime planned meticulously or was it
An Introduction
impulsive? Does the offender live locally to the crime scene? What age range
is the offender likely to fall into? What gender is the offender? This
information can then be used to aid the police in investigations and in
targeting resources.
But how exactly is a profiler able to look at the scene and use this to specify
the characteristics of the offender? The answer to this question is not entirely
clear mainly because different people involved in offender profiling can, and
do, use a variety of techniques in order to reach their conclusions. Even those
individuals who claim to be working from the same theoretical standpoint
can still vary in how the theory is applied to any given case.
Interviewing, detecting deception and eye witness research: One of the
most important tasks during investigation is collecting reliable evidence in
order to put together a case of what happened during the event in question.
One of the main sources of this evidence is the people who were
eyewitnesses to the event. In order to gain this information, an interview
needs to be conducted by the investigating police officers with the aim of
gaining as much accurate information from the witness as possible. In
addition, once the suspect has been identified, he/ she too is interviewed in
order to gain his or her view of events and to possibly extract a confession to
the crime. Hence the interview (whether with a witness or suspect) and the
manner in which it is conducted can be crucial to a case.
It is not surprising, therefore, when you think of the processes (those relating
to memory and the retrieval of memory) that are involved in the interview
situation, the psychologists have been interested in this area for years. Given
research findings such as those that state that the recall of events by witness
can be manipulated by the interviewer (either intentionally or unintentionally
– for example, by the type of questions asked), it is clear that those carrying
out the interviews need to receive training in how to conduct the interviews
appropriately.
Psychologists have been instrumental in developing guidance and advice on
how best to interview witnesses and suspects and have also provided training
to various police forces on these techniques. The police can also use
psychologists in order to gain advice on how to interview particular types of
witnesses or suspects. For example, psychologists have conducted research
into interviews with vulnerable witnesses such as the young, the elderly and
learning disabled witnesses. This research can be used to inform the police on
how best to retrieve the information that they require from such witnesses
without causing them too much stress while at the same time ensuring that
the information received is as accurate as possible.
Research performed by forensic psychologists investigating the detection of
deception also has useful applications for the police when interviewing
witnesses and in particular suspects.
Function of forensic psychologist as a police psychologist: The information
here, thus far, been concerned with the application of psychological
knowledge to assist in police investigation. However, there is another field
34
within which the work of forensic psychologists, and the application of their Role and Functions
of Forensic
knowledge, is useful to the police, that is police psychology. Like many Psychologist
organisations, the police force itself presents its own challenges – what type
of person makes a good police officer? What is the best way to train police
officers? How might the attendance at unpleasant scenes of crime, or
repeated exposure to negative events, impact on an individual and how are
those affected in this way best treated?
This area of work is not a new one – psychologists, both occupational and
forensic, have been advising the police on such matters for the last twenty-
five years or so. Psychologists have contributed their knowledge to the
process of police officer recruitment through the introduction of
psychometric tests which measure psychological characteristics that may be
important in relation to such work. These could assess, for example, whether
a person is an assertive individual, open to persuasion, and conscious of
detail. Psychologists have also provided advice on the composition of
interviews and assessment centres which will eliminate those who do not
have the necessary qualities for the role as well as providing an indication of
those who will prosper in such a role.
Another important area of police interest where psychologists have an
ongoing input is the moderation of police stress. The stress faced by police
officers is somewhat different from that in other types of employment.
Whereas stress can be elevated in most jobs through organisational change,
such as decreased workload or a pay rise, the police can be faced with
unexpected, perhaps threatening, situations at any time during their daily
work. These events, due to their unpredictable nature, cannot necessarily be
mediated by organisational change. So the police also need stress
management measures that can assist at an individual level, as and when they
are needed. Psychologists have been instrumental in advising the police on
what mechanisms would be beneficial (such as peer counselling and self-help
programmes), but will also provide professional services to police officers
who require more intensive stress management.
Expert witness: Court cases can involve complex issues including the
presentation of information that is judged to be beyond the knowledge of the
average layperson who may sit on a jury. In such situations, the court permits
the calling of an expert witness who, by definition, has an expertise relating
to the issue in question. Under the circumstances expert witnesses are
permitted to provide their opinion (rather than the facts) on the issue being
discussed.
The way the expert witnesses are called to the court could vary from one
jurisdiction to another. For example, in some countries within Europe, an
expert witness is called by the court itself in order to provide information as
and when it is needed. However, in the UK and USA, the expert is instructed
by either the defence or prosecution in order to provide extra strength to their
version of events.
The use of the psychologist as an expert witness has, in the past, been
constricted by the notion of the expert having to provide information that is
beyond the knowledge of the average person. Historically then, the 35
Forensic Psychology: admissibility of a psychologist’s opinion was often limited to provide
An Introduction
evidence relating to mental impairment or the psychological functioning of
an individual. However, in recent years, the psychologists’ expertise has been
increasingly recognised and they are now being called upon as evidence in
relation to a wide variety of issues. Some examples of these are the impact
that the interviewing techniques have on a suspect or witness, the reliability
of eyewitness testimony, the clinical assessment of suspect or witness, or the
use of profiling techniques during an investigation.

