Sulphuric Acid

Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4, corrosive, oily, colourless liquid, with a relative density
of 1.85. It melts at 10.36° C (50.6° F), boils at 340° C (644° F), and is soluble in all
proportions in water. When sulphuric acid is mixed with water, considerable
heat is released. Unless the mixture is well stirred, the added water may be
heated beyond its boiling point and the sudden formation of steam may blow the
acid out of its container (see Acids and Bases). The concentrated acid destroys
skin and flesh, and can cause blindness if it gets into the eyes. The best treatment
is to flush away the acid with large amounts of water. Despite the dangers
created by careless handling, sulphuric acid has been commercially important for
many years. The early alchemists prepared it in large quantities by heating
naturally occurring sulphates to a high temperature and dissolving in water the
sulphur trioxide thus formed. About the 15th century a method was developed
for obtaining the acid by distilling hydrated ferrous sulphate, or iron vitriol, with
sand. In 1740 the acid was produced successfully on a commercial scale by
burning sulphur and potassium nitrate in a ladle suspended in a large glass
globe partially filled with water.

Contact Process
Contact Process, method of manufacturing sulphuric acid. In the world as a
whole it is the most widely used method of making sulphuric acid, and in the
United Kingdom, about 90 per cent of this important industrial chemical is made
in this way.

The process begins with sulphur dioxide, a poisonous gas, usually made by
oxidizing natural sulphur that has been extracted using the Frasch process. The
gas is purified, dust particles are removed from it, and then it is dried. The gas is
then mixed with oxygen and piped over the solid orange-yellow catalyst
vanadium(V) oxide, also known as vanadium pentoxide (see Vanadium).

The pipes are held at a high temperature—between 400 and 500° C (750-930° F)—
which helps the catalyst to work at the highest efficiency. The reaction produces
sulphur trioxide gas and a great deal of heat, which is used to keep the pipes hot.
In the next step, the sulphur trioxide is dissolved in very strong (97 per cent)
sulphuric acid to make a material called oleum, or fuming sulphuric acid. This
highly noxious substance is then carefully diluted with water, to the strength
required.

It would be possible simply to dissolve sulphur trioxide in water to form

sulphuric acid. However, the gas is very to difficult to dissolve in water and
would form a highly corrosive mist, which would be dangerous to workers and
the environment.

Alloy

Meaning of Alloy

>> Alloy \Al*loy"\, n. [OE. alai, OF. alei, F. aloyer, to alloy, alier to ally. See Alloy,
v. t.]
1. Any combination or compound of metals fused together; a mixture of metals;
for example, brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc. But when mercury is
one of the metals, the compound is called an amalgam.

2. The quality, or comparative purity, of gold or silver; fineness.

3. A baser metal mixed with a finer.

Fine silver is silver without the mixture of any baser metal. Alloy is baser metal
mixed with it. --Locke.

4. Admixture of anything which lessens the value or detracts from; as, no

happiness is without alloy. ``Pure English without Latin alloy.'' --F. Harrison.

Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913)

>> An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of

which is a metal, and where the resulting material has metallic properties. The
resulting metallic substance usually has different properties (sometimes
substantially different) from those of its components.

Arrangement of atoms in Metals and Alloys

Why Alloy is stronger than its pure metal?

Dr. Shimizu Mistuharu, who is studying alloys, kindly answered the question
above.

Pure metal does not have strength. (Except for Titanium. We can make products
using pure Titanium. But we still usually use Titanium alloy.) Pure metal also
does not have the specific features which we desire. So we add other metal
elements to bring out these features.

For example, the body of an airplane, which is made of Al-Cu alloy (duralumin),
has a streamlined shape to reduce air resistance. The metal has to be soft in order
to make such a shape (Al is used as a base because it is soft), however, it would
change shape if it remains soft. So we add Cu (and a small amount of Mg and
Zn). Then the compound CuAl2 is created gradually as time passes, and the
material becomes rigid. Thus, the material is soft when we make the shape, but it
becomes rigid after that.

