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Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textile

Finishing

Chapter · February 2021

DOI: 10.1002/9781119710288.ch11

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 11
Synthetic and Natural UV Protective
Agents for Textile Finishing
Anuradha Sankaran1, Arpana Kamboj2, Lata Samant3 and Seiko Jose4*

Department of Chemistry, PSNA College of Engineering and Technology,

1

Dindigul, India
2
Department of Apparel and Textile Science, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana, India
3
Department of Clothing and Textiles, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, Pantnagar, India
4
Textile Manufacturing and Textile Chemistry Division, Central Sheep and Wool
Research Institute, Avikanagar, India

Abstract
The growing need for improvisations in personal protective costume among var-
ious fields and fashion world has challenged the textile industry to innovate the
technical aspects in terms of functional finishes. One such highly essential fin-
ishing is resistant to solar radiation. The degree of ultraviolet (UV) protection
on the textiles depends on the type and chemical composition of the fabrics and
most importantly the end use of the product. Since the fabric manufacturing
involves various process sequences, there is a possibility of removal of natural UV
absorbers from the fabrics during such stage. In the past three decades, reports on
imparting the ultraviolet blocking property through various kinds of UV absorb-
ers may differ in the method of synthesis and mode of its application on different
textiles. Recent use of nanomaterials in the field has triggered the effectiveness and
durability of UV protective agents with multifunctional properties. This chapter
reviews the impact of UV radiation on humans, need for the UV protection, syn-
thetic and natural UV absorbers, various research attempts made to impart UV
protection in the textile finishing, and standards for UPF assessment.

Keywords: Functional finishing, UV protection, UV absorbers, phytochemicals,

UPF

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Luqman Jameel Rather, Aminoddin Haji and Mohd Shabbir (eds.) Innovative and Emerging
Technologies for Textile Dyeing and Finishing, (301–324) © 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC

301
302 Innovative and Emerging Technologies for Textile Dyeing

11.1 Introduction
The ancient clothing and textile era began when humans started to expose
themselves to new climatic condition, environmental situations and work-
ing conditions, that urges the need to protect them from cold, heat, and rain
using animal skins and vegetation. The development of the same reflects
the availability of materials and technologies followed by the social aspects
and culture. The accelerating demand of high performance garments in
the fashion world has insisted the researchers/manufacturers to also
focus their attention on the desired properties such as fastness properties,
increased strength, elasticity, durability, etc. in the products by selecting
the appropriate fibers, methods of fabrication, and finishing in the textile
processes. Finishing methodologies in textile processing play a crucial role
in determining the quality of end product, which shows the advancement
in the technology and lifestyle requirements of 21st century. Research on
protective finishing properties such as resistance to stains, flames, wrinkles
and microbial activity, etc. is of continuous interest because of demand,
substitution/replacement needs, multifunctional uses and technological
advancements of fabrics. Beside the fashion trend, issues related to human
health and negative environmental impact due to the harmful use of chem-
ical agents in textile processing leads to unsustainable conditions globally.
The World’s primary energy reservoir is sun radiation. Solar radiation
constitutes only a narrow arrange of UV radiation, and its absorption
in the atmosphere is wavelength dependent. The life-saving function of
ozone, water vapor, CO2 in the stratosphere is to absorb majority of high
energy UV-C and approximately 90% of UV-B radiation. Therefore, 94%
of radiation reaching earth is UV-A, which penetrates deeply into the
skin, and 6% of UV-B reaches earth’s surface [1]. These rays play a unique
role in the synthesis of vitamin D, photosynthesis, metabolic activities,
and acts as a natural cleansing agent for the survival of all kinds of life on
the earth.
Unfortunately, due to anthropogenic activity, the ozone depletion and
the climate change contributes to more UV-B, which is also called “lei-
sure” UV rays to penetrate into the troposphere. Adverse effect of UV-B
contributes to profound health risks including sunburn, cataract, pterygia,
atrophy, photokeratitis, degenerative aging, and malignancy to all kinds
of people irrespective of skin color. Human beings have been exposed to
occupational and recreational UV radiation, known as “tan” for cosmetic
purposes. Prolong exposure to UV radiation causes conversion of tan into
carcinogenic agent that promote tumor.
 Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textiles 303

The use of sunscreen and UV protective clothing has attracted the atten-
tion of consumers because of increasing need and awareness about the pro-
tection of the skin against ill effects of UV radiation. These UV protective
materials are needed in the form of sunglasses and filters, hats, awnings,
cover sheeting, beachwear, sportswear, canopies, tents etc., in the day-to-
day life against health risk. Also, the clothing label helps the customers
to have awareness about the design of the garment and its fabric texture.
This chapter explores the UV protective properties of natural and synthetic
agents for textile finishing. The physicochemical and biological parameters
of textiles and clothing towards UV blocking property and modern inno-
vative methods developed by researchers worldwide have been discussed
in detail.

