Lesson 7.

Air Masses
Most people living in Earth’s middle latitudes have experienced a hot, “sticky” heat wave
consisting of several days of sultry weather that comes to an abrupt end marked by
thunderstorms. The heat wave is then followed by a few days of relatively cool relief. This
weather pattern features a period of generally uniform weather conditions, followed by a
relatively short period of change and the subsequent reestablishment of a new set of weather
conditions that might remain for several days before changing again.
What is an Air Mass?
An air mass is an immense body of air, usually 1600 kilometers (1000 miles) or more across
and several kilometers thick, characterized by generally uniform conditions. In particular, the
temperature characteristics, moisture content, and stability across the horizontal extent of an air
mass are similar. When an air mass moves out of its region of origin, it carries these
temperature and moisture conditions elsewhere, eventually affecting a much larger area.
The characteristics of an air mass are not perfectly uniform because these features blanket
such a vast area. Consequently, different locations under the influence of an air mass
experience some differences in temperature and humidity. Still, the differences observed
throughout an air mass are small in comparison to the change experienced along an air-mass
boundary—a comparatively narrow zone called a front. A front is a boundary separating air
masses having different densities, which result from differences in temperature and moisture
content.
Because it may take several days for an air mass to traverse an area, the region under its
influence is likely to experience generally constant weather conditions, a situation called air-
mass weather. The air-mass concept is an important one because these vast air masses can
affect our daily weather for several days in succession, and when they move, they often trigger
stormy weather. For example, most strong middle-latitude disturbances originate along the
frontal boundaries that separate air masses.
Classifying Air Masses
Source Regions
The areas in which air masses originate are called source regions. Because the atmosphere is
heated chiefly from below and gains its moisture by evaporation from Earth’s surface, the nature
of the source region largely determines the characteristics of an air mass. Ideally, a source
region should meet two criteria. First, it should be an extensive, uniform area. A region having
highly irregular topography or one that has a surface consisting of both large areas of water and
land will not create uniform characteristics in the air above it.
The second criterion is that the air masses form in regions where atmospheric circulation is
relatively stagnant, so that air stays over the region long enough to reach some degree of
equilibrium with the surface. Stated another way, regions dominated by stationary or slow-
moving high-pressure systems (anticyclones), which tend to have light winds or be calm, are the
sites where most, but not all, air masses develop.
Air-Mass Classification
The classification of an air mass depends on the latitude of the source region and the nature of
the surface—oceanic verses continental. The latitude of the source region mainly determines
temperature conditions and, to a lesser degree, moisture content, whereas the nature of the
surface strongly influences the moisture content of the air. For example, polar regions tend to
produce cold and dry air masses, while tropical oceans generate warm and moist air masses.
Air masses are identified by two-letter codes. Based on temperature, air masses are placed into
one of three categories: polar (P) air mass, arctic (A) air mass, or tropical (T) air mass. The
temperature differences between polar and arctic are usually small and simply serve to indicate
the degree of coldness of the respective air masses.
The lowercase letter m (for maritime air mass) or the lowercase letter c (for continental air
mass) is used to designate the nature of the surface in the source region and, hence, the
humidity characteristics of the air mass. Because maritime air masses form over oceans, they
have a high water-vapor content compared to continental air masses that originate over land.
When this classification scheme is applied, the following air masses can be identified:

Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA)