An experiment to investigate the hardness of a material and its alloy

Examples of alloys, compositions and properties of alloys

Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, with

carbon content between 0.02% and 1.7% by mass. Steel in
general is an alloy of iron and carbon, often with an
admixture of other elements. Some alloys that are
commercially called cast irons contain more carbon than
commercial steels, while wrought iron is a historical form of iron with a low
carbon content and containing much trapped slag, replaced today by low carbon
(mild) steel, which contains practically no slag. Steels of various types contain
from 0.02 per cent to 1.4 per cent of carbon, the vast majority containing less than
0.8 per cent carbon. In steels the carbon is not present in elemental form but is
combined with the iron as the compound iron carbide, called cementite, with a
small amount dissolved in the iron. A special group of iron alloys, known as
ferroalloys, is used in the manufacture of iron and steel alloys; they contain from
20 to 80 per cent of an alloying element, such as manganese, silicon, or
chromium. These steels have a specified composition, and contain, in addition to
carbon, specific quantities of alloy additions such as vanadium, molybdenum, or
other elements, as well as larger amounts of manganese, silicon, and copper than
do the regular carbon steels. Vehicle gears and axles, roller skates, and carving
knives are some of the many things that are made of alloy steels.

Bronze, any of several alloys consisting mainly of copper and tin. Neither ancient
nor modern bronzes consist only of these two metals. Zinc, lead, and silver were
added to bronze alloys by Greek and Roman founders for use in tools, weapons,
coins, and objects of art. Zinc, lead, and other metals are occasionally present in
modern bronze. The constituents of bronze vary; when it contains at least 10 per
cent tin, the alloy is hard and has a low melting point. The names of varieties of
bronze are derived from a constituent, as in the cases of aluminium bronze,
manganese bronze, and phosphor bronze. Bronze is stronger and harder than
any other common alloy except steel.

Brass (alloy), alloy of copper and zinc. It is harder than copper, ductile, and
generally able to be hammered into thin leaves. Formerly any alloy of copper,
especially one with tin, was called brass, and it is probable that the “brass” of
ancient times was of copper and tin (see Bronze). The modern alloy came into use
about the 16th century. The malleability of brass varies with its composition and
temperature and with the presence of foreign metals, even in minute quantities.
Some kinds of brass are malleable only when cold, others only when hot, and
some are not malleable at any temperature. All brass becomes brittle if heated to
a temperature near the melting point. Brass is very easy to machine, and has
fairly good corrosion resistance. To prepare brass, zinc is mixed directly with
copper in crucibles or in a reverberatory or cupola furnace. The ingots are rolled
when cold. The bars or sheets can be rolled into rods or cut into strips that can be
drawn out into wire.

Relation of properties of alloys and their uses

Dorling Kindersley
Celtic Bronze Mirror
Bronze was the first major alloy to be worked, profoundly influencing
the technology and culture of the societies that learnt its use. This
Celtic mirror is made of bronze. One side was highly polished to give a
reflection. The other side, seen here, shows the distinctive swirling style of Celtic art. Mirrors
like this one were rare and were probably owned by wealthy families.

Silver Teapot
Silver has long been valued for tableware because of its
high lustre and beauty. Frequent polishing is needed to
maintain silver’s shine because of tarnishing caused by
sulphur and sulphides, which are found in small amounts in
the atmosphere and in large quantities in foods such as
eggs. This silver teapot was designed in 1790 by Hester
Bateman of London.
The use of silver in jewellery, tableware (see Flatware; Metalwork), and as
coinage is well known. The metal is usually alloyed with small amounts of
other metals to make it harder and more durable. Sterling silver for tableware
and other solid-silver objects is 92.5 per cent silver and 7.5 per cent copper.
Silver is used to coat smooth glass surfaces for mirrors by vaporization of the
metal or by precipitation from a solution; however, aluminium has largely
replaced silver in this application. Silver is also widely used in the circuitry of
electrical and electronic components.

