5

How to Use This Reference Set

l'his Electrical Reference Encyclopedia will be heading of each of the subjects covered in the sec-
of use and value to you in exact proportion to the tion. Then under this heading write these words:
time and energy you spend in studying and using it. WHAT—
WHERE—
A Reference Set of this kind is used in two dis-
HOW—
tinct ways.
Then answer these questions on each of the
FIRST, by the fellow who wishes to make Elec- articles. As an example, paragraph 8 on page 29 of
tricity his trade and uses this Reference Set as a Volume 1is given to an explanation of Condensers.
home training course. • After you have finished this entire section, you
SECOND, for the man who wishes to use this would ask yourself, first—WHAT are Condensers,
second—WHERE are they used, third—HOW are
Encyclopedia strictly as a Reference Set. This
they used. You see in this way, you have aconstant
includes anyone working at any trade who wishes
check on your knowledge. of the subject. and the
to have a set of books so that he can refer to them
same procedure should be followed in checking on
for information in Electrical problems at any time.
every subject covered in our home training course.
You, of course, know into which group you fall Above all, do not rush through any part of the
and it is my purpose in this article to explain how home training course in order to cover a large
to properly use this Reference Set to get the most amount at one time. You should, read it slowly and
out of it for your own particular purpose. in this way you will gain a thorough understanding
as you read and think it out.
HOW TO USE THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AS For the especial benefit of the fellow trying to
A HOME TRAINING COURSE IN learn Electricity at home, we have prepared agreat
ELECTRICITY number of diagrams and illustrations. These will
The most important advice I can give for the help you get a better understanding of certain de-
vices and principles. These are numbered and ar-
fellow who wishes to study our Encyclopedia as a
ranged as conveniently as possible so that it will be
home training course in Electricity is to start from
easy to refer to as you study the individual subjects.
the 'beginning in Volume 1, and continue in order to
Remember, the old adage, "One Picture tells the
Volume 2 and 3. Don't make the mistake of jump-
story of ten thousand words," and refer to these
ing from one subject to another or taking a portion
pictures, diagrams in our Reference Encyclopedia
of Volume 3 and then reverting back to Volume 2,
regularly.
etc. Study the set as it has been written and you'll
Now let me repeat again, if you are using this
get the most out of it. Reference Encyclopedia to learn Electricity, re-
Volume 1is one of the most important of the en- member these important things. ONE—start at the
tire Reference Set. Every good course of training beginning and continue through the reference set
must have a good foundation. Our first volume is as it has been written. TWO—read it slowly and
the foundation of our course and is designed to ex- make constant use of the diagrams and illustra-
plain the simple terms and expressions, laws and tions. THREE—refer back after completing each
rules of Electricity, upon which any of the big in- section for a re-check, answering the questions—
stallations, maintenance and service jobs are based. WHAT—WHERE—AND HOW is the equipment
So, become thoroughly familiar with the subjects used.
covered in this first volume and you will be able to HOW TO USE THE COYNE ELECTRICAL
master each additional subject as you proceed. ENCYCLOPEDIA STRICTLY AS A
Here's the way you study this set. You take one REFERENCE SET
section at a time and study it carefully. Then go The man who is interested in using the Reference
back for a re-check and see whether you fully un- Encyclopedia simply for reference purposes will
derstand this section. The best way to do this is to use it in a little different way than the fellow who
have some scratch paper handy and put down the is trying to learn Electricity as a trade by home
6

study. Some of the types of fellows who use this is particularly valuable on emergency repair jobs
set strictly for reference purposes are: home own- where speed is an important factor.
ers, electricians or mechanics, garage owners or Thousands of men use this Reference Encyclo-
workers, hardware store owners, farmers or anyone pedia in their daily problems, both on the job and
who has an occasional use for electrical knowledge. around the home as well. If you follow the in-
Those types of fellows should use the Reference structions outlined you will be able to locate any
Encyclopedia in the following manner. information you may want at anytime on your own
electrical problems.
USE THE MASTER INDEX IN VOLUME 1
TO LOCATE ELECTRICAL SUBJECTS TRY TO READ THE ENTIRE REFERENCE
ENCYCLOPEDIA IF AT ALL POSSIBLE
If some particular type of electrical problem pre-
sents itself, refer immediately to Master Index in Of course, even though you may use the reference
Volume 1. Find out where the instruction on this Encyclopedia strictly for reference purposes; it
subject of electricity is covered in the Reference would be agood idea to try to go through the entire
Encyclopedia. Then, turn to that section and care- set to improve your knowledge of all branches of
fully read the instructions outlined. Also read any electricity. Naturally, the more you read about
other sections of the set mentioned in the article electricity, the more you will learn. If you can
especially devoted to these subjects. As an ex- set aside a few hours each week to go through the
ample, in checking over some information on elec- Encyclopedia systematically from one end to the
tric motors, some reference might be made to an other it will certainly be time well spent. The way
electrical law of principles contained in Volume 1 the material is presented makes it extremely inter-
of the Reference Set. In order to thoroughly under- esting, and even though it may cover some subjects
stand the procedure to follow in working out the upon which you are already well versed, neverthe-
electrical problem, you should refer to Volume 1 less the Reference Encyclopedia should give you
and get a thorough understanding of the electrical some additional ideas on these subjects which is
law of principles referred to. The purpose in doing bound to help you.
this is to get as much information as possible con- In the above explanations we have given you a
cerning the electrical problem at hand. general idea of the correct way to use this Refer-
The man who uses the Coyne Encyclopedia ence Set for your own personal benefit. Every per-
strictly as a Reference Set should also make con- son has a different way of studying and we merely
stant use of the diagrams and illustrations. An- submit these suggestions because they have been
other part that we would like to call to your atten- found to prove most helpful to many thousands of
tion is the fact that in the Reference Set we use men in the past. If used properly and regularly,
many sub-headings and article numbers so that the this Encyclopedia can be one of the most valuable
reader can find what he is after quickly. Certain sets of books you've ever purchased in your life.
important words, common terms and rules are also It will save money for you and make money for
set out in larger type. This is for the benefit of the you directly in porportion to the amount of time
reader in getting the highlights of each subject and you spend in studying it and using it in the future.

The material in this Electrical Encyclopedia represents 43

years of actual experience in teaching the subject of Electricity.
It is built around, and duplicates, as near as possible to
duplicate in printed form, the actual "Learn by Doing" shop
training course taught at the Coyne Electrical School.
Should you or any friend desire any further information
about our school and our method of training I will be very glad
.to send it to you if you will write me or drop me acard.
H. C. LEWIS
SOO SOUTH PAULINA ST.,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Dept. R. S.
 7

INDEX

Page Page
Air-Break Switches, A.0 739 Alternating Current
Air Circuit Breakers, D.C. 382 " Parallel Circuits 466
" Phase Relations of Voltage and Current 456
Air Conditioning 1029 to 1047
Polyphase and Single-Phase Currents.. 456
Air Circulation1038
Power Calculations 472
Attic Ventilators 1038 " Equipment, Installation of 745
Blowers and Ducts 1039
" Factor (See also Power Factor) 469
Building Insulation 1044 " Measurement 473
Cooling of Air 1031
" Plants 660
Dehumidifying Air 1033 " Problems 479
Filtering Air 1037
" Rectifiers, (See also Rectifiers) .... 612
Heat Load Calculation 1042
Reactance, Capacity 463
Principles1030 11
Relays (Also see Relays A.C. and D.C.) 742
Problems1045 Resistance and Inductive Reactance
Proper Air Temperatures 1032 in Series, Graphic Solution for 465
Psychrometers1035 81 41
Capacity and Inductance in
Psychrometric Charts 1036 Series 466
Size of Units Required 1
103
0401 id
and Capacity in Series 466
Systems and Units and Capacity in Parallel 467
Air Gaps in Magnetic Circuit 66 14
" Inductance and Capacity in
Air Gaps in Motors and Machines 760 Parallel 468
Alarms, (See Signals) 109 " and Inductance in Parallel 467
Alternating Current 450 Self Induction 459
" Ammeters and Voltmeters 482 Sine Curves, Voltage 454
Capacity, Reactance 458 Single-Phase Currents 310
11
Central Stations 660 Single-Phase and Polyphase Currents 456
di
Circuits 457 Starters (See Starters A.C.Motors) 636
Circuits, Calculation of Impedance in Starters Maintenance 768
Series 464 Static Condensers (See also Condensers,
Compensators, Motor Controllers 644 Static) 600
14
Condensers, Synchronous Motors 599 Stators, Alternators, Revolving Field 309
Id
Converter Stations 721 Substations (See also Substations) • 720
if
Converters, (See Converters Synchron- Switches, High-Tension Air-Break 739
ous) 626 " Oil 735
it
Distribution Stations 720 Switchgear 729
" Frequency 454 Three-Phase Currents 311
di
Generating Stations 660 Three-Phase Motors, Operating
Generators (See Generators, A.0 ) . 502 Principles 317
Impedance 458
If
Transformers (See also Transformers) 522
Inductance 458 Transmission Lines (See also Trans-
" Inductance and Capacity in A.C. mission Lines) 675
Circuits 453 Transmission Lines, Lightning
Induction Voltage-Regulators 548 Arresters (See also Lightning
Inductive Reactance, Capacity Reac- Arrestors) 703
tance and Impedance 458 " Two-Phase Currents 311
Instrument Transformers 550 " Two-Phase Motors, Operating
Kilovolt Amperes 470 • Principles 316
Machines, Winding 308 " Values of 455
44
Maximum and Effective Values 455 " Voltage, Generation of 453
14
Measurements 475 di di ti 308
" Meters, (Also see Meters A.0 ) 482 " Voltage Regulators 548
Meter Tests and Power Problems 478 " Voltmeters and Ammeters 482
Motors, (See also Motors A.C) 566 " Wattmeters 484
44
" Controllers 636 Alternation, A.C. Current 454
I' ft
Starters (See also Starters, A.C. Alternators, Types and Construction 308
Motor) 636 Alternators, Types and Construction 502
Synchronous, Starting Compen- Aluminum Cell Lightning Arrestors 708
sators and Protective Devices 590 Aluminum Conductors, Line Transmission. 676
11 44
Three-Phase 577 Amalgamate Cell Elements 58
Motors, Windings, (See also Stator Ammeter 388
Windings) 313 Ammeters, A.0 482
44
Ohm's Law Applied 458 Ammeters, D.0 390
 Page Page
Ampere-Turns 72 Armature Reaction, D.C.Generator 354
Annunciators, Signal 99 " Risistance and I.R. Loss, D.C.
Anode or Positive Pole 57 Generator 355
Arc Light and Heat 38 Artificial Magnets 63
Arc-Over Values, Lightning Arresters 713 Auto Valve Lightning Arresters 706
Arc Transmitter 1059 Automatic Induction Regulators 549
Armature, A.C., Construction of 504 " Telephones 142
" D.0 280 " Voltage Regulation of Alternators 510
41
Banding 299 Automotive Electricity 813
66
Coil and Slot Insulation 287 66
Batteries, Storage 773 & 826
Coil Span of 291 11
Bendix Drive for Starters 856
Coil Turns 285
id
Carburetion 817
Coil, Types of 287
Distributors 833
Id
11
Coil Winding 288
Distributors, Spark Advance 834
di
46
Collecting and Recording Winding
Double or "Dual" Ignition 836
11

Data 299
«I " Effects of Self-Induction in Coils 828
Commutator Pitch 295
Eight-Cylinder Engines 823
di

Connecting Coils 293

d1
Construction 280 Eight-Cylinder Engines, Distributors. 837
Cutting Out Faulty Coils 304 " Electric Starter 854
Engines, Firing Order 821
11
Eddy Currents 280
Emergency Repairs 304 " Four-Cylinder Engines 821
Flux 284 " Fuel Combustion 819
Generators 861
66
Galvanometer Tests on 303
Generators 348 Adjust Charging Rates 863
Governor Effect of Counter E.M.F 285 " Cut-Outs 864
Grounded Coils 303 " Troubles 868
Grounded Commutator Segments. 303 " Voltage Regulation 867
Growler Tests 300 Headlights 870
Inserting Coils for Lap Winding 292 " High Speed Distributors 836
di
Inserting Coils of Wave Winding. 294 " High Speed Engine Ignition 836
Insulations, Coil and Slot 287 High-Tension Magnetos 846
Lap Winding 290
Horns 876
Lap Windings, Inserting Coils 292
Ignition Coils 826
Loose Coil Leads 302
Ignition Coil Resistance 828
Magnet Wire 286
" Condensers 827
Multiple Windings 297
Locks 838
«4

Open Circuit 302 id

Systems 825
Repairs, Emergency 304
Reversed Coil 303 Timing 835
Reversed Loops 303
11
Trouble Shooting 839
Rewinding, Old 297 Lighting Equipment 869
Short Circuits 302 " Switches 872
Shorted Commutator Segments 303 " Troubles 873
Shorts Between Coils 303 " Magneto Breakers 849
Slots 281 16
Distributor 849
Spider 280 d1 41
Ground Brush and Ignition Switch 848
Symmetrical and Non-Symmetrical 11
Safety Gaps 848
Connections 298 11
Timing 851
Taping and Shaping of Coils 289 d1 11
Troubles 852
Testing300 Id
Six-Cylinder Engines 822
Troubles 301 " Spark Advance and Retard 819
Voltage Changes 297 Spark Plugs 830
Wave Winding 293 41
Special Ignition Systems 836
Winding 278 " Starter Troubles 859
Winding Coils 288 Valve Arrangement 819
Winding Element 295 di
Valves 816
Winding Large Armatures 296 Vibrating Type Ignition Coil 829
Winding, Preparing for 292 1i
Wiring Systems 877
Winding Progressive and 11
Wiring Troubles 873
Retrogressive 294 Aviation Lighting (See Illumination) 261
Winding Small Armatures 296 Baking Temperature and Ventilation for
" Winding Tools 300 Insulating Varnish 332
Wire Insulation 286 Balanced System, D.0 367
Elementary 36 Balancer, Three-Wire Generator, D.C. 368
" Oscillator, Synchronous Converter... 634 Bar Magnet 64
 INDEX 9

Page Page
Batteries 35 Brushes, Carbon, D.0 435
id
56 Adjustments on Interpole
Automotive Storage .. 773 & 826 Machines 373
de
Radio, grid bias 1090 Adjustments 441
Signal 82
44
de
Leads or Shunts 437
Storage 773 di
Materials 435
" Buckled Plates 796
14
de
Pressure or Tension 437
Charging New Batteries 805 Requirements 435
Cadmium Test 785
Resistance 436
Capacity 788 id 44
Duplicating and Ordering 438
Capacity Tests 789 41 44
Fitting to Commutator 439
Care 797 td 14
Graphite 436
Care of Edison Batteries 809
Cell Containers and Cases 779
ed de
Severe Service 436
Charging 790
16
Special 436
Charging, Constant Potential 792
de
Hammer 350
Charging from D.C. Lines with
411
Holder 349
Rheostats 794 " Setting for Neutral Plane 371
" Charging Edison Cells 809 14 64
Shifting, with Varying Load
Charging Rate 791 on Machines without
" Chemical Action, Charge and Interpoles 371
Discharge 782 " D.C. Generators 348
Construction 776 BTA Variable-Speed A.C. Motors 594
Cycling 789 Burglar Alarm (See Signals) 107
Edison Nickel-Iron 807
41

Buzzers, Signal 92
44
Electrolyte 780
Cable, Transmission Lines 674
Electron Bulb Chargers 791
46

Cadmium Test, Storage Batteries 785

Hydrometers 780
44

Calculations of Electro-Magnetic Forces 72

64
Hy-Rate Discharge Test 787
14
Lead-Acid Cells 774 Call System, (See Signal) 81
44
Lead Burning 800 Capacity of A.C. Circuit 462
di
Molding Straps and Posts 803 Carbon Pile Starters, A.0 640
Opening and Disassembling 798 Carbon Pile Starters, D.0 421
Of
Pasted Plates 774 Cathode or Negative Pole 57
04
Placing in Storage 804 Cell 35
Planté Plates 774 " Care 59
Plate Paste Formula 775 " Current and Life 57
Reassembling 800
44
" Lead Plate Storage 774
44
Repairs and Shop Methods 798 " Voltage 57
Replacing Defective Plates and
4«
Central Stations (See A.C) 660
Separators 799 Centrifugal Switches 315
Retainers and Isolators 778 " Switches, A.C. Motors 337
41
Separators 777
" Switches, Defective 337
14
Shop Equipment 805
" Switches for Single-Phase Motors 315
Specific Gravity 780
04

C.G.S. Units 73
Tests 783
Charging Rate Adjusted, Automotive
Troubles and Remedies 795
Generators 863
Voltage Tests 784
Telephone 129 Charging Storage Batteries 790
Bearing Currents 635 Chemical Effects of Electricity 39
Chemical Method of Producing Current 35
Bearings, D.C. Generator 351
" Lubrication, A.C. Maintenance 756 "Choke-Bars" of Double-Squirrel-Cage
" Maintenance 752 Motors 593
Choke Coils 460
" Tight or Worn 336
Choke Coils, Line Protection 704
Bell Transformers, Signal 83
Circuit-Breakers, A.0 735
Bells and Buzzers 92
D.0 382
46

Bent Shaft and Bearings Out of Line, A.C.

Machines 337 " Air 382
Blow Torches, Operation and Care of 448 " Care and Mounting 384
Boilers 662 " Oil 382
Overload Release 383
44

Brake Horsepower Tests 413

Series Type Overload
41 id
Branch Circuits (See Wiring) 208
Brush Adjustments on Interpole D.C. Release Coils 383
Machines 373
41
Trip Coils 383
Brush Lifting Mechanism, Synchronous Trip Coils or Overload
Converter 633 Release 383
10 INDEX

Page Page
Closed Circuit Cells.. 58 Controllers, D.C., Overload Protecting
Cobalt, Steel 68 Devices, Care of 442
Coil and Slot Insulation, D.C. Armatures 287 Remote Control 422
Coil Span, D.C. Armature 291 Reversing Drum 429
Combination of Series and Parallel Circuits 54 Shunt Trip Coils and Overload 383
Commutation and Interpoles, D.C. Speed Regulating 420
Generators 370 Starters, Automatic 422
Starters, "Blow-Out" Coil 427
Commutator 78
Starters, Carbon Pile 420
" D.C. Action 283
Starters, Magnetic 424
Generators 348
Starters, Terminals and Con-
Maintenance and Resurfacing 441
nections 419
" " Mica Undercutting 441
Starters, Three 8z Four Point D.C. 418
" Pitch, D.C. Armature 295 di
Starters, Time Element on 423
Compass Test of Magnets 67 Starting Drum Control 431
Compound Generators, D.0 358 di
Starting Rheostats 416
Compound Magnet 67 Switches, Reversing Drum 429
Compound Motors D.0 412 Converter, A.C. Synchronous 626
Condenser Charging Current 462 Converter Stations 721
Condensers, Location of 601 Converters, Synchronous, Arc Chutes and
" Radio 1078 Barriers 634
Armature Connections 628
id 11
" Static 600
" Static, Electricity 29
id
Armature Oscillator 634
Auxiliaries 633
di
" Static, Operation of 601
" Static, Size Required for P.F. Correc- Auxiliary Brush for Bearing
tion 604 Currents 635
Steam 663 Brush Lifting Mechanism 633
Building up D.C. Voltage 632
Telephone 134
Characteristics and Connections. 628
Conductance, The MHO 43
Connections to Transformer 630
" Method (Resistance Calculation) 51
Correcting Polarity 633
Conductor Spacing, Transmission 689
Field Connections 629
Conductors 36
Field Excitation 629
Conduit (See also Wiring) 170
Flash Over Relays and Temper-
Consequent Poles (Magnetic) 67
ature Relays 635
Constant Potential (Chargers), Storage Battery 792 gg
Overspeed Device 634
Construction of D.C. Machines 279 di
Power Factor, of 630
Electrical (See Wiring) 154 Starting 631
Control of Electricity 45
Voltage Control 630
di

Controllers, A.C. 636 If

Voltage Ratios 630
Drum 650 Cooling of A.C. Generators 506
di "

Drum Connections 652

44 II

Cooling of Transformers 526

Drum Starting, Reversing and
ti
Copper Conductors, Line Transmission 676
Speed Control 651 Copper Oxide Rectifiers 616
Full Voltage or Across-the-Line Corona, Transmission Line 694
Starting 637 Coulomb 40
Installation Care and Main- Counter E.M.F. in D.C. Motors 408
tenance 654 Counter E.M.F. in Motors 284
Maintenance 768 Counter-Voltage of A.C. Motor 638
Motor 636
41
Counter-Voltage of Self Induction 459
Motor Overload, Time Delay and "Creeping" A.C. Watthour Meters 490
No-Voltage Devices 636 Creeping of D.C. Meters 396
Printing Press 649 Cross Arms, Transmission Pole 687
Protective Features 645 Current Flow 34
and Switching, Equipment, Current Transformers 550
Installation 745 Cycle, A.C. Current 454
" Voltage Reducing 639 Cycles and Alternations 309
D.C., Care of 442 Cycling Storage Batteries 789
" Dash Pots for Time Delay 424
Damping of A.C. Meters 483
id
Drum 428
id
Drum, Construction of 431 Daniel Cell 58
Drum Control for Reversing and Decomposition by Electrolysis 39
Speed Control 431 Deion Arc Quenchers, A.0 650
Id
Economy Coil, Remote Control 423 Deion Circuit Breakers 739
Motor 418 Delta-Star Connections 541
id
"No Voltage" and "No Field" e-Magne tiz in g 66
Release Coil 419 Dielectric 29
 INDEX 11

Page Pa
Diesel Engines 881 to 952 Electrical Degrees 309
" Maintenance, A.0 749
" Construction and operating principles 833
" Power Plants 660
Cooling Systems 926
" Power Transmission and Distribution. 671
" Exhaust Systems 921
" Resistance-The Ohm 41
" Fuel Combustion Systems 906
Electro Magnet 38
" Fuel Oils 909
" Magnetic Calculations .72
" Fuel Pumps 892
" Magnetic Induction 76
Inspection 943
" Magnetism 68
Lubrication and Lub. oil requirements 932 " Magnets 70
" Maintenance 944 " Motive-Force 41
" Operating Procedure 941 " Plating 39
" Starting Systems 914 Electrolysis 39
" Timing of Injection 900 Electrolyte 57
Direct Current 77 " Storage Batteries 780
44 II
Circuit Breakers 382 Electrolytic Rectifiers 613
Generators (See also Generators Electrolytic Solution 39
id 14

D.C.) 347 Element Winding for D.C. Armatures 296

.4 gi
Meters, (See also Meters D.0 ) 388 Elementary Electricity 27
D.C. Motors, (See also Motors D.0 ) 406 End Shields, A.C. Maintenance 759
" Motor Controllers 415 Energy, Forms of 27
if
Power and Machines 377 Equalizer Connections, D.C. Generators 365
Resistance Measurement 401 Estimating Wiring Jobs 220
Switchboards 378 Excitation of Alternator Fields 507
Direction of Flux Rule 69 Exciter Anodes, Mercury Arc Rectifier 620
Distribution, Grounded Systems 715 Exhaust Steam Condensers 663
64
Lines 714 External Cell Circuit 62
Factory Lighting 248
41
Substations 720
Failure to Build up Voltage in D.C.
id
System, Feeders and Mains 714
Generator 353
Door Bell 82
Farad, Unit of Capacity A.0 462
Door Opener, Magnetic 93
Faraday, Michael 36
Drum Controllers, A.C. Motor (See also
Feeders and Mains, Distribution System 714
Controllers A.C.) 650
Field Excitation of Alternators 507
Drum Controllers D.C. Reversing 429
" Excitation, D.C. Generator 352
Dry Cells 60
" Discharge Switch 508
Dynamic Braking 433
" Poles, Direct Current 279
" Electricity 27
" Poles, Direct Current 347
" Electricity Effects of 37 " Problems 47
" Electricity Production of 34 Filters, Radio 1137
Dynamo (See Generators A.C. and D.0 ) 34
Fire Alarms 111
Earth's Magnetism 63 Fire Protection, A.C. Maintenance 770
Edison Primary Cell 59 Fixtures, Home Lighting 272
Edison Nickel-Iron Storage Batteries 807 Flemings Right Hand Rule 351
Efficiency and Power Factor of A.C. Motor. 569 Flood Lighting 257
Efficiency of D.C. Motors 414 Formulas, Ohm's Law 46
Electric Arc 38 Four-Wire Systems 545
" Battery 35 Franklin's Discovery 31
Cells and Batteries 56
Frequency, A.0 0 454
Circuits 37
" of A.C. Circuits 309
Current, Aripere 40
" Changer Substation 725
Current Flow 34
" Meters 493
Doorbell 82
Frozen Bearings, A. C. Maintenance 758
Furnace 39
Fuses High-Tension 741
Generator 34
" and Switches 194
Light, and Incandescent Lamps 38
Cartridge 194
Power Units 43
Knife Blade 195
Pressure 76
41 Lead Link 194
Pressure E.M.F
Quantity-The Coulomb 40 National Code Rules on 195
Refrigerators 953 Plug 195
Signal Systems and Circuits ao Troubles 228
Signs and Billboards 253 Fynn-Weichsel, A.C. Motors 595
Storage Batteries 744 Galvanometer 43
Units and Symbols 40 Gears, A.C. Maintenance 759
Electrical Construction and Wiring for Generating Electric Pressure by Induction 76
Light and Power 154 Generating Stations 660
12 INDEX

Page Page
Generator Charging Rate Adjusting, Generators, D.C., Correct'g Wrong Polarity 363
Automotive 863 " D.C., Cumulative and Differential
Cut-Outs, Automotive 864 Compound Generators 359
14

Drives for 346

id fi 44
Electric 36
Equalizer Connections '365
di di
and Motor Installation, A.0 745
if

Principles 67 Equalizer Switches 365

id di 14

di if
Troubles, Automotive 868
id
Failure to Build up Voltage 253
id
Generators, A.0 502 Failure to Build up Voltage 444
44

" Field Excitation 252

14 id
" Adjusting and Transferring
Id II
Load on 515 Field Frames 247
Field Poles 247
SO 14 di Id
Armature, Construction 504
44 «.
di Ed
Arrangement of Instruments Flat Compound Generators
and Connections 516 Voltage Characteristics 359
Flemings Right Hand Rule 351
id if
Construction 308
General Types of . .. •• 355
di
44
Cooling of 506 fi di
11
Engine Type 503 Horse Power Calculations 361
Instrument Connections with
L' I1
If
Exciter and Alternator Field
Circuit Connections 507 Parallel Generators 366
«I
Interpoles, Polarity and Adjust-
II

Exciter and Alternator Rheostats 508

ment 372
Field Construction 505
Lubrication 376
14 id

Field Control Circuits 508

" " Magnetic Circuit in 351
Field Discharge Switch 508
Maintenance 439
a Ii

Field Excitation 507 « id

Mechanical Construction 347
Frequency and Voltage of 508
Neutral Plane 354
if di

Installation 745
" Neutral Plane 298
If

Lamp-Bank Method of Phasing 44

Neutral Wire, Three-Wire System 366
if

Out 511 It
Noises, Unusual 444
if

Motor Method of Phasing Out. 512

Operating Principles 282
di 4«

Reassembling 755
Operating Principles 351
is di

Operation of 511
Operating Temperature 345
fd id

Paralleling of 511
" Operating Temperature 440
Id

Principles 308 di 44
Operation of 361
Radio, Inductor Type 1056 il
Over Compound Generators,
II

Revolving Field 502

Shutting Down 516 Voltage Characteristics 359
Overheating of 443
di di

Starting Up 515
Parallel, Instrument Connections 366
44 if

Synchronizing with Lamps 513

" Parallel Operation 363
id

Synchronizing with Sychroscopes 514

Peripheral Speed 346
41 di

Turbine Type 503

.. Polarity, Correcting Wrong
di

Types of 503 363

Pole Shoes or Faces 347
II .1

Vertical Type 503

Voltage Control 508 " Poor Voltage Regulation 444
Voltage and Frequency of 508 Ratings 345
Rocker Ring 350
Voltage Adjustment 509
Self Induction in Coils Shorted
Voltage Regulators, Automatic 510
Automotive 861 by Brushes 370
Series Wound 357
if

D.C., Armatures 348

Series Field Shunts 357
41

Armature Reaction 354

44

ii
Shunt Wound 356
Armature Resistance and I.R.
14

Speeds 346
id

Loss 355
" Starting 362
di

Balance Coil, Principle of 367

Test Equipment for Locating
L4 di

Balanced System 368

Faults 445
Balancer Generators 368
Testing for Troubles 444
g' if

Bearings 351
Three-Wire, and Balancers 367
Id

Brushes 348 ii
Voltage Adjustment and
Care of During Operation 362
Commutating Field Strength Regulation 354
«
Varies with Load 372 Voltage, Building up 353
.• Commutating Poles to Prevent II
" Curves 283
Sparking 372
11
" Drop in Brushes and Lines 355
" Regulation, Poor 444
if
Commutation and Interpoles 370
If

di
'. Commutators 348 Will Not Operate in Parallel 444
« Compound Wound 358 Winding Temperature 440
id if

id ii
Compound, Best for General
di
and Motors, D.0 279
Service 364 Gilbert, Unit of Magnetic Force 73
« a Compound, Testing and Adjusting 364 Graded Shunt Lightning Arresters . 705
 INDEX 13

Page Page
Graphite Brushes, D.0 436 Illumination, Lamps, Mercury Vapor Lamp
Gravity Cells 58 Circuit and Operation 268
Ground Detectors, A.0 751 Lamps, Mercury Vapor Lamp Mech 268
44

Grounded Circuits 74 " Mercury Vapor, Operating

Grounding Transformers 544 Voltage 269
Growler, Armature Testing 300 Mercury Vapor Tubes 267
Id

Guard Rings and Horns, Lightning Light, Coefficient of Utilization 244

Protection 711
44
Colors, Wave Frequencies 233
Heat Energy of Coal 28 Controlling and Directing with
Heating Effect of Electric Current 38 Reflectors 240
Heavy-Duty Oil Switches, A.C. 737 Diffusing Bowls 242
Distribution 237
di
Helix 70
Inverse Square Law for 239
18
High-Frequency Alternators 1056
High-Frequency Energy, Sources of 1055 Measurement, Units of 236
High-Tension Air-Break Switches, A.0 40 " Measuring Devices 236
Fuses, A.C. 741 ,Nature of 233
41
" Insulators 677 Quantity, Unit of 237
• Magnetos, Automotive 846 di
Reflection 239
High Voltage Power Measurement 477 di
Spot and Color Flood 252
• Spark Coils 79 Standard Intensities in
Home Lighting 271 Foot-Candles 247
Horn and Sphere Gaps, Line Protection 703 Lighting, Bays 246
Horse Power 44 " Counter 252
" " Brake Tests 413 Factory 245
• Calculations for Prime Movers 361 di
Factory Problem 248
Rating of D.C. Motors 407 Fixtures, Depreciation Factor 243
Horseshoe Magnet 63 Fixtures, Mounting Height of 245
"Hot" Line Work & Protective Equipment. 700 Flood 257
"Hunting" of Synchronous Motors 588 Home 271
Hydro Electric Plants 666 Motion Picture 261
Hydrometers, Storage Battery 780 Office Problem 249
Hy-Rate Discharge Test, Storage Batteries 787 Outlets, Spacing Distance between 245
Hysteresis Loss 66 Practical Problem 246
Ice and Wind Stress, Transmission Line. 696 Projectors 257
Ignition Systems, Automotive 825 Show Window 251
Illumination 231 Signs and Billboards 253
Airplane Lights 266 Store 246
gl
Airport, Approach and Obstruction Street 258
Lights 264 Units 242
Airport Beacons 262 Working Plane 245
" Boundary Lights 264 Lights, Number and Location of 245
" "Ceiling" Projectors 264 Lumens, Unit of Light Quantity 237
id 41
Hangar and Shop Lighting 265 Mazda Lamp 234
id
Illuminated Wind Direction Mean Spherical Candle Power 237
Indicators 264 Photometer 237
di
Landing Field Flood Lights 262 Principles of 232
it
Lighting Equipment 261 Reflectors, Light 234
di
Airway Lighting or Route Beacons 265 Reflectors, Types of 240
di
Aviation Lighting 261 Signs Construction and Operation 254
Candle Power and Light Measuring " Flasher Circuits 254
Devices 236 " Neon Tube 256
Counter Lighting 252 " Wiring &Constructing Small Signs . 257
Flood Lighting 257 Voltages of Lamps 235
Foot Candle Meter 237 Impedance 464
Foot Candles, Unit of Intensity 238 Incandescent Lamp 38 & 232
Home Lighting 271 " Lamps (See also Illumination, Lamps) 234
Home Lighting Fixtures 274 Induced Magnetism 63
Incandescent Lamps, Edison 232 " Pressure and Current, Direction of 76
Lamp Life and Rated Voltages 235 " Pressure Generated, Amount of 76
Lamps, Efficiency of 235 Inductance 38
Incandescent Types of 234 Inductance in A.C. Circuits 458
.1
Mazda 234 Induction Coils 78
Mercury Vapor 267 " Coils, Telephone 129
Mercury Vapor, Care and " Electro Magnetic 76
Maintenance 270 " Lenz's Law 459
Mercury Vapor Installation 269 " Method of Producing Current 36
14 INDEX