Forensic psychologists and assessment and treatment of offenders:

Forensic psychologists, especially within Australia, Canada and the UK, are
heavily involved in work concerning the assessment, rehabilitation and
management of offenders, either in the community or when held in
incarceration. This role can involve working with the offenders to reduce
their likelihood for reoffending in the future or a more clinical role
addressing the psychological needs of offenders. These psychological needs
may (or may not) result from the effects of crime they committed (for
example the development of post traumatic stress disorder or realisation of
the impact of their offence on their victim) or the environment within which
they are held (for example developing depression due to being away from the
family or anxiety brought on by respective bullying from other prisoners).
This work can be both varied and challenging in nature.
One of the first and ongoing concerns of a forensic psychologist working
with offenders post-sentence is the assessment of the offenders. This
encompasses an in-depth analysis of their risk of reoffending, their risk of
harm (to others as well as themselves) and their needs (such as
accommodation, finances and mental health, for example).
These assessments can be used in the management of the offenders’
highlighted risks and needs, informing the planning of the activities that the
offenders will undertake during their sentence. This could include the
provision of basic skills courses, treatment programmes, one to one work on
the particular issues, and so on.
In addition, if an offender is on a community sentence and has been assessed
to be high risk to the public, then it may be the case that the offender
becomes subject to the monitoring arrangements in order to reduce the risk
that he/ she poses. The forensic psychologist can provide an input to each of
these arrangements on an operational level but can also provide managerial
and advisory support to those delivering such interventions.
In the recent years there has been a growth in the use of treatment
programmes with the offenders. Forensic psychologists have been active in
this development contributing to the design, delivery and management of
programmes which attempt to address the offenders’ thoughts, attitudes and
behaviours that contribute to their offending behaviour, and prevent further
offending.
Psychologists are also involved in the management of these programmes,
ensuring that the right offenders are placed on such programmes and that the
programmes are delivered in the manner in which the designer intended.
36
Research has shown that badly delivered programmes can be ineffective but Role and Functions
of Forensic
at worst be damaging. Psychologist

However, the role of the prison or probation psychologist is not limited to

rehabilitation related work. Forensic psychologists within these settings can
also be involved in undertaking research, overseeing training of prison or
probation
Forensic psychologists and academia / research: With the growth of
interest in forensic psychology in the recent years, there has been an
increased demand for courses which teach the theory and practice of forensic
psychology. With the inevitable growth in forensic psychology courses, there
has been a corresponding increase in the number of forensic psychologists
working within academia.
So what do those people actually do? Well, the obvious answer is that they
teach students about forensic psychology: about the psychology of criminal
behaviour, of the courtroom, psychology and investigation, the assessment
and treatment of offenders and also about how to carry out criminal
psychological research. This teaching can be at undergraduate or
postgraduate level and can be delivered in a variety of different ways.
However, the role of academic forensic psychologist is not only limited to
teaching. The other main role of academics is to carry out research within
their field of interest. Most academics have their own research interests that
develop over time and they are usually encouraged by their employers to
expand their knowledge of these specialisms by researching them further.
The ability to do this can often be dependent on a variety of outside forces,
however, such as the availability of funding and access to privileged data or
to imprisoned individuals. From a personal point of view, while at times this
work can be frustrating, tedious and time consuming, it is also very
interesting and hugely rewarding. Most forensic psychologists who work in
universities also are required to be involved in professional practice such as
giving advice in some of the many ways outlined in this Unit.

Check Your Progress I

1) List the roles played by a forensic psychologist.
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37
Forensic Psychology: Box 2.1 Specific examples of the functions that forensic psychologists
An Introduction
may be asked to perform (Bartol and Bartol, 2008).
Functions of a forensic psychologists with reference to police psychology,
psychology of crime and delinquency, victimology and victim services, legal
psychology, and correctional psychology are described as follows:
Let us elaborate these:
1) Police Psychology: Police psychology includes functions as follows:
• Assist police department in determining optimal shift schedules for their
employers.
• Assist police in developing psychological profiles of serial offenders.
• Establish reliable and valid screening procedures for law enforcement
officer positions at various police and sheriff departments.
• Train police officers on how to deal with mentally ill persons.
• Provide counselling services to officers after a shooting incident.
2) Psychology of Crime and Delinquency: This includes the following
functions:
• Evaluate the effectiveness of preschool intervention strategies designed
to prevent violent behaviour during adolescence.
• Conduct research on the development of psychopathy.
• Consult with legislators and governmental agencies as a research policy
adviser on prevention of stalking.
• Consult with school personnel on identifying troubled youth who are
potentially dangerous.
• Develop a psychological test for assessing risk among the mentally ill.
3) Victimology and Victim Services: Victimology and victim services
include the following functions:
• Evaluate and treat persons who are the victims of crime or witness of
crime.
• Conduct psychological assessments for personal injury matters having to
do with such things as auto accidents, product liability, sexual
harassment and discrimination, and medical negligence or workers’
compensation.
• Educate and train victim service providers on psychological reactions to
criminal victimisation, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• Assess, support, and counsel those who provide death notification
services.
• Educate service providers on the impact of multiculturalism when
victims seek mental health and support services.
4) Legal Psychology: Under legal psychology the functions mentioned
below are included:
• Conduct child custody evaluations, visitation risk assessments, and child
abuse evaluations.
38
• Assist attorneys in jury selection through community surveys and other Role and Functions
of Forensic
research methods. Psychologist
• Perform evaluations of a defendant’s competency to stand trial.
• Consult with attorneys and the courts concerning custody decisions,
conflict resolution, and the validity of assessment procedures used in the
evaluation of various psychological conditions.
• Conduct competency evaluations for the civil court.
5) Correctional Psychology: Functions under correctional psychology
include
• Establish reliable and valid screening procedures for correctional officer
positions at correctional facilities.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of a variety of existing programmes (a process
called programme evaluation) for juvenile and adult offenders, such as
victim-offender reconciliation programmes, sex offender treatment, or
health education programmes.
• Develop a stress management programme for correctional personnel.
• Assess the development of a system for classifying prison inmates for
placement within a correctional facility.