Dorling Kindersley
Wheel Structures
Considered one of the most important inventions in history, the
wheel is more than 5,000 years old and has been crucial to
mechanical devices ever since it emerged. The wheels shown here
are relatively sophisticated in comparison to the earliest models. In
the case of a fixed axle, the wheel is held in place beside the
chassis by a small peg and revolves independent of the axle. (This
model differs from another standard design, the moving axle, in which the axle is firmly fixed
to the wheel and the two components revolve as a unit.) Early forms of roller bearings, devices
that help wheels to turn more smoothly, were developed around 100 BC. Wheels were initially
solid discs, but gradually evolved into the spoked design, which is both light and strong.
Modern bronze is used for bearings, fittings, and other machine parts.
Vehicle gears and axles, roller skates, and carving knives are some of the many
things that are made of alloy steels.
Polymers

Meaning of polymers

Molecules which are composed of linked repeating units (called monomers) are
referred to as polymers. Polymers are the basis for many plastics and synthetic
fibers such as Teflon and polyester. Polymer, substance consisting of large
molecules that are made of many small, repeating units called monomers. The
number of repeating units in one large molecule is called the degree of
polymerization. Materials with a very high degree of polymerization are called
high polymers. Polymers consisting of only one kind of repeating unit are called
homopolymers. Copolymers are formed from several different repeating units.

