PrePared by

AjAy kumar
AssociAte professor
Mechanical engineering departMent
Kiet, ghaziabad
 Design for Fluctuating Loads
Cyclic stresses, Fatigue and endurance limit, Stress concentration factor,
Stress concentration factor for various machine parts, Notch sensitivity,
Design for finite and infinite life, Soderberg, Goodman & Gerber
criteria.
Stress Concentration

Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor

The theoretical stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress
in a member (at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at the same section based upon net
area. Mathematically

Example 6.2. Find the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress concentration
into account:
1. A rectangular plate 60 mm × 10 mm with a hole 12 diameter as shown in Fig. 6.13 (a) and
subjected to a tensile load of 12 kN. (62.5MPa)
2. A stepped shaft as shown in Fig. 6.13 (b) and carrying a tensile load of 12 kN. (40MPa)
Fig 2.4/P31 Fig 2.5/P31
Fig 2.6/P32 Fig 2.7/P32

Fig 2.8/P33
Fig 2.9/P33 Fig 2.13/P385
Fig 2.11/P34
Fig 2.14/P36
Fig 2.16/P37
 Fig 2.21/P39

Fig 2.18/P38

Determine the maximum stress produced in stepped shaft, stepped down from 40mm to 30mm
with fillet radius of 6mm. it is subjected to a couple of 100Nm
It has been recognized that a metal subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress fails
at a stress much lower than that required to cause failure on a single application of
load. Failures occurring under conditions of fluctuating (dynamic) loading are called
fatigue failures.
 Fatigue Failure
Fatigue failure is characterized by three stages

 Crack Initiation
 Crack Propagation
 Final Fracture

Crack initiation site

Fracture zone
Propagation zone, striation
RR Moore Test, S-N curve and Endurance Limit

Variable Stress σv
 Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit

Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (S′e)

or
Sf = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Sf′)

• Load factor, Cload (page 326, Norton’s 3rd ed.)

Pure bending Cload = 1

Pure axial Cload = 0.7
Pure torsion Cload = 1 if von Mises stress is used, use
0.577 if von Mises stress is NOT used.
Combined loading Cload = 1

12
 Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit

• Size factor, Csize (p. 327, Norton’s 3rd ed.)

Larger parts fail at lower stresses than smaller parts. This is mainly
due to the higher probability of flaws being present in larger
components.

For rotating solid round cross section

d ≤ 7.657 mm Csize = 1

7.657 mm < d ≤ 250 mm Csize = 1.189(d)-0.097

If the component is larger than 250mm, use Csize = .6

13
 Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit
• surface factor, Csurf (p. 328-9, Norton’s 3rd ed.)
The rotating beam test specimen has a polished surface. Most components do not have a
polished surface. Scratches and imperfections on the surface act like a stress raisers and reduce
the fatigue life of a part. Use either the graph or the equation with the table shown below.

Csurf = A (Sut)b

14
 Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit

• Reliability factor, Crel (p. 331, Norton’s 3rd ed.)

The reliability correction factor accounts for the scatter and

uncertainty of material properties (endurance limit).

15
 Relation Between Endurance Limit and Ultimate Tensile Strength
Steel Cast iron

0.5 σ ut σut ≤ 1400 MPa) 0.4 σ ut σ ut < 400 MPa

σe′ = σ ′e =
700 MPa σ ut > 1400 MPa
160 MPa σ ut > 400 MPa

Aluminum Copper alloys

0.4Sut σ ut < 330 MPa 0.4 σ ut σ ut < 280 MPa

σ ′e = σ e′ =
130 MPa σ ut ≥ 330 MPa 100 MPa σ ut ≥ 280 MPa

For N = 5x108 cycle

 Fatigue stress concentration factor,

In cyclic loading, the effect of the notch or the fillet is usually less than predicted by the use of
the theoretical factors as discussed before. The difference depends upon the stress gradient in
the region of the stress concentration and on the hardness of the material.

The term notch sensitivity is applied to this behavior. It may be defined as the degree to which
the theoretical effect of stress concentration is actually reached
Soderberg Criteria

σe

Variable Stress σv

σy
Mean Stress σm
Goodman Criteria

σe

Variable Stress σv

σu
Mean Stress σm
Gerber Criteria

σe

Variable Stress σv

σu
Mean Stress σm
Example 6.3. A machine component is subjected to a stress which fluctuates between + 300
MN/m2 and – 150 MN/m2. Determine the value of minimum ultimate strength according to 1.
Gerber relation; 2. Modified Goodman relation; and 3. Soderberg relation. Take yield strength =
0.55 Ultimate strength; Endurance strength = 0.5 Ultimate strength; and factor of safety = 2.