2.3 QUALIFICATIONS AND TRAINING

The typical day of forensic psychologist can vary. In general, it is oriented
towards research activities. However, a forensic psychologist may do other
things as well, such as helping with jury selection. In this case, a forensic
psychologist could gather information on studies done on juries especially
relevant to a pending case. They would then go to a courthouse or to an
attorney’s office to shift through papers or conduct interviews of possible
jurors. The forensic psychologist might also help attorneys narrow down the
juror pool by eliminating people whose views may affect the outcome of the
trial in an undesirable way. This process can sometimes last several weeks or
even longer.
There are both potentially rewarding and frustrating aspects to working in
forensic psychology that need to be carefully considered before pursuing a
career in this field. Listed below are some potential pros and cons. There are
certain very special attractions in being in the field of forensic psychology
and working as forensic psychologist. For instance, if a person enjoys
working with others, then this will be good profession to take up. Forensic
psychologists usually work with a team of other professionals in addition to
working directly with clients or criminal offenders. A person who loves
challenging assignments would find forensic psychologist’s job quite
attractive. A person who is interested in psychology and the law subjects
would find forensic psychology a very interesting subject. Forensic
psychology can be very rewarding when you make a difference to someone’s
life and thus the forensic psychologists can derive satisfaction for helping
others. There are many different specialties within the field of forensic
psychology that create a number of opportunities. When working in prisons 39
Forensic Psychology: and with juvenile delinquents every day can be challenging and very different
An Introduction
providing opportunities for applying varying skills and techniques. While
there are great attractions in the field of forensic psychology, there are
equally a few unattractive or disadvantageous aspects in the field of forensic
psychology. It is a field that requires expertise and thus, continuous training
and regular updation of knowledge is required. Attending seminars and
conferences throughout one’s professional life is important for keeping with
the current trends and discoveries in the field. The people that forensic
psychologists work with in prison settings are sometimes very violent and the
chances of getting hurt or injured is quite high when working with such
violent persons. Personal safety thus need sto be taken care of. Forensic
psychology can be very stressful job. Often, people and situations cannot be
changed easily. Thus, forensic psychologists could be prone to stress, anxiety
and even burnout.
The settings that a forensic psychologists is likely to work is in are mainly
police stations and courts. Though many forensic psychologists also work in
laboratory setups and some may be in to teaching and training. They could
also work as consultants.
The educational qualification required of a forensic psychologists includes at
least a Masters degree, followed by Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) or Doctor
of Psychology (PsyD). One of the Institutions offering programmes in
Forensic Psychology (Msc. in Forensic Psychology is National Forensic
Science University, Sector 9, Gandhinagar-382007, Gujarat. You can refer to
its website for more information https://www.nfsu.ac.in/m-sc-forensic-
psychology.
Those with a desire to work in forensic psychology must be patient,
adaptable, comfortable working with others, and enjoy doing research. Often,
one must be a good speaker because many people who do work in this field
work as expert witnesses at some point during their career. An expertise is
abnormal, motivational, clinical, and social psychology is also key to being
successful in this field.
Thus, besides educational qualification in psychology and forensic
psychology, one needs to also update oneself with legal system in the
Country. Further, a forensic psychologists will have to regular update his/ her
knowledge and skills by attending training programmes and participating in
conferences and seminars. A forensic psychology not only needs to have an
expertise in his / her subject area but also needs to have skills pertaining to
team work, communication skills, decision making and even report writing.

2.4 LET US SUM UP

You have learned in this unit about the roles and functions of the forensic
psychologists. The clinical role focuses primarily upon a scientific
determination of the mental state of the offender. In their experimental role,
forensic psychologists apply established experimental data to the events of a
case to produce an authoritative interpretation of what transpired. The actuary
role involves the forensic psychologist providing information on the
40
probabilities of certain events occurring or in conjunction with one another. Role and Functions
of Forensic
The advisory role involves the use of the forensic psychologist’s expertise in Psychologist
order to advise the police, courts and prison and probation services.
As you have read in this Unit, the functions of the forensic psychologist with
the criminal justice system take many routes depending on the specialisation
of the particular forensic psychologist. From aiding the police in their
investigations advising in the selection of police officers, providing expert
evidence to the court, working with offenders, conducting assessments and
interventions, carrying out research or imparting their knowledge to future,
the functions of a forensic psychologists are varied and challenging.

2.5 REFERENCES
Ainsworth, P. B. (2000). Psychology and Crime: Myths and Reality. Harlow,
Essex : Longman.
Alder, J. R. (Ed.). (2004). Forensic Psychology: Concepts, Debates and
Practice. Cullompton: William.
Alison, L. (2005). The Forensic Psychologist’s Case Book : Psychological
Profiling and Criminal Investigation. Cullompton, UK : William.
Bartol, C. R. & Bartol, A. M. (2008). Introduction to Forensic Psychology:
Research and Application. New Delhi : Sage Publications.
Carson, D. and Bull, R. (2003). Handbook of Psychology in Legal Contexts,
2nd edn. Chichester : Wiley.
Gudjonsson, G. H. and Haward, L. R. C. (1998). Forensic Psychology: A
guide to practice. London : Routledge.
Harmening, W and Gamez, A. M. (2016). Forensic Psychology. Delhi:
Pearson
Veeraraghavan, Vimala (2009). Handbook of Forensic Psychology, Select
Scientific Publishers, New Delhi.
Weiner, I. B. & Hess, A. K. (Eds.) (1987). Handbook of Forensic
Psychology. New York : John Wiley & Sons.
Wrigthsman, L. S. (2001). Forensic Psychology Bekmont, CA : Wardsworth.