Naturally occurring polymers

Polymerization of Synthetic Polymers and their uses

Polyethylene Terephthalate
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), or polyethylene terephthalic ester (PETE),
is a condensation polymer produced from the monomers ethylene glycol,
HOCH2CH2OH, a dialcohol, and dimethyl terephthalate, CH3O2C–C6H4–CO2CH3, a
diester. By the process of transesterification, these monomers form ester linkages
between them, yielding a polyester. PETE fibers are manufactured under the trade
names of Dacron and Fortrel. Pleats and creases can be permanently heat set in fabrics containing
polyester fibers, so-called permanent press fabrics. PETE can also be formed into transparent
sheets and castings. Mylar is a trade name for a PETE film. Transparent 2-liter carbonated
beverage bottles are made from PETE. (The opaque base on some bottles is generally made of
HDPE.) One form of PETE is the hardest known polymer and is used in eyeglass lenses.
Polyethylene
Polyethylene is perhaps the simplest polymer, composed of chains of repeating
–CH2– units. It is produced by the addition polymerization of ethylene, CH2=CH2
(ethene). The properties of polyethylene depend on the manner in which ethylene is
polymerized. When catalyzed by organometallic com pounds at moderate pressure (15
to 30 atm), the product is high density polyethylene, HDPE. Under these conditions,
the polymer chains grow to very great length, and molar masses average many
hundred thousands. HDPE is hard, tough, and resilient. Most HDPE is used in the
manufacture of containers, such as milk bottles and laundry detergent jugs. When
ethylene is polymerized at high pressure (1000–2000 atm), elevated temperatures
(190–210°C), and catalyzed by peroxides, the product is low density polyethylene,
LDPE. This form of polyethylene has molar masses of 20,000 to 40,000 grams. LDPE
is relatively soft, and most of it is used in the production of plastic films, such as those used in
sandwich bags.
Polyvinyl Chloride
Polymerization of vinyl chloride, CH2=CHCl (chloroethene), produces a
polymer similar to polyethylene, but having chlorine atoms at alternate carbon atoms
on the chain. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is rigid and somewhat brittle. About two-thirds
of the PVC produced annually is used in the manufacture of pipe. It is also used in the
production of “vinyl” siding for houses and clear plastic bottles. When it is blended
with a plasticizer such as a phthalate ester, PVC becomes pliable and is used to form flexible
articles such as raincoats and shower curtains.
Polypropylene
This polymer is produced by the addition polymerization of propylene,
CH2=CHCH3 (propene). Its molecular structure is similar to that of polyethylene, but
has a methyl group (–CH3) on alternate carbon atoms of the chain. Its molar masses
falls in the range 50,000 to 200,000 grams. Polypropylene (PP) is slightly more brittle
than polyethylene, but softens at a temperature about 40°C higher. Polypropylene is
used extensively in the automotive industry for interior trim, such as instrument panels, and in
food packaging, such as yogurt containers. It is formed into fibers of very low absorbance and
high stain resistance, used in clothing and home furnishings, especially carpeting.
Polystyrene
Styrene, CH2=CH–C6H5, polymerizes readily to form polystyrene (PS), a hard,
highly transparent polymer. The molecular structure is similar to that of polypropylene,
but with the methyl groups of polypropylene replaced by phenyl groups (–C6H5). A
large portion of production goes into packaging. The thin, rigid, transparent containers
in which fresh foods, such as salads, are packaged are made from polystyrene.
Polystyrene is readily foamed or formed into beads. These foams and beads are excellent thermal
insulators and are used to produce home insulation and containers for hot foods. Styrofoam is a
trade name for foamed polystyrene. When rubber is dissolved in styrene before it is polymerized,
the polystyrene produced is much more impact resistant. This type of polystyrene is used
extensively in home appliances, such as the interior of refrigerators and air conditioner housing.
[For more information about this polymer, see Chemical Demonstrations: A Handbook for
Teachers of Chemistry, by Bassam Z. Shakhashiri, Volume 1 (1983), page 241.]
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Teflon is a trade name of polytetrafluoroethylene, PTFE. It is formed by the addition
polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene, CF2=CF2 (tetrafluoroethene). PTFE is distinguished by its
complete resistance to attack by virtually all chemicals and by its slippery surface. It maintains its
physical properties over a large temperature range, -270° to 385°C. These properties make it
especially useful for components that must operate under harsh chemical conditions and at
temperature extremes. Its most familiar household use is as a coating on cooking utensils.
Polyurethane
This important class of polymers is formed by the addition polymerization of an
diisocyanate (whose molecules contain two –NCO groups) and a dialcohol (two –OH groups).
The polymer chain is linked by urethane groups (–O–CO–NH–). The –NH– portion of the
urethane group can react similarly to an –OH group, producing cross-linking between polymer
chains. Polyurethane is spun into elastic fibers, called spandex, and sold under the trade name
Lycra. Polyurethane can also be foamed. Soft polyurethane foams are used in upholstery, and
hard foams are used structurally in light aircraft wings and sail boards. The formation of some
polyurethane (and polystyrene) foams exploits the exothermic nature of the polymerization
reaction. A liquid with a low boiling point, called a blowing agent, is added to the monomers
before the polymerization starts. As the polymerization proceeds, it releases enough heat to boil
the liquid. The boiling liquid produces bubbles that create a foam. In the past, the most commonly
used low-boiling liquids were chlorofluorocarbons. However, the damaging effect of
chlorofluorocarbons on the stratospheric ozone layer has eliminated their use. Other low-boiling
liquids have other disadvantages, such as flammability. Therefore, most polyurethane and
polystyrene foams are manufactured by forcing a pressurized gas, such as nitrogen or carbon
dioxide, into the polymerizing mixture. [For more information about this polymer, see Ibid.,
Volume 1, page 216.]
Polyamide
 Polyamides are a group of condensation polymers commonly known as nylon. Nylon is
made from two monomers, one a dichloride and the other a diamine. One particular nylon is made
from 1,6-diaminohexane, NH2(CH2)6NH2 and sebacoyl chloride, ClCO(CH2)8COCl. When these
polymerize, the resulting molecules contain repeating units of –NH(CH2)6NH–CO(CH2)8CO–.
Molecules of HCl are released during the polymerization. This particular polymer is called nylon
6-10 because it contains alternating chains of 6 and 10 carbon atoms between nitrogen atoms.
Nylon can be readily formed into fibers that are strong and long wearing, making them well
suited for use in carpeting, upholstery fabric, tire cords, brushes, and turf for athletic fields. Nylon
is also formed into rods, bars, and sheets that are easily formed and machined. In this form, nylon
is used for gears and for automobile fuel tanks. [For more information about this polymer, see
Ibid., Volume 1, page 213.]
Polyacrylamide
Polyacrylamide is a condensation polymer with an unusual and useful property. The
structure of polyacrylamide is similar to that of polyethylene, but having a hydrogen on every
other carbon replace by an amide group, –CONH2. The molecule is composed of repeating –CH2–
CH(CONH2)– units. The amide groups allow for linking between polymer strands. The –CONH2
group from one molecule can react with the same group of another molecule, forming a link
between them with the structure –CONHCO–. This produces a network of polymer chains, rather
like a tiny sponge. The free, unlinked amide groups, because they contain –NH2 groups, can form
hydrogen bonds with water. This gives the tiny cross linked sponges a great affinity for water.
Polyacrylamide can absorb many times its mass in water. This property is useful in a variety of
applications, such as in diapers and in potting soil. The polyacrylamide will release the absorbed
water if a substance that interferes with hydrogen bonding is added. Ionic substances, such as salt,
cause polyacrylamide to release its absorbed water. [For more information about this polymer, see
Ibid., Volume 3 (1989), page 368.]