11.2 Role of Textiles in Protective Clothing

The skin, largest human organ, comprises of 16% of body mass serves as
a boundary between an internal organ and the environment. Of the two
primary layers of the skin, dermis and epidermis, the outermost layer
epidermis serves against environmental stresses like biological, chemical,
and physical agents [2]. As the solar radiation strikes the skin, some of
its energy is either transmitted or diffused or reflected, while UV-B radi-
ation is mostly absorbed by epidermal components such as protein and
DNA of the skin (Figure 11.1). UV-A radiation, which causes sunburn,
penetrates deeply into the skin and has ability to reach the dermal fibro-
blasts [1]. Keratinocytes, richly present in epidermis, function as efficient
physical barrier and accumulate melanin. The pigment melanin effectively
restricts the UV penetration into the skin and thus functions as a “natu-
ral sunscreen”. Therefore, the amount and the type of epidermal melanin
determine the skin complexion and UV sensitivity. Two primary chemical
forms of melanin are eumelanin, and pheomelanin. Eumelanin is a dark
pigment and pheomelanin is a high-colored sulfated pigment. By nature,
eumelanin predominantly blocks UV photons and, fair-skinned people
having little epidermal eumelanin in the skin are sensitive to UV. One of
the preventive measures of UV blocking attempts is to select the UV pro-
tective clothing, especially to fair-skinned people and outdoor workers
exposed to prolonged sunlight.
Clothing is a medium between human skin and the hostile environment;
hence, it should be capable of regulating the body temperature and mois-
ture with environment and provide comfort in the working atmosphere.
304 Innovative and Emerging Technologies for Textile Dyeing

SUN

UVA UVB

Reflection & Scattering

Fabric Fabric with

Skin Sunscreen UV absorber

Transmission through Less Transmission

pores of fibres
Transmission of UVA

Photoaging Skin cancer

Absorption & Transmission of UVA & UVB

Figure 11.1 The protective action of sunscreen, fabric, fabric with UV protecting agents.

Each textile has its function in protecting against conditions such as heat,
mechanical stresses, foul weather, physical, chemical and biological haz-
ard, electric and electronic hazards, explosions, etc. The importance and
needs of textiles to provide the respective protective action has become
prime value to manufacturing personal protective equipment (PPE), which
includes helmet, clothing, gloves, and boots. Not all kinds of protectiveness
have been offered by the single textile, and thus, the emerging trend of
developing a variety of protective clothing is diversification. The protective
clothing must satisfy the intended use and, at the same time, give comfort
to the wearer. The functionality of clothing with intelligent characteristics
initiate the integration of protection research, material, biological sciences,
and clothing engineering with environmental concerns [3]. Apart from the
unique functionalities needed for specific functions, the general require-
ment of protective clothing by the public is toward radiation resistance.
Many indoor and outdoor workers from fire and light related workplace
have been exposed to hazardous radiations and are victims of skin cancers
due to chronicle exposure.
Health impact by UV radiation has been well explored and, clothing is
the easiest way to protect from solar radiation, radiation from electronic
devices and indoor tanning, etc. Application of sunscreen is useful only
 Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textiles 305

toward UV-B radiation, whereas textiles and clothing act as an intrinsic

barrier by absorbing both harmful UV-B and UV-A radiation. In such
situation, the UV blocking ability of the untreated fabric itself is of great
challenge to protect the fibers from damaging UV radiation. Fabrics can
absorb, reflect, and scatter solar radiation but the full shielding effect is not
yet reached (Figure 11.1). The parameters like the nature of fibers, con-
struction, and surface characteristics of fabrics, types, color depth of dyes,
and other additives present in the textiles have been considered to fulfill
the intended purpose.

11.3 Factors Influencing Ultraviolet Radiation

The spectrum from the sun composed of radiations of various specific
wavelengths that have interweaving effects on the skin. The UV rays emit-
ted by the total solar spectrum account for only 5% but have a tremen-
dous impact on the biological organism. UV light has been categorized
into UV-C (200–280 nm), UV-B (280–315 nm) and UV-A (315–400 nm)
depending on respective wavelengths [4]. Paradoxically, sun exposure is
unavoidable in the sense of natural vitamin D synthesis in human body,
photosynthesis of plants, and biological cleansing of environment [5]. The
harmful effect of these UV rays varies with the intensity, time of exposure,
composition of the atmosphere, and many more factors. But, the reach of
these rays is diverted by many natural or artificial sources. These factors/
sources act as a shield in protecting lives from the hazardous exposure of
UV rays.

11.3.1 Ozone
A layer of the gas present 10 km above the earth’s surface is called strato-
sphere, within which the ozone layer is present. Due to the layer of oxygen
molecules, a filter is formed that absorbs the most radiant and harmful
UV radiation, with wavelengths below 240 nm. This ozone layer, in turn,
efficiently absorbs UV radiation of higher wavelengths [6].

11.3.2 Cloud Cover

Cloud cover is one of the important medium in limiting the quantity of both
UV-A and UV-B radiation reaching the earth’s surface. Its composition is
306 Innovative and Emerging Technologies for Textile Dyeing

such that it scatters, absorbs, and confines the total amount received in a
particular region. Therefore, radiations from the sun reaching the ground
are scattered [7]. Some of the factors influencing clouds to protect from UV
rays are its size and shape, temperature, composition, and density [8].