2.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I
1) List the roles played by a forensic psychologist.
The roles played by forensic psychologist are clinical, experimental,
actuarial and advisory.

2.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the roles played by a forensic psychologist.
2) Describe the functions of a forensic psychologist.
3) Explain qualification and training of a forensic psychologist.
41
Forensic Psychology:
An Introduction UNIT 3 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
IN FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY1
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Role of Assessment and Evaluation in Forensic Psychology
3.3 Assessment, Tests and Evaluation in Forensic Psychology
3.4 Personality Testing in Forensic Psychology
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 References
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.9 Unit End Questions

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to,

• discuss the role of assessment and evaluation in forensic psychology.

• describe the assessment, tests and evaluation in forensic psychology: and
• discuss personality testing in forensic psychology.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
As such when we talk about assessment and evaluation in forensic
psychology, they are not different from assessment and evaluation that
generally takes place in psychology. Though, in the context of forensic
psychology, the assessment and evaluation becomes relevant due to its
implication as often the results and the interpretations are to be produced in
court based on which certain decisions could be taken. The main use of
forensic assessment is to assess the mental capacity and functioning of the
individual that is often reported to the court. They are also used to assess the
competency of the individuals and identify any future risks.
Forensic psychology represents the intersection between law and psychology.
Psychologists are expected to render expert opinions needed for legal
determinations. They also conduct psychological testing which is highly
objective and accurate which are in turn used for taking fair judicial decisions
and make fair judgement. The assessment and evaluation in forensic
psychology is not as such different from that in other fields. In the present
unit, we will discuss the role of assessment and evaluation in forensic
psychology and will also look at various psychological tests that can be used.

1
Dr. Bibha Rani, Former Director, Directorate of Forensic Science, Ministry of Home
Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi (Unit adapted from Unit 3, Bloc 3 of BPCE021)
42
3.2 ROLE OF ASSESSMENT AND Assessment and
Evaluation in
EVALUATION IN FORENSIC Forensic
Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY
Forensic psychology is a branch of Psychology and, therefore, it is not
possible to separate the developments in forensic psychology from the
developments in the broader discipline. As a result many of the psychological
assessment techniques, tests and measurements used for the assessment of
offenders for forensic purposes have their origins outside the field. Their
availability to forensic psychologists is contingent on developments in
academic, educational and clinical psychology.
The APA Dictionary of Psychology (2007) defines psychological assessment
as “the gathering and integration of data in order to make a psychological
evaluation, decision, or recommendation”. Multiple tools of assessment are –
interview, behavioural observations, tests, and other specialised instruments.
A psychological test is a “standardised instrument (that is, a test, inventory,
or scale)” used for the purpose of measuring any variety of abilities,
aptitudes, or attributes.
The practice of forensic psychology relies heavily on psychological research
and assessment tools. Forensic psychologists frequently use tools like
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2, Wechsler intelligence test
Hare psychopathic checklist version, structured interview of reported
symptom, and personality assessment inventories.
The forensic assessment differs from traditional testing in some important
ways which include purpose, and understanding of who is being served. The
major difference is that in mental health evaluation the client is the examinee
whereas in forensic evaluation specific legal questions regarding the
examinee has to be addressed in order to assist in decision making.
Forensic examinee are frequently mandated for an evaluation and often
assumed to have significant reasons to be purposefully selective in self-
disclosure so that a much stronger focus must be placed on examiner
objectivity and assessment of examinee’s response style. Because of threats
of conscious deception or selective self-presentation in forensic evaluations,
there is more emphasis on use of multiple sources of data to verify
information as well as strong reliance on external sources (i.e. collateral
observations, historical records, and reports of others) apart from the formal
assessment interactions with the examinee.
Forensic psychology assessment and evaluation is more than a mere
psychometric evaluation and this evaluation and assessment includes
assessment of criminal responsibility, trial competency, assessment of
malingering, assessment of mental health and identifying mental disability,
neuropsychological assessment and so on.

43
Forensic Psychology: Box 3.1 Distinction between Forensic Evaluation and Therapeutic
An Introduction
Evaluation2
You have learned that the forensic psychologist is asked to make evaluation
of defendant’s mental state. Now if you study the distinction between
forensic and therapeutic evaluation, your concept of forensic psychology will
be better.
A forensic psychologist’s interactions with the ethical responsibilities to the
client differ widely from those of a psychologist dealing with a client in
clinical setting.
a) Scope: Rather than the broad set of issues a psychologist addresses in
clinical setting, a forensic psychologist addresses a narrowly defined set
of events or interactions of a non-clinical nature.
b) Importance of client’s perspective: A clinician places primary
importance on understanding the client’s unique point of view, while the
forensic psychologist is interested in accuracy, and the client’s view
point is secondary.
c) Voluntariness: Usually in clinical setting a psychologist is dealing with
a voluntary client. A forensic psychologist evaluates clients by order of a
judge or at behest of an attorney.
d) Autonomy: Voluntary clients have more latitude and autonomy
regarding the assessment objectives. Any assessment usually takes their
concerns into account. The objectives of a forensic examination are
confined by the applicable statutes or common law elements that pertain
to the legal issue in question.
v) Threats to validity: While the client and therapist are working towards
a common goal, although unconscious distortion may occur, in the
forensic context there is a substantially greater likelihood of intentional
and conscious distortion.
f) Relationship and dynamics: Therapeutic interactions work towards
developing a trusting, empathic therapeutic alliance, a forensic
psychologist may not ethically nurture the client or act in a “helping”
role, as the forensic evaluator had divided loyalties and there are
substantial limits on confidentiality he/ she can guarantee the client. A
forensic evaluator must always be aware of manipulation in the
adversary context of a legal setting. These concerns mandate an
emotional distance that is unlike a therapeutic interaction.
g) Pace and setting: Unlike therapeutic interactions which may be guided
by many factors, place great time constraints on the evaluation without
opportunities for reevaluation. The forensic examiner focuses on the
importance of accuracy and the finality of legal dispositions.