Bob Masini/Phototake NYC

Plastics Processing
Plastic passes through a series of heating rollers to be
formed into thin sheets. Plastics are highly versatile
synthetic materials, with a wide range of uses, including
packaging and heat insulation

Environmental Pollution Caused by the Disposal of Synthetic Polymers

Over the past few decades, the use of polymers in disposable consumer goods
has grown tremendously. This growth is proving to be taxing on the waste disposal
system, consuming a large fraction of available landfill space. Furthermore, the raw
materials for these polymers are obtained from petroleum, a limited, non-renewable
resource. To reduce the demand for landfill space and the consumption of limited
petroleum reserves, the recycling of polymers has become a subject of concern. One of
the problems faced in recycling polymers is the great variety of polymers in use. To help
sort wastes by type of polymer, most disposable polymeric goods are labeled with a
recycling code: three arrows around a number above the polymer's acronym. These are
intended to help consumers separate the waste polymers according to type before
disposing of them. In the city of Madison, currently only type 1 (PETE) and type 2
(HDPE) polymers are being recycled – see below. The recycling of polymers is not a
closed loop, where a material is reformed into new products repeatedly, such as in the
case with aluminum. Most polymeric materials are recycled only once, and the product
made of recycled polymer is discarded after use. To obtain the maximum benefit from
recycled polymer, the products made from it generally are intended to have a relatively
long useful life. Recycled polymers are used in products such as cafeteria trays, large
plastic toys, impact absorbing highway pylons, and carpeting. Some recycled PETE is
now used in 2-liter soft-drink containers. In general, products made from recycled
polymers are more expensive than those made from virgin plastic. This is the case
because current manufacturing facilities are geared to production from new materials.
As more factories capable of using recycled plastics are constricted, the costs of using
recycled polymers will decline; however, more factories will be built only if we are
willing to pay "up front" the costs of recycling (as higher prices of consumer
goods),rather than delaying costs of disposal (in the form of increased taxes)
Glass And Ceramics

Types of Glass, Properties and Their Compositions

Silica can be melted at very high temperatures to form fused silica glass. Because
this glass has a high melting point and does not shrink or expand greatly with
changing temperatures, it is suitable for laboratory apparatus and for objects
subject to heat shock (deformation due to relatively rapid temperature change),
such as telescope mirrors. Glass is a poor conductor of both heat and electricity
and therefore useful for electrical and thermal insulation. For most glass, silica is
combined with other raw materials in various proportions. Alkali fluxes,
commonly the carbonates of sodium or potassium, lower the fusion temperature
and viscosity of silica. Limestone or dolomite (calcium and magnesium
carbonates) act as stabilizers for the batch. Other ingredients, such as lead and
borax, give certain physical properties to glass.