11.3.3 Air Quality

Another governing factor determining UV exposure is the air quality of
the region. Pollutants like smog, particulate matter, fly ash, toxic gases, etc.
Affect the incidence of sunlight by scattering and absorbing it. Therefore,
UV rays receiving in this region can still be less due to losses incurred by
poor air quality even if the sky is clear and annual precipitation is low [9].

11.3.4 Altitude
The geographical location is another essential factor. The uniformity in the
intensity of solar radiation is not supposed to be same in all areas espe-
cially in mountainous regions because of the influence of physical factors
like altitude, relief, and slope [10]. The traveling of UV radiation through
less atmospheres leads to lease opportunity to interact with atmospheric
pollutants and gases. This causes significant exposure of organisms to the
harmful rays than those living in lower altitude. The distance and the angle
of incidence in the hilly region are less, consequently has high intensity.
The longer wavelength UV-A is less affected by altitude and atmospheric
conditions than high energy UV-B.

11.3.5 Latitude
The amount of sunlight reaching between the tropics is highest and
decreases beyond it. The reason is that the sunlight is not falling at 90 °C,
but at altered angles causing reduction in the total radiation acquired in
the temperate and polar regions. Solar radiation falling near the equator
takes less time and reach directly to the earth, increasing temperature.
The oblique angle of sunlight reaching the surface away from the equator
towards pole has low intensity due to long-distance travel by the rays and
steep incline angle.

11.3.6 Surface Reflection

The substances such as snow, sand, water, and many rooftops are reflective
substances. They are capable of increasing UV-B exposure near the earth’s
 Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textiles 307

surface by reflecting it back into the atmosphere, where it is then scattered

and reflected to different extents by different surfaces. For example, the
objects snow, dry beach sand and sea foam can reflect 80, 15 and 25% of
UV radiation respectively [11].

11.3.7 Water Depth

The salts, minerals and other impurities present in the water absorb the
radiation, and reduce its effect by scattering it from different angles.
Substances like organic carbon, different dissolved organic compounds
in water absorb the harmful rays, to some extent, thereby protecting the
marine organisms and plants from its lethal.

11.4 Susceptibility of Various Textiles on UV Radiations

In textiles, chemical composition and the fiber structure influences the UPF
values. Schuicrer reported that the ultraviolet transparency of natural fibers
such as cotton, wool, and silk have lower degree of UV absorption than syn-
thetic fibers like PET [12]. Greige cotton fabric provides a higher degree
of UPF due to the presence of natural pectin, pigments, and waxes, which
act as a UV absorber. But the bleached fibers have high UV transparency.
Zimniewska and Rawluk reviewed that the UPF of raw natural fiber linen
was 20 and that of hemp in the range of 10 to 15 indicating lower UV pro-
tection irrespective of lignin content [13]. On the other hand, jute is having
better UV absorption due to higher lignin content. Dyed cotton fabrics show
higher UPF in comparison with undyed and bleached cotton. Wool strongly
absorbed UVR in the 280–400 nm and even beyond 400 nm UV range. The
color quality, strength, and resiliency of silk fabric were deteriorated by sun-
light exposure both in dry and wet conditions [14]. Mulberry silk is more
degraded than Muga silk. Bleached silk has 9.4 UPF, and bleached PAN has
very low UPF of 3.9. UVR absorption of polyester fibers is found to be more
in the UV-A and UV-B regions than aliphatic polyamide fibers [15].
The suitability of the fabric towards ultraviolet protection has been ana-
lyzed by various methods. The two major types of quantitative testing are
in vitro and in vivo testing.

(a) In vitro testing

In vitro photo-protective method utilizes a spectrophotometer or ­spectro-

radiometer to measure the UPF of the fabrics [16, 17]. It describes the
308 Innovative and Emerging Technologies for Textile Dyeing

fabric protection efficiency against the ill effects of UV rays. The higher
UPF value corresponds to greater protection level of fabrics. The wave-
length range covering UV-A and UV-B from 280 to 400 nm has been usu-
ally used to determine the fabric spectral transmittance. UPF is defined as
the ratio of UV radiation irradiance transmitted and calculated through
the air (ED) to the average effective UV radiation irradiance transmitted
and calculated through the fabric ((EDf ).

∑
λ = 400

ED E(λ )S(λ )∆(λ )

UPF = = λ = 280
(11.1)
∑
λ = 400
EDf
E(λ )T(λ )S(λ )∆(λ )
λ = 280

ED is the effective dose, E (λ) is the relative erythemal spectral effec-

tiveness (unitless), S (λ) is the solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) spec-
tral irradiance in Wm−2nm−1, T(λ) is the average spectral transmittance
of the fabric specimen, ∆λ is measured wavelength interval in nm and λ
is the wavelength in nm [17]. Erythema Weighted Transmittance (EWT)
is the reciprocal of UPF and indicates the intensity of UVR penetration.
The value of EWT varies from 0 and 1 (or 0% and 100%). UPF equation
(2) is the basis for all other standards developed by different countries for
measuring, classifying, and marking of UV protecting property of fabrics.