2
Box 3.1 is adapted from Unit1, Block 1 of BPCE021 and is authored by Prof. Dipesh
Chandra Nath
44
Check Your Progress I Assessment and
Evaluation in
Forensic
1) What is psychological assessment? Psychology
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3.3 ASSESSMENT, TESTS AND EVALUATION

IN FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
While there are some instruments specifically developed for forensic use, like
structured interviews, rating scales, or tests designed for use with a particular
legal application in mind like Competence Assessment Instrument for
Standing Trial (CAA), Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), and
Competence Assessment Instrument for Standing Trial for Defendants with
Mental Retardation (CAST/MR), there are also many other instruments
which are used in other settings that can be used in forensic field.
Quite frequently other instruments, developed for non-forensic purposes, are
used in a forensic assessment because of the vast research on the instruments,
validity indicators built into some of the instruments, or ability for these tests
to contribute to a broad understanding of the person to develop hypotheses
related to factors bearing on the legal question(s).
Such tests are personality tests, tests of malingering, and cognitive tests
including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) measures. Whenever any test is used for
forensic evaluation, important factors under consideration are:
a) Sufficient research and norms with a population similar to that of the
examinee,
b) Adequate test development and psychometric properties, and
c) Ability to link test results to conclusions regarding the referral question
(Heilbrun, 2001).
Some of the tests and techniques of evaluation are mentioned herewith:

Mental status examination: A mental status examination (MSE) is an

assessment of a patient’s level of cognitive (knowledge-related) ability,
appearance, emotional mood, and speech and thought patterns at the time of
evaluation. It is one part of a full neurologic (nervous system) examination
and includes the examiner’s observations about the patient’s attitude and
cooperativeness as well as the patient’s answers tospecific questions. The
most commonly used test of cognitive functioning per se is the so-called
Folstein Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE), developed in 1975.
The purpose of a mental status examination is to assess the presence and
extent of a person’s mental impairment. The cognitive functions that are
measured during the MSE include the person’s sense of time, place, and 45
Forensic Psychology: personal identity; memory; speech; general intellectual level; mathematical
An Introduction
ability; insight or judgment; and reasoning or problem-solving ability.
Complete MSEs are most commonly given to elderly people and to other
patients being evaluated for dementia. Dementia is an overall decline in a
person’s intellectual function—including difficulties with language, simple
calculations, planning or decision-making, and motor (muscular movement)
skills as well as loss of memory.
The MSE is an important part of the differential diagnosis of dementia and
other psychiatric symptoms or disorders. The MSE results may suggest
specific areas for further testing or specific types of required tests. A mental
status examination can also be given repeatedly to monitor or document
changes in a patient’s condition. The main components are:
– Appearance, attitude, and behaviour.
– Mood and affect.
– Speech and language.
– Thought process and content.
– Perception
– Cognition.
– Insight and judgment.

Interview and cognitive interview: Interview is a face-to-face interaction

between the interviewee and the interviewer. The salient features of
conducting an effective interview are:
• Proper phrasing of interview questions.
• Interview schedules (set of questions, statements, pictures or other
stimulito evoke responses).
• Set of rules or procedures for using the schedules.
• Conducting the interview (evoking the responses or events that are to be
classified).
• Recording the responses – paper-pencil notes, electronic equipments or
other devices
The cognitive interview aims to enhance recall by subjects who are co-
operative but unable to narrate the incident. It is important that the
questioning in cognitive interviewing should be compatible with the
cognitive abilities of the interviewee. The recall activity should include
sensory motor imagery of the events. The probe needs to be of a specific
nature to facilitate the flow of information and to ensure that all elements are
covered specifically asking about things such as the time at which events
took place. The interview here needs to mentally reinstate the incident
including the interviewees feelings associated with it, and also focus on the
external factors that the interviewees are able to recall. The interviewee is to
be encouraged to report the events in a number of different sequences i.e.
besides recollecting in chronological order also in reverse order or starting
46 from the middle. Also they can be asked to report events from alternative
perspectives like that of another witness, the offender or from other physical Assessment and
Evaluation in
location. Retrieval method can be varied and extensive in order to facilitate Forensic
recall to the maximum. Psychology