A1 Water Glass and Soda-Lime Glass

Glass of high soda content can be dissolved in water to form a syrupy fluid.
Known as water glass, it is used commercially for fireproofing and as a sealant.
Most manufactured glass is a soda-lime composition used to make bottles,
tableware, lamp bulbs, and window and plate glass.

A2 Lead Glass
The fine-quality table glass known as crystal glass is made from potassium-
silicate formulas that include lead oxide. Lead glass is heavy and has an
enhanced capacity to refract light, which makes it suitable for lenses and prisms,
as well as for imitation jewels. Because lead absorbs high-energy radiation, lead
glasses are used in shields to protect personnel in nuclear installations.

A3 Borosilicate Glass

Borosilicate glass contains borax as a major ingredient, along with silica and
alkali. Noted for its durability and resistance to chemical attack and high
temperatures, borosilicate glass is widely employed for cooking utensils,
laboratory glassware, and chemical process equipment.

A4 Colour

Impurities in the raw materials affect the colour of glass. For a clear, colourless
substance, glassmakers add manganese to counteract the effects of iron traces
that produce greens and browns. Glass can be coloured by dissolving metallic
oxides, sulphides, or selenides in it. Other colourants may be dispersed as
microscopic particles.

Depending on the composition, some glass will melt at temperatures as low as

500° C (900° F); others melt only at 1,650° C (3,180° F). Tensile strength, normally
between 2,745 and 5,500 N/sq cm (4,000 and 8,000 lbwt/sq in), can exceed 68,650
N/sq cm (100,000 lbwt/sq in) if the glass is specially treated. Relative density
ranges from 2 to 8, or from less than that of aluminium to more than that of steel.
Similarly wide variations occur in optical and electrical properties.

Properties and Uses of Ceramics

Ceramics (Greek keramos, “potter’s clay”), originally the art of making pottery,
now a general term for the science of manufacturing articles prepared from
pliable, earthy materials that are made rigid by high-temperature treatment.
Ceramic materials are non-metallic, inorganic compounds, primarily oxides, but
also carbides, nitrides, borides, and silicides.

Ceramics includes the manufacture of earthenware, porcelain, bricks, and some

kinds of tile and stoneware. Ceramic products are used not only for artistic
objects and tableware, but also for such utilitarian items as sewer pipe and
building walls. Engineering ceramics such as silicon nitride and alumina are
strong enough to be used for structural applications. Iron oxide particles are the
active component in a variety of magnetic recording media, such as recording
tape and the computer diskette. Ceramic insulators with a wide range of
electrical properties have increasingly replaced conventional manufacturing
materials. The electrical properties of a recently discovered family of copper-
oxide-based ceramics allow them to become superconductive at temperatures
much higher than those at which metals display this phenomenon. In space
technology, ceramic materials and cermets (strong, highly heat-resistant alloys,
typically made by mixing, pressing, and then baking an oxide or carbide with a
powdered metal) are used to make aircraft and rocket nose cones and the heat-
shield tiles on the space shuttle.

Composite Materials
Meaning of Composite Materials

Composite materials (or composites for short) are engineered materials made
from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical properties and which remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic
level within the finished structure.

Substance that is made up of a combination of two or more different materials. A

composite material can provide superior and unique mechanical and physical
properties because it combines the most desirable properties of its constituents
while suppressing their least desirable properties.

Examples of composite Materials

• Fiber Reinforced Polymers or FRPs include Wood comprising (cellulose fibers

in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix).
• Carbon-fiber reinforced plastic or CFRP
•

A cloth of woven carbon fiber filaments, a common

element in composite materials
Composite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high cost) in
high-performance products such as aerospace components (tails, wings ,
fuselages, propellors), boat and scull hulls, and racing car bodies. More mundane
uses include fishing rods and storage tanks.