Page Page
Induction Motor Controllers 636 Line Conductor Arrangement and Spacing. 689
" Motors (see Motors A.0 ) 566 " Conductor Copper, Aluminum 676
" Change Poles and Speed 330 Costs, Transmission 697
46

Drop, Voltage 48
g.
Change Voltage 326
Construction and Principles of 312 Erection, Transmission 698
dd

Efficiency and Power Factor 569 Fittings, Transmission 688

14

Horsepower, Voltage and

«4
Ice and Wind Stress 696
Frequency Ratings 570 Insulators 677
Regulators 548 Interference with Signal Lines 691
Loss 49
Id
Operating Principles 548
" Frequency Meters 494 Pole Climbing, Transmission 699
Inductive Reactance 458 Protectors and Lightning Arresters. 703
Inductor Type Alternators 1056 Reactance and Capacity 693
Industrial Signal Systems 113 Sag and Tension, Transmission 694
Inspection Records, A.C.750 "Sagging Tees" and "Pulling Grips" 699
Installation and Maintenance, A.0 745 Skin Effect and Corona 694
" and Maintenance, D.0 439 Steel Towers 687
Signal Systems 115 Supporting Structures 685
Wiring for Light and Power 216 Ties, Transmission 680
61
of Transformers 747 Transmission 675
Insulated Wires 37 Transposition 690
Insulating Varnish, A.C. Stator 331 Lines of Magnetic Force 72
Insulation Tests, with Megger 765 Live Line Work and Tools 700
Insulations, Armature, D.0 286 Load Demand Indicators, D.0 399
Insulators 36 Loadstone 62
" Bushing 684 Local Action in Cells 58
" High Tension 677 Lubrication, A.C. Bearing Maintenance 756
Pin Type 678 Magnet 38
" Strain 682 Magnet 62
Transmission Line 677 " Plunger Type 75
Wall Bushing 684 " Shell Types 75
Interference, Radio 1211 " Winding and Repairing 73
Internal Cell Circuit 62 " Wires, Armature, D.C. 286
Interpoles 373 Magnetic Alloys 68
Kilowatt, Unit of Electric Power 53 " Circuit 64
Kilowatt Hour Meters, D.C. 397 Circuit in D.C. Generator 351
Kenotron Rectifiers 616 Effect 37
Keys, Keyways, Pulleys and Gears Field 36
A.C. Maintenance 759 Field 64
Knife Switches 380 Field Around Wires Carrying Current 68
Lagging Current, Caused by Inductance. Flux 64
460
Lap Winding, A.C. Machines Flux 72
318
Forces between Parallel Wires 69
Lap Winding, D.C. Armature Coils 290
Lifting Power 73
Lead-Acid Cells, Storage Batteries 774
Lines of Force 64
Leading Current 470
Materials 65
Lenz's Law of Induction 459
Polarity 71
Leyden Jar Condenser 29
Poles 63
Lifting Power of Magnets 73
Shields 67
Lighting (see Illumination) 231
Starter, D.0 424
Lighting System Troubles, Automotive 873
Strength 66
Lightning 30
Yoke or Keeper 66
" Arresters 703
Magnetism 62
Aluminum Cell 708
Magneto Breakers, Automotive 849
Arc-Over Values 713
" High-Tension, Automotive 846
Auto Valve 706
Motive-Force 72
If

Connections and Operation 709

Safety Gaps, Automotive 848
Graded Shunt 705
" Guard Rings and Horns. 711 Telephone 131
66
Horn and Sphere Gaps 703
11
Timing, Automotive 851
Troubles, Automotive 852
16

" and Line Protection 703

td
Overhead Ground Wires 711 Maintenance, A.C. Machines 745
64
Oxide Film 707 " Air Gap Measurements 756
Air Gaps 766
60
Surge Absorbers 712
di
Rods 31
66
A.C., Bearings 752
Line Calculation, Transmission 692 " " "Frozen" 758
" Charging Current, Transmission 694 " " Lubrication 756
 INDEX 15

Page Page

Maintenance A.C., Controllers 768 Meters D.C. Operating Principles 388

" A.C., Fire Protection 770 " D.C. Potential and Current Coils 394
" Inspection Records 749 Recording 397
Insulation Tests, Megger 765 Relay Type Recording 398
Shunts and Resistances 391
Motors Over-Heating 765
Overload and Single-Phasing 764 Types of 388
Safety Precautions 751 Voltmeters 389
Secondary Resistance 761 Watthour 393
Shafts 759 Watt-Hour Constant and Time
Element 395
Single-Phase Motor Troubles 766
id di
Wattmeters 392
Squirrel-Cage Rotor Troubles 760
Slip-Ring Rotor Troubles . 761 Microhms 42
Spare Parts, Stocking of 769 Motor Commutator, Mica Undercutting 441
Starters 768 Motor and Generator, A.C. Installation 745
Starting New Machines 767 Motor-Generator for Signal System 83
Stator Troubles 763 " Substation . 724
Tools and Instruments 751 " Principles, D.0 284
D.C. Machines . 439 " Troubles (See Maintenance D.C.
Bearing Lubrication 440 for List) 442
Brushes and Commutators 441 Motors, A.0 566
Controllers 442 " A.C. Applications on Ships 598
Motor Troubles, List of 442
et
B T A Variable-Speed 594
Resistance Tests 446 Characteristics 567
14
Test Equipment 445 "Choke-Bars" 593
Tools for D.C. Maintenance 446 Compensating Windings,
Maximum Demand Indicators D.C.399 Repulsion 574
Maxwell Unit of Force 73 Condenser Table 609
Mechanical Degrees 309 Condenser Type Split-Phase 572
Mechanical Method of Producing Electricity 36 Construction 312
Meggers 401 Controllers, Reducing Voltage in. 639
Mercury Arc Power Rectifiers 620 Double Squirrel-Cage 592
" Arc Substation 726 Double Squirrel-Cage, Operating
48
Vapor Lamps (see also Illumination Principles of 593
Lamps) 267 .. " Efficiency and Power Factor 569
Et
Vapor Lamps, Maintenance 271 44 " Enclosed-Type 597
Meters, A.C. 482 a " Fynn Weichsel 595
" A.C. Adjustment of Watthour 491 .. " and Generator Installation 745
" " Ammeters 482 a " Horsepower, Voltage and
Connections 474 Frequency Ratings 570
Creeping of, Watthour 490 a a Internal Resistance 583
Damping of 483 a a Operating Principles of
Demand Indicators 492 Synchronous Motors 586
it
Dynamometer Type Instruments 483 44 " Over-Heating 765
Electro-Static Voltmeters 488 a " Overload and Single-Phasing 764
Frequency 493 44 " Phase-Wound 58 1
Hot Wire Instruments 487 a " Polyphase 577
Induction Type, Frequency 494 II " Portable 597
Induction Type Instruments 485 a " Power Factor of 569
Moving Iron Type Instruments 482 a " Power Factor Correction 599
Shaded Pole Induction 487 a " Rotor Construction 572
Test 491 a " Rotor Troubles 760
Thompson Inclined Coil 483 a " Secondary Resistance 761
Pollyphase Watthour 491 a " Series or Universal 575
Power Factor 492 id " Shaded-Pole . 573
Vibrating-Reed Type Instrument 493 a " Single-Phase 571
Voltmeters 482 a a " (see A.C. Stator) 313
Watthour 489 44 14 " Trouble 766
D.C. 388 14 " Slip 568
Care and Adjustment 389 a " Slip-Ring 581
Compensating Coil 395 a 44 " Applications 585
"Creeping" 396 a a " Characteristics 583
le
Damping Disk and Magnets 394 a id " Speed Control 582
Direct Acting Recording 397 a a " Starting Current 584
Indicating Wattmeters 392 44 44 14 " and Speed Control with
Kilowatt-Hour 397 External Resistance 582
id gg

id
Maximum Demand Indicators 399 a " Special 592
 16 INDEX

Page Page
Motors, A.C., Split-Phase 571 Motors, D.C., Overheating of 443
" A.C., Squirrel-Cage 577 " D.C., Overload Protection 426
Characteristics 578 di
Overspeeds 443
di
" Power Factor and Efficency. 580 Polarity of Interpoles for 375
Starting, Single-Phase 576 " Principles 407
di
Torque, Squirrel-Cage 579
66
" Ratings 407
di

41 11 11
Voltage Adjustment, Regenerative Braking 434
Compensator 646 61 " Remote Control 422
Super-Synchronous
di
591 16 " Reversing Rotation of 429
Synchronous
id
585 " " Rotation, Direction of 408
Adjusting Power Factor by " Reversed 443
Changing Field Excitation. 589 di " Series 411
Application of 590 " Shunt 410
Characteristics 590 " Slow Starting and Weak Power 443
Connections 588 " Sparking at Brushes 443
Construction and Excitation. 586 " Speed Control 416
Damper Winding 586 " Indicators 446
Hunting 588 di 11 " Regulations and Control 407
Motors as Condensers 599 66 di 14 " Compound Motors 412
Operating Principles 586 16 " Differen. Comp. Motors 413
Power Factor, Adjustm't of 589 id di " of Series Motors 411
Pull Out Torque of 587 44 44 11 " of Shunt Motors 410
Speed 567 di " Stalling Torque of Comp. Motor 412
Starting 589 el " Torque of Diff. Corn Motors 413
.«
Testing Single-Phase, Split- Shunt Motors 410
Phase Motors 767 " Starting 419
‘‘
Tests for Locating Troubles in di 44
" Torque of Compound Motors 412
Secondary Resisters 762 di di " " Diff. Compound Motors 413
Three-Phase Operating Principles. 317 0 10 " " Shunt Motors 410
Torque of Induction Motors 568 di " Starts too Quickly 443
Two-Phase Operating Principles 316 .‘ " Stopping 419
Types and General Principles 566 " Test Equipment for Locating
Universal or Series
41
575 Faults 445
and Generators, A.C., Reassembling. 755 Id " Testing for Troubles 444
and Generators, D.0
14
279 di " Torque, Speed and H.P 408
Motors, D.0 406 " Troubles 442
" D.C., Armature Resistance 409 if " Winding Temperature 440
" Automatic Remote Control 418 Multiplex Windings, D.C. Armatures 297
di

Automatic Starters 422 Natural Magnets 62

Brake Horse-Power Test
id 61
413 Negative Charge 27
Braking, Dynamic 433 Negative Element or Pole 57
di di
Brushes (see also Brushes Neutral Plane, D.C. Generator 354
Carbon D.C.) 435 Neutral Plane, D.C.Motors 298
Bucking or Jerking 443 Non-Magnetic Materials 65
Characteristics 409 Oersted, Unit of Force 73
Commutation 374 Office Call or Signal Systems 106
Commutators, Mica Undercutting 441 Office Lighting 249
" Resurfacing and Truing 441 Ohm, Unit of Resistance 41
Compound Wound 412 Ohm's Law for A.C. Circuits 458
Counter E.M.F. in 408 Ohm's Law for D.C. Circuits 44
" Voltage, Effect on Speed 409
di
Ohm's Law Formulas 46
Differential Compound 413 Oil Circuit Breakers, D.C. 382
Direction of Rotation 408 Oil Cooled Transformers 527
Dynamic Braking 433 Oil Switches, A.C. 735
Efficiency Tests and Calculatirs 414 Oil Switches Heavy-Duty, A.C. 737
Fails to Start 442 Open Circuits 74
Horse Power Calculations 414 Operating Principles, D.C. Generators 351
Horse Power Rating 406 Overhead Ground Wires, Lightning
List of Common Troubles 442 Protection . . 711
Lubrication . 440 Overhead Transmission 675
11
Maintenance 439 Overload Protection, D.C. Motors 426
Id
Neutral Plane, Position of 374 " and Single-Phasing 764
id
Noises, Unusual 444 Relays, A.0 637
Relays, D.0 383
di
Operating Principles 282
Operating Principles... 407 Oxide Film Lightning Arresters 707
Operating Temperature. 440 Parallel Circuits 49
 INDEX 17

Page Page
Parallel Circuits 52 Radio, Automatic Frequency Control 1154
Parallel-Series 55 " Automatic Tuning 1152
Paralleling of Alternators 511 Automatic Volume Control 1147
Paralleling D.C. Generators 363 Cathode Ray Power Supply 1200
Pasted Plates, Storage Batteries 774 Cathode Ray Tubes 1196
Circuit Disturbance Tests 1164
Permanent Magnets 65
Condensers and Color Code 1141
Permeability and Reluctance 66
Condenser Testers 1171
Phasing Out Alternators 511 Continuity Tests 1165
Physiological Effect of Electricity 39 Diode Detectors 1147
Plan Reading, Circuit Prints 102 Fault Localizing 1163
Planté Plates, Storage Batteries 774 Head Phones and Speakers 1127
Plunger Type Magnet 75 Interference Elimination 1211
Polarity of Converters 633 Microphones 1193
Modulated Oscillator 1169
Polarity of D. C. Generators 363
Multiple Band Receivers 1156
" of Dry Cells 62
Neutrodynes and Neutralyzing 1126
" of Electro-Magnets 71 Power Amplification 1121
Polarization of Cells 57 Power Supply Filters 1137
Pole Climbing, Transmission 699 Power Supply Troubles 1168
" Cross Arms, Transmission 687 Power Supply Units 1136
" Sizes, Transmission 686 Public Address, Accoustical Treat-
" Spacing, Transmission 686 ment 1188
Polyphase Transformers 525 Public Address Systems 1186
Principles 1053
Porus Cup Cells 59
Push Pull Amplification 1120
Portable A.C. Motors 597
Receiver Circuits 1114
•Positive Charge 27 Receiver Construction 1158
Positive Element or Pole 57
Receiver Tuning 1075
Potential 41 Receiving Antennas 1067
" Transformers 552 Reflex Circuits 1117
Power Calculations, A.0 471 R. F. Amplification 1118
" Calculations for Prime Movers 361 Radio, RF and AF Stage Troubles 1167
11
Equipment Installation 746 " Resistance Analysis 1174
Factor, A.0 469 Resistors and Color Code 1139
16
" Correction 599 Service Inspection, Troubles 1162
11
" Definition and Formula 470 Servicing with Oscilloscope 1200
Servicing and Troubles 1162
Meters, A.0 492
11

Signal Modulation 1060

46
" Problems and Graphic Solution. 604
Speaker Baffles 1129
Synchronous Converters for
61 11

Speaker Coupling 1123

Correcting 630
Speaker Phasing 1192
11
Measurement, A.0 473
Speaker Troubles 1168
Plant, Auxiliary Equipment 670
Superheterodyne Receivers 1143
" Hydraulic 667
Tone Control 1156
" Rules 671
Tube and Voltage Troubles 1166
Location 660
Tuning and Resonance 1062
Steam 662
Types of Antennas 1062
" Transmission, Electrical 671
Vacuum Tubes 1084
Primary Cells 35
Vacuum Tubes, Amplifiers 1093
Primary Cells 56
Vacuum Tubes, A. C. Type 1098
Primary Induction Coil 79 Vacuum Tubes, Beam Power 1102
Prime Mover 361 Vacuum Tubes, Cathode Ray Tun-
Prime Movers, Starting and Control of 669 ing Indicators 1104
Printing Press Controllers, A.0 649 Vacuum Tubes, Charts 1107 to 1112
Problems (Ohm's and Watt's Laws) 47 Vacuum. Tubes, Grid Action 1087
Pyrometer 35 Vacuum Tubes, Grid Bias 1090
Vacuum Tubes, Numbering System 1101
Radio 1049 to 1212
Vacuum Tube Oscillators 1057
11
A. C. Receivers 1133
Vacuum Tubes, Rectifiers 1103
" Aligning Superhets 1148
Vacuum Tube, Screen Grids 1097
" A. F. Amplification 1119
Vacuum Tube Selection 1105
" Amplification Factor 1095
Vacuum Tubes, Types 1100
" Analyzers 1170
Variable Condensers 1078
" Antenna Circuit 1061 Voice Coils and Hum Bucking Coils. 1130
" Antenna Inductance and Capacity.. 1072 Voltage Analysis 1172
Auto Radio, Antennas 1179 Volume Control 1122
" Interference and Suppressors 1182 Wave Length 1054
" Receiver Installation 1181 Wiring Symbols 1082
" Vibrator Rectifiers 1184 Sound Picture Units 1191
18 INDEX

Page Page
Reactance and Capacity 458 Relays, A.C. 742
Reassembling A.C. Motors and Generators 755 " A.C. Magnetic Overload 637
" Motor Controllers 636
It
Reciprocal Rule for Resistance Calculation 51
" Overload, Construction 643
11
Recording Instruments, D.C. Meters 397
Records, A.C. Inspection (Maintenance). 750
14
" Thermal and Magnetic Overload 637
Rectifiers and Converters 612
0
D.C. Protective 384
" Copper Oxide 616
0
D.C. Reverse Current 384
Flashover 635
41
II
Electrolytic 613
14
Full-Wave Bulb-Type 615 " Signal 94
41
Telephone 138
41
Gaseous 1104 11
Temperature 635
14
Kenotron . 616
Reluctance in Magnetic Circuit 72
Mercury Arc 617
0

Reluctance and Permeability 66

44
Radio 1104
Remote Control, D.C. Motors 418
Vibrating 612
44

Repairing Magnets 73
Reflectors, Illumination 234 Repulsion Motors 574
Reflectors, Illumination 240 Residual Magnetism 70
Refrigeration 953 to 1028 Resistance 41
Absorption Type 984 " of A.C. Circuits, Determining 475
48

41
Adding Oil Charge 1013 " of Conductors (Table) 211
44
Cabinets 978 " of Conductors (Table) 215
14
Cabinet Repairs 1017 " Measurement, D.0 401
of Parallel Circuits 50
i<
11
Calculating Service Loads 1026
" Common Troubles 994 to 1003 Reversing Drum Controllers, D.C. Motors 429
11
Compressors 968 Reversing Drum Switches, D.C. Motors 429
Revolving Field Alternator 309
II
Compressor Efficiency Tests 1004
Rewinding Old Armatures, D.C. 297
0
Condensers 970
Rheostats, Alternator 508
0
Control Switches 975
Rheostats, D.C. Motor Starting 416
41
Control Valves 973
Right Hand Rule for Direction of Flux 69
0
Cycle Diagrams 964
Rotor, A.0 312
0
Dehydration 1012
" A.0 326
" Discharging of Units 1011 " Phase-Wound 312
41
Evaporation Temperatures and " Squirrel-Cage 312
Pressures 959 " Troubles, Slip-Ring 761
" Evaporators 972 " Troubles, Squirrel-Cage 760
Refrigeration, Expansion Valves 974 " Windings, A.0 326
0
Heat, Latent and Sensible 958
Sag and Tension of Transmission Lines. .. . 694
0
Ice Cream Freezers 1025 "Sagging Tees" and "Pulling Grips" 699
41
Installation 986 Salesmanship 219
44
Lubrication 983 Saturation, Units and Strength of Electro
Motors 977
41
Magnets 72
41
Multiple Systems 967 Scott Transformers 546
0
Parts and Construction 968 Secondary Cells 56
41
Principles 955 to 960 " Induction Coil 79
14
Purging of Air 1013 " Resistance Troubles 761
0
Recharging Unit 1011 Self-Induction, Automotive Ignition 828
Self-Induction in D.C. Circuits 461
Refrigerant chemicals (Refriger-
41

ants) 979 Separators, Storage Battery 777

Series Circuits 49
10
Refrigerant Leak Tests 981
" Circuits 52
41
Rotary Compressor Repairs 1007 el
" A.C. Impedance of 464
0
Safety Codes 1023 0
Generators, D.0 357
41
Service Gauges 993 0
Motors, D.0 411
11
Service Methods 933 to 1003 0
Parallel, Circuits 55
It
Service Tools 1018 44
and Parallel Connection of Generators
14
Service Valves 994 and Batteries 52
41
Servicing Multiple Units 1019 14
or Universal A.C. Motors 575
41
Soldered Connections 990 Shaded-Pole Motors 573
14
Solenoid Valves 1021 Shafts, A.C. Maintenance 759
0
Systems and Cycles 962 Shell Type Magnet 75
14
Thermostats 977 Short Circuits 74
11
Troubles and Symptoms 994 to 1003 " Circuits, D.C. Armature 302
" Tubing Flares 989 and Grounds, Wiring 229
leenerative Braking 434 " " Induction Motors 337
Regulators. Induction 548 Shunt Wound D.C. Generators 356
 INDEX 19

Page Page
Shunt Wound D.C. Motors 410 Signal, Putting Your Training into Practice 119
Shutting Down an Alternator 516 " Recorders 112
Signal, Advertising, Value of 120 Relay Terminal Tests 98
" Annunciators, Connections and Tests 99 Relay Terminals and Connections 95
Annunciators, Locating Faults in 101 Relays 94
Apartment Door Bell and Opener " Adjustment and Care of 98
System 106 " in Burglar Alarms 96
Automatic Signaling Machine 114
11
Open Circuit Stick 108
in Telegraph Systems, Ground
if
Balanced Alarm Systems 110
Barn or Garage Alarm 105 Circuits 97
Batteries 82 Reset Switch 109
Bells and Buzzers, Care and Test of. 92 Return Call Systems 103
Bells and Lamps 89 Running Signal Wires 116
Bells, Muffling of 92 Saving Wires by Use of Double
Bells, Transformer 83 Circuit Switches or Grounds 104
Bells, Troubles 89 Saving Wires by Special Group Con-
Benjamin Signals 115 nection and Separate Batteries 107
Burglar Alarm, Closed Circuit,
id
Selective and Master Calls 104
Silent 92
f1
Two Flat 107
Special Arrangement of Vibrating Bell
if
Burglar Alarm Foil for Window
Protection 110 for Constant Ringing 107
.4 Buzzer 92 Starting a Business of Your Own 120
and Call Systems 81 Stick Relay Circuits 108
Call System without Switches 104 Switches 84
Closed Circuit System 82 " Burglar Alarm 86
Combination Bells 91 " Closed Circuit and Double Circuit 85
" Closed and Open Circuit Alarms. 109 Symbols Used in Signal Diagrams 102
Common Devices 82 Telephones (see Telephones) 124
Connecting Vibrating Bells for Testing to Locate Proper Wires for
Series Operation 105 Connections 117
Current Supply Troubles 84 Thermostatic Switch 88
Door and Window Springs 86 " Three Section Alarm System 109
Doorbell 82
41
Tools and Materials Necessary 121
Double Circuit Stick Relay 109
If
Tracing Circuits, Methods of 102
Drop Relays for Constant Ringing Traps 87
of Signals 93 " Trouble Shooting 119
" and Tests 88
If
Emergency Wires, and Pulling-in
Replacements 117 " Tests 117
Estimating Job Costs 120 Types of Circuits 102
Vibrating Bells 89
14
Fire Alarm Devices and Circuits 111
"Fishing in" Wires, "Mouse" and
41
Wiring, Caution Necessary for Safe
"Fish Tape" 116 and Reliable 108
" Floor Switches 87
44
Wiring Materials 108
Fusible Links for Fire Alarms 113 Single-Phase Current 310
" Horns or "Howlers" 113 " Motor (see also Motors A.0 ) 571
Hotel or Office Call System with " Motor Troubles 766
Annunciator 106 Slip of A.C. Motors 568
11
Industrial Signals & Heavy Duty Bells. 113 Slip-Ring Motors (see also Motors, A.0 ) 581
ft
Installation of Call and Signal System 115 Slip-Ring Rotor Troubles 761
41
Key or Lock Switches 87 Solenoids 70
Layout or Location of Parts in the Sound Waves 124
Building 115 Spark Advance, Automotive Distributors 819
Lock Switch Connections 111 " Coils, High Voltage 79
id
Magnetic Door Openers 93 " Plugs, Automotive 830
" Magnetically Operated Switch (Relay) 95 Sparking at Brushes, D.0 443
Motor-Generator (Power Supply) 83 Specific Gravity, Storage Battery 780
Office or Shop Call System 106 Specific Resistance of Materials 42
Open Circuit Systems 103 Speed Control, D.C. Motors 416
Open Circuit Systems 82 " Indicators 446
Open, Closed & Double Circuit Relays 96 " Regulation, D.C. Motors 407
Plan Reading 102 Spider, D.C. Armature 280
" Plans and Symbols 82 Split Phase, Single-Phase Motors 571
Proper Location of Parts for Closed
it
Squirrel-Cage Rotor Troubles 760
Circuit System 96 Squirrel-Cage Rotors 312
Pull Boxes and Code Call Devices 111 Stalling Torque of Series Motors, D.C. 411
Push Buttons 85 Star and Delta Starters, A.C. Motors 653
20 INDEX

Page Page
Starters, A.C. Motor 636 Stator Windings, Open Coils 335
,‘
A.C. Motor Across-the-Line, or Full " Windings Pitch and Coil Span 317
Voltage 637 " Polarity, Correct Test for 327
11

Auto Transformer or Pole Group Connections 326

46 16 11 di

Compensator 644 " Poles and Speed Change 330

Automatic Carbon Pile 642 Principles of A.C. Generators 308
11 id

di 14
" Remote Controlled 646 Reversed Coil Groups 336
Carbon Pile 640 Connections 335
16 «1

" Connections and Grounds 337

di di
Compensators, Starting
66 64

Voltage Adjustment 646 " Phase 336

Printing Press 649
11
Revolving Field Alternators 309
11

Remote Cont'lled Automatic 646 Short Circuits 337

Resistance Type 639
16 61
Shorted Coil Groups, A.C. Wind 335
61

Star-Delta 653
is
Shorted Turns 334
A.C. Maintenance 768 Single-Phase 313
Automotive 854 61
Skein Windings 313
D.C. Motor (See also Controllers D.0 ) 415 41
Speed Change 330
id
Magnetic D.0 424 66
Star and Delta Connections 323
Troubles, Automotive 859
11
Terms and Definitions 317
Starting Alternators 515 11
Testing Split-Phase Motor 336
" A.C. Motor with a Compensator 644 66
Three-Phase, Marking and
and Control of Prime Movers 669 Connecting Coil Leads 321
Current of Slip-Ring Motors 584 Three-Phase Winding, Procedure. 319
D.C. Generators 262 Troubles 333
Mercury Arc Rectifiers 618 Two-Phase Winding Example 318
New Machines, A.0 767 Types of 313
Own Business 120 Types of Coils 319
Single-Phase Motors 576 Varnishes, Air Dry and Baking 331
Synchronous Converters 631 Voltage Change in Motors 326
" Synchronous Motors 589 Voltage Change Effect on Current,
" Torque of Series Motors, D.C.411 Induction Motors 327
Static on Belts 30 Stopping, D.C. Motors 423
Condensers 600 Storage Batteries, (see Batteries) 773
Control and Protection 30 " Batteries Automotive 763 & 826
Electricity 27 " Cell or Battery 57
Electricity Condenser 29 Store Lighting 251
Experiments 27 Steam Cycle, Power Plants 664
Explosions 30 " Power Plants 662
Machine 28 " Turbine 665
Stator 310 Steel Towers, Transmission 687
" Troubles 763 Street Lighting 258
Winding Connections 322 Strength of Electro Magnets 72
" Fractional Pitch Windings 325 Substations 720
Terms and Definitions 317 Combination 727
Test for Correct Polarity 327 Converter 721
Troubles 333 Distribution 720
Types of 313 Frequency-Changer 725
Types of Coils 319 Mercury-Arc 726
A.0 313 Motor-Generator 724
A.0 319 Switchboards (see also Switchboards) . 728
Changing Number of Poles and Surge Absorbers, Lightning Arresters 712
Speed .. 330 Switch Gear, A.C. 729
11
Coil Group, Winding 317 Switchboard, A.0 728
Coil Polarity 317 A.C. Circuits and Wiring 733
" Construction of A.C. Motors 312 " Layouts 730
Electrical Degrees 309 " Operation 733
1/
Fractional Pitch Windings 325 " Substation . 728
" Frequency, Changes in 329 " Switch Gear 729
Grounded Coils 334 D.C. 379
41
Induction Motor 313 " Bus Bars 385
" Insulating Varnish and Com- Feeder Panels 378
pounds on A.C. Windings 331 Frames 379
Lap Winding for A.C. Machines 318 Generator and Feeder Panels 378
Mechanical Degrees 309 Knife Switches 380
Open Circuits and Defective Layout and Circuits 386
Centrifugal Switches 337 Panel Materials 378
11
 INDEX 21

Page Page

Switchboards, D.C., Pipe Frames 380 " Complete, Circuits 132

it
D.C. Switch Mounting and Current Condenser 134
Rating . 381
It
Dials, Construction and Operation 142
Exchange 134
11
Types of 378
Wiring .. 386 Ground Circuits, Cables 149
Telephone 135 Important Parts and Devices 126
Switches and Fuses 194 " Induction Coil 129
" for Call and Signal Systems 85
11
Jacks and Drops 137
Centrifugal, Induction Motors 315 Key Switches 136
D.C. Field Discharge 382
11
Lightning Protection and Transposition 150
14
" Generator Equalizer 365 Line Banks and "Wiper" Contacts 143
" Instrument 384 " Lines 149
" Knife . 380
81
Magnetos 131
di
" Switchboard 380 Phantom Circuits 150
If
High-Tension Air-Break 739 Principles of Operation 124
41
Oil, A.0 735
14
Receiver 127
Symbols 44 Receiver Hook Switch 128
Symbols of Electrical Units 40 Relays 138
Synchronizing of Alternators 513 " Relays Slow Acting 148
Synchronous Converter, Starting 631 " Simplified Circuit of Important Parts 145
" Motors (See also A.C. Motors, Synchr.) 585 " Sound Waves 124
" Motors Starting Compensators 590 Sound Waves Transmitting and
" Speed Motors 567 Reproducing Electrically 125
Synchroscopes 496 Switchboard Connections, Simple 137
Synchroscopes 514 Switchboard Lamps 136
Switchboard for Manual Operation 135
Tables, Aluminum Cable, Size, Weight,
Transmitter 126
Strength, and Resistance 678 151
Troubles
Battery Electrolyte Mixtures 781
1«