Cognitive testing: The term “cognition” describes those mental processes

that allow us to perform day-to-day functions, for example, the ability to pay
attention, to remember and to solve problems are all parts of cognition.
Cognitive tests are used to measure a person’s cognition. Other terms for
cognitive tests include neuropsychological tests, psychometric tests,
psychological tests, intelligence tests or neurocognitive tests. Normally, tests
are designed to assess a single or only a few aspects of cognition. This means
that multiple tests must be administered to get an overall ‘picture’ or ‘map’ of
an individual’s cognitive ability. Cognitive tests can be categorised according
to the aspect or “domain” of thinking that they aim to assess. The three most
commonly cited domains of cognition are attention, memory and executive
function. Each of these broad domains encompasses more specific aspects of
cognition. For example, at one level memory can be broken down into short-
term and long-term memory, while attention can be broken down into many
components including sustained and divided attention.
Each cognitive test is designed to measure performance in a limited number
of domains of cognition, with additional domains assessed as different
complexities which are added to the tasks. For example, attentional abilities
are required to concentrate on and complete even the simplest of tasks, whilst
preserved memory is additionally needed to perform well on tasks of new
learning. Combining these individual tasks into a test battery can provide a
more complete profile of a person’s current cognitive state. Throughout the
20th century “paper-and-pencil” cognitive tests were used commonly to
measure intelligence, assist with the diagnosis of brain disorders such as
Alzheimer’s disease, and measure recovery from brain disease or injury. The
first computerised cognitive tests were developed in the 1970s and 1980s.
Computerised testing offers accurate recording of reaction time, electronic
capture and processing of data (minimising human error) and standardisation
of test administration (minimising sources of response bias).
Cognitive testing is a method to ascertain the functions of the brain whether it
is functioning well or otherwise. This technique has been developed in the
field of Neuropsychology, which includes a vast array of tests that measure
basic intelligence, learning and memory, sensory perception and sensory-
muscle integration, reasoning and problem solving skills, language and
communication abilities, and basic academic skills. Cognitive testing is able
to identify and to document the level of skill or the degree of impaired
functioning of a person. The utility of this technique in the forensic field is in
cases involving head injury, toxic exposure, or questions of competency or
capacity. To name some of these tests – Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS), Folstein Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), and Halstead-
Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery.

Psychological and behavioural profiling (criminal psychological

profiling): Criminal psychological profiling is a very effective tool in the
area of crime investigation in general and specially in the cases where a 47
Forensic Psychology: series of heinous crime (rape, murder, arson, and other violent crime) has
An Introduction
occurred and it has not been possible to identify the perpetrator. Construction
of criminal psychological profile from the scene of crime, interview of the
victims and witnesses may be of immense help in narrowing down to the
probable suspects in such cases.
Criminal profiling is a forensic technique which aims at providing the
investigating agencies the specific information regarding the personality
traits, behavioural tendencies and demographic variable of an offender based
on the characteristics of the crime. The crime scene provides ample clue to
the personality traits of the criminal. The criminal personality profile has to
be drawn from good examination of crime scene and adequate information
supplied to the forensic profiler.
Archival information: Many forensic psychologists also make use of
archival information while carrying out assessment. Archival information
includes educational records, medical records, employment related records,
records related to mental health of the individual and so on. These are
necessarily third party information and may also include information
gathered from significant others in the individuals life, his/ her family
members. The archival information and third party information is especially
important in order to ensure the accuracy of the forensic assessment. This
does not imply that the forensic assessment can be incorrect, rather, the an
individuals freedom and wellbeing will depend on this assessment and the
overall procedure of forensic assessment-and the report is subject to scrutiny
and criticism from range of people including judges, lawyers, police
personnel, opposing attorney and so on. Archival information and third party
information is also relevant because the likelihood of secondary gain is high
in forensic assessment which can also lead to increased likelihood of
malingering or deception. the individuals could exaggerate or
underemphasise certain symptoms during the assessment for their gains or
benefit. And in such situations, archival informationa nd third part
information can be helpful.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is mental status examination?
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 Box 3.2 Psychological Testing3 Assessment and
Evaluation in
Psychological testing constitutes administration of psychological tests. Here, Forensic
it is important to understand what are psychological tests. Psychological tests Psychology
can be described as tools that can be used to measure psychological entities
like intelligence, personality, attitude, interest, achievement motivation and
so on. Let us look at some of the definitions of psychological tests.
Psychological test was defined by Gregory (2010, page 16) as “a standardised
procedure for sampling behavior and describing it with categories or scores”.
Psychological test can be described as measurement of sample of behaviour
that is standardised and objective (Anastasi, 1969).Kaplan and Saccuzzo
(2013) explained psychological test a device or technique used in
quantification of behaviour that helps in not only understanding behaviour
but also to predicting it.
Some of the main properties of psychological tests are apparent from the
definitions discussed above. To highlight these properties, psychological tests
are objective in nature. They also have predictive and diagnostic value. A
psychological test is also standardised, meaning that the procedure followed
while administering and scoring the test is uniform and the instructions and
scoring are provided in the manual of the test. Besides this the manual will
also provide information about the norms based on which an individual’s
score can be interpreted. Any psychological test measures a sample of
behaviour pertaining to certain psychological entity or variable. And though
there are speed tests as well, often psychological test are power tests, that is,
the difficulty level of items increaser gradually in their difficulty level. Thus,
it is possible to identify the potential/ ability of different individuals, those
having higher and those having lower potentiality/ ability. It denotes the
extent of quality related to the psychological variable an individual has.
A psychological test also needs to be valid and reliable. Validity can be
described as the characteristics of a psychological test that states whether the
test measures what it is supposed to or purports to measure. Thus, a test on
adjustment needs to measure adjustment and a test on self esteem needs to
measure self esteem. A ruler, that measures length, is not a valid instrument
to measure weight and a weighing machine is not a valid instrument to
measure length. Similarly, a good psychological test needs to be valid and
should measure the entity (or the sample of behaviour) that it was developed
to measure. Reliability denotes consistency of the psychological test over a
period of time. For example, when a length of a table is measured with the
help a ruler on a certain day and then after six months, the length obtained
will be same. Thus, the ruler can be termed as consistent instrument to
measure the length. This is comparatively easy as table is a tangible entity
and as such its length will not vary, unless it is broken or subjected to some
other modification, in which case as well, such a modification or change will
be easily visible. However, in case of psychological entities that are
intangible, establishing reliability or consistency is a difficult task. Therefore,
if a psychological test on adjustment is developed and it is administered on a
group of adolescents, the scores obtained at a certain point and some time
later, say after six months need to be more or less same or similar.