(b) In vivo testing

In vivo, otherwise called human skin or laboratory method, assesses the

degree of sunburn in terms of Sun Protection Factor (SPF). The term, SPF
has been mainly intended to sunscreen products that express the ratio of the
sunburn caused by a minimal erythemal dose of UV exposure on protected
skin (MEDps) to that of uncovered skin (MEDus) in Joules. The high SPF
value denotes better fabric protection ability against sunburn [17].

11.5 Method of Analysis and Standard

The evaluation of ultraviolet protecting properties of the textiles varies
worldwide. Different countries adopted or developed different standards
based on UV source, geological factors, body coverage level, indoor and
outdoor UV exposure time, etc. In general, the clothing label helps the
customers to have an awareness of the design of the garments and its fabric
 Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textiles 309

texture, UV protecting capability, fastness properties, etc. Some standard

analyzing tools essential for ultraviolet screening evaluation is described
as follows.

11.5.1 Global Solar UV Index (UVI)

The global solar UV Index (UVI) describes the level of solar radiation at
the earth’s surface and was organized by the International Commission on
Illumination (CIE) reference action spectrum for UV-induced erythema
on the human skin [18].

400 nm
UVI = k er
∫
250 nm
Eλ Ser λ d λ (11.2)

UVI is calculated by the equation 11.2, where Eλ is the solar spectral

irradiance W/(m2·nm) at wavelengthλ, dλ is the wavelength interval used
in the summation, Serλ is the erythema reference action spectrum, and ker
is a constant equal to 40 m2/W.
The revised ISO/CIE 17166;2019(en) includes standard erythema dose
because minimum erythemal dose depends on the individual sensitivity
to UV radiation based on skin type, elapsed time to observe erythema,
radiometric characteristics of the source, and anatomic site, etc. To raise
the public awareness and to alert people against the erythematic action
of UVR, the UVI values have been grouped into exposure categories with
specified colors presented in Table 11.1. These values emphasis on maxi-
mum UV radiation level on a day and sun-protective measures are needed
beyond the threshold values [18].

Table 11.1 UV radiation exposure categories and sun-protective measures.

Exposure UVI
category range Recommended sun protection
Low <2 No protection required. People can safely stay
outside
Moderate 3 to 5 Protection required. A Sunshade required during
midday hours.
High 6 to 7
Very High 8 to 10 Extra protection with a shirt, sunscreen, and hat
are required. People should avoid outside stay,
especially during midday hours.
310 Innovative and Emerging Technologies for Textile Dyeing

Table 11.2 UPF classifications AS/NZS 4399:2017.

% of UV radiation
UPF rating Classification blocked
15 Minimum 93.3%
30 Good 96.7%
50,50+ Excellent 98%

11.5.2 Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4399-2017

The Australian/New Zealand standard is the first and universally rec-
ognized standard method to claim UPF rating. The standard AS/NZS
4399:2017 is a modified version of AS/NZS 4399:1996 by introducing the
minimum body coverage level required for clothing. The classification of
fabrics according to their sun-protective properties is given in Table 11.2.
Other standards related to ultraviolet protective properties have been
summarized in Table 11.3 [17, 19].

11.6 Synthetic Organic Compounds for UV

Protection of Textiles
The light transmitted through the pores of the fabric breaks chemical
bonds in the natural and synthetic textile fiber similar to the effect of
direct exposure of UVR. Also, UVR reaches skin and causes the same
harmful effects as direct penetration by generating free radicals resulting
in photo degradation. In order to improve the UPF value, textile finishing
needs the incorporation of compounds to absorb incident intense radi-
ation in the form of UV stabilizers. Synthetic UV absorbers have been
frequently employed in the textile finishing as UV stabilizers, which may
be organic and inorganic. The UV absorbers are the compounds absorb-
ing ultraviolet light in the UV region 200–400 nm but are transparent
to visible light and thus act as optical filters. Organic UV absorbers are
aromatic compounds with conjugate structure possessing functional
groups mainly hydroxyl, carbonyl, and amino groups as a chromophore
and responsible for sunscreen property. Thus, o-hyroxy benzophenones,
o-hydroxyphenyl benzotriazoles, o-hydroxyphenyl hydrazine, and sali-
cylic acid derivatives are representative examples of such kind of UV ob­
servers. These sunscreen agents absorb energy in the UV region resulting
Table 11.3 International standards related to UV protection of textiles.
Name of the Standard Titles Significance
European Standard Method for analysis of solar UV Applies to apparel fabrics and differs from
EN 13758-1:2002 protective properties of apparel fabric AS/NZS 4399 in the solar spectrum of
Albuquerque
European Standard Classification and marking of clothing Applicable to the clothing with UPF value greater
EN 13758-2:2003 than 40 and represented in pictogram and
words indicating UV protection
American Association of Textile Transmittance or blocking of erythemal Measurement follow EN 13758-1 and UPF is
Chemists and Colorists Test weighted ultraviolet radiation expressed in percentage
Method 183-2014 through fabrics
UV standard 801 General and special conditions Applies to all kinds of clothing and shading
textiles offering UV protection to human skin
ASTM D 6544-00:2007 Practice for preparation of textiles prior Determines maximum UV transmission of the
to ultraviolet transmission testing fabric during the two-year life cycle.
ASTM D 6603-07:2007 Standard guide for labeling of UV Give information on UPF value, classification,
protective textiles and labeling certification
Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textiles
311
312 Innovative and Emerging Technologies for Textile Dyeing