Wiper Shaft and Selector Mechanism 144

Conductor Sag and Tension (Trans.).. 695
Television 1203
11
Conductor Spacing (Transmission). 689 1208
Cathode Ray Iconoscope
Conduit Sizes, for Number of Wires 183 1207
Cathode Ray Kineoscope
Currents Required by Squirrel
Id

Image Scanning 1204

Cage Motors 571 1207
Interlaced Scanning
Current Carrying Cap'ity of R.C. Wires 158 1205
Pick-up Camera
Current Carrying Capacity of R.C. 1206
Projectors
and Varnish Cambric Coy. Wires 212 1209
Receivers
If
Inductive Reactance of Lines per 1210
Receivers, Phasing
1000 feet 693 1199
Sweep Circuit Oscillators
Insulator Arc-Over Voltages 713 1210
Video Amplifier
Lighting Intensities in Foot Candles 247 444
Testing, D.0
Line Transposition Practice 690 74
Testing Magnetic Coils
Magnet Wire, Sizes, Weights
Thermal Method of (Producing Current) 35
and Resistance 215 35
Thermo Couples
14
l'ole Heights and Settings 88
Thermostats, Switches
(Transmission Line) 686 483
Thompson Inclined Coil Instruments, A.0
18
Power Factor, Condenser Sizes 609 366
Three-Wire D.C. Systems
Sparking Distance of Air Gaps, 311
Three-Phase Current
High Voltage 704 835
Timing Ignition, Automotive
Specific Resistance of Materials 42 446
Tools for Maintenance Work
Starting Torque of Induction Motors. 579 579
Torque, Squirrel-Cage Motors
18
Temperature Conversion, Fahrenheit 102
Tracing Circuits
and Centigrade 530 79
Transformers
11
Transmission Cable Strength, Size, 522
Transformers
Weight, and Resistance 676
" Air Blast Cooling of 526
Transmission Voltages 675
" Auto 547
Wire Dimensions, Rubber Covered 182
" Auxiliary Oil Tanks and
Wire, Sizes, Weights and Resistance.. 215
Breather Ports 528
Wires in Conduit, Number of 181
Bell, Signal 83
Vacuum Tube Characteristics 1107
Voltage Drop per Ampere, in Wires 214 Connecting Primaries in Series 538
It
Connections 536
Telephones (See Signal) 124
" Automatic 142
11
Connections to Converter 630
" Batteries and Current Supply 129 Construction .523
" Bells 130
14
Cooling 526
Telephone, Cables and Terminals 138
44
Current 550
" Central Energy Systems and Phones 134
41
Delta-Star Connections 541
22 INDEX

Page Page
Transformers Drying Out 555 Transmission Lines Structures 685
Effect of Secondary Load Current di
Lines Supports 685
on Primary Current 533 " Ties 680
Effect of Water on Oil 556 di
Transposition 690
Field Problems 554 41
Underground 672
" Grounding 544 Id
Underground Cables 673
" Installation 747 1.
Voltages 675
di
Instrument 550 " Line Work and Tools 700
id
Insulating Bushings 530 di
"Sagging Tees" and "Pulling Grips" 699
" Leads, Polarity of 534 41
Voltages and System Layout 672
Loading 534 Transposition of Line Wires 690
Losses 526 Trouble shooting, A.C. Motors 333
Maintenance and Care 555 id
Shooting, A.C. Motors 760
Oil, Cleaning of 557 " Automotive Ignition 839
Oil Testing 556 D.C. Armatures 301
Oil-Cooled 527 D.C. Generators 444
" Open-Delta Connections 543 D.C. Motors 442
id
Operating Temperatures 529 Radio 1163
Paralleling Single-Phase 537
di

Refrigeration .993 & 1003

Paralleling Three-Phase 544
14
Telephones 151
Polarity of Leads 534
Id

Signal System 99
" Polyphase 525 Signal System 119
" Potential 552 Storage Batteries 795
Power Output of 533
14 di
Wiring 228
Principles 532
Id
True Power and Apparent Power 470
Ratios and Secondary Voltages 532
11

Turbines, Hydraulic 667

Scott 546
di
Turbines, Steam 665
" Single-Phase 525 Two-Phase Current 311
Star and Delta Connections 539
di

If
Unbalanced Load on Three Wire D.C. Gen. 368
Tap-Changing 546 Underground Transmission 672
Temperature & Load Indicating Device 530
ii

Unit of Capacity, A.C. Circuits 462

Tertiary Windings 535
Units of Electricity 40
Testing Split-Secondary Leads 537 Units of Magnetic Force 73
Tests 553 Universal or Series A.C. Motors 575
Three-Phase Connections 538
Vacuum Tubes, Radio (See also Radio
Voltmeter Test for Polarity 535
Vacuum Tubes) 1084
Water Cooled 528
Varnishes, A.C. Stator 331
Windings 524
Vibrating-Type Ignition Coil Automotive. 829
Transmission and Distribution,(see Distrib.) 714
Volt, Unit of Electro -Motive-Force 41 '
Electrical Power 671
Id

Voltage Adjustment and Regulation,

"Hot" Line Work and Protective
Id

D.C. Generator 354

Equipment 700
Build up in D.C. Generator 353
di

" Lines 671

" Changes, D.C. Armatures 297
Cable 674 II
Changes in Induction Motors 326
Cable Handling and Splicing 675 14
Curves, D.C. Armatures 283
Calculations 692 14
Drop in Brushes and Lines, D.C. Gen. 355
Charging Current 694 id
Generation of Alternating 453
Conductors 676 44
Generating of, D.0 282
Conductor Spacing 689 11
Measurements on Three-Phase Circuits 475
Corona 694
Regulation, Alternator 509
41

Costs 697 if
Regulation Automotive Generators 867
Electrical 671
Erection 698 Voltage Test, Storage Batteries 784
Voltaic Cell 57
Fittings 688
Voltameter 40
Ice and Wind Stress 696
Voltmeter A.0 482
Insulators (See also Insulators) 677
44

Voltmeter D.0 389

Interference with Signal Lines... 691
0

Water Cooled Transformers 528

" Pole Climbing 699
0

Water Wheels 667

Pole Cross Arms 687
di II

Watt (Unit of Electric Power) 43

Pole Sizes 686
14 14

14
Watt's Law 47
" Pole Spacing 686
Watthour Meters, A.C.489
" Protection 703
44

Watthour Meters, D.C. 393

" Reactance and Capacity 693
ii

Wattmeters, D.0 392

" Sag and Tension 694
64

Wave Winding, D.C. Armature 293

Skin Effect and Corona 694
14 44
Wet Cell or Battery 57
44 id
Steel Towers 687 Wheatstone Bridge 400
 INDEX 23

Page Page
Winding Armature Coils (See Arm:, D.0 ) 288 Wiring, Fuses, (see also Fuses and Switches) 194
" Element of D.C. Armature 295 " Gauge Equivalents Copper Wire 215
" Magnets 73 Getting New Contracts 222
Wire Calculations 209
14
Ground Wires and Fittings 195
" Insulation (Magnet Wire) 286 Important Points in 154
" Insulated 37 Inspection—An Advantage to the
" Resistance, Weight and Size (Table).. 215 Trained Man 155
Wiring, Always First-Class Work 221 Installation Methods 216
" Armoured Cable 186 Insulation 156
ft
Armoured Cable (B.X.) 170 Knob and Tube Installation 216
di
Armoured Cable, Advantage of 186 Knob and Tube Work 169
di
Attaching and Soldering Lugs to Cable 167 Knobs and Tubes, Porcelain 170
Attachment Plugs 203 Layouts and Plans 216
48
Blow Torches 166 for Light and Power 154
41
Branch Circuits 208 Loads on Wiring Systems and
Of
" Circuits Appliance 208 Size of Service Wires 208
Combination Lighting and "Loom" Tubing 171
Appliance 208 Maintenance Work, Good Knowledge
Lighting 208 of Wiring Needed in 154
41 di
Types of 208 Materials, Conductors 156
Business Methods and Estimating 219 Maximum Connected Load 208
B & S Gauge Wire Table 211 Maximum Demand Factor 205
BX & Non-Metallic Cable Installation 216 Metal Raceways or Moulding 187
BX Cutting and Stripping 187 Metal Systems 170
BXL, Use of 187 Metallic Tubing, Electrical 184
Cable Lugs 166 Modern Methods and Instruments to
Capital Required to Start 219 Secure Interest and Confidence of
Circular Mil 159 Customers 220
" Mil Conversion of Square Mils to. 210 National Electric Code 155
" Mil Unit of Conductor Area 210 Neat Appearance 189
Cleaning and Tinning •I 164 New House Plan 216
Cleat Work 169 di
Non-Metal Systems 169
Cleat Work 173 11
Non-Metallic Sheathed Cable 174
Concealed 169 18
Open Neutral and Unbalanced Load,
Conduit, Advantages of 177 Effects of 205
" in Concrete Buildings, 2.pecial 11
Open Systems 169
Precautions for 218 Outlet Boxes 172
48
Fittings 179 dit
Cost per 220
Fittings and Methods of Installing 177 Id id
Location of Light and Switch 216
44
Flexible 170 14
Locating and Cutting, Box Open 217
ig
Flexible 185 and Receptacles, Convenience 202
" Installation ... 217 Panel Boards and Fuse Cabinets 196
Number of Circuits and Wires id
Plans and Layouts 222
Allowed in One 182
di
Polarized System, Advantages of 206
Pulling Wires into 181 Id
Polarized System, Grounding Neutral
Reaming Cutting and Bending of 178 Wire of 207
Rigid 170 Pull Boxes and Junction Boxes 179
Rigid 177 Pulling in the Wires 218
Sizes and Dimension of 182 Raceways, Underfloor 170
Sizes and Types of Bends and Raceways, Underfloor 190
Number Allowed 178 Radio 1160
Supports for 180 Resistance of Conductors 211
Systems, Grounding 183 " of Copper per Mil Foot 212
Connections to Switches and Fixtures 216 Rigid Conduit 177
Copper Oxide and Its Effect on Romex, Installing 175
Joint Resistance 163 Running the Wires 172
Cut-Out Blocks 195 Running Wires and BX into
Demand Factor 208 Difficult Places 217
Drip Loop 207 44
Service Wires 207
Edison Three-Wire System 203 Id
Short Circuits, and Grounds, Causes,
Estimate, Method of Figuring Locating 229
Overhead and Profit 221 it
Simple Formula for Conductor Area 213
Estimate Practical Problems 222 11
Soldering, Solder, Flux, Methods 163
Estimating, Time and Materials Basis 220 Solderless Connections 167
Exposed 169 Splice, Stranded Cable 162
Splice, Taping of 168
46
Feeders 208
24 INDEX

Page Page
Wiring Splice, Western Union 160 Wiring Systems, Types of 169
" Splicing and Types of Splices 159 " Tests, Final 219
Splicing Lead Covered Cable 167 Tools 227
State and Local Code Rules 155 Trouble Shooting 228
44

Stripping and Cleaning Wires 159 14

Two-Wire System 156
Switches, Snap, Various Types 198 Id
Unbalanced System 204
Knife 197
di
" Value of General Knowledge of 154
Substituting Various 201
41
Voltage Drop 209
Symbols for Types of 199
«4
Voltage Drop Allowable, Formula 213
Three-Way and Four-Way 199
Id
Weather Cap 207
Symbols 225 .4 Wires, Allowable Current Carrying
Systems, Automotive 877 Capacity of 212
" Classes of 155 " Calculations 209
" Parts of 207 4«
" Gauge Numbers Based on Resist 210
41
Three-Wire 156 " Size and Dimensions of
Three-Wire 203
id
Rubber Covered 182
Three-Wire 205
44
" Size Very Important 157
Three-Wire, Saving of Copper
44
Wood Moulding 169
by Use of 204 Wood Moulding 176
Three-Wire, "Solid Neutral" for 205 Yoke (Magnetic) 66
 25

THE ELECTRICAL FIELD

USES AND APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICITY

GREAT OPPORTUNITIES FOR TRAINED MEN

The electrical industry is one of the greatest in Many thousands of men are required to install,
the world today. It is a comparatively young operate and maintain this power, lighting, and heat-
industry, and it was only about 55 years ago that ing equipment in these shops and factories.
we commenced to use electricity to any great ex-
tent. Yet today there are many billions of dollars TRANSPORTATION
worth of electrical machinery and equipment in use
In transportation we find electricity used on a
in this country alone, and new electrical equipment vast scale. Electric street cars, elevated and sub-
is being manufactured at a rate of over $1,000,000,- way trains in our cities, and electric interurban lines
000.00 worth per year.
between towns are common. And the great rail-
In practically every country in the world, elec- way lines are electrifying more every year. Power-
tricity is coming into greater use, at a rate so tre- ful, silent, electric locomotives and motors, pull
mendously fast, that it is impossible to predict the many trains over hundreds of miles of the most
extent and size of this great industry for even afew difficult mountain railways, as well as the level
years ahead. runs.

Every student of electricity should be vitally Then there are the electric block signals on every
interested in the great size of this industry, and the principal railway in the country, and the automatic
many thousands of uses to which electricity is electric train control equipment installed on many
being put today. It gives him certain assurance lines, to say nothing of the train lighting and many
that he has plenty of opportunities to "cash in" on other uses. Even on the seas, we have great battle
every bit of training he can obtain. ships using as much as 180,000 horse-power of elec-
tric energy each, just to drive their propellers. Mer-
There are so many different branches of electrical chant marine ships also use hundreds of thousands
work today, that the trained man can choose almost of horse-power of electrical machinery.
any kind he desires.
COMMUNICATION
INDUSTRIAL POWER AND LIGHT Electricity operates our many millions of tele-
phones, making it possible to talk to our friends, or
Industrial plants and factories all over the coun-
conduct our business over a few miles, or across
try use electric power by the millions of horse
the ocean, as we please. These and our vast tele-
power, and are over three-fourths electrified at
raph systems require many thousands of electrical
present. Electric motors, ranging from a small
men in pleasant, fascinating work, to install and
fraction of one horse-power to many thousands of
maintain them.
horse-power each, turn the wheels of these great
factories and mills. Then we have the radio industry, just another
branch of electricity, and while it is only afew years
Almost every new plant that is built is completely
equipped with electric power machinery because it old, we have many mililons of radio sets bringing
education and entertainment to our homes through-
is so much cleaner, quieter, safer, and more efficient
out the country today.
than any other power.

Electric lights by the millions brighten the mod- And now the newer fields of auto radio, sound
amplification and television
ern factory to speed up the work, and make safer
and better conditions for employees. There is a genuine need for many trained elec-
trical men in these branches.
Electric furnaces melt our finest steels and
metals. Electric arc welders, spot welders and butt Many streets in the larger cities are electrically
welders replace riveting and bolting in the faster lighted at night, almost as bright as day light.
and better construction of our manufactured metal Special electric lighting beautifies the outside of the
products today. Electric enameling ovens and heat great skyscraper buildings. Electric signs with
treating furnaces are also coming more and more thousands of lamps in each of the larger ones, flash
into use, by the thousands of kilowatts each year. their advertisements in all colors.
26

ENTERTAINMENT try. Hundreds of thousands of farms are electrified

today, with their own private plants, ,or from lines
Our marvelous motion pictures of today, with
of the power companies. The modern farmer is
their great entertainment and educational value, are
beginning to use electricity to save time and earn
made possible by electricity. Great electric lamps
money for him, just as the business man or factory
of from 1,000 to 50,000 watts each, light the studios
owner does in the cities.
for the photography. Electric projector machines
reproduce pictures in the theatres, and the beautiful So we see that electricity is rapidly becoming a
stage and theatre lighting effects add their part great part of our entire life and civilization. And it
electrically. is literally true as the late Dr. Steinmetz said, "that
The talking movies are also electrical devices if we were to remove the electric wires from the
which are simple enough to those who have a world today, our civilization would look like a
practical training in electricity and radio. sieve."

Now, this brief review of some of the most im-

AUTOMOTIVE AND AVIATION
portant uses of electricity serves to show us what
ELECTRICITY
a great industry it is, and what a variety of differ-
Every one of our many millions of gasoline au- ent branches the trained man has to choose from.
tomobiles, trucks and tractors, use electricity. It
ignites the gasoline, starts our cars, provides the GREAT OPPORTUNITIES
lights, horn, and other conveniences on the modern FOR TRAINED MEN
motor cars. Electrical experts who can repair the
trouble of these electrical systems and their elec- The field and uses of electricity increase at such
trical units, including the storage batteries, can a rapid rate each year, that it requires many more
draw good pay or run a very profitable business of trained men yearly, to install, operate and maintain
their own. all this equipment.
Aviation is another great field, requiring many Thousands of additional trained men are required
more trained electrical men each year, to take care each year to replace those who retire from this
of the ignition equipment of these great airplane great field. Employers require more than ever be-
engines. The landing and flying lights and elec- fore, men with practical training to install and op-
trical instruments on the plane, the radio beacon erate their expensive electrical equipment.
and communication equipment, air port lights and
route beacon lights, all require trained electrical So if you have carefully read and thought over
men in the finest kind of work. this brief description of the electrical industry, I
am sure you can see that there is no field of greater
opportunity for fascinating, steady work at good
HOME LIGHTING AND
CONVENIENCE DEVICES pay, and with real opportunities for advancement.
Electricity offers all these to the ambitious man,
In our homes electricity gives us plenty of clean, who will study and train to become a qualified and
convenient light, beautifying the home, and saving efficient electrical worker.
our eyes when we read and study, and actually giv-
ing us many more useful hours each day. The following material in this reference set, has
Then there are the electric fans, toasters, heaters, been prepared in simple practical form, to make
easy the things about electricity that remain so
vacuum cleaners, washers and ironers, refrigerators,
mysterious to the ordinary untrained man.
kitchen utensils, and dozens of other electrical con-
venience devices saving time and eliminating drudg- We believe that every ambitious student who is
ery in the home. not afraid to study and do his part, and who takes
These things are no longer limited to the city pleasure in adding to his practical knowledge of
homes alone. Farm and rural electrification is electricity, will enjoy his study of every page of
one of the fastest growing branches of this indus- this set.
 27

ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY

ARTICLE 1. 3. STATIC AND DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY

The very important purpose of this section is to Now before we go further in this phase or part of
acquaint you with the general .nature of electricity, our work, let us consider the two different forms
how electrical energy may be produced in com- or conditions of electricity we have to deal with.
mercial form, and the fundamental laws and rules These two kinds of electricity as they are often
by which we control electricity and its various use- called, are Static and Dynamic electricity.
ful effects. Static Electricity refers to electricity at rest, in
It is not necessary for the practical man to try the form of charges, or not flowing in the usual
to obtain an exact definition of electricity, or exactly commercial form.
what it is in terms of detailed scientific theory. But Dynamic Electricity is electricity in motion,
is well to understand that we consider electricity to or flowing through wires and devices in our
be in and throughout everything. In fact all matter usual commercial form. This is by far the most
is considered to be made up of electricity, or elec- common in the work of the average electrical man,
trons in continuous whirling motion. These elec- and will be the kind the greater part of this refer-
trons compose the very atoms of matter, which ence set deals with. But Static Electricity is quite
themselves are so small that we cannot see them often encountered in our work also, and every thor-
even with the most powerful microscopes. oughly trained man should have a general knowl-
So we find that electricity is a natural force or edge of its nature, how it is produced, and how to
element, present in all things, and we do not create control it.
or produce it, but instead we have merely learned
4. STATIC EXPERIMENTS
how to generate electrical pressure to set the elec-
tricity in motion. One of the simplest examples of static electricity,
is the rubbing of amber with wool flannel, which
2. FORMS OF ENERGY causes it to become charged and attract small bits
of paper, wood or pith.
In this way we transform some of our various
This was discovered about 600 B. C. by a Greek.
forms of energy into electrical activity or energy,
The Greek word for amber being Elektron, and
and use this electricity to carry and give up or
the Latin word Electrum, the name Electricity was
reproduce its energy wherever we want it in useful
given to this charged effect.
forms, such as light, heat or power.
It was about 22 centuries later, in 1600 A. D.
For example in Figure 1, we have the latent
that Dr. Gilbert, an English physicist, discovered
energy of coal, which was stored in it ages ago by
that other materials such as glass, hard rubber,
the sun, given up by burning or combustion. This
wax, etc., would become charged by rubbing with
burning of the coal produces heat energy. The heat
silk, wool or fur. These will also attract bits of
boils the water and changes it into steam under
paper, string, etc.
pressure in the boiler, and from here we pipe it to
an engine. Try this by rubbing your comb or fountain pen
briskly on your coat sleeve, and then bring it near
Under control of proper valves, the steam expands
to very small bits of thin dry paper.
in the engine cylinder pushing the piston, turning
the wheel and giving up its energy in the form of 5. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGES
useful mechanical power. We can probably best understand how this oc-
Then we use this power by means of a belt, to curs, if we refer briefly to the electron theory of
drive a dynamo which generates electrical pressure matter again. All matter is supposed to be made
and sets electricity in motion in commercial form. up of atoms, consisting of aPositive nucleus or cen-
This electricity flows silently and incredibly swift ter, and negative electrons whirling around this
through little wires to the lamp, where it is again positive nucleus.
changed into glowing incandescent heat or light. In normal uncharged bodies of matter, these posi-
So you see it is simply a cycle of transformation tive and negative forces are equal or balanced. And
of one kind of energy to another. And electricity when we briskly rub two unlike bodies together,
being so much cleaner, more convenient and effi- the theory is that some of the free electrons of the
cient is why it is preferred to all other forms of surface of one body are removed to the other. This
heat, light or power. We can, of course, use water creates an unbalanced condition, with one body hav-
power, wind power, and gas or oil engines as well ing a shortage of negative electrons, and the other
as steam, to drive our electric generators, and we an excess. The body with the shortage of negative
will take these up later. electrons, is said to be Positively charged, and the
28 Elementary Electricity

Fig. I. Sketch showing how heat energy of coal is changed into mechanical energy by the engine, then to electrical energy by the
generator, and into heat and light again by the lamp.

one with the excess of negative electrons is Nega- push apart or repel each other. And they will also
tively charged. So much for the theory by which repel each other if both are positively charged, as
static charges occur or are produced. we can prove by giving them apositive charge from
We now see that we can set up opposite condi- aglass rod which has been rubbed with silk. But if
tions of charge on different bodies, and we call them we charge one pith ball negatively from the amber,
Positive and Negative. When we set up such acon- and one positively from the glass, they will at once
dition, we say there is a difference of potential or draw together or attract each other. (See Fig. 2B.)
electrical pressure between them, and this pressure This proves one of our most important electrical
tends to cause electricity to flow and balance them laws, as follows: Like Charges repel each other
and Unlike Charges attract.
up again.
This law of electricity should be memorized, as
Now, if we take a piece of amber which has been
it is very important, and many electrical devices
negatively charged, and bring it into contact with
have their operating principles based on it.
two suspended pith balls, as in Figure 2A, the pith
balls will both take on or absorb negative charges. 7. STATIC MACHINE
A number of very interesting and valuable dem-
Objects of this nature will often take on a charge
from a short distance. This is called an Induced onstrations of this law, and the nature and effects
of static electricity, can be made with a static ma-
charge.
chine such as used in the elementary department of
6. STATIC REPULSION AND ATTRACTION your shop course.
Now, as soon as the two pith balls have been The static machine is shown in Figure 3. It is
given like charges, we note that they immediately simply a device to produce strong charges of static
 Elementary Electricity 29

This discharge tends to equalize or again balance

the positive and negative charges.
Sometimes these machines can be made to pro-
duce sparks an inch or more in length, which repre-
sent charges of several thousand volts. But these
charges are not dangerous, because they are of such
small quantity, or actual amounts of electricity.
If we attach simple Leyden jar condensers to each
of the electrodes of the static machine, we can get
it to store up or accumulate in them, much larger
amounts of electricity. Then when the discharge
occurs it will be á very hot snappy spark, and will
give quite ashock to anyone touching the terminals.
Fig. 2-A. Pith balls with like static charges repel each other.
Fig. 2-B. Two balls with unlike charges attract each other.
8. CONDENSERS
electricity, for various experiments and tests. With These condensers, which are used to store up
it we can produce charges many times stronger electricity in the form of static charges, are made in
than by rubbing the amber, glass, or hard rubber many different shapes and sizes, but all on the same
rods. principle. The Leyden jar type consists of an inner
As you will note in Figure 3, the static machine and outer metal jar or cylinder of thin copper, brass,
consists of one stationary glass disk, on the back or foil, separated by a glass jar. (See Figure 4.)
of which are fastened some tinfoil strips. To these
foil strips are attached little wire brushes, extended
around to touch a row of metal buttons, which are
placed around the edge of a rotating glass disk,
which is revolved close to the stationary one.
These little metal buttons or carriers, convey the
little charges collected, to the metal system of the
machine. When the rotating disk is driven at high
speed by means of a hand crank, belt and pul-
leys, acharge is gradually built up by what is called
induction, as the metal buttons are whirled rapidly
by the foil plates and little wire brushes. This Fig. 4. Two types of Leyden jar condensers.

gradually builds up a positive charge on one of the

metal spheres or electrodes and a negative charge This provides two conducting surfaces of metal,
on the other. separated by an Insulator or Dieletric, in the form
It .is possible to build up charges of such high "of glass. (An insulator or dielectric is any mate-
pressure or voltage, that a discharge in the form of rial which prevents the flow of electricity. These
will be explained later.)
a spark will take place between the two electrodes.
When the terminals of astatic machine or source
of electric charge are connected to the two metal
jars or elements, these will distribute a charge over
the surface area of the glass which they cover. Then
after the condenser has been so charged, we can
discharge it by connecting a wire from one metal
element to the other.
Condensers are often made with flat plates of foil
or metal, stacked and separated by flat plates of
glass, rubber or mica. Others are made of strips
of metal foil and paper rolled together.
The area of the active or charged surfaces of the
condenser, and the quality and thickness of the
glass or insulation, determines the amount or quan-
tity of charge it will take, or the volume of the
spark when it discharges. A good thing to remem-
ber about any condenser is that the charge resides
on the surfaces of the glass or dielectric, while it
is charged. The metal elements simply act as con-
ductors to distribute the charge over the surface
Fig. 3. Static machine, for producing strong charges of static electricity. of the glass while charging, and to collect it when
When the disks are rotated rapidly a spark an inch or more
in length can be produced. discharging.
30 Static Electricity

This can be proved by charging a Leyden jar charges, or lets them flow back to earth before they
condenser of the type with separable jars. Then build up to dangerous values.
carefully remove the metal jars with one hand only, Passenger busses are also equipped with such
and by inserting one hand inside the glass jar, and ground chains or wires sometimes, to prevent the
drawing the other over its outer surface you can get passengers receiving a shock from static charges.
a discharge to your hand, in the form of small when stepping on or off the bus.
sparks. 11. STATIC ON BELTS
Condensers of other types and their uses for High speed belts in factories and industrial plants
power, radio and other purposes will be discussed are often sources of surprising static charges. The
later. rapid movement of the belt through the air and over
9. METHODS OF STATIC CONTROL AND the pulleys, will often build up charges that are
PROTECTION very likely to be harmful if not eliminated. In some
cases these charges from the belts will flash over
Now that we have an idea of the general nature
to electric motors or generators on which the belts
of static electricity it will be well to consider some
are running, and puncture the insulation of the
of the forms in which it is often encountered in
windings of these machines, causing leaks of the
every day life outside the laboratory. Also
power current through this damaged insulation,
some of the methods of controlling, or protecting
against it, because in some of the forms in which which may burn out the machine.
it is produced by nature, and in our industries, it
can be very harmful if not guarded against.
For example, one of the most common occur-
rences of static in the home, is when we walk across
a heavy carpet, and by rubbing or scuffing action
of our feet we collect astrong charge on our bodies,
from the rug. Then when we come near to a
grounded radiator, or water pipe, or large metal
object, a discharge takes place from our body to it,
in the form of ahot spark, sometimes from half inch
to an inch in length.
In many cases the only effects of this are the sur-
prising little shocks or rather humorous incidents
caused by it. But in some cases it becomes so bad it Fig. S. Sketch showing how static can be removed from a bet
is very objectionable, and even dangerous. For ex- by use of eithet a metal comb or roller, and ground wire.

ample a person's body so charged can unexpectedly A workman around such belts may get such a
ignite a gas flame, or vapor over some explosive shock from the static, that it will cause him to fall
cleaning fluid. off a ladder, or to jump against some running ma-
Where rugs are the source of objectionable static chinery and be injured. These dangers can be
it is sometimes necessary to weave a few fine wires eliminated by placing a metal roller on the belt, or
into the rug, or provide a metal strip at its edges, a metal comb with sharp points near the belt, and
and ground these by connecting them to a water or then connecting these combs or rollers to earth, or
steam pipe. Or it may be reduced by occasionally agrounded pipe or metal framework, to carry away
dampening the rug a little. the charges before they become so large. The
10. EXPLOSIONS FROM STATIC combs should be located from g to 72 inch from
When handling any cleaning fluids of an explo- the belt. The closer the better, as long as its teeth
sive nature, one should be very careful not to do not touch the belt. (See Figure 5 which shows
rub the cloth too briskly, as this may produce both methods in use on a belt.)
sparks and ignite the vapors. In dry cleaning Many serious fires and explosions of mysterious
plants the various pots and machines should have source in various plants, could have been prevented
all parts connected together electrically, and thor- by a trained electrician with a knowledge of how
oughly grounded with aground wire. static is formed and how to guard against it.
Another common occurrence of static in adanger- So you see, even in this first little section on
ous place is on large oil trucks. These trucks run- static electricity alone, you are learning something
ning on rubber tires over pavements on dry hot which may be of great value to you on the job.
days, collect surprising charges. To prevent the 12. LIGHTNING
danger of this accumulated charge sparking to the Lightning is probably the most sensational mani-
operator's hand or a can near a gasoline faucet, and festation of static electricity that we know of.
causing an explosion, these trucks should all carry Lightning is the discharge of enormous charges
a grounding chain with one end attached to the of static electricity accumulated on clouds. These
metal frame of the truck, and the other end dragging charges are formed by the air currents striking the
on the ground or pavement. This equalizes the face of the clouds and causing condensation of the
 Static Electricity 31

vapor or moisture in them. Then these small Very often a side of one cloud will carry a nega-
particles of moisture are blown upward, carrying tive charge, and the nearest side of another cloud a
negative charges to the top of the cloud, and leaving positive charge. When these charges become high
the bottom positively charged. (See Figure 6.) enough a discharge will take place between the two
Or the reverse action may take place by heavy clouds. (See Figure 8.)
condensation causing large drops of rain to fall
13. FRANKLIN'S DISCOVERY
through part of a cloud. Thus one side of a cloud
may be charged positively and the other side nega- Benjamin Franklin with his kite and key experi-
tively, to enormous pressures of many millions of ment, about 1752, discovered that lightning was
volts difference in potential. electricity, and would tend to follow the easiest
path, or over any conducting material to earth.
He actually obtained sparks from a key on his
kite line, to his fingers, and to ground. This led
to the invention of the lightning rod, as aprotection
against lightning damage.
We say lightning "strikes" various objects such
as trees, buildings, etc., because in its tendency to
follow the easiest path to ground it makes use of
such objects projecting upwards from the earth, as
part of its discharge circuit or path.

--,—.1

te-N
-)•
•r. —
Fig. 6. Wind striking the face of a cloud, carries vapor and electrical _ , "=. .1. _ ——. ,

charges to top of it.