3
Box 3.2 is taken from Unit 6 of BPCC134 and is authored by Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar.
49
Forensic Psychology:
An Introduction
3.4 PERSONALITY TESTING IN FORENSIC
PSYCHOLOGY
Central to the psychological perspective is the idea that almost all causes of
criminal behaviour originate in the personality. Personality is defined as the
complex set of emotional and behavioural attributes that tend to remain
relatively constant as the individual moves from situation to situation.
Psychiatry goes a step further by postulating that mental illness and crime
both have similar properties (in being responses to the same stressors and
each having maladaptive qualities).

As long ago as 1870, Henry Maudsly, in his book, Body and Mind, wrote
that criminals would go insane if they didn’t engage in crime. This is because
their pathological urges must find expression in something. So, it has long
been recognised that there is a strong relationship between mental illness and
crime (not to say that one is the cause of another). Criminal adaptation to this
condition of helplessness occurs because choosing crime over other possible
alternatives provides certain psychological advantages or gratifications,
which are as follows:

• Crime offers the possibility of excitement.

• Crime calls for the individual to maximise his faculties and talents which
might otherwise lie dormant.
• Crime can relieve feelings of inner oppression and stress.
• Adopting the criminal role provides an excellent rationalisation for
inadequacy.
• Deviant behaviour sometimes helps the criminal to form close and
relatively nonoppressive relations with other criminals.
• Crime can provide pleasure or gratify needs.
One of the major purposes of personality test is to assess the match between a
person’s personality profile and the required job profile, and thus screen out
candidates. It is very likely that as part of job selection process a candidate
will have to face a personality test. While the job interview examines the
person’s overt behaviour, the personality test ‘aims’ to reach deeper, and
expose those areas that the person may not be aware of, thereby providing
recruiters with a more comprehensive profile of the candidate’s personality.
The information provided by the personality test, coupled with the interview
and the other psychometric tests including aptitude tests, helps the evaluator
to put the pieces together and get an overall impression of the applicant.

Thus, personality testing irrespective of it being used in forensic field or

employment field or any other field, is used to gather information to allow
psychologists to describe what a person is like, how the person functions or is
likely to function with others, whether there is significant psychopathology,
extent to which a person is open and transparent in self presentation or
guarded or even deceptive and prognosis for improvement with treatment for
mental health problems.

50
In forensic field the personality testing is utilised to address questions like Assessment and
Evaluation in
risk assessment, mental illness diagnosis and treatment recommendations, Forensic
competency and capacity, tort cases where emotional distress claims are Psychology
made, and criminal cases where mental illness factors are being presented.
Some of the personality tests are described as follows:
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPA): It is known
as the MMPI, and its revised second edition (MMPI-2) are psychological
assessment instruments completed by the person being evaluated, and scored
and interpreted by the examiner. The clinician evaluates the test taker’s
personal characteristics. By analysing the test taker’s patterns of response to
the test items, the examiner is able to draw some tentative conclusions about
the client’s level of adaptation, behavioural characteristics, and personality
traits. The MMPI-2 is preferred to the older MMPI because of its larger and
more representative community comparison group (also referred to as the
“normative” group).
The results of the MMPI-2 allow the test administrator to make inferences
about the client’s typical behaviours and way of thinking. The test outcomes
help the examiner to determine the test taker’s severity of impairment,
outlook on life, approaches to problem solving, typical mood states, likely
diagnoses, and potential problems in treatment. The MMPI-2 is used in a
wide range of settings for a variety of procedures. In addition, the instrument
is often used by expert witnesses in forensic settings as part of an evaluation
of a defendant’s mental health, particularly in criminal cases. The MMPI has
also been used to evaluate candidates for employment in some fields, and in
educational counselling.
Personality Assessment Inventory: The Personality Assessment Inventory
(PAI) provides information relevant for clinical diagnosis, treatment planning
and screening for psychopathology. The PAI covers constructs most relevant
to a broad-based assessment of mental disorders.
This is a 344-item instrument requires 50-60 minutes to administer. Each
item is rated on a 4 point scale ranging from false, not at all true, to very true.
The PAI consists of 22 non-overlapping full scales covering the constructs
most relevant to a broad-based assessment of mental disorders: 4 validity
scales, 11 clinical scales, 5 treatment scales, and 2 interpersonal scales. To
facilitate interpretation and cover the full range of complex clinical
constructs, 10 full scales contain conceptually derived sub-scales.
Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R): The NEO Personality
Inventory (NEO PI-R) is a highly-regarded assessment of personality. Based
on the Five-Factor model, the NEO PI-R measures the interpersonal,
motivational, emotional, and attitudinal styles of adults and adolescents. It
consists of 240 personality items and 3 validity items, and is available in two
forms. Form-S is designed for self-reports and Form-R is written in the third
person for observer reports.