enol-tautomer through photo induced excited state intramolecular pro-

ton transfer (ESIPT). The short life unstable species revert to the stable
form by dissipating excess energy as heat. The other ways of regenerating
reactive forms are direct radiationless decay and deactivation after inter-
system crossing without generating harmful radical species [20].
Earlier reports are available on the direct use of substituted benzotri-
azole, and benzophenone as direct UV absorbers. These compounds
have been applied to the polyester fabrics during or after the dyeing
process with synthetic dyes [21, 22]. Chakraborty et al. studied the UV
shielding of conventional UV absorbers and reported that the substi-
tuted benzophenone, 2,4-dihydroxy benzophenone is more pronounced
than that of benzophenone in the UV finishing of reactive dyed cotton
fabric [23].
Reactive types of UV absorbers possess reactive groups like chloride,
sulphonic acid, and the hydroxyl functional group, which could form
covalent bonds with textile fibers fixedly, thereby increasing the UV pro-
tecting action for prolong time. Akrman and Prikryl, synthesized ben-
zotriazole based UV absorbers containing reactive groups that are capable
of forming covalent bonds with hydroxyl groups of cellulose in cotton
fabrics [24]. Authors suggested the photostability of the synthesized UV
absorber is due to the presence of 2-hydroxy phenyl group rather than a
2-methoxy phenyl group. These UV blockers have an ability to quench
the fluorescence property of optical brighteners. Benzotriazole deriv-
ative, namely, (2′-acetoxy-5′-methylphenyl)-2H-­benzotriazole, grafted
on ­poly-vinyl-amine polymeric backbone has been found to contribute
finishing property with good UV screening ability and wash fastness
[25]. Oda found that benzophenone containing benzotriazole groups
improve both the UPF and light fastness of the dyes [26]. The stabiliz-
ing effect of the combination of these UV absorbers with NTS, Nickel
p-­toluenesulfonate, as singlet oxygen quencher is more effective against
photofading of dyes. Grafting of UV absorber UV-DTHM, derived from
2,4-­dihydroxy benzophenone and 2,4,6-trichlorotriazine, on bleached
cotton fabrics showed anti-UV performance of UPF rating 46.5 in the
optimized conditions with fairly good durability [27]. The reactive UV
absorber, 2-(2-hydroxy-4-acryloyl)-2H-benzotriazole (BTHA), was syn-
thesized by Li et al. and grafted onto polyester fabric to increase the UV
resistance of PET [28].
A series of symmetrical 1,3,5-triazine derivatives have been prepared as
UV-absorbers, and their ultraviolet protection efficiency on cellulose fibers
was determined [29–32]. Mamnicka and Czajkowski prepared several
 Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textiles 313

fiber-reactive UV-absorbers containing built-in monochlorotriazine, and

vinylsulphone cellulose reactive residues [33]. Some of the developed
reactive UV absorbers on bamboo-viscose tricot offered good UV protec-
tion, while cellulosic fibers provided excellent results with all synthesized
UV absorbers. A recent report on the UPF values of the colorless reac-
tive triazine based UV absorbers applied on cotton fabrics using a pad-dry
method under optimum condition was found excellent [34]. The perfor-
mance of 1,3,5-triazine derivatives was reported as very good for outdoor
activity of bio-pretreated textiles [35].
The N-dihydroxy ethylene cyanoguanidnine (NDEC) was synthesized,
characterized and grafted on cotton fabric through functional groups, –
CN and –C=N, by a covalent bond under optimal finishing conditions
[36]. The UPF has been rated as 50+ with minimal reduction after 50
laundry cycles. Bis (indolyl) methane derivatives, as UV and anti-­bacterial
molecules grafted onto polyvinyl alcohol polymer, were prepared and
printed on cotton-based undyed materials [37]. These modified fabrics
show increased UPF values up to 40+. Commercial UV absorbers based
on oxalinilide (UV-SUN) were reported recently by various authors with
natural and synthetic dyeing of textiles with multifunctional properties
[38–40]. Various types of inorganic/organic or combination of organic
UV absorbers have been synthesized. The effectiveness towards UV
absorbing properties has been studied by number of authors [41–43].
An organic/inorganic hybrid UV absorber was prepared by synthesizing
2-hydroxy-4-(3-methacrylate-2-hydroxypropoxy) benzotriazole (BTMA)
and TiO2 nano sol separately and mixing them together. Then, it was
coated on to polyester (PET) fabrics and characterized. The UV blocking
properties and washing stability of the fabrics were reported as excellent
[44]. Bi-functional cotton fabric has been prepared by a double coating
of 2-hydroxy-4-acryloyloxy-benzophenone (HAB) on a cotton fabric fol-
lowed by methacryl oxymethyl trimethylsilane (MSi). The double coating
was carried out via repeat admiceller polymerization using the surfac-
tant sodium salt of do-decyl-benzene-sulfonic-acid (DBSA). The treated
fabric with very good UPF was due to HAB, while MSi contributes to
water repellency property [43]. In another study, Xiong et al. synthesized
inorganic/Organic hybrid UV absorber (SiO2-H) by functionalization of
nanosilica with 2,4-dihydroxy benzophenone [45]. The sequential deposi-
tion of aqueous (poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride) (PDDA) and
SiO2-H suspension onto cotton fabric was held via layer by layer assembly.
The resultant fabric material has been found to possess excellent UPF and
super hydrophobicity.
314 Innovative and Emerging Technologies for Textile Dyeing