:
_el
-...--,. •....- -„ 7.
When such a cloud comes near enough to earth, , %....
and its charge accumulates high enough, it will dis- -
' -
Q- •
u,....
-"%.-

charge to earth with explosive violence. (See Figure

7.)
The earth is assumed to be at zero potential. So Fig. S. Lightning flashing from one cloud to another, when clouds
carry unlike charges.
any cloud that becomes strongly charged will dis-
charge to earth if close enough. It is important Rain soaked trees, or trees with the natural sap in
to remember that whenever one body is charged to them are of lower electrical resistance than air and
a higher potential or pressure than another, elec- so are buildings of damp wood or masonry, or of
tricity tends to flow from the point of high potential metal. And the taller these objects are above the
to the low. The direction of this flow is usually ground, the more likely they are to be struck by
assumed to be from positive to negative. It takes lightning.
place very easily through wires when they are pro- When lightning does strike such objects, its in-
vided. But it is hard for it to flow through air, and tense heat vaporizes their moisture into steam, and
requires very high pressure to force it to flash causes other gases of combustion that produce
through air, in the case of sparks or lightning. explosive force. And this along with an electro-
static stress set up between the molecules of the
material itself, causes the destructive action of
lightning. This can be quite effectively prevented
by use of properly installed lightning rods. (See
Figure 10.)

14. LIGHTNING RODS

These rods are made of copper or material that is
a good conductor of electricity. They should be
installed on the tops, or very highest points of
buildings or objects to be protected, and on all of
the various corners or projections that are separated
to any extent. These several rods are all connected
together by a heavy copper cable, and then one or
more ground cables of the same size, run from this
to the ground by the most direct path. In running
this ground cable, it should be as straight as pos-
sible, and if any turns or bends are made, they
Fig. 7. Photo of a brilliant lightning flash at night. should be rounded or gradual bends.
32 Static Electricity

masts around their edges, and sometimes with

cables strung between the masts.
Electric power lines are often protected from
lightning by running an extra wire above them on
the peaks of the towers, and grounding it through
each tower. (See Figure 12.)
More about protection of lines from lightning will
be covered later under lightning arresters.
But in this section we have covered ordinary
lightning protection, the general nature of static,
and the methods of controlling it, in the places
where it is most commonly found, in our homes and
factories.

Fig. 9. Large tree shattered by lightning, showing the force and power
of heavy lightning discharge.

The grounded end should be buried several feet

in moist earth, or securely attached to a driven
ground rod or pipe, or buried metal plate. The tips Fig. 10. Sketch of house equipped with lightning rods, to carry static
of lightning rods are usually sharply pointed, be- and lightning safely to earth.

cause it is easier for electricity to discharge to or

You will have many uses for the principles
from a pointed electrode, than a blunt one. These covered in this section, and they will help you to
pointed rods, and heavy conductors of copper, form
better understand certain things that will come up
amuch easier path to ground for electricity than the
in your work in the field. Many of the hardest prob-
ordinary non-metal building does, and in some cases
lems in "trouble shooting" on electrical systems,
actually drain the atmosphere of small charges, are easily solved by the trained man who knows
before they become dangerously large. When a
these fundamental principles.
direct bolt of lightning does strike a rod, it usually
In the next section we will find out more about
flows through the cable to ground, doing a little or
Dynamic Electricity, or the kind of "juice" that
no damage to the building, because the heavy
operates our motors, lights, etc.
charge of electricity flows through the good metal
conductor without causing the terrific heat that it
does in passing through air, wood, and other higher
resistance materials.
Such rod systems have ben proven to be a great
protection, both by data collected on rodded and
unrodded buildings in different parts of the country,
and by actual tests in laboratories where several
million volts of artificial lightning have been pro-
duced and used on miniature buildings.
Tests also prove that rods of a given height, pro-
tect a certain cone shaped area around them as
shown in Figue 11. The diameter of this area at
the base, is about three to four times the rod height.
Many of the large oil reservoirs in western states Fig. Il. Tall lightning rod used to protect oil tanks from lightning
fires. The dotted lines show the area protected, and within
are protected from lightning fires by installing tall which lightning will not strike.
 Elementary Electricity 33

Photo, courtesy of Walter Hates Steel Coop.

Fig. 12. High voltage tiansmission line. Note the two smaller wires on the very top of the tower. These are to protect the line
from lightning, and are "grounded" through the tower.
34

DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY

As we have said before, Dynamic Electricity is It is well to consider dynamic electricity as very
electricity in motion, or the kind that flows through similar in many ways to water in a pipe line. For
wires, lines, motors, lamps, etc. This is the kind, example, we can have water in a closed pipe line,
or rather the condition of electricity we find most and this water will have no movement, force or
useful, and from which we get our heat, light and power, unless apump is used to set up the pressure.
power. (See Fig. 1.) In this illustration the pump (P) is
So it is very important that we have agood under- the source of pressure to set the water in motion,
standing of dynamic electricity, and how it is pro- and cause current to flow. The pump is driven by
duced, controlled and used. belt (B) and develops pressure to force the water
We found that static electricity could be produced through the pipe to the water wheel (WW). The
by rubbing or friction of certain materials, and that gauge (G) indicates the amount of pressure devel-
it could be accumulated or stored up in condensers oped by the pump, and the valve (V) Will start,
or on certain surfaces or bodies. Also that when it stop, and control the water flow.
discharges it usually takes the form of an arc or
spark. Although in some cases we caused these
discharges to flow to earth through wires.
So for the very short period during which an
accumulation of static is discharging or flowing, it
could be said to be dynamic.
But sources of static do not supply enough elec-
tricity or furnish it for long enough periods to be
of much use to us, so we do not produce dynamic
electricity in this manner.

15. ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW

Remember we do not Create electricity at all, but

merely set it in motion. \\Then we say a generator
Fig. 2. Dynamo supplying electric pressure to force current to flow
produces a flow of current in a wire, it is assumed through the wires and lamp. No current will flow without
a source of pressure or voltage.
that it simply sets in motion some of the free elec-
trons already in the wire,
In Fig. 2 an electric generator or dynamo (G) is
shown producing electrical pressure to force cur-
rent to flow through the wires to operate the
lamp (L).
Here the volt meter (V.M.) indicates the amount
of pressure set up by the generator, and the switch
will start or stop, the flow of current.

16. PRODUCING DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY

One of our first problems is to find out how to

develop electrical pressure to set electricity in
motion.
There are three methods of doing this, which are
all common, and should be kept in mind. They are
called the thermal method, chemical method, and
induction or mechanical method.
The induction method is the basis of all our mod-
ern generators, and converts mechanical power into
electrical energy. This method is by far the most
commonly used of the three, but as both of the
Fig I. Water pump supplying pressure to cause water to flow through others also have many practical uses, we will cover
pipe and operate water wheeL The purpose of the rump here is
similar to that of a battery or generator in an electrical circuit.
them briefly first.
 Dynamic Electricity 35

17. THERMAL METHOD

To generate electricity by the Thermal Method,
we simply join the ends of two pieces of unlike metal
together and heat them at the joint. (See Fig. 3.)
The heat acts differently on the different metals,
and the activity it sets up within them will actually
cause a small current of electricity to flow through REMOVAUF •THERMO COUPLE Tin

the wires and meter attached, as shown in the figure.

We can use a piece of copper and one of iron for
this device, or better still a rod of bismuth, and one
of antimony.
These devices are called Thermo Couples. As Fig. 4. Portable pyrometer for measuring high temperatures in ovens
they are only capable of producing very small or furnaces, by use of - Ille.Msf couples."

amounts of electric current, and at very low pres- Various kinds of metals and acids can be used.
sures, we do not use this method for generating elec- Even strong salt water will do with certain metals.
tricity for light or power. But asolution of sulphuric acid, and the copper and
However as the amount of electric pressure pro- zinc elements produce higher electric pressures than
duced by .a certain thermocouple is proportional to many other combinations, and are more commonly
the amount of heat applied, these devices are very used.
useful for measuring temperatures of ovens, fur- Such devices are called Primary Cells, and agroup
naces, etc. of them connected together is called an Electric
Battery.
It is interesting to know how the discovery of this
form of electric source came about.
In the 17th Century, an Italian scientist named
Galvani, discovered that frog legs would twitch and
react to sparks of static electricity.
In 1779 Alessandro Volta in performing some
experiments, accidentally discovered that pieces of
metal with an acid soaked cloth between them would
produce an electric spark.
He stacked up piles of metal disks, spaced with
wet pieces of cloth, and developed our first known
electric battery, from which he obtained quite strong
Fig. 3. Heating the joint of two unlike metals, produces a small amount
currents and small arcs. And we find that many of
of electric pressure and current flow through the meter in the circuit. our most important electrical devices of today, were
discovered or developed from some such simple ex-
For this purpose a proper element or "couple" periments.
is enclosed in a non-combustible tube, so it can be
Nowadays we have not only the wet primary cell,
inserted right into the flames or heat of afurnace.
but also convenient dry cells, and large storage bat-
Wires connected to the "couple" are brought out
teries, using this principle.
of the tube to a meter which can be adjusted and
marked to read the temperature direct, in degrees.
(See Fig. 4.)
18. CHEMICAL METHOD
The chemical method of producing electricity, is
one with which you are probably more familiar, as
this is the principle of our electric cells and batteries.
This source of electric supply is also very simple.
It is based on the action of chemical solutions on
various metals.
If we fill ajar with an acid solution, and immerse
in it a piece of zinc and one of copper, the acid will
immediately commence to act on these metals. And
because the intensity and nature of its action is dif-
ferent on the two unlike metals, we again have a Fig. 5. Simple electric cell. Gnomical action on the copper and sine
strips produces electric pressure.
difference of electric pressure set up between the
copper and zinc elements. If we connect them to- These devices are used by the millions, to supply
gether with wires, and place ameter or lamp in this small amounts of electricity for various uses today.
circuit, current will start to flow at once. (See Fig- Each type will be taken up thoroughly in a later
ure 5.) section on cells and batteries.
36 Dynamic Electricity

19. MECHANICAL OR INDUCTION METHOD able amounts of dynamic electricity by this method.
The Mechanical Method of producing electricity (See Fig. 7.)
It is in just this manner that our great power
is also very simple in principle, and if is this method
plant generators of thousands of horse power are
that is used in all our great power plants today.
If we simply take a magnet as in Fig. 6, and made.
We will take up in detail their principles of opera-
quickly move a piece of wire between its poles, the
wire will have an electric pressure induced in it. tion and construction in alater section.
Any magnet has between its poles a field of in-
20. CONDUCTORS
visible lines of force. These are shown by the dotted
lines in the Figure. Now that we know how electricity can be pro-
Only about one hundred years ago, a man named duced, we must consider how to get it from the gen-
Michael Farady, discovered that moving a wire rap- erators or source of supply to the places and devices
idly through these lines of force in a position to cut where we wish to use it.
across their path, would generate electricity in the To do this we use proper electrical Conductors or
wire. wires.
This can be proven by connecting a meter to the We have found that electricity will pass or flow
ends of the moving wire, by means of other wires as through some materials very easily while with others
shown in Figure 6. it is very difficult to get electricity through them at
all. And we have good use for both.
In order to use electricity, we must be able to pro-
vide agood easy path for it to flow from the gener-
a es, to our lamps and motors which it is to operate.
We must also be able to confine it to these proper
paths, and prevent its wasteful or harmful leakage
where materials or persons might come in contact
with the wires.
The materials that carry electricity easily, we call
Conductors and use the best of them to carry it
where we want it to go.

21. INSULATORS
Those materials that tend to prevent the flow of
teig. b. Moving a wire through a magnet field induces pressure in the electricity or not allow it to pass through them, we
wire, and causes current to flow in the meter circuit.
call Insulators, and use them to confine electricity
Every time the wire (A) is moved up or down, to the proper conductors, and to prevent it leaking
through the magnetic field, the meter needle will in- or flowing to other objects or places where we do
dicate a flow of current. not want it.
The direction of this induced current changes, as No material that we know of is a perfect conduc-
we change the direction of movement of the wire. tor or insulator of electricity, but some are much
The amount of electric pressure set up by this type better than others. Both are so necessary and im-
of device depends on the strength or density of the portant in the use and control of electricity that a
magnetic lines of force, and the speed with which few of the best of each are given in the following
the wire is moved through them. lists :—
Now if we were to mount a number of wires on
CONDUCTORS INSULATORS
a revolving armature, and spin them rapidly, be-
tween powerful magnets, we can produce consider- Silver Glass
Copper Mica
Gold Porcelain
Alurninum Enamel
Zinc Rubber
Bronze \V ood (dry or oilea)
Platinum Bakelite
Nickel Fibre
Steel Paper (dry or oiled)
Iron Oil
Lead Waxes
German Silver Air
Mercury
Water (ordinary)
Carbon
wag. 7. Elementary type of armature A, with wires mounted on it to
revolve in a strong magnetic field from magnets M, M. Acids
 Dynamic Electricity 37

The conductors and insulators in this list are all 23. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
used to some extent in electrical machines and In order to use electricity with any device, we
devices. must always provide a complete Circuit or path, for
Silver is one of the best conductors known, but the current to flow from the generator or source, to
because of its very high cost, and certain mechan- the device using it, and then back again to the gen-
ical properties, it is not much used. erator. (See Fig. 10.)
Copper is also an excellent conductor, and is by This endless path or circuit includes the coils or
far the most commonly used in all electric lines and windings inside the generator, the line wires from
machines. the generator to the lamp, motor or other device,
You will note that most of the conductors are and any switches or instruments that may be in the
metals, although ordinary water with its usual im- circuit anywhere.
purities is a fair conductor, and acids are also.
All the insulators are non-metallic. Glass and
Mica are two of the best insulators, and rubber is
also excellent. Rubber is most commonly used
in insulating electric wires, because of its flexibility,
allowing them to bend freely without damaging the
insulation.

Fig. 10. Complete electric circuit. The current flows over the top wire
from the generator to the motor, then back along the lower
wire to the generator.

Current will only flow when all parts of this circuit

are complete, all switches closed, and all wires con-
nected. To start or stop the flow of electricity and
the operation of the devices, we only need to close or
open the switches provided the generator is run-
ning.
All line wires and switches as well as the coils
within the machines are made of conducting mate-
rial, usually copper.
Fig. 8. Photo of a large generator, which produces its voltage by All these wires, coils, etc. must be insulated,
in1 uctjçn.
usually with rubber, cotton or oil, and sometimes
with air only, on certain parts.
22. INSULATED WIRES
So we can readily see the importance of a knowl-
A good example of a conductor and insulator
edge of common conductors, insulators and circuits,
properly used together is the common rubber cov-
in the use and handling of electricity.
ered copper wire. The copper providing an excellent
In later sections we will take up more of the exact
path for the electric current to flow through, and the
properties of various conductors and insulators, and
rubber an excellent insulator to confine it to the
various types of circuits.
wire, and prevent its escape where the wire might
otherwise touch metal objects or earth. (See Fig. 9.) 24. EFFECTS OF DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY
How are we going to make use of this electricity
which we have learned how to produce and convey
from the generators to our electrical devices?
First we must know something about the useful
effects of electricity and how to obtain them.
Dynamic electricity flowing through a circuit
from any generator or source, can produce four
valuable effects, if we know how to obtain them.
These are called the magnetic, heating, chemical
and physiological effects.
25. MAGNETIC EFFECT
Whenever electricity flows through any wire or
conductor, it sets up around that conductor a field
of whirling magnetic lines of force. These lines are
Fig. 9. Sketch of insulated wire. The copper wire is covered with
rubber, and cotton braid. invisible and we cannot feel them. But we can prove
38 Dynamic Electricity

they exist by placing a magnetic compass needle or German silver wire. And because of their high
near the wire. (See Fig. 11.) resistance, amoderate amount of current will cause
As soon as current is started in the wire, the them to become red hot, or even white hot in some
needle will be deflected from its true North and cases.
South position. Our electric toasters, flat irons, waffle irons, table
The direction and amount of movement of the grills, portable heaters, electric ranges, ironers,
needle will depend on the direction and the amount soldering irons, etc. are all examples of this method
of current flowing. of producing electric heat.
For example, if we reverse the direction of cur- Large baking and enameling ovens, heat treating
rent in the wire, the compass will deflect in the op- furnaces, etc., in industrial plants, use this principle.
posite direction. If the current is increased or
decreased in the wire, the needle will increase or
decrease its amount of deflection accordingly.
This magnetic effect of dynamic electricity is of
the greatest importance, as it is the one that we use
in all generators, motors, and electro-magnets.
If we wind a coil of insulated wire around a core
of soft iron and pass an electric current through the
coil, the iron will become strongly magnetized at
once, from the magnetic lines set up around the
turns of wire.

Fig. 12. electric current sowing through hlament wire in the lamp,
produces intense heat and light.

27. ELECTRIC LIGHT

The incandescent lamp operates on the same
principle.
Here we have a wire of tungsten metal, which is
high resistance, and will not melt at white heat.
This filament wire is enclosed in a glass bulb from
which the air has been drawn to prevent it burning.
Then current is forced through it in the right
Fig. 11. Showing a compels.% needle deflected from its north and south
position, by the magnetic flux around a wire carrying current.
amount to bring it to white hot or incandescent heat,
so it radiates light. (See Fig. 12.)
These electro magnets have thousands of uses in
An electric arc produces heat and light on about
electric lifting magnets, relays, bells, controllers,
the same principle. In this case instead of using a
motors, generators, etc. \Ve will make a very
high resistance wire, we use voltage high enoligh to
thorough study of them and this magnetic effect of
force current through air and the gases formed by
electricity a little later.
A good demonstration that you can easily make of
this useful effect of electricity, is to wind afew turns
of insulated wire around anail, bolt, or screwdriver,
and connect the coil ends to a dry cell.
As soon as the circuit is closed the iron will be-
come magnetized and attract other nails, tacks, etc.
But as soon as the wire is disconnected from the cell,
the iron loses most of its magnetism.
The practical man can often find many handy
uses for this knowledge in his daily work.
26. HEATING EFFECT
Electric current flowing through a wire always
produces a certain amount of heat in that wire.
In copper wires of low resistance this heat may
not be noticeable, but if we overload them or cause
Fig. 13. electnc Ate loaned by current between carbon electrodes.
too much current to flow, even copper wires will be-
come hot and burn their insulation or possibly melt. the arc. This mixture of air and gas is very high
When we want to create heat from electricity, we resistance, and the current flowing in the form of an
apply high enough pressure to cause current to flow arc produces the highest temperatures made by man.
through high resistance wires or coils, such as iron (See Fig. 13.)
 Dynamic Electricity 39

Fig. 14. Ordinary electric flat iron, glow heater, and toaster, all
devices using the heating effect of electricity.

Great furnaces of this type using carbon electrodes deposit them on the other metal. This is the
from 12 inches to 30 inches in diameter, and 6 to method and effect used in electro-plating, and is
12 feet long, and thousands of amperes of elec- used very extensively in covering cheaper metal
tric current, melt tons of steel in our steel mills. objects with gold, silver, chromium, nickel, etc.
The arc was one of the first forms of electric light. (See Fig. 15.)
And many large arc lamps are in use today, for street This action is also called Electrolytic action, and
lights, flood lights, search lights, etc. is used in the refining and purifying of some of our
So we see that the heating effect of electricity is metals.
also very important to know how to use. Another example of the chemical effect of elec-
Fig. 14 shows several devices which use electric tricity is in the charging and discharging of our
heat, produced by current flowing through high storage batteries.
resistance wires.
29. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT
28. CHEMICAL EFFECT This effect of electricity is less commonly used
than those above mentioned, and it usually refers
When electricity is passed through various chem- to the effect of electricity on the human body.
ical solutions it has the power to decompose them.
We all know that if we touch live electric wires
And if we immerse two pieces of metal in an acid
we feel a shock, or the effect of electricity on our
solution, and allow current to flow from one to the
nerves and muscles. If the voltage is low, this may
other through the solution, it will carry away par-
be only a mild and somewhat pleasant sensation.
ticles of the metal at which it enters the liquid and
If the voltage is high and from a heavy power wire,
the shock may be injurious or even fatal. So it is
best to always be very careful in handling electric
wires and equipment.
Doctors and hospitals use the shocking effects of
electricity, properly controlled, for very beneficial
treatments of certain body disorders and diseases.
They also use the heating effect and chemical
effect of electricity, by applying metal plates or elec-
trodes to various parts of the body, and passing
carefully controlled currents of either direct or al-
ternating curent, through affected parts of the body.
So this physiological effect of electricity is also
Fig. 15. Small electro-plating outfit, consisting of generator, rheostat
and plating vat. very important in its modern and proper use.

...elege•'''"Weiteme
40

ELECTRIC UNITS AND SYMBOLS

In dealing with electricity, we must have definite It is not necessary to memorize all these units at
units to measure it and express it in certain quanti- once, but you should study them carefully, to get a
ties. good understanding of the meaning and use of each.
We have units of measurement for water, steam, Then by practicing their use you will soon have
coal, money, groceries, etc. and we need them for them fixed in your memory.
electricity, as it is as common and necessary today Of course we know that we cannot weigh or meas-
as many of these other items. ure electricity as we do coal or water. So we meas-
We speak of water in pints, quarts, or gallons, ure its effects, and establish our units in this manner.
all of which are units of different sizes, and which 30. ELECTRIC QUANTITY
we easily understand because we are familiar with The Coulomb is the practical small unit of electri-
the size and amount of each. cal quantity. We determine this quantity by the
'We speak of steam in pounds pressure, and de- chemical effect of electricity flowing through a de-
grees of heat. Coal is measured by the pound, or the vice called a"voltameter." (See Fig. 2.)
larger unit called the ton, money in dollars and
cents, groceries by the pound or dozen, etc.
So we can see that we need to have these definite
units of measurement to deal with all the things we
us in our daily life. And the man who intends to use
electricity, should know the units for its measure-
ment, those which measure its effects, and the
important factors in electrical circuits.
There are only a few of the more common units
needed by the practical man in ordinary work, and
they are easy and simple to use. Fig. 2. Sketch of a "voltameter," or device for measuring electric
quantity by work done on a plating principle.
With these units you can determine the amount
of current flowing in a line, or through a motor or Here we have two pieces of copper immersed in a
lamp. Also the amount required to operate agiven solution of copper sulphate, and abattery connected
machine or device, and its cost of operation as well. to them and passing current through the solution
from one electrode to the other. As you have al-
ready learned, this will cause some copper to leave
the positive plate and deposit on the negative plate.
Of course the more electricity we pass through
this device, the more copper it will deposit, or the
more work it will do. So by carefully weighing the
amount of copper transferred, we can set a certain
unit of electric quantity. This unit of one Coulomb
is the amount required to deposit .0003293 gram of
copper from one plate to the other. Or with silver,
to deposit .001118 gram, from a standard solution
of silver nitrate.
These are very small amounts and are odd figures,
and need not be remembered. But it serves to illus-
trate the method of measuring electrical quantity by
its effect or work done.
31. ELECTRIC CURRENT
The Ampere is our unit of electric current or rate
of flow. It is a unit you will use much more often
than the Coulomb.
An electric current of one ampere is flowing when
electricity passes through acircuit at the rate of one
Coulomb per second. So we see this unit considers
both quantity and time, and tells us just how fast the
current flows. Knowing the amount of current in
Fig. I. Large D. C. generator. It is rated as follows, 2000 Kw., amperes gives us some idea how much work we
150 V.. 8000 I. After carefully reading the pages on units and
symbols, you should easily understand this rating.
could expect it to do in agiven time.
 Electrical Units and Symbols 41

For example we say a gallon of water is aunit of 33. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

quantity, and compares to a Coulomb of electricity. The Ohm is the standard unit of electrical re-
But if we say water is flowing at the rate of so many sistance, by which we measure or compare the re-
gallons per minute or per second, then we can get sistance of any electrical circuit or device.
an idea how much work it would do, or how much Remember every wire and device has some resis-
we would get in an hour or a day at that rate. tance to current flow, as we have no perfect conduc-
We say a certain lamp uses Y2 ampere, or that a tors. Naturally this resistance limits or controls
motor uses 50 amperes, which means that they re- the flow of current, the same as friction in a pipe
quire a continual rate of flow of those amounts of or a partly closed valve, would limit and control
current to operate them. water or steam flow.
So it is very important that we know the unit to
AM ME TER measure and determine the resistance of electrical
4 5 e circuits and machines.
The standard Ohm, is the resistance of a column
of mercury, 106.3 centimeters long and 1square Mil-
o WELCH
limeter in cross sectional area. Or this is 41.85
inches long and about 1/25th inch in diameter. This
standard resistance is taken always at 32 degrees
Fahrenheit, or Zero degrees centigrade, because the
resistance is not the same at all temperatures.

34. FACTORS GOVERNING RESISTANCE

It is important to remember that the resistance of
any conductor depends on the kind of material, its
length, area, and temperature.
For example we know that copper wires are of
much lower resistance than iron or steel wires. And
the longer awire is, the greater will be its resistance.
The larger it is in cross section or area the lower
will be its resistance. And with all of our common
metals the resistance will increase slightly as their
Fig. 3. Portable ammeter, used to measure electric currents. temperature increases. Carbon and certain liquids
The current of any circuit or device can be meas- are exceptions to this rule, and their resistance gets
ured with an ammeter such as shown in Fig. 3. The less as their temperature increases.
It is interesting and convenient to know that a
practical man will have many occasions to use this
device and the unit Ampere in his electrical work. piece of No. 10 copper wire 1000 feet long has a
resistance of about one ohm. A No. 10 wire is about
32. ELECTRIC PRESSURE 1/10th of an inch in diameter.
The volt is our unit of electric pressure, and is
used to measure or express the amount of pressure
required to force a•giv en current to flow.
As we have already learned, all electric wires or
conductors offer some resistance to the flow of cur-
rent. So we must have electric pressure to cause
current to flow in any circuit or device.
This pressure is often called Electro -Motive-Force
(Abbreviated E. M. F.), and meaning the force that
moves electricity. It is also sometimes called Po-
tential.
So we say acertain battery produces 6volts pres-
sure, or a generator produces 110 or 440 volts pres-
sure. Or that a power line has 220,000 volts poten-
tial or pressure. This gives us an idea of the
amount of electro -motive-force available, the same
as if we said a boiler produces 300 pounds of steam
pressure, or a pump 100 pounds of water pressure.
One volt is the exact amount of pressure required 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 illipluoillivill11111111111111
to force one ampere of current through one Ohm of
resistance. The voltage of any machine or circuit
can be measured with a voltmeter. See Fig. 4,
which shows a photo cut of a voltmeter. Fig. 4. Portable voltmeter used to measure electric pressures gr voltagm,
42 Electrical Units and Symbols

Number 14 wire such as commonly used in house rials familiar to you. such as copper, aluminum,
wiring, has about 2.5 ohms resistance per thousand iron, mercury, etc.
feet. In this manner you can get an idea of their com-
A piece of No. 30 copper wire 10 feet long has parative values as electrical conductors, and you
about one ohm resistance, while a piece of No. 30 can always refer back to this table whenever you
German Silver wire only 6.2 inches long will have need to know or use any of these values.
about one ohm resistance. Note carefully the diff- Specific resistance of various common materials,
erence in resistance of these various wires according at 0 degrees centigrade:
to their size, length and material, and it will help
you get abetter understanding of how the wires and MATERIALS Specific resistance in Microhms.
their resistance will tend to control the current flow. Centimeter cube Inch cube
A little later we will give adefinite law or rule ex- Silver (Annealed) 1.49 .587
plaining this relation between current and resis- Copper (Annealed) 1.59 .627
tance. Copper (Hard) 1.62 .638
The resistance of wires and materials can be Gold 2.20
measured with an ohmmeter, and other instruments Aluminum 2.61
which will be explained later. Zinc 5.38
35. SPECIFIC RESISTANCE is a term we use Phosphor Bronze (Com-
to express and compare the resistance of various mercial) 8.48 "3.34
materials. To do this we of course take pieces of the Bronze 17.80
same size of each material. Usually this piece is Platinum (Annealed) 8.98 3.54
one cubic centimeter in size, or sometimes one Nickel (Commercial) 9.90
cubic inch. The centimeter is about .4 of an inch. Steel (Soft) 11.80
The specific resistance of any metal or material Steel (Wire) 13.50
means the resistance to flow of electricity through Steel (lIard) 45.60
a centimeter cube of this material, from one side to Iron (Pure) 8.85
the opposite side. Iron (Wrought) 13.80 5.45
The resistance of apiece of ordinary metal of this Iron (Cast-soft) 74.40
size is usually a small fraction of one ohm, so is Lead 19.80
expressed in Microhms, meaning millionths of an German Silver 33.10
ohm. One million microhms equal one ohm. German Silver \V ire 20.90 8.24
The following table gives the specific resistance of Mercury 94.07
some of our common materials. It is not necessary Water (Ordinary) 1200. to 12,000.
to memorize these, but is well to observe and com- Carbon 400. to 1150.00
pare the specific resistance of several of the mate- Carbon (Arc) 5100. to 7600.00

Fig. 5. If this machine is rated at 500 Kw.. how many horn ?mu ¡I this equal to?
 Electrical Units and Symbols 43

36. THE MHO is the unit of conductance, and ex- One Kilowatt is equal to approximately 1.34 H. P.
presses the conductivity of a wire, or the exact op- One horse power is the power required to lift 33,-
posite of resistance. Its use will be explained later. 000 pounds, one foot in one minute, or 550 pounds, 1
37. ELECTRIC POWER UNITS foot in one second. It is often referred to as 33,000
foot pounds per minute.
The Watt is our unit of electric power. And this
is the unit by which we determine the amount of The Watt Hour is a commonly used unit, and
heat, light, or power we can get from electricity. It means the power used at the rate of one watt, for one
is also the unit by which we rate the power pro- hour continuously.
duced or consumed by many small electrical devices. The Kilowatt Hour is the larger and more com-
One Watt is the amount of power produced by mon unit, and means the power used at the rate of
one ampere flowing under a pressure of one volt. one kilowatt, for one hour. The kilowatt hour is
It requires 746 watts to make one horse power. the unit used to buy and sell electric power, and
So we can see that the watt is too small a unit to electricity is commonly sold for a few cents per
deal with our larger amounts of electric power. For kilowatt hour.
this use we have the Kilowatt, or 1000 watts. The For example, suppose you were asked to find the
prefix "Kilo," is used with many electric units at cost of operation of a 10 H. P. motor for 50 hours,
times, and always means 1000. with electricity costing 3cents per kilowatt hour.

CELL I
F OR
BATTERY (SEVERAL CELLS)

LAMP OR

GALVANOMETER

VOLTMETER

AMMETER

ELECTRO- MAGNET

D.C. GENERATOR

A. C. GENERATOR

RESISTANCE COIL

VARIABLE RESISTANCE OR RHEOSTAT

INDUCTANCE fononv
PUSH BUTTON SWITCH

KNIFE SWITCH

CROSSED WIRES OR

JOINED WIRES
OR

Fig. 5B. Some of the most common symbols used in electrical diaarams.
44 Ohms Law

If one H. P. is equal to 746 watts, then a 10 H. P. To make it more convenient to remember the
motor will use 10x746 or 7460 watts. Then to change names of these important electrical units and their
this to kilowatts, we divide 7460 by 1000, or 7460 symbols and also easy to refer to them for reminders,
divided by 1000 equals 7.46 kilowatts. we have arranged them all together in the following
For a period of 50 hours this would use a total of group.
50x7.46 or 373 kilowatt hours. Read them over several times to help fix them in
Then 373x.03 equals $11.19 total cost. your memory;
We have not considered the efficiency of the motor Symbols Units Use
in this problem as this will be taken up later. Coulomb Unit of electrical quantity.
1 Ampere Unit of current flow.
38. SYMBOLS E Volt Unit of electrical pressure.
For each of these units, we have just learned, we R Ohm Unit of electrical resis-
tance.
have a symbol or abbreviation which we use in
writing them in problems or specifications on the G Mho Unit of electrical conduc-
job. These symbols are very easily learned and re- tance.
membered with a little practice in using them, and \Vatt Unit of electrical power.
will save a great amount of time for the practical KW Kilowatt Larger unit of electrical
power.
electrician, the same as our abbreviations for other
Kw.Hr. Kilowatt- Unit of electrical power
commonly used terms, such as lb., oz., ft., in., qt.,
Hour for a given time or unit
Jan., Feb., Mar., etc.
of electrical work.
H. P. Horsepower Unit of mechanical power.
746 W. equals 1H. P.
1KW. equals 1.34 H. P.
A few other common symbols used to represent
electrical devices in circuit diagrams, are shown in

*IE1D Figure 5-B, so you will be able to recognize and

understand them in the sketches used from now on.
The units and symbols covered in this section
may seem somewhat dry at first, and are probably
less interesting than the work on machinery will be.
Remember, however, you will understand the ma-
chines much better if you know these few practical
Fig. 6. This diagram shows the use of some of the symbols given
in Fig SB. How many can you recognize?
units and symbols well.