Air Masses Continental polar (cP) and continental arctic (cA) air masses are cold and dry. In the
winter, continental polar air originates over the snow-covered interior regions of Canada and
Alaska, poleward of 50° north latitude. Continental arctic air forms even farther north, over the
Arctic Ocean, which is frozen most of the year, and the Greenland ice cap. Lower temperatures
distinguish cA air from cP air—although the differences may be slight.
Winter Characteristics
During the winter, both cP and cA air masses are bitterly cold and very dry. Winter nights in the
source region are long, and the daytime Sun is short-lived and low in the sky. Consequently, as
winter advances, Earth’s surface and atmosphere lose heat that is not replenished by incoming
solar energy. Therefore, the surface is very cold, and the air near the ground is gradually chilled
to heights of 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) or more. The result is a strong and persistent temperature
inversion, in which the coldest temperatures are found near the ground. Because the air is very
cold and the surface below is frozen, the water vapor content of these air masses is extremely
low. As a result, these air masses are very stable and produce clear blue skies and very cold
conditions.
Trivia: When a cold air mass moves south from Canada into the United States, how
rapidly can temperatures change? When a fast-moving frigid air mass advances into the
northern Great Plains, temperatures can plunge 40° to 50°F in just a few hours. One notable
example is a drop of 100°F, from 44° to −56°F, in 24 hours at Browning, Montana, on January
23−24, 1916.
Summer Characteristics
Because cA air is a winter phenomenon, only cP air has any influence on our summer weather.
The properties of the source region for cP air in summer are very different from those during
winter. Instead of being chilled by the ground, the air over Canada is warmed from below as the
long days and higher Sun angle warm the snow-free land surface. Although summer cP air is
warmer and has a higher moisture content than its wintertime counterpart, the air is still cool and
relatively dry compared to air in the United States. Summer heat waves in the central and
eastern United States often end with the southward advance of cP air, which brings cooling
relief and pleasant weather for a day or two.
Maritime Polar (mP)
Air Masses Maritime polar (mP) air masses are cold and moist and form at high latitudes over
cold ocean waters. But compared with cP air masses in winter, mP air is relatively mild because
the ocean surface is significantly warmer than the adjacent landmasses. The temperature of mP
air masses also tends to moderate more quickly as the air moves equatorward. Two regions are
important sources for mP air that influences North America: the Pacific Ocean west of Alaska,
and the northwestern Atlantic off the coast of Newfoundland. Because of the general west-to-
east atmospheric circulation in the middle latitudes, mP air masses from the North Pacific
source region has a greater influence on North American weather, especially in the winter, than
mP air masses originating in Atlantic waters. Air masses that form in the northwestern Atlantic
tend to move eastward and impact the weather in Europe.
Pacific mP Air
Masses During the winter, mP air masses that form over the Pacific often begin as cP air in
Siberia. Although air rarely stagnates over the northern Pacific Ocean, this source region is vast
enough to allow the air moving across it to acquire the characteristics of an mP air mass. As the
air advances southeastward over the relatively warm Pacific water, evaporation adds moisture,
while surface heating warms its lower levels. Consequently, what began as a very cold, dry, and
stable air mass evolves into one that is cool, humid, and relatively unstable.

Maritime Polar Air from the North Atlantic

Air masses forming in the northwestern Atlantic source region only occasionally affects the
weather of North America. Nevertheless, these air masses can have a dramatic effect on the
northeastern United States when a passing low-pressure center (midlatitude cyclone) pulls mP
air into the region as it rotates counterclockwise. In winter, these cyclonic winds can be
particularly strong.
The weather associated with a wintertime invasion of mP air from the Atlantic is known as a
nor’easter. Strong northeast winds, freezing or near-freezing temperatures, high relative
humidity, and the likelihood of precipitation make this weather phenomenon an unwelcome
event. Fortunately, its influence is generally confined to the area east of the Appalachians and
north of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.
Maritime Tropical (mT)
Air Masses Maritime tropical (mT) air masses affecting North America most often originate over
the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the adjacent western Atlantic
Ocean. The tropical Pacific is also a source region for mT air. However, the land area affected
by this latter source is small compared with the size of the region influenced by air masses
produced in the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent waters.
Pacific mT Air Mass
In the winter, air from the tropical Pacific affects the weather along coastal areas of
northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States. When this warm, moist air mass
moves northeastward toward North America, cooling at the surface usually generates fog or
low-lying stratus clouds that may produce drizzle or light rain. If the air mass is lifted over
mountainous terrain, moderate precipitation may result.
There are times when mT air from the subtropical Pacific is associated with winter weather
phenomena known as atmospheric rivers, narrow zones in the atmosphere that transport
significant amounts of moisture to regions outside the tropics. One well-known example is
popularly called the Pineapple Express. This atmospheric river is driven by a strong southern
branch of the polar jet stream and transports humid, warm mT air from as far away as the
Hawaiian Islands. In the winter, this moist air can bring torrential rains to California and other
west coast locations and produce heavy snows in the Sierra Nevada
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses
Continental tropical (cT) air masses are more prevalent in summer when air over northern
Mexico and adjacent parts of the arid southwestern United States is the hottest. Because of the
intense daytime heating at Earth’s surface, cT air is unstable—hot near the surface and
significantly cooler aloft. Nevertheless, it generally remains nearly cloudless because of
extremely low humidity and the presence of high pressure aloft that tends to limit convective
lifting. The prevailing weather, therefore, is hot, with almost no rainfall. However, as we
discussed earlier, by midsummer the intense heating of this source region creates a strong
thermal low that, in July and August, draws in humid maritime tropical air from the Pacific to
trigger a rainy season. The rain generated is often associated with strong thunderstorms that
can cause flooding.
Although this cT air mass is usually confined to its source region, it occasionally moves into the
southern Great Plains. When this occurs, the cT air may produce a dryline, a narrow zone that
can trigger severe thunderstorms should it encounter a warm, moist maritime tropical air mass.
Identifying Air Masses on Weather Maps
On July 20, 2016, a large mT air mass advanced deep into the continental United States. It
extended from Texas to Florida and northward to the Dakotas, eventually spilling into south-
central Canada. Several locations in western South Dakota recorded high temperatures that
exceeded 100°F. Maritime tropical air masses such as this are identified by their high
temperatures and high humidity. The high surface air temperatures of this hot, moist air mass
are shown on the weather map.