1. According to Gerber relation 2. According to modified Goodman relation

3. According to Soderberg relation

Example 6.4. A bar of circular cross-section is subjected to alternating tensile forces varying from
a minimum of 200 kN to a maximum of 500 kN. It is to be manufactured of a material with an
ultimate tensile strength of 900 MPa and an endurance limit of 700 MPa. Determine the
diameter of bar using safety factors of 3.5 related to ultimate tensile strength and 4 related to
endurance limit and a stress concentration factor of 1.65 for fatigue load. Use Goodman straight
line as basis for design. (63mm)

according to Goodman's formula

d = 62.9 say 63 mm Ans

Example 6.8. A circular bar of 500 mm length is supported freely at its two ends. It is acted upon
by a central concentrated cyclic load having a minimum value of 20 kN and a maximum value of
50 kN. Determine the diameter of bar by taking a factor of safety of 1.5, size effect of 0.85,
surface finish factor of 0.9. The material properties of bar are given by : ultimate strength of 650
MPa, yield strength of 500 MPa and endurance strength of 350 MPa.

according to Goodman's formula,

d = 59.3 mm
according to Soderberg's formula

d = 62.1 mm
Example 6.9. A 50 mm diameter shaft is made from carbon steel having ultimate tensile strength
of 630 MPa. It is subjected to a torque which fluctuates between 2000 N-m to – 800 N-m. Using
Soderberg method, calculate the factor of safety. Assume suitable values for any other data
needed.

according to Soderberg's formula,

F.S. = 1 / 0.541 = 1.85 Ans

 Design for Finite Life
σn = a (N)b equation of the fatigue line AB
A σn = 0.9σut
Point A
σ B N = 103
σe σn = σe
103 106 N Point B
N = 106
log σn = log a + b log N Apply boundary conditions for point A and B to find
the two constants “a” and “b”
2
(.9 σ ut)
a=
log .9σut = log a + b log 103 σe
log σe = log a + b log 106 1 .9 σ ut
b= log
3 σe

σe
⅓ log ( )
.9 σ ut
N
σn = σ (
e 106 )
 Example
A section of a component is shown. The
material is steel with Sut = 620 MPa and a
fully corrected endurance limit of Se = 180
MPa. The applied axial load varies from
2,000 to 10,000 N. Use Goodman diagram
and find the safety factor at the fillet A,
groove B and hole C. Which location is
likely to fail first? Use Kfm = 1

Pa = (Pmax – Pmin) / 2 = 4000 N Pm = (Pmax + Pmin) / 2 = 6000 N

Fillet

r = 4
= .16
d 25
D 35
= = 1.4
d 25

Kt = 1.76
 Using r = 4 and Sut = 620 MPa,
q (notch sensitivity) = .85

Kf = 1 + (Kt – 1)q = 1 + .85(1.76 – 1) = 1.65

Calculate the alternating and the

mean stresses,
Pa 4000
a = fK = 1.65 = 52.8 MPa
A 25x5
Pm 6000
m = A = = 48 MPa
25x5

Fatigue design equation

a m 1 52.8 48 1
+ = Infinite life + = → n = 2.7
Se Sut n 180 620 n
 Example
Hole
d 5
= = .143 → Kt = 2.6
w 35

Using r = 2.5 and Sut = 620 MPa,

q (notch sensitivity) = .82
Kf = 1 + (Kt – 1)q = 1 + .82(2.6 – 1) = 2.3

Calculate the alternating and the

mean stresses,
Pa 4000
a = Kf = 2.3 = 61.33 MPa
A (35-5)5
Pm 6000
m = A = = 40 MPa
30x5

61.33 40 1
+ = → n = 2.5
180 620 n
 Example
Groove
r 3
= = .103
d 29
→ Kt = 2.33
D 35
= = 1.2
d 29
Using r = 3 and Sut = 620 MPa,
q (notch sensitivity) = .83
Kf = 1 + (Kt – 1)q = 1 + .83(2.33 – 1) = 2.1
Calculate the alternating and the
mean stresses,
Pa 4000
a = Kf A = 2.1 = 58.0 MPa
(35-6)5
Pm 6000
m = = = 41.4 MPa
A 29x5

58.0 41.4 1
+ = → n = 2.57
180 620 n

The part is likely to fail at the hole, has the lowest safety factor
Soderberg equation
a m 1
+ = Infinite life
σe σy n n = FOS

σa σm 1
+ = finite life
σN σ y n
Modified Goodman equation
a m 1 a = Kfa oa
+ = Infinite life
σe σut n
m = Kfm om
σa σm 1 finite life
+ =
σN σ ut n
Gerber equation
na nm 2
+ = 1 Infinite life
σe σ ut

nσ a nσ m 2 finite life
+ = 1
σN σ ut