OHMS LAW

Ohms Law is one of the most important laws of sistance, and therefore, to cause current to flow
electricity that the practical man can know, and yet through them we must have pressure or electro-
it is very simple. This law is named after aGerman motive-force.
scientist, George Ohm, who in his experiments dis-
38-A. EXPLANATION AND APPLICATION
covered the definite relation between pressure, cur-
OF OHMS LAW
rent, and resistance in electrical circuits, and put it
in the form of asimple statement or rule. According to Ohms Law the current in any D. C.
When you obtain a thorough understanding of circuit is always directly proportional to the pres-
Ohms Law, it will be much easier to understand the sure, and inversely proportional to the resistance.
operation of all electrical machines, and circuits. The first part of this rule means that if we increase
You have already learned that in order to use elec- or decrease the voltage or pressure applied, the cur-
tricity in any way we must have circuits, to carry it rent will increase or decrease the same amount, if
from the generators to the machines or devices, and the resistance remains constant.
also through the devices themselves. For example if 100 volts will force 10 amperes
In every live electrical circuit there are always through the resistance of acertain circuit, 200 volts
present the above mentioned three factors, pressure, would send 20 amperes through it, or 50 volts, 5am-
current and resistance. All circuits have some re- peres, etc.
 Ohms Law 45

The second part of the law means that if we in- But if we speed up the generator and increase its
crease the resistance of a circuit, the current de- voltage the current would increase.
creases, or if we decrease the resistance the current The voltmeter (V) and ammeter (A), in the elec-
will increase, if the voltage remains constant. Thus trical circuit measure and show the pressure and the
the term "inversely proportional." current in volts and amperes, just as the pressure
For example, if we haye a current of 10 amperes gauge and flow meter in the water circuit measure
flowing through acircuit of 30 ohms resistance, and the pressure in pounds, and the flow in gallons per
change the resistance to 60 ohms, then 5 amperes minute.
will flow. Or if we change the resistance to 15 ohms,
40. CONVENIENT SIZE OF ELECTRIC
20 amperes will flow.
UNITS
39. CONTROL OF ELECTRICITY Another very interesting fact is that one volt pres-
The above shows us how to obtain any desired sure is just exactly enough to cause one ampere of
current for a certain device or work, by regulating current to flow through one ohm of resistance.
the voltage of our generators, or the resistance of This of course is not accidental, but is the way
the windings of the device. those who developed these standard units made
On this law or principle are based the major- them of convenient relative sizes. This greatly sim-
ity of ordinary electrical calculations made by the plifies all electrical work and calculations.
practical man, so it is well worth a little reviewing For example if one volt will force one ampere
to get it thoroughly understood. through one ohm, then it is easy to see that two
If we compare Ohms Law for electricity with the volts would force two amperes through the same
principles of water flow in pipes, and use just com- resistance of one ohm. Or 3/2 volt would only force
mon reasoning with it, as we do with other things Y2 ampere to flow through one ohm.
we are more familiar with, it should be easily under- If one volt will force one ampere through one ohm,
stood. (See Fig. 1.) then if we increase the resistance to two ohms avolt
Here we have a pump driven by an engine, and could only force ampere to flow. If we reduce
producing pressure which causes the water to flow.
The friction of the water moving through the pipe,
and the smaller section of pipe (A), and partly
closed valve (B), all offer resistance or opposition
to the flow of water. And the more we increase this
resistance by reducing the size of the pipe or valve
opening, the less water will flow. But if we increase
the pressure supplied by the pump, then more water
will flow.
Electrical circuits operate similarly. (See Fig. 2.)
Here we have agenerator driven by an engine, and
producing electrical pressure or voltage which
causes the current to flow. The resistance of the
wires, the rheostat and lamp, all tend to oppose the
flow of current, and if we use smaller wires or a Fig. 1. The amount of water flow in this system can be increased
by increasing the pump pressure. But it will decrease if we increase
higher resistance lamp the current will decrease. the opposition of the valve, or small section of pipe.

Fig. 2. The electric current flow in this circuit will be increased if we increase the generator voltage, or decreased if we Increase
the resistance of the wires, rheostat, or lamp.
46 Ohms Law

the resistance to Y2 ohm, the one volt could force vice of higher resistance and on higher voltage cir-
two amperes to flow. cuits. Whenever you know the voltage applied and
41. OHMS LAW FORMULAS the resistance of adevice, you can quickly determine
From this simple relationship between the size the amount of current that will flow through it.
of these units and the discovery of the effect of pres- Then suppose you were told that acertain electric
sure and resistance, we obtain the following formu- heater, as in Fig. 4, had aresistance of 10 ohms and
las called Ohms Law Formulas. required 12 amperes to operate it. What voltage
should this device be operated on? This can be de-
E E
I= , E = 1xR, R — termined by the use of the 2nd formula, E—I XR,
R or E-12 x 10 or 120 volts.
In which:
I—current in amperes.
E—pressure in volts.
R—resistance in ohms.
These are simply little abbreviated sets of instruc-
tions which tell us exactly how to proceed with cer-
tain electrical problems.
Remember that when any two factors are placed
one above the other and a line between, it means to
divide the upper one by the lower.
For example suppose you have to find the amount
of current that would flow through alamp of 5ohms
resistance when a pressure of ten volts is applied to
it. (See Fig. 3.)
Fig. 5. The ammeter shows 55 amperes flowing through an oven of
2 ohms resistance. Ohms Law formula makes it easy to
determine the voltage of the line.

Or in another case, you have an electric oven

operating as in Fig. 5, and its resistance is known to
be 2 ohms. An ammeter in its circuit shows that a
current of 55 amperes is flowing. But you have no
voltmeter. The voltage of this circuit can be deter-
mined by the same formula as used in the heater,
E=IXR, or E-55 X2 or 110 volts.
Now let us say you have a powerful electro mag-
net operating as in Fig. 6. A voltmeter shows 80
volts applied to it, and an ammeter shows 20 am-
peres flowing. How could you determine the resis-
Fig. 3. Ten volt battery supplying current to a 5 ohm lamp. Can you tance of the magnet coils? The 3rd formula shows
find how much current would flow, without an ammeter?
exactly how to do this, as it says resistance can be
If you have an ammeter handy to connect in the found by dividing the volts by amperes, or
circuit you can measure this current. But if no am- E 80
meter is available you can calculate the current in R =— or R = or 4 ohms
even less time, by the use of the first formula. 20
resistance in the coils.
E 10
I= — ,or I = — or 2 amperes.
5
This would apply equally well to a motor or de-

10 R

Fig. 4. Electric heater of 10 ohms resistance draw; 12 amperes. Can Fig. 6. Electro-magnet and meters, showing voltage and current
you tell the voltage of the line? supplied to operate it.
 Ohms Law 47

So we see that whenever we know any two of the Many electrical devices have their rated power in
three factors of an electrical circuit, we can easily watts and their operating voltage marked on them.
determine the other one, even without instruments, And in such cases if you wish to determine the
by the use of these simple formulas. current such a device will use, apply the second
42. SIMPLIFIED OHMS LAW FORMULA formula.
A very simple way to remember all three of these \V 4-E-1.
formulas in one is shown by the following figure: 44. FIELD PROBLEMS
E Suppose on some future job you have acase as in
Fig. 8. Your generator supplies 200 volts to a4000
IXR watt machine. how much current will the machine
All that is necessary is to cover the one you wish use, or what should an ammeter read, if connected
to find and the remaining 2 factors show you what in this circuit?
to do, if you know their values. For example if you W÷E—T, or 4000+200=20 amperes.
know the current and resistance of a circuit and
wish to find the voltage, cover E and the parts still
shown indicate to multiply IXR. Or if you know
the voltage and resistance and wish to find the cur-
rent, cover Iand do as indicated by the remaining
two or divide E by R.
WATTS LAW
43. \Ve also need a law and formula to calculate
the amount of power of electrical circuits or devices.
You will recall that the watt is the unit of elec-
trical power.
To produce power we must have current flowing
under pressure. One ampere flowing under a
pressure of one volt, will produce one watt of power.
From this relationship we get Watts Law or, the
power in watts in any D. C. circuit is equal to the Fig. 8. Using meters right on the job to test a motor. When you
know the rating of a machine in volts and amperes, it is easy to
pressure in volts multiplied by the current in am- determine with meters whether the machine is properly
loaded or not.
peres.
And from this law we obtain the very useful The next day you have another problem as in
formulas: Fig. 9. You have a special lamp of 600 watts, and
IXE=W an ammeter in its circuit shows the lamp is using
W÷E=I 5 amperes. What is the voltage of the circuit to
W÷I=E which the lamp is connected?
In which:— Here we use the third formula.
I—current in amperes. W4-I—E, or 600÷5-120 volts.
E—pressure in volts.
\V—power in watts.
So if we want to determine the amount of power
used in a circuit in which we know the current and
pressure. we simply use the first formula.

600vi

Fig. 9. Generator supplying 5 amps to a 600 watt lamp. What is

the generator voltage?

Fig. 7. How many watts does the lamp in this circuit use, according The three watts law formulas can also be simpli-
to the simple rule on this page?
fied for use in the following manner:
In Fig. 7 we have a generator producing 100 E
and supplying current to a lamp. An ammeter in
the circuit shows acurrent flow of 6 amperes. Find 1x
the power used by the lamp. Then by covering the one you wish to find thç
IXE—W. or 6>< 100=600 watts. value of. the remaining ones indicate what to do,
48 Ohms Law

There are also two other very convenient for- quired, just to force the current load through the
mulas for finding the power in watts, when we do line resistance alone. This becomes a very impor-
not know both the amperes and volts, but may tant item to consider on long transmission lines, or
know either the amperes and ohms, or the volts feeders of considerable length to lights and motors.
and ohms of the circuit or device. They are as If we have too much voltage drop in the line, we of
follows: course will not get enough pressure at the device
1' X operating at the end of the line.
E'÷R=W The line drop in volts is proportional to the load
In which:— carried, in amperes, and to the resistance of the
I' equals amperes squared, or multiplied by itself. wires, or
E' equals volts squared, or multiplied by itself. Ed. — IX R.
R equals resistance in ohms. In which :—
In the first case if we have acircuit of 5ohms re- Ed. equals line drop in volts.
sistance and in which acurrent of 10 amperes is flow- I equals current in amperes, flowing through
ing, we square the current first and then multiply line.
by resistance, or 10x 10=100, and 100 x5=500 R equals line resistance.
watts.
Or if in another circuit you found a device of 20
ohms resistance connected to a line of 200 volts.
You could very easily find its power in watts by
using the formula or 200x 200=40,000,
and 40,000+20=2000 W or 2 KW.
To prove that all three of the formulas for finding
power in watts are always dependable, try them all
on the same circuit, where current pressure and re-
sistance are all known.
In Fig. 10, a generator of 440 volts supplies 22
amperes of current to adevice of 20 ohms resistance.
Using the first formula, or 1x E= \V, we find that
I X E is 22 x 440 or 9680 watts. Fig. 11. Water pressure tank and pipe line to water turbine. Note
Using the second formula or 12 X R = \V, we drop in pressure in the pipe line, by readings of the two gauges.

find that 12 X R is 22 x 22 X 20 or 9680 watts. In Fig. 11, we have a water pressure tank, and
Using the third formula or E2 R= \V, we find pipe line. While the water is flowing through the
440 X 440 pipe, it creates friction or resistance.. Some pres-
that E2 R= or 9680 watts. sure is required to overcome this resistance in the
20 pipe and maintain a given flow.
The gauge on the pipe near the tank, shows 100
lbs. pressure, but the one at the end of the pipe only
shows 90 lbs. pressure. So 10 lbs. pressure was used
to force the water through the pipe resistance, and
90 lbs. used to force it through the water wheel.

Fig. 10. 440 volt motor supplying 22 amperes to a device of 20 ohms

resistance. Check all three of watts law formulas carefully
on this circuit.

So we see that we can depend on any one of these

formulas that is most convenient to use for any
problem.
You are not expected to memorize all these for-
Fig. 12. Generator, lamp ,
.and meters connected for testing "voltage
mulas at once. But practice using them frequently, drop" and proving Ohms Law Formulas. This is typical of
problems encountered by the head electrician in the field.
on every practical electrical problem you can find,
and soon the will be easy to use and remember. In Fig. 12, is shown a generator producing 130
45. LINE DROP volts pressure, and sending current of 5 amperes
In electrical work we often hear the term Line over a line of 4 ohms total resistance, to a lamp
Drop used. This refers to the voltage used or re- which requires 5 amperes at 110 volts to operate it.
 Series and Parallel Circuits 49

You will note there is a difference of 20 volts be- lamp resistance. Or a total of 130 volts required at
tween the reading of the voltmeter at the generator the generator.
and the one at the lamp. This shows aline drop of 46. LINE LOSS
20 volts. This term refers to the power consumed by the
An ammeter near the generator shows five amp- line, and which goes into heat along the line. It is
eres flow to the lamp, and one at the lamp shows usually expressed in watts.
5amperes flow from the lamp back to the generator. This is found with our regular Watts Law for-
So if there are 5 amperes flowing through each mulas, but using only the voltage drop in the line
side of the line, and each line wire has 2ohms resist- itself, to multiply by the current.
ance, then by using the formula IXR—Ed, we have . In the problem shown in Fig. 12, the line loss is
5X2 or 10 volts drop in each wire, or 20 volts total IX Ed=W, or 5X20=100 watts.
line drop.
Such problems as this are frequently encountered
Voltmeters connected as at (A) and (B) would by the practical man when installing or inspecting
each show 10 volts drop. wires feeding lamps or motors. And the man who
So in this case we have 20 volts used to force the 5 knows these simple rules and formulas, is the man
amperes of load current through the line resistance, who is most valuable to his employer, and bound to
and 110 volts used to force the cyrrent through the advance most rapidly to the better jobs and salaries.

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

As we have already learned, in order to use elec-

Or if we do not increase the voltage, the current
tricity in any device, we must have a complete path will decrease for every additional lamp or device that
or circuit for the current to flow from the generator is added, because each one tends to make the circuit
or source of supply, to the device, through it, and or path longer, and resistance higher.
back again to the source.
We call this a complete electrical circuit.
Where two or more devices are connected to the
same line or source of supply, there are different
methods of connecting them. They can be arranged
to form a Series circuit or a Parallel circuit, or in a
combination of series and parallel.
If you understand series and parallel circuits, it
will be easy to understand most any combination of
circuits.
47. A SERIES CIRCUIT IS ONE IN WHICH
THE CURRENT HAS ONLY ONE PATH
(See Fig. 1). Here is shown a generator and 4
lamps connected in series. The devices are conneced
one after the other along the wire or line, and the Flg. 1. Four lamps connected in series to a generator. Total resistance
of lamp circuit 160 ohms.
same current must pass through them all. So the
current will be the same in all parts of a series cir- 48. APPLICATIONS OF SERIES CIRCUITS
cuit. This current is of course governed by the total Series circuits are often used for street lighting,
resistance of all the devices in the circuit, as well as and such applications where a number of lamps or
the voltage applied: devices of the same current requirements, are oper-
Suppose you wish to find the total resistance in ated a considerable distance apart, and away from
a series circuit such as Fig. 1. It is very simple. the source of supply.
To find the total resistance of aseries circuit, add the This effects quite asaving in copper and line costs,
resistances of all the devices in the circuit. as the total current flow is only that of any one de-
In the case of Fig. 1, where there are 4 lamps of vice. Thus the wires can be kept smaller than with
40 ohms each, the total is 160 ohms. parallel circuits. And only one continuous wire is
So we can easily see that the greater number of needed, instead of two to each device, as required
lamps or devices we put in a series circuit, the with a parallel system. (See Fig. 2A and Fig. 2B.)
greater the total resistance becomes, and the higher One of the disadvantages of series circuits is that
the voltage which will be required to force a given we cannot conveniently control the devices separ-
current through it. ately.
50 Series and Parallel Circuits

Fig. 2-A. Twelve lamps connected in series. Note that only one main Fig. 2-B. Twelve lamps connected in parallel. Two main wires are
wire is needed. needed for this circuit.

In a series circuit the voltage applied to any de- So if you hear acircuit called multiple or parallel,
vice, is the same as the voltage drop across this de- remember they both mean the same.
vice. And it will be a fraction of the total line volt- In this circuit shown, the resistance of all lamps
age, and proportional to the resistance of the device, is equal or 40 ohms each, so the current will divide
also the total number of devices in the line. (See equally through them. Note how the arrows show
Fig. 3.) by their direction and size, the division and amounts
A voltmeter connected across the terminals of any of current in the various parts of this circuit.
one of the lamps in this circuit will show 50 volts
drop.
The sum of the voltages of all lamps will be that
of the generator. Assuming of course that the line
resistance is not enough to be considered.

Fig. 4. Four lamps in parallel. Note how the current divides through
each path.

The current tends to flow from the positive or top

wire to the negative or bottom wire, through every
path we give it. It is easy to see that as we connect
more devices in a parallel circuit, it makes more
paths or a larger total path of lower resistance, for
current to flow through. So every device added in
parallel causes more current to flow. If we were to
connect too many devices on such a circuit, the
amount of current required .would be an overload
Fig. 3. Five 50 volt lamps in series. Voltmeter will show 50 volts
on the wires or generator. It is very important there-
drop through any lamp, or 250 volts total. fore that we know how to calculate the total resis-
49. A
PARALLEL CIRCUIT IS ONE IN tance of parallel circuits, so we can properly regu-
WHICH THE CURRENT HAS TWO OR late the current load by having the proper resistance.
MORE PATHS THROUGH WHICH IT 50. RESISTANCE OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS
CAN FLOW
If the total resistance of aparallel connection gets
In such circuits the current from the generator or
less as we add more paths, then we see we cannot get
source divides, and part flows through each of the
the correct total resistance of all paths, by adding
branches of the circuit according to their resistances,
their separate resistances.
(See Fig. 4.) To find the total resistance of a parallel circuit,
Here is shown a generator and four lamps con-
where all paths are of equal resistance, we divide
nected in parallel. Sometimes such acircuit is called
the resistance of one path by the number of paths.
a multiple circuit.
 Series and Parallel Circuits 51

This is a very simple method but applies only to To find the reciprocal of afraction, we simply in-
paths of equal resistance.
1
To get the total resistance of the circuit in Fig. 4, vert it. For example the reciprocal of equals
we divide 40 by 4, and our answer is 10 ohms. 2
Suppose you have a circuit with 10 lamps of 20
1 5
ohms each, connected in parallel. What is the total equals -- or .2, that of -- equals or 5, that
resistance? The resistance of one path divided by 1 5 1
2 6 5 20
20 of
the number of paths, or equals 2 ohms. equals or 3, that of equals — or

10 6 9 20 5
4, etc.
Many parallel circuits have devices of unequal re-
sistance, and to find the total resistance of such a 51.—FIELD PROBLEMS
circuit we must use a different method, known as Now suppose you have a circuit with 3 lamps in
the "Reciprocal" or conductance method. parallel as in Fig. 6.
This method uses the reciprocal of the resistance
values, which is the conductance of the path. You
will recall the term conductance and its unit "Mho,"
explained on earlier pages.
Adding more paths or devices to a parallel circuit
decreases the total resistance, but it increases the IER
conductance. So if we find the reciprocal of the re-
sistance, which is the conductane of each path, and
add them all to get total conductance, then change
this back to its reciprocal, we will have the total
resistance.
The important thing to remember is that con- Fig. 6. Three lamps of unequal resistance, in parallel. Uee the
"reciprocal" method to find total resistance.
ductance and resistance are opposite, and the reci-
procals of each other. As one increases in any circuit
the other decreases. One lamp is 6ohms, one 4ohms, and one 12 ohms.
To find the total resistance of a parallel circuit, How will you find the total resistance? According
with paths of unequal resistance, get the reciprocal to our rule we first get the reciprocals of each resis-
of each resistance and add them to get their sum or tance.
the total conductance. Then take the reciprocal of 1
The reciprocal of 6 equals
this which is the total resistance.
6
1
The reciprocal of 4 equals
4
1
The reciprocal of 12 equals
12
Then we add these to get the total conductance
in Mhos.
1 1 1
Before we can add ,and we must
6 4 12
get common denominators for them to make them
"like fractions." Twelve is common to all, so
1 2
equals
6 12
1 3
equals
4 12
Fig. 5. What is this? Invert or turn it up-side-down and see.
iraoldmai ;28 am UOU3Ei C 3aamq am uatuà 1 1
',prods o; os *Jammu e jo Tuaoadpal u sum ;! ampa ..nimun; a si nMON equals
12 12
To find the reciprocal of any whole number we 2 3 1 6
place the figure "one" above it with a line between Then — plus — plus — equals — Mho.
to make a fraction. For example, the reciprocal of 12 12 12 12
12
1 1 1 Then its reciprocal equals — or 2Ohms, which
2 is — that of 12 is that of 25 is — etc. 6
2 12 25 is the total resistance.
52 Series and Parallel Circuits

An interesting and valuable rule to remember, 110 20

and with which to check such calculations, is that And the reciprocal of — Mho equals — or
the total resistance of any parallel group, is always 20 110
lower than the lowest resistance in the group. 2
Note how this proves out with the problem just — ohm, total resistance.
finished. 11
This method of finding the total resistance is im- 52. IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT SERIES
portant enough to be worth a little practice on any AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
problem you can find or think up, and this is one of Advantages of parallel circuits are, that all devices
the best ways to fix it in your memory. receive equal voltage, or the voltage of the main wires,
In a parallel circuit having resistances as in Fig. and any device can be controlled separately, without
7. What is the total resistance ? affecting the others. If the wires and generator are
large enough, we can connect any desired number of
devices in such a circuit. Lamps, motors and most
electrical devices are usually connected in parallel.
The important things to remember about series and
parallel circuits are the effects they produce on resist-
ance, current, and pressure, when different devices
are connected one way or the other.
We have seen that a series connection of lamps or
current consuming devices, increases the resistance to
the sum of all their resistances. This tends to reduce
the current flow, or requires higher voltage to main-
Fig. 7. Could you find the total resistance of a circuit like this, if you tain a certain current. Series circuits also effect
were asked to by your employer? See the example given.
economy of copper or wire size in certain systems.
We have also shown how current consuming devices
1 connected in parallel, reduce the total resistance by
Reciprocal of 1 equals
1 making the path larger in effect, and increasing the
current required. Parallel circuits provide indepen-
1 dent control and give all devices full line voltage.
Reciprocal of 5 equals
5 53. SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS
1 OF GENERATORS AND BATTERIES
Reciprocal of 20 equals We have so far only considered the effects of series
20 and parallel connections on current consuming devices.
1 It is also very important to know the results that can
Reciprocal of 4 equals be obtained by use of series and parallel connections
on sources of electrical supply, such as batteries or
4 generators.
Reciprocal of X,1 equals Suppose you have a device which you want to
1 operate with dry cells, and one cell will not furnish
20 is common to all so :- high enough pressure to force the required current
1 20 through the resistance of the device.
equals By connecting cells together in series, that is
1 20 positive of one to the negative of the next as in
1 4 Fig. 8, the voltage may be increased to almost any
equals desired amount.
5 20
1 1
equals
20 20
1 5
equals
4 20
4 80
equals
1 20
20 4 1 5 80 Fig. 8. Connecting dry cells in series will give the sum of their voltages
Then: — plus plus plus plus at the lamp.
20 20 20 20 20
In Fig. 8, 3dry cells are shown connected in series
110 to increase the voltage they can supply. If each cell
equals — Mho.
has 13/2 volts, this connection will give 44 volts.
20
 Series and Parallel Circuits 53

the current that flows through the lamp must also Here are two generators properly connected positive'
flow through each cell because it has only one path. to negative, so their voltages add together. But the
Therefore the current flow will not be increased, current that can be supplied by these two machines in
but will be just that of one cell. this connection, is only the same as the capacity of one.
Such series connections of cells are commonly used. This circuit is easily compared and illustrated with
A good example is in radio "B" batteries, where a awater system in Fig. 10.
number of very small cells are connected in series,
to get up to 45 volts from one battery.
The current required from these batteries is very
small, so a straight series connection can be used.

54. EFFECT OF SERIES CONNECTION ON

GENERATOR VOLTAGE
Electric generators can also be connected in series to
obtain higher voltages than one machine alone can pro-
duce. (See Fig 9.)

Fig. 10. Two water pumps in series, each producing 50 pounds pressure,
and pumping 100 gallons per minute. The total pressure will
be 100 pounds, and total flow 100 gallons per minute.

Here we have two water pumps also connected in

series. They can supply double the pressure pro-
duced by one pump, as their pressures add together.
Fig.9. Two 110 volt generators connected in series. Compare carefully But the current they supply is only the same as
the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter with
the generator ratings. passes through one pump.

‘‘I

SO Z86..
00 0
zoocAc

II

frL_
SO Zee
/0OCAL..

.1

Fig. 11. Two 50 lb., 100 gat per minute pumps operating in parallel. They develop 50 lbs. total pressure and pump 200 gallons per minute.

•
54 Series and Parallel Circuits

Now if we wish to get a greater current or volume

of water at lower pressure, we can arrange the pumps
as in Fig. 11. Here the pressure on the mains will
be the same as that of one pump, but their current
flow will add together, and be twice that of one
pump.
Similarly in Fig. 12, we have two generators
connected in parallel. The voltage across the main
wires is only equal to that of one machine, but their
currents will add, and the total current flowing will
be twice that of one machine. Fig. 14. Four dry cells connected parallel to obtain more current than
one could supply,

Here are 4 dry cells connected in parallel, or all

positives to one wire, and all negatives to the other.
The voltage on the main wires will only be 172 or the
same as one cell. But the available current will be
the sum of that of all 4cells. Or they will furnish a
given current four times as long as one cell.
55. COMBINATION OF SERIES AND PAR-
ALLEL CIRCUITS
If we wish to obtain both higher voltage and more
current than one cell can produce, we can combine the
series and parallel connections, in a series-parallel
system as in Fig. 15.

Fig. 12. Two 100 volt, 50 amp generators in parallel. The line pressure
is 100 volts, and full load current is 100 amperes.

In large power plants, generators are commonly

connected in this way, and we often find from 2 to 10
or more, all operating in parallel, and each supplying
its share of the total load current. (See Fig. 13.)

Fig. 15. Six cella connected series-parallel. Note voltage and amperage
obtained by this connection.

Here are 3 groups of 2 cells each. The two cells

in each group are connected in parallel to add or
double their current. Then all 3 groups are con-
nected in series to add their voltages. So at the
main wires we can obtain 3times the voltage of one
cell, and twice the current.
The same effect would be obtained if they were
connected parallel-series as in Fig. 16.

Fig. 13. Row of generators in a modern power plant. These machine

are operated in parallel, each one supplying its share
of the total load.

On small requirements where batteries or cells are

used we can connect them in parallel to increase the
current supply. (See Fig. 14.) Pig. 16. Parallel-series connection cd sin cells.
•
 Series and Parallel Circuits 55

So it makes no difference in the voltage obtained, As you progress into the later sections on electric
whether we connect cells in series-parallel or systems and machines you will more fully appreciate
parallel-series, as long as we keep the same number the importance of this knowledge of series and paral-
in series and the same number in parallel. lel circuits. You will also find it much easier to
There is often some argument as to whether acer- make certain installations, and locate troubles in
tain circuit should be called series-parallel, or your future work in the field, now that you know
parallel-series. these principles.
This is easy to determine if you just call the name
of the external or main wires first, or note what kind
of a connection is made Of the groups. Note the
emphasis on the word Of.
Thus in Fig. 15 we say we have aseries connection
Of parallel groups, or series-parallel. In Fig. 16 we
have aparallel connection Of series groups, or parallel-
series.
In connecting such combination circuits we should
see that all groups are equal. Do not connect agroup
of 2 cells in series with a group of 4. And do not
connect a series group of 3 cells in parallel with a
group of 6. Their voltages would be unequal, and the
group of six would discharge through the 3, even with
no load attached to the main wires. (See Fig. 17.)
A general rule is, when we wish to obtain high
pressures and moderate current, we connect bat-
teries or generators in series. And when we need
large amounts of current at moderate voltage, we
connect them in parallel.
This is one of the most important rules to remem- Fig. 17. Wrong connection of unequal numbers of cells in parallel-series.
This connection would discharge the cells, even without
ber about series and parallel connections. any load connected.
56

ELECTRIC CELLS AND BATTERIES

56. Electric batteries are commonly used to supply already learned such a group will supply more voltage
current in small amounts, and particularly to portable or current than one cell, according to the way they are
equipment. connected. But where only very small amounts of
It is cheaper to produce electricity from large gen- current are needed, at low voltage, one cell may be
erators in power plants than from batteries. But used alone, as in small flashlights or door bell systems,
where no generators or power lines are available, and etc. Fig. 1 shows a large battery for telephone
where only very small amounts of power are needed operation.
for small or portable devices, the convenience of elec- As we said in a previous section, batteries are de-
tric batteries offsets their higher cost of current. vices to convert chemical energy into electrical energy,
There are many millions of them in use in automo- or they use the chemical method of producing dy-
biles, electric trucks, radios, airplanes, electric lanterns, namic electricity.
flashlights, and in telephone, burglar alarm and signal All batteries consist of some chemical solution or
systems. In some power plants big groups of large paste, and metal elements to be acted upon or con-
batteries are used for emergency service, in case of sumed by the acid or solution.
shut down of the generators, and in such cases they
may supply thousands of amperes for short periods. 57. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CELLS
The terni "Battery" applies to 2 or more cells Batteries or cells are divided into two classes,
grouped together in series or parallel. As you have called "Primary" and "Secondary." The Primary

Fig. 1. Photo of group of storage batteries used .for telephone work.