To determine the humidity of an air mass, meteorologists usually examine dew-point

temperatures, like those displayed on the map for this date. Recall from Chapter 4 that air
having a dew-point temperature exceeding 65°F (18°C) is considered humid, whereas air with a
dew-point temperature above 75°F (24°C) is considered oppressive. Stated another way, the
closer the dew-point temperature is to the air temperature, the higher the relative humidity.
When the temperature and the dew point are the same, the air is saturated, and the relative
humidity is 100 percent.
By contrast, notice that the southwestern United States also experienced high temperatures on
this date. However, dew-point temperatures in the southwest, as shown, ranged from less than
25°F to about 50°F, an obvious sign of much dryer air. The air mass over the southwestern
states is therefore classified as continental tropical (cT)—hot and dry—whereas the air mass
located in the midsection of the country is classified as maritime tropical (mT) because of its
high temperature and high humidity.
Air-Mass Modification
Warming or Cooling an Air Mass
An air mass that is colder than the surface it passes over will be warmed from below. This fact
causes greater instability that favors the ascent of the heated lower layers, which contributes to
cloud formation and possibly precipitation. Air masses modified by surface heating often exhibit
cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds, and if precipitation occurs, it generally consists of showers or
thunderstorms.
Conversely, when an air mass is warmer than the surface over which it is moving, its lower
layers are chilled. An inversion caused by cooler air near the surface and warmer air aloft
increases the stability of the air mass—a condition that inhibits the ascent of air. Thus, cooling
air from below limits the potential for cloud formation and precipitation. Any clouds that form are
stratus clouds, and precipitation, if any, is light to moderate. Moreover, because of the lack of
vertical movements, smoke and dust often become concentrated in the lower layers of the air
mass and cause poor visibility. During certain times of the year, fogs, especially advection fog,
are common in regions that have been invaded by a warm air mass moving across a cool
surface, such as a cold ocean current.
Addition or Loss of Moisture
When a dry, cold (cA or cP) air mass moves over a large expanse of the ocean in winter, it is
greatly modified. Evaporation from the water surface rapidly transfers large quantities of
moisture to the once-dry continental air. Furthermore, because the underlying water is warmer
than the air above, the air is also heated from below. These factors lead to instability and
vertically ascending currents that rapidly transport heat and moisture to higher levels. In a
relatively short time span, a cold, dry, and stable continental air mass is transformed into an
unstable mP air mass.
Vertical Motion and Stability
Upward and downward movements induced by cyclones, anticyclones, or topography can also
affect the characteristics and stability of an air mass. Such modifications are usually
independent of the changes caused by surface cooling or heating. For example, significant
modification can result when an air mass is drawn into a surface low-pressure system (cyclone).
Here convergence and lifting dominate, which can result in instability. Conversely, the
subsidence associated with anticyclones acts to stabilize an air mass. Similar changes in
stability occur when an air mass is lifted over highlands or descends the leeward side of a
mountain barrier. In the first case, the air’s instability is enhanced; in the second case, the air
becomes more stable.
Lake-Effect Snow: Cold Air over Warm Water
A glance at the chapter-opening image provides an atmospheric perspective of the conditions
that produce what is called lake-effect snow. The skies over Lake Superior and Lake Michigan
exhibit long rows of dense, white, snow-producing clouds. They formed within a cold, dry cP air
mass that was modified as it moved from land across open water. Continental polar air masses
are not, as a rule, associated with dense clouds and heavy precipitation. Yet during late autumn
and winter, this unique weather phenomenon occurs along the downwind shores of the five
Great Lakes—as long as the lake is not frozen over. The stability and moisture content of the cP
air mass is modified as it travels and, in turn, influences the weather as it continues to move.