11.7 Ultraviolet Protection of Textiles

From Natural Dyes
Due to the stringent government policies on the quality control of textile
wet processing industries, many age-old chemicals are banded for their
harmful effects on environment [46]. Researchers have now been shifted
towards greener and sustainable technologies for dyeing and finishing.
The phytochemical constituents of the plants, which safeguard them from
ill effects of the environment, are now being utilized by human beings to
impart the functional properties of the fabrics. In this way, apart from the
aesthetic natural color, the functionalities such as deodorant, cool finishes,
anti-bacterial and anti-UV properties are highlighted as the value addition.
Several reports are available on the eco-friendly approach of natural dyes
to offer ultraviolet protective property towards textiles. The UV-protecting
ability of the natural dye sources depends on the absorption characteris-
tics of the functional groups such as tannin containing polyphenols, fla-
vonoids, anthraquinone, terpenoids and aromatic conjugated system etc.,
present in the plants [47].
Sarkar stated that the ultraviolet protectiveness of cotton fabrics dyed with
vegetable and animal dyes from madder, indigo and cochineal was improved
effectively [48]. Also, dark shades and high concentrations of the dyes
enhanced the UPF suggesting the direct dependence of UV absorption on
dye concentration. The same concept was further evidenced from the reports
of Feng et al., showing absorption of 80% of UVR by cotton and silk fabrics
dyed with Rheum and Lithospermum erythrorhizon [49]. Mongkholrattanasit
et al. extracted the dye from Laccifer lacca Kerr. to dye silk fabrics by the post-­
mordanting process [50]. The light pink color extract of L. lacca gave different
shades with different metallic mordants. It has been observed that very good
to excellent UV protection is offered by metal mordanted silk fabrics dyed
with powered lac dye but without mordant offering good UV protection with
sufficient washing fastness. Pargai et al. reported the UV protection proper-
ties of Acacia catechu and Rubia cordifolia on nettle fabric [51]. Phytochemical
constituents such as tannin content in A. catechu and anthraquinone in R.
cordifolia has been found responsible for higher UPF [52]. Some attempts
have made to study the dyeing ability and UPF of natural dyes extracted from
agro residues [53]. The cotton, wool, and silk fabrics dyed with extracts from
agro residues like peanut skin and chickpea husk were reported to have high
UPF [54–56]. Another study shows that the simple addition of 5–20% lem-
ongrass oil resulted in a substantial enhancement of UPF of the wool fabrics.
Additionally, it delivered color, anti-moth, and aroma finish to woolens [57].
 Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textiles 315

11.8 Nanotechnological Interventions in UV

Protective Textiles
The use of nanotechnology either enhances a particular functional property
or imparts new functionalities due to its higher surface-to-volume ratio.
Emerging technologies in the synthesis and application of nanomaterial on
synthetic or natural textile materials are growing worldwide to harvest the
benefits in terms of end-use. Starting from fibers to textile finishing, nano-
technology brings a new diversion in the development of the textile indus-
tries. Materials in their nano form enhanced the functional properties like
fire retardancy, water and stain repellency, photocatalytic, UV protection,
self-cleaning and antimicrobial activities than the conventional counter-
part [58–61]. Recently, the application of inorganic nanoparticles on tex-
tiles for various functional finishing has attracted research attention. These
inorganic UV agents are preferable because of their distinctive properties
like non-toxicity, UV absorption capacity, and chemical stability at high
temperature. TiO2 and ceramic materials are absorbed in the UV region
and reflect infrared and visible rays [62]. Among various nanoparticles,
nano forms of ZnO and TiO2 were extensively studied for UV protection.