 Electric Cells and Batteries 57

Cell is one that is made of such materials that it will 59. CELL VOLTAGE
supply electric pressure as soon as it is assembled, The action of the acid on the zinc causes a differ-
without first receiving any electrical charge. In these ence of potential between it and the copper. So if
cells part of the unlike metal elements are consumed we connect avoltmeter to the top ends of the copper
by the chemical action during their use and when and zinc elements, it will show a pressure of about
the materials are used up or destroyed, they must one volt.
be renewed before the cell can deliver current again. The amount of voltage we can obtain from acell
A Secondary Cell is one that uses metal elements depends on the kind of materials used, and not on
of similar nature when first constructed, and will their size. Thus copper and zinc used with sul-
not deliver current, until it has first been charged phuric acid electrolyte give about 1volt, while car-
by passing electric current through it. bon and zinc used with an electrolyte of ammonium
This charging or flow of current through the cell chloride will give about 1.5 volts. Or carbon and
sets up one form of chemical action, and changes zinc with sulphuric acid and a little bichromate of
the nature of the material in the metal plates. Then potassium will give about 2 volts.
when the cell is being used or discharged, a reverse If we connect alamp to the terminals of this sim-
chemical action is taking place. ple cell as in Fig. 2B, a current will flow from the
When such a secondary cell is discharged the metal positive terminal on the copper, through the lamp
elements are not destroyed, and it can be again to the negative terminal on the zinc, and also inside
charged by passing Current from a generator or the cell from the zinc through the electrolyte to the
other source, through it in the opposite direction to copper. This shows the complete circuit or path of
its flow during use. These cells can be charged and current in both the external and internal parts of
discharged many times before their metal elements the circuit.
need renewing. So they are often called storage As long as the external circuit is closed and cur-
cells or batteries. But remember they do not store rent allowed to flow, the chemical action decom-
electricity, instead they simply store a form of poses and consumes the zinc plate. The copper,
chemical energy, set up by the charging current however, is not destroyed. When the zinc element
flow. is practically all destroyed, the cell will not furnish
any more current and is said to be dead.
By replacing the zinc with a new piece it will
again deliver the current.
In referring to the terminals and external circuit
of abattery the element at which the current leaves
the cell is commonly called the positive element or
pole, and the one at which current enters the cell is
called the negative element or pole.
Inside the cell however, the current flows from
zinc to copper, so in the internal circuit the element
at which current enters the electrolyte is the posi-
tive or anode, while the one at which current leaves
the electrolyte is the negative or cathode.
60. CELL CURRENT AND LIFE
From the above we can see that the amount of
Fig. 2-A. Simple primary cell. current we can obtain from such a cell, as well as
Fig. 2-B. Primary cell connected to a lamp. This cell has larger metal
strips than the one in Fig. 2-A. the life of the cell, will depend on the size of the
elements.
58. CONSTRUCTION OF PRIMARY CELLS
Primary cells are made of positive and negative The cell in Fig. 2B, having elements twice as large
elements of different kinds of material, immersed in as in Fig, 2A, will furnish current twice as long at
the acid or chemical solution, and all in some suit- the same rate, or would deliver more current on a
able container. low résistance circuit than the smaller cell.
A cell such as in Fig. 2A, or 2B, is sometimes
The acid solution is called the "Electrolyte."
Cells which have the electrolyte in liquid form called a one fluid cell, as the electrolyte is just di-
are called "Wet cells." Those having the electro- luted sulphuric acid.
lyte in a moist paste form are called "dry cells." 61. POLARIZATION
These are not really dry, but because there is no Such one fluid cells are not used much except for
loose liquid to spill, and the manner in whieh they experimental purposes, because if we leave some
are sealed, they can be placed in any position and device connected in the circuit to operate con-
treated as a dry cell. tinuously, we find that the current flow will very
A simple form of wet primary cell is shown in rapidly decrease to almost nothing.
Fig. 2A. This is known as a "Voltaic cell." This is caused by what is called Polarization. As
Here we have astrip of copper and one of zinc, im- the acid attacks the zinc element hydrogen gas is
mersed in an electrolyte of sulphuric acid that has created and has a tendency to collect on the copper
been diluted or weakened with water. plate in the form of little bubbles. If the current
58 Electric Cells and Batteries

continues to flow at a very heavy rate, the copper Thus polarization is prevented. The copper de-
plate soon becomes so coated with a layer of these posited on the copper element of course does no
bubbles that they shut off the current flow, as the harm as it is a conductor, instead of high resistance
gas is an insulator of very high resistance, and re- like the gas bubbles.
duces the active area of copper in contact with the This type of cell is called a Closed Circuit Cell
electrolyte. because it can be used to supply small currents con-
When the copper is thus coated with bubbles, if tinually, to closed circuit electrical systems.
it is taken out and wiped off or dried, then put back, They are also called "Gravity Cells" because of
the cell again delivers current a short time until it the manner in which the two solutions are kept
becomes polarized once more. separated by their different gravities. They are one
Such a cell can only be used for short periods, or form of Daniel Cell and often called by this name.
on circuits that are normally open, and just closed Fig. 4 shows two such cells connected to telegraph
intermittently. So they are called open circuit cells. instruments.
In primary cells we sometimes have "Local They are used for telegraph and telephone work,
Action" at the zinc element, caused by impurities and in some types of signal and alarm systems.
in its surface. The action of the acid on these
particles of other metals is different than on zinc,
and sets up a difference of potential, and little short
circuited local currents at these spots. This con-
sumes the zinc even when the cell is not in use. To
help prevent it, we sometimes amalgamate or coat
the zinc with mercury.

62. CLOSED CIRCUIT CELLS, AND PRE-

VENTION OF POLARIZATION
For many uses we need cells that will furnish
current continually or at least for reasonable
periods, without polarizing.
There are several ways of constructing such cells
to prevent polarization. In Fig. 3, is shown a cell
using two solutions for the electrolyte, copper sul-
phate in the bottom, and sulphuric acid and zinc
sulphate in the top. These two liquids stay separate Fig. 3. "Two Fluid" Gravity Cell. These cells do not polarize as the
because the copper sulphate is heavier than sul- one fluid type do.

phuric acid or zinc sulphate. The lighter liquid

63. ASSEMBLY AND PREPARATION OF
floats on the copper sulphate, as oil will float on GRAVITY CELLS
water.
In preparing such a cell for use we place the
In the bottom of the jar, and immersed in the
copper element in the bottom of the jar, with its
copper sulphate solution, we place the copper
"lead in" wire brought to the top, then sprinkle
element which is usually several strips of thin
the bottom of the glass jar evenly and about Y2
copper fastened together in the center, and the ends
spread out fanwise. From this a rubber insulated
wire leads up through the solution to the top of the
jar.
In the top of the jar and in the sulphuric aciét
solution we place a zinc element, that consists of
several heavy bars cast together to a vertical stem,
in the shape of a"Crowfoot".
The stem has a hook shaped extension at the top
to hang it on the rim of the glass jar and hold it up
in place, also a terminal nut for connecting wires
to it.
When this cell is in operation, the acid acts on the
zinc the same as in our first simple cell, and
hydrogen gas is again set free. But before it can
reach the copper element it must pass through the
copper sulphate solution in the bottom of the jar.
\Vhen the gas reaches this solution it combines
with part of the copper sulphate, forming sulphuric
acid which stays in the top, and metallic copper
collects on the copper element, instead of hydrogen
bubbles. Fig.4. Photo of two gravity cells. showing their parts and construction.
 Electric Cells and Batteries 59

inch thick with copper sulphate crystals. Then solution of zinc sulphate, and the zinc electrode.
hang the zinc element in the top and fill the jar Outside the cup the jar is filled with copper sul-
with water (preferably distilled) to within about phate solution or dilute sulphuric acid, in which the
2 inches of the top, or well over the zinc. copper electrode in the form of a cylinder is placed.
If the cell is to be used at once it may be necessary The copper sulphate solution is kept renewed by
to add about atablespoon full of sulphuric acid. But the dissolving of copper sulphate crystals in a little
if it can be allowed to stand a few days on short perforated copper container shown in Fig. 5.
circuit, a chemical action takes place which soon In this cell the porous cup keeps the liquids
forms enough zinc sulphate to start operation. separate, and thereby prevents polarization, but does
After quite a period of use the zinc element be- not prevent the proper chemical action, or prevent
comes practically destroyed and must be renewed. the current flow in the cell. They are better for
The electrolyte and copper sulphate crystals must portable use than the gravity type, as their solu-
also be renewed occasionally to keep the cell up to tions cannot mix so easily by motion or jarring.
good strength. 66. EDISON PRIMARY CELL
The copper element becomes heavily coated with The Edison cell is quite commonly used in rail-
metallic copper from the solution, after long periods way signal work, and many other places. These
of operation. cells use an alkaline solution such as caustic soda or
It is well to cover the top of the electrolyte in caustic potash, and a positive element of copper
these cells with a thin film of oil to prevent oxide, and negative of zinc. (See Fig. 6.) They
evaporation. supply a low voltage of about .7 volt, but their in-
64. CARE OF CELLS ternal resistance is very low, and they will deliver
They should not be left on open circuit long, as from 1.5 to 7.5 amperes according to the size of the
they will deteriorate if no current is flowing. The cell. If short circuited their current will range from
acids tend to mix when the cell is idle. When stand- 7amperes with the small cells to 33 amperes for the
ing idle and not in use in aregular circuit, it is best largest, but this rate of course cannot be maintained
to connect a wire or coil of about 30 or 40 ohms long.
resistance across them.
There is anoticeable difference in the color of the
two solutions. The lower solution or copper sul-
phate should show a blue color when in good con-
dition. When it shows a brown color it indicates
that the zinc is deteriorating.
The line of separation of the twi) liquids should
be about half way between the copper and 'zinc
elements. If too low, it can be raised by adding
some copper sulphate crystals and water. If too
high, alittle can be siphoned out with asmall rubber
tube. Then short circuit the cell awhile to create
more zinc sulphate.
65. POROUS CUP CELLS
Another form of primary cell, also one of the
Daniel type, uses a porous cup or cylinder between
the positive and negative elements to separate the
solutions. (See Fig. 5).
Fig. 6. Edison Primary Cell.

The negative zinc element is amalgamated

throughout by adding mercury to it while it is being
cast. The positive element consists of a mass of
copper oxide mixed with metallic particles coated
with copper, to decrease its resistance.
After considerable use the hydrogen bubbles re-
duce the copper oxide to metallic copper, and it
must then be replaced like the zinc.
These cells are very rugged in construction and
will stand quite cold weather without freezing, so
they are often used for railway signal batteries, and
other outdoor work.
Fig. 5. Daniel Cell, in which the liquids are kept separated by a The electrolyte should be covered with a thin
porous cup.
layer of paraffin oil to prevent evaporation, and to
This cell has a porous cup to keep the two liquids stop the salts from "creeping" over the sides of
separated. Inside this cup is placed a saturate the jar.
60 Electric Cells and Batteries

mersed in the solution. If the cell is to be used on

open circuit work the element should be short cir-
cuited with a piece of wire before inserting it in the
hot solution, and the "short" left on acouple of min-
utes after the element is immersed, and then remove
the wire.
The electrolyte should be kept up to within ye of
the top of the jar at all times, and should always be
stirred after adding water.
Fig. 9 shows agroup of this type of primary cells
in use in a railway signal tower.

F.g. 7. Zinc elements of an Edison Primary cell. with "indicator

panels" which show their condition.

The zinc plates of these cells are made with spe-

cial sections or panels at the bottom edges, which
become eaten away first, as the cell is used and ex-
hausted.
This is called an indicator panel, and is very use-
ful in determining when the cells should be renewed.
Fig. 7 shows two plates at different stages of ex-
haustion. The one at the left with the panel partly
eaten away is about 85% exhausted, and the one at
the right with the panels eaten out entirely is almost
completely exhausted. They should be replaced at
once when this condition is noted.
Fig. 8 shows the renewal parts for one of these
cells. This consists of the new zinc element, a can
of caustic soda, and the bottle of oil to cover the
electrolyte surface. The soda and oil supplied are in
just the right amounts for the one cell, and the en-
tire contents should be used when renewing a cell.
In maintaining these cells and making renewals,
clean water should be used, and the soda should be
poured slowly into the water while it is being stirred
constantly, with a clean wood stick or glass rod.
This caustic soda should be handled very care-
fully, as it will burn the flesh and destroy clothing
if spilled on them.
Fig. 9. Eaton cells in railway signal towe:.
The element should hang vertically when im-
They are located in a weather proof iron box in
the lower section of the tower. Many times they
are located in concrete pits or "battery wells" along
the tracks.
67. DRY CELLS
Dry Cells are probably the most universally used
of any type, because of their great convenience and
portability.
Practically every one has seen and used them in
some device or other, such as flashlights, lanterns,
door bells, electric clocks, electric toys, gas engine
ignition systems, rural telephones, radios, etc.
r,nty
Their construction is shown in Fig. 10.
as ialrile
TORPOR ,'
,rr w The zinc element is in the form of a cylinder and
serves as the container for the rest. The other
Le• . •
1J 5 A• element is a carbon rod in the center, and around
it is packed a pasty mass of granulated carbon and
manganese dioxide, saturated with ammonium
Fig. 8. Renewal parts for Edison Primary cell, consisting of zinc,.
caustic snda and oil. chloride (Salammoniac) as the electrolyte.
 Electric Cells and Batteries 61

The manganese dioxide acts as a depolarizer and If used on a circuit or device requiring heavy
helps prevent the formation of hydrogen gas current, or if short circuited, the rate of current flow
bubbles. Other ingredients are added by various at first may be 30 amperes or more, but will fall off
manufacturers in their patented processes. very rapidly. This is because their depolarizing
Between the wet mass and the zinc container material is not strong enough to prevent the
there is a porous paper separator which allows the formation of hydrogen gas at higher rates of current
chemical action to take place, but prevents a short flow.
circuit between the carbon and zinc. If a cell which has been shorted briefly or used
The tops of these cells are sealed with compound on a heavy load, is allowed to stand a while, it will
that makes it possible to handle or place them in often recuperate or supply nearly normal current
any position. This compound will melt if the cell is again, as it has been given time to break up the gas
over heated. formation with its depolarizer chemical.
The whole cell is placed in a paper container to The life of adry cell will be much greater if used
prevent the zinc from coming in contact with other as intended, to supply small currents for short
metal objects, and to serve as a protector and periods with intervals of rest between.
insulator.
Dry cells are made in different sizes, but perhaps
68. USE AND CARE OF DRY CELLS the most commonly used is the number 6size, about
Dry cells are designed to operate on open circuit 25/2 inches in diameter and 6 inches high. This cell
systems, where current is only used occasionally when new should test volts with abattery volta-
for short periods. But they are sometimes used on meter, and 30 to 35 amperes on short circuit with a
battery ammeter.
SEAL ING
comemo
Then there are the very small sizes used in
pocket flashlights, etc. As before mentioned, radio
.4L0777/VG "B" batteries are a group of these little cells con-
PAPER
nected in series and sealed in a paper box.
CARLSON
Some dry batteries for radio and test work re-
quiring high voltages, are built of little flat cells
ZINC
cuP stacked together. These use flat plates, of zinc
and carbon with alayer of the acid paste in between,
efAmecAree for each cell. When a number of these are stacked
CAR3t0,1,
MANGANESE they are more compact and eliminate a lot of con-
diox«
necting wires. See Fig. 11, which shows acompari-
son of the old type, and the new type "layer built"
B batteries.
Fig. 10. Typical dry cell, with sectional view showing parts and
construction. Dry Cells should not be stored or located in damp
closed circuit systems where only very small places, or they will quickly deteriorate or lose their
amounts of current are required. strength.

Fig. 11. Views showing inside construction of radio "B" batteries. Compare the new "layei built" type on the left with the series grouped
cells on the right.
62 Magnetism

Their tops and terminals should be kept clean

of dirt and dampness, and terminals also kept tight.
The terminal nuts provided for easy connection
of wires are very convenient, and are sometimes
called binding posts.

69. POLARITY
The center terminal on the carbon electrode is
always positive and the one on the zinc shell is
negative. Current flows from positive to negative
outside the cell, and from zinc or negative through
Fig. 12. Six dry cells connected parallel-series, for use in an alarm
the paste to carbon or positive, in the internal cir- system.
cuit.
These cells will often decrease in strength if the external circuit, is called the Anode, and has the
stored too long on shelves before being sold, and negative terminal attached to its top.
therefore should be tested when buying. The Internal circuit of a cell includes the elec-
When the paper covering of a dry cell shows trodes and electrolyte. The External circuit refers
damp or greasy appearing spots, or if when the to the wires and devices connected to its terminals.
paper is removed, the zinc shows bulges and holes The practical man will often have many uses for
eaten through it, this shows the cell is dead or used various types of batteries in his work, and this gen-
up, and should be replaced. eral knowledge of their operation and care should
It is not practical to try to recharge dry cells, be of great value to him.
except in rare emergencies. When you have carefully studied this material
Dry cells can be adapted to many uses, and made you should feel confident of your ability to install,
to supply a wide variety of voltages or current ca- care for, test and renew any of the common primary
pacity, by proper connection in series or parallel as cells.
covered in the previous section on series and paral- Remember you are not expected to memorize all
lel circuits. Fig. 12 shows a group of six dry cells of the.material or data, but should use this set for
connected parallel-series, and ready for use in abur- reference any time necessary, when you have such
glar alarm system. problems or work ahead to do, and until practice
In dealing with any cells it is well to remember fixes them in your mind.
that the copper or carbon electrode at which current This section has dealt only with various types of
leaves the cell is called the Cathode, and has the primary cells, as storage batteries of the lead plate
positive terminal attached to its top or pole. The and acid type, and also the nickle-iron alkaline
zinc electrode at which current enters the cell from type, will be covered thoroughly in a later section.

MAGNETISM

70. MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM play such graph instruments, power and telephone relays,
an important part in the operation of many elec- magnetic tools, etc.
trical devices and machines, that every electrical 71. NATURAL MAGNETS were first found in
man should have agood understanding of them. Magnesia, acountry in Asia Minor, about 600 B. C.,
Magnetism is also an extremely interesting sub- and for this reason were called magnetite or mag-
ject, and you will really enjoy the following prac- nets. (See Fig. 1.)
tical material.
You have probably seen magnets in use in some
form or other, such as magnetic tack hammers or
toy horseshoe magnets, with their mysterious power
to attract tacks, nails, and other iron and steel
objects.
Then there are the common magnetic compass.
magnetized pocket knives and screw drivers, as well Fig. 1. Sketch of natural magnet or lodestone.
as magnets of another type in bells, buzzers, etc.
But most people without electrical training do not These first magnets were just lumps of iron ore
realize that magnets form alarge part of every elec- or oxide, which were found to have the power of
tric motor and generator, and thousands of other de- attracting small pieces of iron. Later it was also
vices such as telephone and a radio receivers, tele- discovered that if an oblong piece of this material
 Magnetism 63

was suspended by a thread, it would always turn Artificial magnets can be made by properly strok-
to a position with its length north and south. If ing a bar of steel with a lodestone or some other
moved or turned, the same end would always go magnet, or by passing electric current through a
back to point north. So its end which pointed north coil around the bar. In fact we find that a piece
was called the North seeking or North end, and of iron often becomes magnetized, just lying near
the other end the south seeking or south end. It a strong magnet. This last method is called In-
was used in this manner as a crude compass and duced Magnetism.
often called "Lodestone," meaning leading stone.
Our compasses today are Simply small steel
needles that have been permanently and strongly
magnetized, and mounted on jeweled pivots so they
are free to turn easily. They are made by the
thousands in many styles and sizes from the pocket ,ewt_mt_b,
variety used by hunters and explorers to keep their
directions, to the big elaborate ones used, to guide
our steamships and airplanes.
72. EARTH'S MAGNETISM
The earth is also a natural magnet on a huge
scale, with centers of magnetic force or attraction
on its north and south sides. (See Fig. 2.)

Fig. 3-A. Common bar magnet.

Fig. 3-B. Horseshoe magnets with "keepers" across poles.

If a small bar of soft iron is held near to, but not

touching a strong magnet, as in Fig. 4, the small
/ bar will be found to have magnetism also, and
attract nails or other iron objects. But as soon as
it is taken away from the permanent magnet, it will
I lose its charge. This is an example of induced
nrInmetism.
'

Fig. 4. '1 he small bar of iron attracting the nails, obtains its magnetism
by induction from being near the large magnet.
/

•74. MAGNET POLES

Fig. 2. Sketch showing earth's magnetic field and poles. Note that the
magnetic poles do not exactly align with the geographical poles. All magnets whether natural or artificial, usually
This is the reason for the attraction of the ends have their strongest pull or effects at their ends.
of the compass needle to a north and south posi- These ends or points of stronger attraction are
tion. But a compass does not point exactly true called Poles.
north, because the earth's magnetic centers are not Ordinary magnets usually have at least two poles,
exactly at its true north and south geographical called north and south, because of their attraction
poles, or ends of its axis. for the north and south poles of the earth.
In using a compass for accurate work, mariners, If we dip a bar magnet in a pile of iron filings
aviators, and surveyors allow a certain number of or tacks, we find it will attract them most at its
degrees for correction of this error, at various places ends, and not much in the middle. (See Fig. 5.1
on the earth. 75. ATTRACTION AND REPULSION
You will note in Fig. 2, the earth's magnetic poles If we take two magnets and suspend them so
are opposite to its geographical poles. This will they can turn freely until they come to rest with
be explained later. • their north poles pointing north, and south poles
73. ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS are made of steel pointing south, then we know that their ends which
and iron, in various forms. 'Common types are the point north are alike, as well as the two which point
straight bar and horseshoe forms. (See Fig. 3A and south.
3B.) These are usually much more powerful than Now if we mark these magnets and bring the two
the natural magnets or lodestones. north poles together, we find they will try to push
64 Magnetism

apart, or repel each other. The two south poles needle. By moving a small compass around alarge
will do the same if we bring them near each other. magnet we can determine the direction of the lines
But if we bring anorth pole of one magnet near the of force at various points. They always travel
south pole of the other they will try to draw to- through the compass needle from its south to north
0ether or attract each other.
-
pole, so it will always turn to such aposition that its
This proves one of the most important principles north pole indicates the direction the lines are trav-
or rules of magnetism often called the first law of eling. It is well to remember this, as acompass can
magnetism, as follows: Like Poles Always Repel often be used to determine the direction of magnetic
and Unlike Poles Attract Each Other. This law lines of force in testing various electrical machines.
should be remembered as it is the basis of opera- 77. MAGNETIC FIELD AND CIRCUIT
tion of many electrical machines and devices. The lines of force around a magnet are called
Prove it for yourself with magnets, at your first Magnetic Flux, and the area they occupy is called
opportunity, so ynu will remember it better. the Field of the magnet.
The strong, useful field of an ordinary magnet
may extend from afew inches to several feet around
it, but with sensitive instruments we find this field
extends great distances, almost indefinitely, but
becomes rapidly weaker as we go farther from the
magnet.
In Fig. 7, note that the lines of force through the
Fig. 5. Sketch of bar magnet showing how iron filings are attracted
almost entirely at its ends or poles.
bar or Internal path, are from the south to north
pole, and outside the magnet through the External
Refer back to Fig. 2, showing the earth's mag-
path, are from the north to south pole. This is a
netic poles and you will now understand how we
very important fact to remember.
know that the magnetic pole in the north must be
unlike the north pole of our compass, and why we
assume that the earth's magnetic poles are opposite
to its geographical poles.
76. LINES OF FORCE
Magnets do not have to be touching each other,
but will exert their force of attraction or repulsion
through a distance of several inches of air in many
experiments.
If we place a magnet under a piece of glass or
paper which is covered with iron filings, and tap or
jar it, the filings will arrange themselves as shown
in Fig. 6A and 6B.

Fig. 7. Sketch of magnetic field, showing direction of lines, inside and

outside the magnet.

We can also get further proof of the shape of this

magnetic field by floating a magnetized needle in a
cork, over a bar magnet as in Pig. 8.
If started at various points in the field the needle
will travel the lines as indicated.
The path of lines of force around and through a
magnet is often called the Magnetic Circuit.

Fig. 6-A. Iron filings on a paper over a bar magnet, show shape of lines -- - ------
of force around the magnet
Fig. 6-B. Filings over end of magnet. ,
----------- ------- ';
This gives us some idea of the shape and direc- ;•/
tion of the lines of force acting around a magnet.
,•"
For practical purposes it is assumed that all mag-
--------- ;
nets have what are called Lines of Force acting --

--- -
around and through them,iand in the direction indi-
cated in Fig. 7.
These magnetic lines are of course invisible to
the eye, and cannot be felt, but we can easily prove
Fig. 8. Floating a needle in a cork, in water over a magnet, to show
that the force is there by its effect on a compass shape of lines of force.
 Magnetism 65

78. ACTION OF MAGNETIC FIELDS Materials, and those that cannot be magnetized we
When two magnets are placed with unlike poles call Non-Magnetic Materials.
near each other as in Fig. 9, we find that their lines Iron and steel are good magnetic materials, and
of force combine in one common path through them most magnets are made from them. Nickel and
both as shown by the dotted lines. cobalt are somewhat magnetic. Brass, copper, gold,
silver, lead, wood, glass, air, etc., are all non-mag-
netic materials.
80. PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC MATE-
RIALS
Soft iron is very easily magnetized, but does not
hold its charge long. In fact it loses most of its
magnetism as soon as the magnetizing force is re-
moved.
Hard steel is much more difficult to magnetize,
but when once charged it holds its magnetism much
longer.
A good steel magnet may hold a strong charge
for many years. Such magnets are called Perma-
nent Magnets.
Fig. 9. Two bar magnets with unlike poles near each other, and Materials that hold acharge well are said to have
attracting. Note how their fields join.
high Retentivity, meaning retaining power.
These lines then seem to try to shorten their path Therefore steel has high retentivity and soft iron
still more by drawing the magnets together, thus is low in retentivity. In order to understand how
their attraction for each other. magnets become charged, and why some will hold
It may be well to consider magnetic lines of force a charge better than others, let us briefly consider
as similar in some ways to stretched rubber bands, the molecular theory of magnetism. We know that
revolving like endless belts, and continually trying all matter is made up of very small particles called
to contract or shorten themselves. molecules, and these molecules consist of atoms and
This will help to get a practical understanding electrons.
of many important effects and principles of mag- Each molecule has a polarity of its own, or might
netism, without going into lengthy and detailed be considered as a tiny magnet. In a bar of iron
theory. or steel that is not magnetized, it seems that these
If we place two magnets with their like poles molecules arrange themselves in little groups with
near each other as in Fig. 10, we find their fields their unlike poles together, forming little closed
will not join, as the lines of force are coming in magnetic circuits as in Fig. 11.
opposite directions. Therefore they crowd apart in
separate paths between the ends of the poles, and
the magnets push apart or repel each other to avoid
this conflict or crowding of the opposing fields. c."• <\ „p'e L7
cl<- ‘7.
0
e \
7
- 1
z
-,

Fig. 11. Simple sketch showing the supposed arrangement of molecules

in an untnagnetized bar of iron.

This view', of course, shows the molecules many

times larger in proportion to the bar, than they
really are.
Now when lines of force are passed through the
bar, from some other strong magnet, causing it to
become magnetized, the little molecules seem to line
up with this flux, so their north poles all point one
way and all south poles the other way. (See Fig.
12.)
Fig. 10. Two bar magnets with like poles near each other and repelling.
Note how their fields oppose.

79. MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MA-

TERIALS
In our experiments with magnets we find that
only certain materials can be magnetized or at-
tracted by magnets, while others cannot.
Those that can be magnetized we call Magnetic Fig. 12. Molecules lined up, in a fully magnetized bar.
66 Magnetism

In soft iron this change is effected very easily, many magnets in the form of a horseshoe, which
and as we have already said it can be easily mag- brings the poles closer together, greatly reducing
netized. But the molecules of iron also shift back the air gap reluctance and increasing the strength
to their natural position easily, so it quickly loses and life of the magnet. (See Fig. 14A and 14B.)
its magnetism.
With hard steel the molecules do not shift so
easily, so it is harder to magnetize, but once charged
the molecules do not shift back to their normal
position so easily, and it holds its magnetism much
better, as stated before.
When charging or making permanent steel mag-
nets, tapping or vibrating the bar slightly seems to
help speed the process. On the other hand if a
permanent magnet that has been charged, is struck
or bumped about roughly it will lose a lot of its bag. ei-A. 1.tatetin.v magnets have a much shorter flux path through
air from pole to pole.
strength, as the jarring seems to shift the molecules. Fig. I4-B. Double magnet constructed in horseshoe shape, also to
shorten its air gap.
Therefore, permanent magnets should be handled
carefully. In Fig. 14B, the bar joining the two magnets to-
The magnetism of a bar can also be destroyed gether is called a yoke. We often place a soft
iron "keeper" across the ends of horseshoe magnets
by heating it to a cherry red. This is called De-
Magnetizing. as in Fig. 15, when they are not in use, to provide a
complete closed circuit of magnetic material and
If a magnet is placed in a reversing flux or field
eliminate the air gap reluctance. This will greatly
from some source, so its charge or polarity is rapie increase the life of the magnet.
reversed, the rapid shifting of the molecules sets up
82. PULLING STRENGTH
heat. This is called Hysteresis loss. Naturally this
Horse shoe shaped magnets having unlike poles
effect is much less noticeable in soft iron than in
near each other, have a much greater lifting power
hard steel, as the molecules shift easier and with
when in contact with an iron surface, than the one
less friction and heat, in the soft iron.
end of a bar magnet does. This is because the
81. PERMEABILITY AND RELUCTANCE horseshoe type has so much better complete path
Experiments prove that magnetic lines of force of low reluctance for its lines of force, and the field
will pass through iron and steel, or magnetic mate- will be much more dense, and stronger. (Compare
rials much easier than through air, wood and brass, Fig. 15 a•,r1 16.1
or non-magnetic materials of any kind. So iron and
steel form a good path for magnetic flux, and are
said to have high Permeability, and low Reluctance.
The term reluctance means the same to magnetic
flux as resistance means to electric current.

Fig. 15. hoiseshoe magnet with keeper bar across its poles to decrease
air gap when not in use.
In Fig. 16. the lines must pass aconsiderable dis-
tance through air, which greatly weakens them. In
Fig. 15, the lines can travel entirely within aclosed
iron path or circuit of much lower reluctance, and
give a much stronger pull.
A good horseshoe magnet weighing one pound,
gi•ould lift about 25 pounds of soft iron.
trig. & B. Sketches showing how lines of force can be distorted
and made to follow the easier path through the small
iron bars.

If we place a small bar of soft iron in the field of

a larger magnet as in Fig. 13A or near the ends of
two magnets as in Fig. 13B, in both cases the lines
of force will largely choose the easier path through
the iron as shown. This can be proven by sprinkling Fig. 16. liar magnet am acting a piece ca iron. Note the tong pate
iron filings on aglass over such agroup of magnets through air, which the lines of force must take.

and iron. This not only proves that iron is of lower 83. EFFECT OF AIR GAPS
reluctance than air, but also that magnetic flux will As air is of such high reluctance it is very im-
choose the easiest path available. portant to reduce the air gaps as much as possible
Good soft iron is only about 1/2000th part as high in all magnetic circuits where we wish to obtain
reluctance as air. For this reason we construct the greatest possible strength of flux or pull.
 Magnetism 67

N o
o e 1 g
tip

•
E- 1
1

Fig. 17-A. & B. Doubling the distance between two magnets, decreases their pull to /
4
1 of what it was.