51
Forensic Psychology: It is used in the following areas:
An Introduction
• In counseling and clinical settings with adults as well as senior high
school and college students.
• In business and industrial settings.
• Psychological research, including studies in sport psychology and
recreation.
The NEO PI-R was designed to provide a general description of normal
personality relevant to clinical, counselling and educational situations. NEO
PI- R items and materials were designed to be easily read and understood.
The five domains (factors) measured by the NEO PI-R provide a general
description of personality, while the facet scales allow more detailed analysis.
These five factors and their facet scales include:
a) Neuroticism (Anxiety, Hostility, Depression, Self-Consciousness,
Impulsiveness, Vulnerability)
b) Extraversion (Warmth, Gregariousness, Assertiveness, Activity,
Excitement- Seeking, Positive Emotions)
c) Openness to Experience (Fantasy, Aesthetics, Feelings, Actions, Ideas,
Values)
d) Agreeableness (Trust, Modesty, Compliance, Altruism, Straight
forwardness, Tender-Mindedness)
e) Conscientiousness (Competence, Self-Discipline, Achievement-Striving,
Dutifulness, Order, Deliberation
Projective Tests: In psychology, a projective test is a type of personality test
in which the individual offers responses to ambiguous scenes, words or
images. This type of test emerged from the psychoanalytic school of thought,
which suggested that people have unconscious thoughts or urges. These
projective tests were intended to uncover such unconscious desires that are
hidden from conscious awareness.
In many projective tests, the participant is shown an ambiguous image and
then asked to give the first response that comes to mind. The key to
projective tests is the ambiguity of the stimuli. According to the theory
behind such tests, clearly defined questions result in answers that are
carefully crafted by the conscious mind. By providing the participant with a
question or stimulus that is not clear, the underlying and unconscious
motivations or attitudes are revealed. These tests are used in forensic setting
in order to find out the underlying psychodynamics of a criminal behaviour.

Check Your Progress III

1) List any two personality tests.
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3.5 LET US SUM UP Assessment and
Evaluation in
Forensic
To summarise, in the present unit, we discussed about assessment and Psychology

evaluation in forensic psychology. The forensic assessment differs from

traditional testing in some important ways which include purpose, and
understanding of who is being served. The major difference is that in mental
health evaluation the client is the examinee whereas in forensic evaluation
specific legal questions regarding the examinee has to be addressed in order
to assist in decision making. Forensic psychology assessment and evaluation
is more than a mere psychometric evaluation and this evaluation and
assessment includes assessment of criminal responsibility, trial competency,
assessment of malingering, assessment of mental health and identifying
mental disability, neuropsychological assessment and so on. The unit
discussed about tests and techniques used in assessment and evaluation in
forensic psychology including mental status examination, interview and
cognitive interview, cognitive testing, psychological and behavioural
profiling and archival information. Personality testing in forensic psychology
was also discussed.

3.6 REFERENCES
Anastasi, A. Psychological Testing. (1969) New York: Macmillan
Anastasi, A. and Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing (7th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bruce A. Arrigo, Introduction to Forensic Psychology (2000), Academic
Press, USA.
George J. Dudycha, Psychology for Law Enforcement Officers (1976),
Charles C Thomas, USA.
Harmening, W and Gamez, A. M. (2016). Forensic Psychology. Delhi:
Pearson
John M. Macdonald, Psychiatry and the Criminal (1976), Charles C Thomas,
USA.
Kaplan, R. M. and Saccuzzo, D. P. (2013). Psychological testing: Principles,
applications and issues. Belmont CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson Learning.
Howitt, D. (2002). Forensic and Criminal Psychology, Prentice Hall, UK/
USA.
Murphy, K. R. and Davidshofer, C. O. (1998). Psychological testing:
Principles and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Veeraraghavan, V and Shetgovekar, S. (2016). Textbook of Parametric and
Nonparametric Statistics. Delhi: Sage.

3.7 KEY WORDS

Archival information: Archival information includes educational records,
medical records, employment related records, records related to mental health
of the individual and so on. These are necessarily third party information and
53
Forensic Psychology: may also include information gathered from significant others in the
An Introduction
individuals life, his/ her family members.
Mental status examination: A mental status examination (MSE) is an
assessment of a patient’s level of cognitive (knowledge-related) ability,
appearance, emotional mood, and speech and thought patterns at the time of
evaluation.
Psychological assessment: The APA Dictionary of Psychology (2007)
defines psychological assessment as “the gathering and integration of data in
order to make a psychological evaluation, decision, or recommendation”.

3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I
1) What is psychological assessment?
The APA Dictionary of Psychology (2007) defines psychological
assessment as “the gathering and integration of data in order to make a
psychological evaluation, decision, or recommendation”. Multiple tools
of assessment are – interview, behavioural observations, tests, and other
specialised instruments.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is mental status examination?
A mental status examination (MSE) is an assessment of a patient’s level
of cognitive (knowledge-related) ability, appearance, emotional mood,
and speech and thought patterns at the time of evaluation.
Check Your Progress III
1) List any two personality tests.
Two personality tests are:
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI and MMPI-2),
• NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R) and

3.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Describe the role of assessment and evaluation in forensic psychology.
2) Differentiate between forensic evaluation and therapeutic evaluation.
3) Discuss the various tests and techniques of forensic assessment.
4) Describe personality testing in forensic psychology.

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