11.8.1 UV Protection of Nano-ZnO on Textiles

A study of nano-ZnO on cotton and cotton/polyester fabric for UV pro-
tection was performed by Kathirvelu et al. [63]. Two different tempera-
tures (90 and 150 °C) were used for the synthesis of nanoparticles in water
and 1,2-ethanediol solvent. The treated fabric was assessed for UPF both
before and after washing and the results showed significant UV protec-
tion. In another study, Farouk et al. used sol–gel process to synthesize ZnO
and applied on 100% cotton and cotton/polyester (65/35) blended fabrics
by the pad–dry–cure method [64]. The observed UPF factor is more than
50 for cotton fabric and more than 45 for blended fabric with good wash
fastness. Xu and Cai synthesized and coated ZnO nanocrystals on cotton
by the dip–pad–cure process as nucleation seeds, followed by hydrother-
mal ZnO treatment [65]. Upon analysis, the UPF of untreated and treated
fabric is 4.52 and 379 respectively. The authors also found that the raise in
curing temperature causes better crystallization of ZnO in nano rod form
with increasing UPF. Vigneshwaran et al. synthesized nanocomposites of
zinc oxide–soluble starch and coated on cotton fabric to impart micro-
bial resistance and UPF [66]. The UPF of the nanocomposite material was
found enhanced than the control fabric. Even after 25 washing cycles, the
316 Innovative and Emerging Technologies for Textile Dyeing

nano-ZnO coated fabrics were found to retain more than 80% retention
of both targeted properties. Sivakumar et al. utilized sol–gel method to
prepare nano-ZnO of particle size 9 nm from zinc acetate and incorporate
it on cotton fabric in the presence of an acrylic binder through the pad-
dry-cure method [67]. After 20 washing cycles, the UPF value was reduced
from 34.5 to 19.6 for 2.0% application of nano-ZnO. There was no drastic
reduction up to 15 wash cycles. The strength and elongation properties of
coated fabric were found intact after coating.

11.8.2 UV Protection of Nano-TiO2 on Textiles

Qi et al. synthesized nano-TiO2 particles by sol–gel process from tita-
nium tetra-iso-propoxide and applied on cotton fabric by pad dry cure
method [68]. As per AS/NZS 4399:1996 assessment, UPF of the fabric
was reported as 50+ rating and there is no significant reduction in the
UPF even after laundering. Gouda and Aljaafari synthesized nano-TiO2
from titanium tetrachloride using borohydride [69]. Various concentra-
tions of nano-TiO2 were applied on cotton fabric using acrylic binder by
pad dry method. The fabric was cured at 140 °C for 3 min. Australian–
New Zealand standard revealed that the UPF value increases significantly
with increasing nano-TiO2 concentration from 1 to 10 mM. The coated
fabrics showed sufficient washing fastness as well. Similarly, Sivakumar
et al. reported the increasing concentration of TiO2 nanoparticles from
1.0, 1.5 to 2.0% on cotton fabric enhanced the UPF to 40 assessed by the
AATCC-183, 2004 method [67]. However, after 20 washing cycles, the
significant reduction in UPF was noted. Chen et al. attempted to impart
UV protection to cotton fabric using poly-vinyl-silsesquioxane (PVS)
polymer and nano-TiO2 [70]. In their work, 0.5 to 5.0 g of nano-TiO2
was added to 5.0 g of PVS and mixed with 100 ml ethanol. The cotton
fabric was dipped in the prepared colloidal solution for 30 min with con-
stant stirring. The fabric was taken out, dried, and cured at 120 °C for 3
min. The results inferred that the polymer treated cotton fabric couldn’t
provide any UV protection, but the addition of 0.5 and 5.0 g of nano-
TiO2 raises the UPF values to 39.4 and 121.5 respectively. Bekrani et al.
prepared three types of cotton fabrics loaded with CeO2, CeO2/ZnO, and
CeO2/TiO2 by cross-link method and investigated their multifunctional
properties [71]. The UV blocking ability of CeO2/ZnO and CeO2/TiO2
cotton samples was better than CeO2 loaded fabric because of the com-
bination of anti UV resistance of the nanomaterials and synergetic UV
absorption.
 Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textiles 317

11.8.3 UV Protection of Nanosilver on Textiles

Compared with the above mentioned nanoparticle, the studies on UV pro-
tection properties of Ag nanoparticles are scanty. The silver nanoparticles
developed by in situ techniques were incorporated into semi-synthetic vis-
cose and synthetic acrylic fabrics. The silver nanoparticles influence color
and improve the UV-blocking and antibacterial properties [72]. Li et al.
performed a layer by layer deposition of nano-TiO2 and Ag coating on fab-
ric [73]. The treatment resulted in high UPF and antimicrobial properties.
Rehan et al. reported the in-situ synthesis of AgNPs into the cotton fabric
surface using UV irradiation [74]. The reduction of Ag+ to Ag0 due to func-
tional groups of the wool itself occurs, and the fiber color change to yellow/
yellow-brownish. The Ag NPs cause high UV absorption due to its high
refractive index and hence efficient scattering [75].