If two magnets are placed as in Fig. 17A, and oppositely magnetized so the fluxes oppose. Very
their pull measured, and then they are moved far- weak magnets may sometimes develop consequent
ther apart as in Fig. 17B, we find that the small poles. (See Fig. 19.)
increase in the distance or air gap makes a great
reduction in their pull. If the distance is doubled,
the pull is decreased to about g of what it was.
If the distance is tripled, the pull decreases to
about 1/9 of what it was.
If on the other hand we reduce the distance to Y2
its original amount, the pull will increase to 4 times
the original pull. Fig. 19. Consequent poles in a bar magnet.
So we get another very important law of mag-
If a long magnetized bar is broken into several
netism as follows:
pieces, each piece will take on separate north and
The force exerted between two magnets varies
south poles. (See Fig. 20.)
inversely with the square of the distance between
them. ---- ---
If we change the strength of the magnets we find -- -------------
their combined pull will vary with the Product of ,)
Their Separate Strengths.
..
s )
84. MAGNETIC SHIELDS -------
------ -
While iron is a good conductor of magnetic flux,
and air is a very poor one, we do not have any Fig. 20. Bar magnet broken into several pieces. Note each piece takes
on separate poles in this case.
known material that will insulate or stop magnetic
lines of force. They will pass through any mate- Two or more separate magnets with their like
rial. But we can shield magnetic flux from certain poles grouped together will in many cases give more
spaces or objects, by leading it around through an strength than asingle magnet the size of the group.
easier path. As before mentioned the line of force Such a magnet is called a Compound Magnet. (See
will largely choose the easiest path. So if we ar- Fig. 21A and 21B.)
range a shield of iron around a device as in Fig. 18,
we can distort the flux around, and prevent most of
it from entering the shielded area.

Fig. 18. Iron shield to deflect lines of force away from instrument Fig.21-A. Compound bar magnet.
or device (A). Fig. 21-B. Compound horseshoe magnet.

Quite often the magnetic field of some large gen- 85. COMPASS TEST
erator or electric machine may affect the operation When using a compass to test the polarity of
of a meter or some delicate device located near it. magnets, or the direction of flux on motors or gen-
So you should remember how to shield such instru- erators, it is well to first test the compass by letting
ments. Many meters are equipped with iron cases it come to rest in the earth's magnetism, away from
to shield their working parts in this manner. the device to be tested. Compass needles some-
Sometimes in our work with magnets we find times have their polarity reversed by the influence
evidence of more than two poles, or points of at- of strong magnets around which they are used. But
traction at other places along the magnet besides the end of the needle that points north is always
at its main poles. Such poles are called Consequent the north pole, and the one which will point in the
Poles, and are formed by adjoining sections being direction of flux travel.
68 Electro-Magnetism
z
This may seem confusing because we know un- Permalloy is another, of very low reluctance, used
like poles attract, and might wonder how the north in thin ribbon form for wrapping telephone and
pole of the compass would point to the north pole telegraph cables.
of the éarth. But remember that the magnetic pole We find a few materials that show slight proper-
of the earth which is near its north geographical ties of repulsion to either pole of a magnet. These
pole, is in reality a south magnetic pole. This was are called Diamagnetic.
illustrated in Fig. 2, and explained in Articles 72 Some of the uses of permanent magnets were
and 75. mentioned in the first part of this subject. They
are also used for fields of magnetos, in electric
86. SPECIAL MAGNETIC ALLOYS meters, for surgical instruments, and many other
There are certain patented alloys of icon and things.
steel mixed with other metals, which have very Before proceeding farther, be sure you have agood
good magnetic properties. Some of these have understanding of these important principles of mag-
higher permeability than soft iron, and others have nets and magnetism, as it will be of great value to
higher retentivity than hard steel. you in all electrical work. It will also make it easy
Cobalt Steel is one of these improved alloys, for you to understand the very interesting section
especially good for strong, permanent magnets. on Electro-Magnetism which follows.

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM

You will recall that in an earlier section we found they will point in acircle as shown in Fig. 2. These
that one of the very important effects of dynamic experiments prove the existence of this invisible
electricity, was its magnetic effect. magnetic force, and also show the circular shape of
We learned that whenever a current is passed the field around the wire. The north poles (black
through a wire, it sets up whirling lines of force ends) of the compass needles also show the direc-
around the wire. This is called Electro-Magnetism. tion the lines of force travel. If the current flow
87. MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND WIRES is stopped, the needles will all point north, but as
CARRYING CURRENT soon as current is again started they will point in
The strength of this magnetic field around a wire acircle once more.
depends on the amount of current flowing, and can
be varied at will by controlling the current flow.
The direction of the line's rotation depends on
the direction of current through the wire; reversing
if we reverse the current.
If we pass a stiff wire which is carrying current.
vertically through a piece of paper, as in Fig. 1,
and sprinkle iron filings on the paper, they will
arrange themselves in a pattern as shown.

Fig. 2. Small compass needles showing shape and direction of lines

around a conductor.

88. DIRECTION OF LINES AROUND CON-

DUCTORS
Note the direction of current in the wire in Fig.
2, and the direction the needles point. If we change
the leads at the battery, and thereby reverse the
direction of current through the wire, the needles
will at once reverse their direction also. This proves
1. Electrc magnetic lines shown by iron filings around a conductor.
that the field reverses with the current.
If we remove the filings and place several small We can see from this that if we know the direc-
compass needles on a cardboard around the wire, tion of current in any wire, we can determine the
 Electro-Magnetism 69

direction of the lines of force around it. Or if we it very well by just holding your hand near the
know the direction of flux, we can find the direction wire in a position to grasp it, and with thumb in
of current. direction of current, your finger tips will indicate
A single compass needle is all that is required the direction of flux.
to tell the direction of flux. See Fig. 3. 90. MAGNETIC FORCES BETWEEN PARAL-
LEL WIRES
If we run two wires parallel to each other, close
together, and both carrying current in opposite
directions, we find their lines of force being in oppo-
site directions tend to crowd apart, and actually
make the wires repel each other. See Fig. 5-A.
In Fig. 5-B, are shown two flexible wires sus-
pended close together, yet loosely and free to move.
When a rather heavy current is passed through
them in the direction shown by the arrows, they will
crowd apart quite noticeably. The dotted lines show
where they would hang normally when no current
is flowing.
Fig. 3. Convenient compass test for direction of flux around conductors.
Note carefully the direction of current and flux of
each end of the wire.

Here we have abent piece of stiff wire connected

to abattery by other wires. The current in the left
end is flowing away from us, and if we place acom-
pass under the wire it points to the left. If we move 1,/,'Jeji%iete

the compass above the wire it points to the right.

This proves that when current is flowing away
from you in a wire, the lines of force are revolving
Clockwise, as the hands of a clock turn.
When we try the compass on the right end of the Fr
loop where the current flows toward us, we find it A
points opposite to what it did on the left end.
Fig. 5. This sketch shows the repulsion of parallel wires, carrying
This proves that when current flows toward you current in opposite directions.
in a wire, the lines of force revolve counter clock-
If we run two wires parallel to each other, close
wise. See the lines of force indicated by the dotted
together, and both carrying current in the same di-
lines. Study this rule over carefully and start prac-
rection, we find that their lines of force tend to join
tising it at every opportunity on actual electric cir- together in one common field around both wires, as
cuits, because it will be very useful later in your
.
in Fig. 6-A and 6-B.
work on power machines and circuits.
89. RIGHT HAND RULE FOR DIRECTION
OF FLUX
Another simple rule by which you can determine
the direction of current, or flux of wires, is called the
"Right hand rule". Grasp the wire with the right
hand, with thumb pointing in the direction of cur-
rent flow, and your fingers will point in direction of
flux around the wire. (See Fig. 4-A and 4-B.)

Fig. 6. When parallel wires carry current in the same direction, their
flux tends to draw them together.

When wires are close together in this manner,

the combined path around the two is shorter than
the two separate paths around each. Then by join-
Fig. 4. "Right hand rule" for direction of flux around conductors.
ing each other, the lines avoid going in opposite
This rule should be memorized by practice. directions in the small space between the wires.
Of course in the case of a bare, uninsulated wire This flux around the two wires tends to pull them
it is not necessary to touch or actually grasp it to together, as the lines of force are always trying to
use this rule. After a little practice you can use shorten their path, as we learned before.
70 Electro-Magnetism

In Fig. 6-B, we again have the two suspended

parallel wires, this time carrying current in the
same direction, and we find they now draw toward
each other.
This magnetic force exerted between wires often
becomes very great in the heavy windings of large
power machinery, especially in ce of excessive
currents during overloads or short i -lifts. So we
find their coils are often specially bracQd to prevent
them moving due to this stress.
91. STRONG FIELDS AROUND IV•Z
We can make excellent use of this .ency of
magnetic flux, to join in a stronger cc.nrr..-11 field
around two or more wires, to create some very pow-
erful electro-magnetic fields.
One of the best ways to do this is to wind a coil
of insulated wire as shown in Fig. 7-A.

Fig. 8. Solenoid, or coil wound on a non-magnetic tube. Note the

direction of the lines, and polarity of this solenoid.

A solenoid will give a strong and fairly uniform

pull for about half its own length. This is the most
effective distance. Solenoids with movable cores
attached to levers, or handles of switches and con-
trollers, are used considerably on electrical equip-
ment.
93. ELECTRO-MAGNETS
While an iron core is inside a coil and current is
Fig. 7-A. The lines of force around the turns of a coil join together
in one very strong field. flowing, we find the iron becomes strongly mag-
Fig. 7-B. Sectional view, note how the lines join around all turns, and
the dense flux set up in the center of the coil netized due to the very dense field in which it is lo-
We can easily see that all turns of such a coil cated. But if the core is soft it loses practically all
are carrying current in the same direction on all its magnetism as soon as the current is turned off.
sides of the coil. If we split such acoil from end to Such acoil and core are called an Electro-Magnet.
end, as shown in Fig. 7-B, we can then see how the Or in other words an Electro-Magnet is a core of
flux of all the turns will unite in a common field soft iron, wound with a coil of insulated wire.
through the center of the coil and back around the Electro-magnets are the ones used in bells, buz-
zers, relays, lifting magnets, and electric motors and
outside.
generators. They can be made extremely powerful,
92. SOLENOIDS
and have the advantage of being magnetized or
Such a coil of a single layer is called a Helix.
Coils for creating strong electro-magnetic fields, are demagnetized at will, by turning the coil current on
often wound with many layers of insulated wire on or off.
The lifting magnet in Fig. 9, is an example of a
a spool of brass or fibre, or some other non-mag-
huge electro-magnet. With the current turned on
netic material. Such coils are called Solenoids. See
it is lowered to the iron it is to lift, often raising
Fig. 8.
By referring to both Figs. 7 and 8, we see that tons of metal at one time. Then when we want it
all the lines of force travel one way through the to drop the iron the current is simply turned off.
center of the coils in a very dense field, and back 94. CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE ELECTRO-
the other way outside the coil. Thus asolenoid has MAGNETS. RESIDUAL MAGNETISM.
north and south poles just as a bar magnet does. Electro-magnets for various tests or handy uses,
Now if we place an iron core inside of a solenoid can be easily made by winding a few turns of insu-
the field will at once become much stronger, as the lated wire around any soft iron core, and connecting
iron offers a much better path for the lines of force the coil ends to adry cell or storage battery. Even
than air does. When we start to insert the core in a a nail or small bolt will do, and will prove quite a
solenoid that has current flowing in it, we find it strong magnet when wound with 50 to 100 turns of
exerts a strong pull on the core, tending to draw No. 24 to 30 wire, and used with a dry cell. But
it into the coil. This seems to be an effort of the you will note that as soon as the coil is disconnected,
lines of force to draw the iron into the most dense or the battery current turned off, the core will lose
flux, which is inside the coil. practically all its noticeable magnetic strength, as
 Electro-Magnetism 71

magneto magnets, can be made of two round cores

of soft iron about 3x6 inches, wound with 500 turns
of No. 14 wire on each. They should llave a soft
iron bar lx3x8 inches bolted to their bottom ends.
and square pieces lx3x3 inches on their top ends.
Such a magnet can be used on a6-volt storage bat-
tery, and is often very handy in a garage or elec-
trical repair shop.
95. POLARITY OF ELECTRO -MAGNETS
It is very important to be able to determine the
polarity of solenoids and electro-magnets. A com-
pass will, of course, show the north pole by the
attraction of its tail or south pole. But if we know
the direction of winding of a coil, and the direction
current passes through it, we can quickly find the
correct polarity with a simple rule. This rule is
called the Right Hand Rule for Electro-Magnets.
Grasp the coil with your right hand, with the
fingers pointing around the coil in the same direc-
tion current is flowing in the wire, and your thumb
will point to the north pole of the magnet. See
Fig. 11.

Fig. 9. Electro -magnet used for handling iron and steel. This magnet
has a number of coils inside its frame or cover.

far as any attraction is concerned. However, in

reality there is almost always a very feeble charge
left in the core for a while after the current stops
flowing. This charge remaining or residing in the
core is called Residual Magnetism. The softer iron Fig. 11. Right hand rule for determining polarity of electro-magnet.
the core is made of, the less residual magnetism it Every electrical man should know this rule, as
will retain. Residual magnetism plays a very im- there are many uses for it in practical work. Prac-
portant part in the operation of many electric gen-
tice it until you can use it easily.
erators, as will be found later.
It can also be used to find the direction of current
Permanent magnets can be made by placing a
flow if you know the polarity of the magnet. In
piece of hard steel in a coil for atime, with the cur-
such a case we again grasp the coil with the right
rent turned on. Then when the current is turned
hand, thumb pointing to north pole, and the fingers
off, the hard steel being of higher retentivity than
will point in direction of current flow around the
iron, retains considerable of its charge as residual coil.
magnetism.
We already know that the flux around awire will
Powerful electro-magnets are often used to charge
reverse if we reverse the current flow. This is
permanent magnets, by holding or rubbing the mag-
equally true then of the flux around a coil or group
net to be charged on the poles of the electro-magnet.
See Fig. 10. of wires. So we can reverse the polarity of a sol-
enoid or electro-magnet at will, merely by reversing
A good charging magnet of this type for charging
the current supply wires to it.

10. Powerful electro-magnet for charging permanent magnets. The

horseshoe magnet à in position to be charged and
its poles will be as shown. Pig. 12. Electro-magnet with demagnetizing coil for destroying residual
imessedions.
72 Electro-Magnetism

Some special electro-magnets are wound with a Good magnetic iron or steel can carry about
separate demagnetizing coil, in addition to the main 100,000 lines per square inch, before reaching the
coil. practical saturation point. Therefore, if we wish
This may be a smaller coil, wound in the reverse to make electro-magnets requiring more than
direction to the main coil, so if connected just for 100,000 lines of force, we should use a core larger
an instant, after main coil is turned off, it will just than 1square inch cross sectional area. Fifteen am-
destroy the residual magnetism that might other- pere-turns per inch of core length, on a closed core
wise remain. See Fig. 12. of 1 square inch area, will produce approximately
If when switch (A) opens the main circuit at 100,000 lines of force.
(B), it is momentarily closed to (C), it will create The chart in Fig. 14, showing the lines of force
areverse flux to more quickly demagnetize the core. per square inch, produced in soft iron by various
It is also possible to wind a coil on a core so it numbers of ampere-turns, may often be very useful
will create no magnetism in the bore. See Fig. 13. to you.
Here the coil has been wound with two wires, and To read the chart select any number of ampere
their ends connected together. The current flows turns at the bottom line and run up the vertical
through an equal number of turns in each direction, lines to the curve, then to the left edge, and
so practically no magnetism will be set up in the read number of lines. Thus 5 ampere turns gives
core. Non-magnetic coils of this type are often used about 67,000 lines per square inch. 10 ampere turns
in meter construction. gives 90,000 lines. 12 ampere turns about 95,000
lines, etc.
It is interesting to note how the factors in a mag-
netic circuit can be closely compared to those of
an electric circuit. In the electric circuit, we have
pressure or Electro-Motive-Force, Current and
Resistance. In the magnetic circuit we have Mag-
neto-Motive-Force, Flux and Reluctance. And in
the electric circuit we have the units volt, ampere
and ohm, while in the magnetic circuit we have the
Ampere-Turn, Lines of Force, and Rel.
The Rel is a name often used for the unit of re-
luctance. Its symbol is R.
One rel is the amount of reluctance offered by
Fig. 13. Non-magnetic winding. One half of the turns oppose the other a prism of air or non-magnetic material, 1 inch
half, so the core does not become magnetized.
square and 3.19 inches long. We know that iron
96. UNITS, SATURATION AND STRENGTH is much lower reluctance than air, and it takes a
OF ELECTRO-MAGNETS bar of mild steel or wrought iron 1inch square and
The strength of an electro-magnet depends on 460 feet long to have a reluctance of 1 rel. Cast
the number of turns in its coil, and the amperes or iron is somewhat higher reluctance, and abar 1inch
amount of current flowing through them, or as we square and 50.7 feet long has 1rel reluctance.
say the Ampere-Turns. One ampere turn can set up one line of force in
The Ampere-Turns are the product obtained, a reluctance of 1rel.
when the amperes are multiplied by the number of
turns.
A coil of 100 turns, carrying 2 amperes, has 200
ampere-turns. (Abbreviated I.N.)
Another coil of 400 turns carrying Y2 ampere, has
200 ampere-turns.
We say therefore that the number of ampere
turns, determines the Magneto-Motive-Force. (Ab-
breviated M.M.F.) and meaning magnetizing force.
The greater the M.M.F. or number of ampere-
turns we apply to agiven core, the stronger magnet
it becomes, up to certain limits.
As we go on increasing the ampere-turns and
strength of a magnet, the lines of force in its core
become more and more dense and numerous. After
we reach a certain point in flux density, we find a Fig. 14. Curve showing number of lines of force that can be set up in
soft sheet iron, with various numbers of snipers turns.
further considerable increase of ampere turns of
the coil, does not cause much increase of flux in the 97. PRACTICAL ELECTRO -MAGNET CAL-
core, as we have apparently reached its practical CULATIONS
limit in the number of lines it can carry. This is To calculate the total flux or lines of force in a
called the Saturation-Point. magnetic circuit we can use the following formulas:
 Electro-Magnetism 73

figure 72,134,000, which is a "constant,' determined

by test of the ratio of lines to lbs.
From this we get the very useful formula:
In which: Area X (Flux Density) 2
4, equals flux in lines of force. Pounds Pull —
M equals MMF in ampere turns. 72,134,000
R equals reluctance in rels. (Note, the flux density is to be squared or multi-
For example, if we have 1200 ampere turns plied by itself.)
M.M.F., on a magnetic circuit of .03 rel, what If a magnet has a pole area of 4 square inches
would be the total flux? and a flux density of 100,000 lines per square inch,
1200 what would be its lifting power?
4, = or Flux — or 40,000 lines. 4 X 100,000 2
.03 Lbs. or 554.5 + pounds.
In order to be able to calculate the reluctance of 72.134.000
a magnetic circuit, we must know the Reluctivities So we find that a good magnet should lift over
of common magnetic and non-magnetic materials. 138 pounds per square inch of pole surface.
Non-magnetic materials all have a reluctivity of We can usually depend on a lift of over 100
about .313 rel, per inch cube. pounds per square inch even though the magnet
Mild steel or wrought iron usually has a reluc- is only working at a density of 90,000 lines per
tivity of about .00018 rel, per inch cube, and cast square inch. This, of course, means the lift obtain-
iron .00164 rel per inch cube, under favorable con- able when both poles of the magnet are actually in
ditions. But of course, the values vary somewhat good contact with the iron to be lifted.
with the density of the flux used in the metals. You have now learned how to use the units Am-
Knowing these values, the reluctance of a core pere-turn, lines of force, and rel, to calculate flux
can be found as follows:— and pull of magnets by simplified formulas.
vX L 99. C. G. S. UNITS
R It may be well to mention here another set of
A units used in some cases instead of those above
In which :
mentioned.
R equals rels.
These are the Gilbert, Maxwell, and Oersted.
v equals reluctivity of core per inch cube.
The Gilbert is a unit of M.M.F., similar to the
L equals length of core in inches.
ampere-turn, but one ampere-turn is larger, and
A equals cross sectional area of core in square
equal to 1.257 Gilbert.
inches.
The Maxwell is a unit of flux, or the same as one
If you wish to make a magnet using a wrought
line of force.
iron core 2x2x8 inches, what would the core reluc-
The Oersted is a unit of reluctance, and is the
tance be?
reluctance of 1cubic centimeter of air or non-mag-
•y X L .00018 X8 netic material.
R ,or R = or .00036 rel.
This second set of magnetic units are from the
A 4
If the same magnet has an air gap of about C.G.S. (Centimeter, gram, second) system of units,
2x2x1 inches, what would the total reluctance of and can be used for practically the same purpose
the circuit be, including the core and air? as the ampere-turn, line of force, and rel. They
merely differ slightly in size, the same as the centi-
y XL .313 x 1"
R ,or R = — .07825 rel. meter and the inch are both units of measurement,
A 4 only of different sizes.
reluctance of air core. The practical man will probably find the ampere-
Then .00036 plus .07825 = .07861 rel reluctance of turn, lines of force, and rel, much easier units to
total circuit. use, because they deal with square inches instead
If you wind 1000 turns of wire on this core, and of centimeters, and the ampere-turn is so easily
pass 5 amperes of current through the coil, how understood, as a unit of M.M.F. The other units
much flux will be set up? are merely mentioned and explained here, so if
5 amps x 1000 turns equals 5000 ampere turns you see or hear them used from time to time you
or I.N., and I.N. also equals M or MMF. will understand their meaning.
Then from our formula for determining flux: Direct current is best for operation of Electro-
5000 magnets, as its steady flow gives a much stronger
4, = or flux -= or 63,605 lines. pull per ampere-turn, than alternating current.
.07861 However, many A. C. magnets are used on motor
98. LIFTING POWER controllers, relays, circuit breakers, etc.
The pulling or lifting power of a magnet de- 100. MAGNET WINDING AND REPAIRS
pends on the flux density in lines per square inch, In making electro -magnets the core should be of
and the area of the poles in square inches. Then good soft iron, and covered with one or more lay-
to determine the actual lift in pounds we use the ers of oiled paper or varnished cloth insulation.
74 Electro-Magnetism

This will prevent the wires of the first layer of turns and same size of wire as you remove. Other-
winding from becoming grounded or shorted to the wise the repaired coil may overheat or not have the
core, if their insulation should become damaged. proper strength.
Some sort of end rings should be provided to If the wire removed is coarse, the turns can
hold the ends of the winding layers in place. Hard usually be carefully counted. If it is very fine and
fibre is commonly used for this purpose. See Fig. perhaps many thousands of turns, it can be accur-
15, which shows a sectional view of an electro- ately weighed, and the same amount by weight,
magnet. replaced.
Some magnet coils are wound with thin insula- The size of the wire used for the repair should
tion between each layer of wire, and some are be carefully compared with that removed, by use
wound without it. It is not absolutely necessary to of a wire gauge or micrometer.
have the turns of each layer perfectly flat and even, The same grade of insulation should be used
as they are in machine wound coils, to make agood also, because if thicker insulation is used it may be
magnet. But they should be wound as smooth and difficult to get the full number of turns back on the
compact as possible. coil, or it may overheat, due to the different heat
carrying ability of the changed insulation.
101. TESTING COILS FOR FAULTS
It is very simple to test any ordinary magnet coil
for "open circuits," "grounded circuits" or "short

1
WINDINGS

0000 00000000000 •dLAYÉR

I5ER COLLAR
circuits," commonly referred - to as opens, shorts,
•••••••••••••••• INSULATION
ORE INSULATION and grounds.
CORE
A test lamp or battery and buzzer can be used for
most of these tests.

I
k•fieilkïfikSfiMefi±il See Figs. 16-A, B and C.
•000000000000000•
In Fig. 16-A, the coil has a break or "open," and
a battery and test lamp or buzzer connected to its
ends, will not operate, as current cannot pass
through. If the coil was good and not of too high
Fig. 13. Sectional view of electro-magnet, showing core, Insulation and resistance, the lamp or buzzer should operate. In
winding. testing coils of very high resistance, a high voltage
Magnet wires, with insulation of cotton, silk, magneto and bell are often used instead of the bat-
enamel, or combinations of cotton-enamel or silk- tery and lamp.
enamel, are used for winding electro-magnets. In Fig. 16-B, the insulation of one turn of the coil
Enamel is excellent electrical insulation, takes up has become damaged, and allows the wire to touch
the least space in the coil, and carries heat to the the core. This is called a "ground."
outside of coil very well. Therefore it is ideal for With one wire of the lamp and battery circuit
many forms of compact coils, of fine wires. But the connected to the core, and the other connected to
cotton or silk covered wires are easier to handle either coil wire, the lamp will light, showing that
and wind, as they stand the mechanical abuse some part of the coil touches the core and completes
better. the circuit. If there were no grounds and the insu-
When winding amagnet coil with very fine wires lation of the entire coil was good, no light could
which are easily broken, it is well to splice a piece be obtained with this connection, to one coil lead
of heavy flexible wire to the fine wire, for both and the core.
starting and finishing leads of the coil. The piece
of heavier wire used in starting the coil should
be long enough to make several turns around the
core, to take all strain off the fine wire in case of
a pull on this end wire. Then wind the fine wire
over the "lead in" wire, and when the coil is finished
attach another piece of heavy wire, and wrap it
several times around the coil, to take any possible Fig. lb. Methods of testing coils for faults.

strain on this outer "lead" wire. Any splices made In Fig. 16-C, the coil has developed two grounds
in the coil should be carefully done, well cleaned, at different places, thus "shorting" out part of the
and soldered, so they will not heat up, arc or burn turns, as the current will flow from X to X1 through
open, after the coil is finished and in service. A the core, instead of around the turns of wire. With
layer of tape or varnished cloth should be put over the battery and lamp connected as shown this would
the outside of the coil to protect the wires from usually cause the lamp to burn alittle brighter than
damage. when connected to a good coil. If a good coil of
When repairing and rewinding magnet coils from the same type and size is available, a comparative
motors, controllers, relays, or any electrical equip- test should be made.
ment, be careful to replace the same number of Some of the turns being cut out by the "short"
 Electro-Magnetism 75

reduces the coils resistance, and more current will opposite to create unlike poles adjacent, to allow
flow through the lamp. In some cases a low read- a complete magnetic circuit from one to the other.
ing ammeter is used instead of the lamp, to make Note carefully the path of the flux in each case.
a more accurate test. If you have carefully studied this section on mag-
Short circuits may also occur by defective insu- netism and electro-magnetism, you have gained
lation between two or more layers of winding, al- some very valuable knowledge of one of the most
lowing the turns to come together and possibly important subjects of electricity.
shorting out two or more layers, thus greatly weak- You will undoubtedly find many definite uses for
ening the coil and causing overheating. this knowledge from now on, and it will be a great
Figs. 17, 18, 19 and 20, show several types of help in understanding electrical machines of prac-
electro-magnets. tically all kinds.
Note carefully the windings and direction of cur-
rent flow in each of these magnets, and check the
polarity of each with your right hand rule. This
will be excellent practice and help you to remem-
ber this valuable rule.
The two coils on the double magnet in Fig. 17,
are wound in opposite directions to create unlike
poles together at the lifting ends. This is very
important and necessary, or otherwise the magnet
would have like poles, and not nearly as strong
attraction or pull. The coils of the telephone re-
ceiver and bell, in Fig. 19, are also wound oppositely
for the same reason.
Those in the motors in Fig. 20 are wound Fig.17. Double and single electro-magnets.

Fig. 19. Sketches showing use of electro-magnets in telephone receiver

Fig. 18. Plunger type magnet at left. Shell type magnet at right and dora bell.

Fig. 20-A. Flux path in a simple early type of motor. Fig. 20-B. Note the several flux paths in this modern 4 pole motor frame and poles.
76

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electro-magnetic induction is another very inter- and current, merely by reversing the direction of
esting and important subject. This is the prin- movement of the wire.
ciple used in all of our power plant generators, A simple rule to determine the direction of the
motors, transformers and many other electrical voltage induced, when the direction of the lines of
machines. • force and movement of the conductor are known,
102. GENERATING ELECTRIC PRESSURE is as follows:
BY INDUCTION Consider the lines of force as similar to moving
If we move a piece of wire through magnetic rubber belts, and the wire as a pulley free to re-
lines of force as in Fig. 1, so the wire cuts across volve when it is pushed against the belts. (See
the path of the flux, a voltage will be induced in Fig. 2.)
this wire. Faraday first made this discovery in Assume (A) and (B) to be the ends of wires
1831. to be moved. (A) is moving upwards against lines
of force traveling to the right. Then its imaginary
rotation would be clockwise as indicated by the
arrows around it, and this will be the direction the
lines of force will revolve around the conductor
from its own induced current. Then remembering
our rule from the section on electro-magnetism, we
know that clockwise flux indicates current flowing
away from us.

s••• -

Fig. 1. When a wire is moved through magnetic flux, voltage is

N S
generated in the wire.

If we connect a sensitive voltmeter to this wire,

thus completing the circuit, the needle will indi- At

cate a flow of current every time the wire is moved

across the lines of force. This induction, of course,
Fig. 2. Sketch of conductors moving through flux, as in a simple
only generates electrical pressure or voltage in the generator. Note direction of induced pressure.

wire, and no current will flow unless the circuit is

Wire (B) is moving down against the lines of
complete as shown in Fig. 1. So it is possible to
force, so if it were to be revolved by them it would
generate voltage in a wire, without producing any
turn counter clockwise. As this would be the di-
current, if the circuit is open.
rection of flux around the wire from its induced
In fact we never do generate current, but instead
current, it indicates current would flow toward us.
we generate or set up the pressure, and the pres-
Another rule that is very convenient, is the right
sure causes current flow if the circuit is completed.
hand rule for induced voltage, as follows:
But it is quite common to use either the term
Hold the thumb, forefinger and remaining fingers
induced voltage, or induced current. This is all
of the right hand, at right angles to each other.
right and sometimes simpler to state, if we simply
Then let the forefinger point in the direction of
remember that current always results from the
flux travel, the thumb in direction of movement of
production of pressure first, and only when the cir-
the wire, and remaining fingers will point in the
cuit is closed.
direction of the induced pressure. (See Fig. 3.)
103. DIRECTION OF INDUCED PRESSURE In the illustration the flux moves to the left, the
AND CURRENT wire moves up, and the current in the wire would
Referring again to our experiment in Fig. 1, if be flowing toward you, as indicated by the three
we move the wire up through the flux the meter remaining fingers.
needle reads to the left of zero, which is in the Practice this rule, as you will find a great
center of the sçale. If we move the wire down deal of use for it on the job, in working with motors,
through the flux, the needle reads to the right. If generators, etc.
we move the wire rapidly up and down, the needle
will swing back and forth, to left and right of the 104. AMOUNT OF PRESSURE GENERATED
zero mark. This proves that the direction of the DEPENDS ON SPEED AT WHICH
induced pressure and resulting current flow, de- LINES ARE CUT
pends on the direction of movement through the Referring back again to Fig. 1, if we hold the
magnetic field, and that we can reverse the voltage wire still, even though in the magnetic field, no
 Electro-Magnetic Induction 77

Fig. 3. Right hand rule for direction of induced voltage. Compare

position of fingers with direction of flux and wire movement.
Fig. 4-A. Using several wires connected in series to obtain higher
pressure will be generated. Or if we move the induced voltage.
Fig. 4-B. Coil of several turns, as used In generators.
wire to right or left, parallel to the path of the flux,
no pressure will be produced. So we find that the Assume that the coil A, B, C, D in Fig. 5A, re-
wire must cut across the flux path to generate volves to the right, or clockwise. The wire A. B,
voltage, or as we often say it must be "Cutting" will be moving upward through the flux, and the
the lines of force. induced pressure will be in the direction indicated
The faster we move the wire through the mag- by the arrow on it.
netic field, or the stronger the field and greater the
number of lines of force, the farther the meter
needle moves.
So the amount of pressure or voltage produced by
electro-magnetic induction, depends on the speed
with which lines of force are cut, or the number
of lines cut per second.
A very important rule to remember is that one
conductor cutting 100,000,000 lines of force per
second will produce 1volt pressure.
This probably seems to be an enormous number
of lines to cut to produce one volt, but we do not
actually have to use one magnet with that many
lines of force, as we can speed up the movement
Fig. 5-A. Simple electric generator of one single wire loop, in the flux
of the conductor in an actual generator, so fast that of a strong permanent magnet.
it will pass many magnet poles per second. Fig. 5-B. Here the coil has revolved one-half turn farther than in (A).