11.9 Graphene as UV Blocker for Textiles

The increase in the health consciousness among the public leads to
advance research in UV protective clothing. Semi-conducting material
such as TiO2, ZnO is widely used as UV blocking agents because of its
non-toxic, chemical and thermal stabilities and durability. Even though
they are efficient in the UV region, the main limitations are economic
viability, photo-degradation of dyes, and catalytic activity to generate free
radicals which are responsible for photo-aging, and there is a possibil-
ity of decline mechanical properties of the textile materials. Alternatively,
the unique electronic structure with zero band-gap increases the absorp-
tion characteristics of the graphene in the UV region. This property of
graphene has successfully been utilized in the finishing of textiles as a UV
absorbing agent [76].
Pristine graphene and chemically modified graphene, such as graphene
oxide and reduced graphene, provide excellent UV blocking property to
the textiles. UVR absorption of carbon nanotubes (CNT) has been inves-
tigated by Mahmoudifard and Safi [77] and they found that the specific
absorption value of both CNT and chemical UV absorber Ciba Fast W was
similar. The research endows the CNT as the alternative UV observer for
the textile finishing process. Chitosan as a dispersant, graphene content of
0.1–1% enormously enhances the UV blocking property of cotton up to
60-fold (UPF 465.8) on comparison with pristine cotton fabric with excel-
lent washing durability [78]. Cotton fabric functionalized with graphene
318 Innovative and Emerging Technologies for Textile Dyeing

nanoplate of 0.4% with waterborne polyurethane composite (GNP/WPU)

via pad–dry–cure method results in flexible cloth with ultrastrong UV pro-
tection up to a 10-fold increase of UPF from 32.71 to 356.74, remarkable
electrical conductivity, and far-infrared emission properties [79]. Surface
characterization studies showed that the polyurethane favors the uniform
dense deposition of the GNPs. Another work on cotton fabrics coated with
graphene/waterborne anionic aliphatic polyurethane coatings with 0.8%
exhibit 60 fold increases in UPF than that of pristine cotton with decreased
electrical resistivity [80].
Cotton fabric surface coated by dispersion of graphene oxide nanosheet
by vacuum filtration deposition (VFD) and then assembling it with chem-
ical polymerization of polyaniline (PANI) by the in-situ method was
performed by Tang et al. [81]. Deposition of GO nano sheet assists the
uniform aniline polymerization, and the resultant PANI-GO-cotton shows
an electrical resistivity reduced to 48.35 Ω cm and anti-UV efficiency with
UPF rating of 445.21. This significant hike in UPF rating arises from the
presence of both graphene oxide nano sheet even in low amount and the
polyaniline granular membrane resulting in the increased thickness of
cotton fabric. Nooralian et al. attempted the layer by layer deposition of
cationic graphene sheets on cotton fabric with the aid of polyvinyl phos-
phonic acid [82]. The UV and NIR reflectance of the multifunctionalized
cotton nano composite decreases as the number of coating layer increases,
and the effect was much more pronounced over the UV spectral range as
the graphene content rises from 10 to 20 mg ml−1.
A cost-effective and scalable approach of coating graphene oxide,
graphene and graphene/silver nanoparticles on knit polyester fabrics
has been studied by Ouadil et al. [83]. Among these coated materials,
graphene/silver nanoparticle coated fabrics exhibit high UV resistant
property when compared with graphene oxide and graphene coated fab-
rics. The surface properties of silk fabrics were modified by a repeated
coating of reduced graphene (RGO). The thin film of RGO modified silk
shows multifunctional properties such as electrical conductivity, anti-­
ultraviolet and water repellent properties [84]. Hydrothermal deposition
of reduced graphene oxide on the cotton surface enhances the UV block-
ing property dramatically from 7.83 to 442.69 in terms of UPF factor even
after the laundering process. Physico-chemical studies confirm the pres-
ence of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms and wrinkle-like wave structure of
rGO-deposited cotton fiber [85]. Co-doping of boron and nitrogen on
carbon dot (BN-CD) were also found to serves as UV protection finishing
agents for cotton [86].
 Synthetic and Natural UV Protective Agents for Textiles 319

11.10 Conclusion
The sun exposure to human is increasing day by day which causes tanning,
burning, and skin cancer. The sunscreen products with anti-aging perfor-
mance attract the consumer market because of the increasing skin problem
due to chronic exposure of sun light. In addition to colors and style, people
are aware of the functional aspects of the garments like antimicrobial, UV
protection, aroma, etc. Type of fiber, weave, color, thickness, dyeing and
finishing are the key factors that affect the level of UV protection of textiles
and garments. Today, researchers are focusing on the sun screening ability
of various fabrics by quantifying the amount of UV protection. This could
be achieved with the help of various natural and chemical formulations.
Phytochemicals present in the natural sources are effectively blocking UV
rays. Nanotechnology has emerged with the solutions like nano structured
ZnO, TiO2, etc that protect the harmful impact of UV rays. But, many of
them are still in the research level only due to various drawbacks, which
is still to be addressed. However, it is expected that more and more UV
protected fabrics will be launching in the textile market in the forthcoming
years.

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