We can also add the voltage of several wires Wire C, D, is moving downward, and its induced
together by connecting them in series in the form pressure will be in the reverse direction, but will
of coils. (See Fig. 4A and 4B.) join with, and add to that of wire A, B, as they
Here we have three separate wires all of which are connected in series in the loop. Note that the
are moved upwards through the flux at once, and current flows to the nearest collector ring, and out
we find an equal amount of pressure is induced in along the lower wire to the lamp, returning on the
each, all in the same direction. Then when we upper wire to the farthest collector ring and the
connect them all in series as shown, so their volt- coil.
ages will all add up in the same direction in the In Fig. 5B. is shown the same coil after it has
circuit, our meter reads three times as much voltage turned one-half revolution farther, and now wire
as it did with one wire. Generator coils are often A, B, is moving downward instead of up as before.
made with many hundreds of turns so connected, Therefore, its pressure and current are reversed.
thus obtaining very high voltage. The wire C, D, is now in position where A, B was
before, and its pressure is also reversed. This time
105. SIMPLE GENERATOR PRINCIPLES
we find that the current flows out to the farthest
In Fig. 5A and Fig. 5B, are. shown single turn collector ring, and over the top wire to the lamp,
coils A, B, C, D, arranged to be revolved in the returning on the lower wire.
field of permanent magnets. The ends of the coils
are attached to metal slip rings which are fastened 106. ALTERNATING CURRENT AND DI-
to the shaft, and revolving with it. This gives a RECT CURRENT
connection from the moving coils to the lamp cir- So we see that as the conductors of such a sim-
cuits by means of metal or carbon brushes rubbing ple generator revolve, passing first anorth pole and
on the slip rings. then a south, their current is rapidly reversed.
78 Electro-Magnetic Induction

Therefore we call the current it produces alternat-

ing current, abbreviated A. C.
If we wish to obtain direct current (D. C.), we
must use a commutator or sort of rotary switch,
to reverse the coil leads to the brushes as the coil
moves around. All common generators produce
A. C. in their windings, so we must convert it in
this manner if we wish to have D. C. in the ex-
ternal circuit. (See Fig. 6A and 6B.)

Fig. 7. Induction experiment, moving the magnet and its field instead
of the wire.

When we close the switch the current starts to

flow in wire "B," building up its magnetic field
around it. In building up, these lines seem to
expand outward from the wire, cutting across wire
"C," and the meter will show a momentary deflec-
tion when the switch is closed.
Fig. 6-A and B. Single loop generators with simple commutators, for
producing direct current. Note how current continues in same After the flux has been established the meter
direction through the lamp, at both positions of the coil. needle drops back to zero, and remains there as
Here again we have arevolving loop. In Fig. 6A, long as the current in wire "B" does not change.
the wire A, B is moving up, and its current is flow- This shows that no induction takes place unless
ing away from us, and that of C. D. toward us. The the current is changing, causing the flux to expand
coil ends are connected to two bars or segments or contract and cut across the wire.
of a simple commutator, each wire to its own sepa- When we open the switch interrupting the cur-
rate bar. With the coil in this position, the cur- rent flow, and allowing the flux to collapse around
rent flows out at the right hand brush, through the wire "B," the meter needle reads in the opposite
lamp to the left, and re-enters the coil at the left direction to what it did before. Then it drops back
brush. to zero once more after the flux has died down.
In Fig. 6B, the coil has moved one-half turn to the If we open and close the switch rapidly, causing
right, and wire A, B is now moving down, and its a continual variation in current and flux of wire
current is reversed. However, the commutator "B," the meter needle will swing back and forth,
bar to which it is connected has also moved arour showing that we are inducing alternating current
with the wire, so we find the current still flows in in wire "C." This is the principle on which induc-
the same direction in the external circuit through tion coils and power transformers operate.
the lamp.

107. INDUCTION COILS

Now did you think of this?
If moving a wire through lines of force will in-
duce pressure in the wire, why wouldn't it also
generate pressure if the wire was stationary, and
the flux moved back and forth across it?
That is exactly what will happen. (See Fig. 7.)
Here we move the magnet up and down, causing
the lines of force to cut across,the wire which is
stationary, and again we find that the meter needle
swings back and forth. This proves that pressure
is generated whenever lines of force are cut by a
wire, no matter which one it is that moves. Fig. 8-A and B. Sketch showing how induction takes place between two
wires, when current and flux are varied.
You also know that every wire carrying current
has flux around it. If we arrange two coils as in Fig. 9, we find the
Now if we place one wire which is carrying cur- induction between them much greater than with
rent, parallel and near to another wire, its flux the single straight wires, because of the stronger
will encircle the wire that has no current. (See field set up around coil A, and the greater number
Fig. 8A and 8B.) of turns in coil "B" which are cut by the flux. The
 Electro-Magnetic Induction 79

meter will now give a much stronger reading when A condenser is shown at "t." Its purpose is tu
the switch is opened and closed. reduce sparking at the interrupter contacts, and
In Fig. 9, coil A, which is said to be excited or cause a quicker collapse of primary flux when the
energized by the battery, is called the "Primary." current is interrupted. The action of such con-
Coil "B," in which the voltage is induced by the densers will be more fully explained later.
flux of the primary, is called the "Secondary. 109. TRANSFORMERS, also operate on this
principle of electro-magnetic induction. Trans-
formers are used to increase or decrease the pres-
sure or voltage of electric circuits, for many pur-
poses. They range in size from the little bell ring-
ing type, to those of several kilowatts capacity,
located on the poles and supplying power and light
current to our homes; and on up to those of many
1
,1g. 9. induction ti..tween two coils. A as the "primary coil" in which
exciting current flows. B is the "secondary coil" in which thousands of kilowatts, for the high voltages of
current is being induced.
our great power transmission lines.
108. HIGH VOLTAGE SPARK COILS In Fig. 11, is shown a simple transformer illus-
The greater number of turns we use in the sec- trating in general the construction and principle
ondary coil, the higher will be the induced voltage. of all common types. Here the primary and sec-
This is due to the fact that all the turns are affected ondary coils are wound on opposite legs of aclosed
by the flux, and all are in series, so the voltages iron core. This. core serves to carry the flux of
induced in each turn are added, giving a pressure the primary, over to the secondary coil. Such trans-
equal to their sum at the coil ends. formers operate on alternating current, so they do
In this manner we can get very high voltages by not need an interrupter, as alternating current is
winding the primaries and secondaries of induc- continually reversing in direction, and varying in
tion coils or transformers with proper ratios, or amount. As the current in the primary coil re-
numbers of turns. This is called stepping up the verses, and increases and decreases, its flux whips
voltage. Of course when we increase the voltage back and forth across the turns of the secondary,
in this manner, the current in the secondary de- inducing alternating current in them.
creases proportionately, or by the same proportion
as the voltage is increased. Thus the watts remain
the same except for slight losses in the coils.
In Fig. 10, is shown the construction of a simple
type of spark coil. The iron core (A) is made of
soft iron strips called Laminations, or sometimes
of iron wires bundled tightly. The primary co;
which is a few turns of rather heavy wire, is wound
over the insulated core. Then after a layer of good
insulation is placed over the primary, the secondary
coil is wound over it all. This secondary usually
Mtg. 11. Core and windings of a simple transformer.
consists of several thousand turns of very fine wire.
and may have a pressure of several thousand volts Transformers of various types will be covered
induced in it. thoroughly in a later section, but be sure to obtain
a good knowledge of this principle of electro-mag-
netic induction, as you will use it in many ways
in your work from now on.
Now if you have studied carefully and thoroughly
each part of this elementary section, you can feel
that your time has been very well spent. Noth-
ing is so essential to the practical man as a good
general knowledge of the fundamental and im-
portant principles of electricity, covered in this
section.
tg. 10. Diagrtun of a spark coil, showing primary and secondary coils With a good understanding of these things you
and make and break contacts.
can proceed into the following sections and easily
Such.high voltages will cause ahot spark through understand them. You will also find that some of
an air gap, as at "D." these same simple principles will clear up many
An interrupter to make and break the circuit trouble shooting and operating problems in the
rapidly, is shown at "B." This interrupter is oper- field, that would otherwise be very mysterious and
ated or kept vibrating by the magnetism set up in difficult. This is where the trained man has the
the iron core. It serves to keep the current and advantage, and is well repaid for all his efforts and
flux of the primary continually changing, to accom- study, by being able to solve the problems that stick
plish induction. many an "old timer."
80

SIGNAL SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT WORK

Great Opportunities In Signal Field

The field of electric signalling is a very broad This however is a great mistake, and signal wir-
one, covering everything from simple door bells and ing and maintenance should not be overlooked just
call systems to elaborate burglar alarm, telephone because one may be interested in wiring or power
and railway signal systems. work.
Every year many millions of dollars are spent in You may plan or hope to have abusiness of your
new installations and expansion in these branches, own some day. It requires but very little capital
creating new jobs for many more trained men to start a business in this line, and many of our
yearly. graduates are making good money specializing in
There are millions of homes with their door bell this work in a business of their own. Others, who
systems and some of them with burglar alarm Ire working at some other line of electricity, do
equipment to be maintained, and thousands of new alarm and bell wiring jobs as a side line, and make
homes being built each year. extra money. Often in this way they gradually
Hotels, office buildings, department stores, thea- build up a full time business of their own.
tres and hospitals have elaborate signal systems.
Signal work of any kind requires a good knowl-
Banks, stores, and offices have their burglar alarm
edge of blue print reading and circuit tracing and
systems. Fire and police departments also have
testing, and needs men who know definite methods
special signal networks.
of wiring equipment from a print, and how to sys-
Then there are the railroads with their block sig-
tematically "shoot trouble."
nals, crossing alarms and automatic train con-
trol equipment, to provide greater safety in the Even though you may not specialize in signal
operation of trains. work, and no matter what line of electrical work
The telephone and telegraph field is one of the you follow, the principles of these signal systems
largest branches of the electrical industry and em- and the knowledge of circuit tracing and testing
ploys many thousands of trained electrical men. this section gives you will be very necessary and
So you see the general field of signal work is far valuable.
greater than many people realize, and offers inter-
The general electrician or foreman often encoun-
esting work at good pay in all parts of the country,
ters a job of installation or repair on some signal
and also splendid opportunities for a business of
system, even though his principal work is on power
your own.
equipment.
Many men entering electrical work overlook this
branch, thinking it is of small importance because So make a very careful study of every part of
of the small size of the equipment, and the low this section if you wish to qualify for success in
voltage it uses. this branch of Electricity.
 81

1
j.

(
e
>P1

q .

Sectional view of a house showing the wiring for doorbells, burglar alarm and telephone. These are three of the most common signal
conveniences in the home.

CALL AND SIGNAL SYSTEMS

In obtaining a knowledge of signal systems, we

have to deal with the equipment or devices used,
and also the circuits or methods of connection.
There are a number of very interesting devices
used in this work and you should become thor-
oughly acquainted with the operation, care, and
purpose of each. With this knowledge and a good
understanding of fundamental circuits you can lay
out and install most any common signal system.
The more common pieces of equipment are bat-
teries or transformers, switches of various types,
bells, buzzers, relays, drop relays, annunciators, etc.
The circuits are series or parallel, which you
already know something about, and "closed" and
"open" circuits, which will be explained later.

1. SIMPLE CALL BELL

One of the simplest of all signal systems, is the
ordinary door bell or call bell.
Such an installation requires an ordinary bell, a
dry cell, aswitch, and afew pieces of wire as shown
in Figure 1.
82 Section One, Simple Door Bell

So we find that this very simple system has a cell terminal to the bell, and back through the
variety of valuable uses. switch to the negative side of the cell. The arrows
along the straight lines, representing wires, show
the direction of current flow.
In Reading any electrical diagram from now
on, practice Tracing Out the current flow in
this manner. First locate and recognize all the
parts by their symbols, and if there are any open
switches, imagine that you close them. Then start-
ing at the battery, trace the current flow along the
wires and through the devices, always returning to
the opposite side of the battery from the one at
which you started. Remember that unless you
have such a complete circuit no current will flow.

Fig. 1. Materials and parts for a simple doorbell or call system. Note
how the dry cell, bell and button are connected.

2. USE OF PLANS AND SYMBOLS

\Vhen the equipment for any signal system is Fig. 2. Sketch showing the connections and circuit of simple doorbell
pictured as in Fig. 1, it is of course easy to recog- system.

nize each part, and also to connect the wires as 3. COMMON DEVICES IN SIGNAL
shown. But we must have some form of plan or CIRCUITS
sketch to do such work from, that can be made Now let's find out more about each of the devices
quicker and cheaper than photographs. So we have used in this simple system just covered, and also
certain little marks or signs which we use to indi- others.
cate the different pieces of equipment in blue prints \Ve can readily see that the principal parts which
or job plans and sketches. These marks are called we must have for any electric signal system are
Symbols. a source of current supply, a means of control, and
As practically all new electrical installations a device to transform the electric energy into a
now-a-days are made from prints or plans, the man signal.
who knows these symbols and can read prints has
agreat advantage over the untrained man who can- 4. BATTERIES FOR CURRENT SUPPLY
not. Dry cells are very commonly used to supply cur-
In Figure 2 is shown a simple sketch of the same rent to ordinary door bell and call systems of the
door bell system as in Figure 1. "open circuit" type, where current is only required
This sketch uses the symbols for the various for occasional short intervals. Figure 3 shows two
parts, and can be quickly and easily made, and also dry cells. You are already familiar with the care
easily understood, with a little practice. and operation of these cells from a previous section.
The part marked "A" is the symbol for a cell, (Elementary Section 6, Article 68.) When two or
the long line representing the positive terminal at more cells are used they can be connected series
which the current leaves, and the short line the or parallel according to the voltage and current
negative terminal. "B" is the symbol for the bell, requirements of the signal device. These connec-
and "C" for the switch. tions were also covered in a previous section on
The heavy top line of the switch represents the Series and Parallel Circuits. Figure 4, however,
movable contact. The arrow underneath represents shows two groups of three cells each, one group
the stationary contact. Note that the arrow does connected series, and the other parallel.
not touch the upper part, showing that the switch Dry cells should not be used in closed circuit
is open as it should be normally. Imagine that systems, except where'the current requirements are
you were to press down on this top part causing exceedingly small.
it to touch the arrow and close the circuit. Current Primary cells of the "gravity" type or the "Edi-
would immediately start to flow from the positive son" type are often used in closed circuit systems
 Section One, Batteries and Current Supply 83

because they will stand the continuous current re-

quirements much better than dry cells. The opera-
tion and care of these cells were also covered in a
previous section. (Elementary Section 6.)

Fig. 5. Photo of low voltage motor generator set and switchboard, used
for supplying energy to large signal systems.

6. BELL TRANSFORMERS
Bell Transformers are very commonly used
Fig. 3. Two common dry cells such as used extensively in signal systems. to supply current to ordinary door bell and
One is cut away to show terminal strip attached to the zinc.
simple call systems. These transformers operate
from the 110 volt A.C. lighting circuits and reduce
Storage batteries are often used in signal systems
the voltage to that required for the signal bells
where the current requirements are quite heavy.
or lamps.
Their care and charging will be covered later.

5. MOTOR GENERATORS FOR SIGNAL Lure To u0VOLT

SYSTEMS
SCPPL

In very large signal systems Motor-Generator sets

are often used to supply the necessary current.
=
These consist of a motor operated from the usual Jroease
Warrens
110 or 220 volt current supply in a building, and Umeragree

driving a generator which supplies from 2 to 30

volts D.C. to operate the signals. (See Figure 5.)

Fig. 4. Diagram of motor generator and storage battery connected

together for dependable energy supply to large signal ysterns.

Figure 7 shows two common types of door bell

transformers.
A number of these transformers have three sec-
ondary wires, or "leads," giving 6, 8, or 14 volts
Fig. 4. Sketch showing method of connecting groups of dry cells in with different connections. Others give still higher
series or parallel, to obtain proper voltage or
current for various signals. voltages. Where higher voltage bells or lamps are
used, or where the line is long, the higher voltage
Storage batteries are often used with motor "leads" on the transformer should be used.
generators, to supply current for short periods when In Figure 8 is shown a sketch of the windings
the motor-generator might be shut down. and connections of a very common type of bell
Figure 6 shows a storage battery connected in transformer. The primary winding "P" consists of
parallel with aD.C. generator so that the generator, about 1800 turns of No. 36 wire. The secondary
while operating, will keep the battery fully charged. winding consists of 235 turns of No. 26 wire, and
Then, when the generator is stopped for any reason, has a "tap" or connection at the 100th turn. The
the battery supplies the current to the signals. The core legs are about Y2 in. x l4 in. in size and 254
generator should be disconnected from the battery in. long.
when it is stopped, so the battery will not discharge Transformers can only be used where there is
through the generator winding. electric supply in the building, and only on A.C.
 Section One, Transformers

They will not operate on direct current supply. not be operated satisfactorily with transformers, as
and in fact, will "burn out" quickly if connected they require the continuous pull of D. C. on the
to a D.C. line. relay magnets. Batteries or motor generators are
required for such systems.
7. CURRENT SUPPLY TROUBLES
When signal systems fail to operate, the trouble
can very often be traced to a weak or dead battery,
burned out transformer, or blown fuse in the light-
ing circuit to which the transformer primary is
connected. Cells and batteries can be quickly and
easily tested right at their terminals with a bell or
buzzer, low reading voltmeter, or battery ammeter.

Fig. 7. Two different types of low voltage bell transformers. These

reduce the voltage of an A. C. lighting circuit to
8, and 14 volts for operation of bells.

For special uses transformers are obtainable with

taps and a switch to vary the voltage in a number
of steps. One of this type is shown in Figure 9.
Several other types are shown in Figure 10.
Fig. IL Low voltage transformer with "taps"
Two of these, on the left, are mounted right on for obtaining various voltages.
covers of "outlet boxes" for convenience in install-
ing and attaching them to the lighting circuits, A transformer can be tested with a bell, buzzer or
which are run in conduit, or protective iron piping. low voltage test lamp for the secondary test, or a
The other is built in a box with fuses. 110 volt test lamp for the primary test.
When "shooting" trouble on any defective signal
system, you should never fail to check the source of
current supply first of all.
8. SIGNAL SWITCHES
Now that we know something of the different sources
of current supply for signal systems, let us consider
the means of control or switches used.
Referring again to Figure 2, the purpose of the
switch, as we have already mentioned, is to close
and open the circuit, and start or stop the current
flow, thus causing the bell to ring when desired.

Fig. S. Sketch showing windings and connections of a bell transformer.

All of the various sources of current supply above Fig. le. Three types of bell transformers which are built in the covers
of standard outlet boxes for conduit wiring.
mentioned are low voltage devices, usually furnish-
ing from 6 to 20 volts, as most bells and signal This type of switch is called a Push Button
lamps are made to operate at these low voltages. switch. Figure 11 shows the operating parts of
Special bells are made, however, for 110 volt such a switch with the cover removed, and also the
operation. But a low voltage bell should never assembled switch. The upper left part shows the
be connected directly to a lighting circuit, as it contact springs, mounted on an insulating base of
will immediately burn out, and possibly blow the hard fibre. The short lower contact is called the
fuses or do other damage. stationary one, and the longer upper spring is called
Certain types of signal systems using relays can- the movable contact.
 Section One, Push Button Switches 85

pressed it breaks the closed circuit and closes the

open circuit.
In Figure 12 is shown a double circuit switch.
This switch is used in certain types of signal and
alarm systems, where we wish to open one circuit
and close another at the same time.
Referring to the figure, you will see that it has
a large movable contact, and one open contact un-
derneath, and also a closed contact above the
movable spring.
The top spring is called the closed contact be-
cause it is normally touching the movable strip,
keeping a circuit dc sed through them until the
button is pressed. 'Ti ¿en the movable spring leaves
the top one and touaes the bottom one, opening
one circuit and closing the other.
Fig. 11. View showing parts of a push button switch; also completely
assembled button below.

When assembled, the button, which is also of insu-

lating material, rests on the large spring and is held
in place by the cover, as shown in the lower part of
the figure. The springs are so shaped that they nor-
mally remain separated from 78 in. to in., thus
keeping the circuit open. But when the button is
pressed it forces the movable spring down onto the
stationary one, closing the circuit and allowing current
to flow through the switch.
This type of push button switch is called an Open
Circuit Switch, because it is normally open.
These switches are made for low voltages only, and
should never be used for high voltage lighting circuits,
Fig. 13. Connections for a double circuit switch to operate a signal
or heavy currents, as they may arc and overheat badly. lamp and bell.
When connecting such a switch in a circuit, one
wire is attached to each of the screws which have the Figure 13 shows a double contact switch in use
washers under their heads. This fastens one wire to in a signal circuit. Normally the lamp burns con-
each switch contact. tinually and the bell is silent until the switch is
The two holes in the fibre base are for the wires pressed. Then the lamp goes out and the bell
to pass through, and the switch is held in place by rings. Trace the circuit to note carefully this
the cover. The button is slipped in the hole in the operation, and notice the symbol used to represent
cover before placing the cover on the switch. the double circuit switch at "A".
Some switches have metal covers that snap on,
while others have wood covers that screw on. In
addition to this common open circuit switch, we
have "closed circuit" and "double circuit" push but-
ton switches.
A Closed Circuit switch is one that has its
contacts normally closed, and some current flowing
through it all the time except when it is pressed
open.
Fig. 14. Different type of double circuit switch, very convenient for
code signalling because of its "key-like" construction.

It is quite important, in making a drawing of

these switches, to have the top contact closed or
touching the movable strip, and the bottom contact
or arrow should not be touching, in normal position.
Also remember that in all these switches the
Fig. 12. Double circuit push button switch, showing clearly the ar-
rangement of contact* and parts with respect to base and cover.
movable part is a spring, so it goes back to normal
as soon as released.
9. DOUBLE CIRCUIT SWITCHES In Figure 14 is another type of double circuit
A Double Circuit switch is one that has both switch, that has no cover, and is used for indoor
a closed contact and an open contact, and when work such as desk call systems.
86 Section One, Push Button Switches

Because of the shape of its spring and button,

it is very convenient to use as a signalling key for
certain code calls.
With either of the double contact buttons shown,
we can remove the bottom contact or leave it un-
used, and then this switch will serve as a closed
circuit switch.

o o

Fig. 15. Two closed circuit switches connected with lamps for a return
call signal.
Fig. 17-A. Push buttons arranged in a desk block for office signal
systems.
Figure 15 shows a sketch of two such switches Fig. 17-B. Ten small push buttons with indicator tags, on a panel that
can be used for wall or desk mounting.
used with two lamps, as a signal system for two
parties to signal each other at a distance, by blink- push buttons that can be mounted in desk blocks,
ing the lamps. or in round holes drilled in a board or desk.
Such a circuit should use a transformer, storage For hospitals, and certain other uses, avery con-
battery or gravity battery, because the continual venient push button can be arranged on the end
current flow through the lamps would soon exhaust of a flexible wire, so it can be laid on the pillow,
a dry cell. or moved around somewhat. A button of this type,
One definite advantage of such a closed circuit and also one to be clamped onto a bed or chair are
signal system is the fact that any failure or defect, shown in Figure 19.
due to adead battery or broken wire, is more likely
to be noticed at once, than it is with an open circuit
system. This is often of great enough importance
to more than make up for the slight extra current
cost.
Push button switches can be obtained with orna-
mental covers as shown in Figure 16.

ee,74

Fig. 18. Four different types of small push buttons for use in desk
blocks or panels.

11. BURGLAR ALARM SWITCHES. DOOR

AND WINDOW SPRINGS
Fig. 16. Two types of ornamental covers for use with push button In burglar alarm work we have special types
switches.
of switches called "Window Springs" and "Door
10. DESK BLOCKS AND SPECIAL PUSH Springs." Figure 20 shows three views of common
BUTTON SWITCHES types of window springs which are made to fit in
For desk call systems a smaller push button the window casing. These switches can be ob-
switch is often required, so a number of them can tained in either open circuit or closed circuit
be located in one small block or panel. types. They are mounted in the window casing
Figure 17-A shows adesk block with five of these in such a manner that when the window is
small buttons, and marker plates to indicate which closed, its frame rubs on the projecting slide of
call each button operates. Figure 17-B shows a the switch and holds the switch open, so the bell
metal panel assembly of 10 switches, such as quite does not operate. "When the window is opened and
commonly used in office call systems. its frame slides off the switch, the spring closes
In Figure 18 are shown several types of small the circuit and causes the bell to operate. Or the
 Section One, Door and Window Switches 87

Two types of Door Trips are shown in Figure

22. This type of switch is to be mounted above the
door so that as it opens, the top of the door will
strike the suspended lever, causing the bell to
operate momentarily.

Fig. 19. Two types of push buttons commonly used in hospitals. The
one on the left for attachment to pillow cord; the one on the
right to be clamped to bed rail or chair arm.

reverse operation takes place where open circuit

switches are used.
Figure 21 shows two door spring switches. The
one at the left is a closed circuit switch, and the
one at the right is an open circuit type.

Fig. 22. Door trips to be mounted above a door, and ring a bell as the
door is opened.

12. KEY OR LOCK SWITCHES

In burglar alarm systems a lock switch is often
used so the owner can turn the system on at night
and off during the day, or enter the building with-
out tripping the alarm if he desires. These switches
can only be operated with a special key. Figure 23
shows two switches of this type.

Fig. 20. Three different views of open and closed circuit window springs
used in burglar alarm systems.

These switches are installed in the door casing,

so that when the door is closed it holds the button
compressed, and when the door is opened, the spring
pushes the button out and closes or opens the
circuit as desired, causing alarm to operate. Win-
dow and door springs can be obtained in both closed
and open circuit types. Fig. 23. Burglar alarm lock switches, used to turn the system off during
the day, or when the owner wishes to enter the
building without sounding alarm.

13. BURGLAR ALARM "TRAPS"

Another type of switch, often called a burglar
alarm "Trap" is shown in Figure 24. This switch is
arranged to be operated by a string attached to the
door, window, or device to be protected.
Some of these "traps" will cause the alarm to
operate if the lever is moved in either direction from
the "set position.
If the string is pulled it moves the lever in one
direction, making contact on that side. If the string
is cut, it releases the lever and a spring moves it in
the opposite direction, making a contact on that
side.
14. FLOOR SWITCHES
Often it is desired to have a signal system that
Fig. 21. Door springs of open circuit and closed circuit types to be
mounted in door casings for burglar alarms. can be operated from aconcealed floor switch, under
88 Section One, Alarm Traps and Thermostat Switches

a carpet or rug. A switch of this type is shown in A few other types of switches are shown in Figure
Figure 25-A. Pressure on any part of this switch will 27. Snap switches of the type used in lighting circuits
close acircuit through it, and operate abell or other are sometimes used in signal circuits also.
signal. Figure 25-B shows a special burglar alarm 16. SWITCH TROUBLES AND TESTS.
matting which is equipped with wires and contacts, Some of the mysterious little troubles that cause
to cause abell to ring when the mat is stepped on. failure of signal systems are often right at the switches,
and nothing more than a loose connection, or dirty or
burned contacts. Or possibly some small piece of insu-
lating material such as a bit of string or fuzz from
the wire insulation, or a bit of wood or sand, stuck
to one of the contacts. A sure way to test any switch
is to connect a dry cell and buzzer, or low voltage
lamp, directly across its terminals; and then press the
switch a number of times. If it does not operate
the lamp or buzzer every time it is pressed, its contacts
Fig. 24. Burglar alarm trap or switch to be operated by a string
attached to door, window, or other object. should be thoroughly cleaned with sandpaper, knife,
or fine file, and its terminals carefully tightened. Re-
15. THERMAL OR HEAT SWITCHES
member a very small object or amount of dirt offers
Another very interesting type of switch is the
enough resistance to prevent current flow in low volt-
Thermostat type. One of these is shown in Figure
age circuits.
26. This switch is caused to operate by changes
in temperature, and makes use of the different rates
of expansion of different materials when they are
heated. In the type shown here a strip of brass and
one of liard rubber or composition are riveted to-
gether. When heated, the rubber or composition
strip expands much faster than the brass, causing
the whole strip to warp or bend downwards and Fig. 26. Thermostatic switch which dates its contacts when heated,
and is used in fire alano systems.
close a circuit with the lower adjustable contact.
When the strip is allowed to cool the contraction We have seen many an "old timer" or electrician
of the top strip causes the whole element to bend with considerable experience sweat and worry over
upwards again, and break the connection with the something of this same nature. But with aknowledge
lower contact. If cooled beyond a certain point, of circuit principles, Ohms Law, and these simple defi-
it will bend upward still farther and close another nite tests, such troubles can be "cornered" and need
circuit with the top adjustable contact. not be so mysterious to the man with training.
Now that you understand the common types of
switches or devices for controlling signal circuits, we
will take up the bells and devices for producing the
call or alarm.

Fig. 25-A. Floor switch for use under carpets, near tables or desks
Fig. 25-B. Burglar alarm mat to be placed under door mats or rugs,
to close a circuit when stepped upon.

These thermostatic switches are made in several

different styles, and are used in fire alarm systems,
or to indicate high or low temperature in ovens,
refrigerators, storage rooms and various places, by
operating abell or signal when certain temperatures
are reached. Some of their applications will be
more fully described later.
So you see there are switches for almost every
need in signal work, but all are simply devices to
open or close a circuit.
Switches for special alarm or signal needs can
often be easily and quickly made from two or more
strips of light spring brass mounted on a piece of Fig. 21-B. Two sketches of thermostatic switch, showing the strip In
wood or other insulation, and bent to the proper normal position in the upper view, and warped to close the contacts
in the lower view. Note how the circuit is completed through the
shapes. metal frame of this device.
 Section One, Vibrating Bells 89

17. SIGNAL BELLS AND LAMPS things more clearly than the actual photograph.
The purpose of any signal or alarm system, is "A" and "A" are the bell terminals to which the
to call the attention of someone. To do this we can wires are fastened. "B" "B" are the cores and coils
use either an "audible" or "visible" signal, or quite or electro-magnets, which attract or operate the
often a combination of both. By an audible signal, armature "C". "D" is a spring which supports
we mean one that creates sound loud enough to be the armature and also pulls it back every time the
heard by those whose attention is desired. Bells, magnets release it. "E" is the end of the same
buzzers, and horns are used for this purpose. Visi- spring, on which is mounted apiece of special alloy
ble signals are those that are to attract the eye, metal, which serves as a contact to close a circuit
such as lamps, or semaphores. The term "sema- with the adjustable screw contact "F". These form
phore" means a sort of moving flag or shutter. the Make and Break Contacts, and are very neces-
sary in the operation of the bell. "G" is the frame
of the bell, "H" is the hammer which is attached to
the armature, and strikes the gong "I", when the
magnets attract the armature.
When a battery is connected to terminals "A",
"A", current at once starts to flow through the bell.
If the positive battery wire was attached to the
left terminal, current would flow up through the
armature, which, of course, is insulated from the
frame, then through the "make and break" con-
tacts, through the coils and back to the right hand
terminal and the battery. As soon as current flows
through the coils, the magnets attract the armature,

Fig. 27. Several different types of switches used in signal work. The
two above are called Lever Switches. In the center on the left is a
Multiple Key Switch; at the right double circuit Lever Switch.
Below are two Knife Blade Switches.

Visible signals as a rule can only be used where

they are in front of, or in line with the vision of
those whose attention is desired, and are most com-
monly used where an operator or attendant is
watching for them continually.
Electric bells are very commonly used in all
types of signal systems.
Their construction and operation is quite simple
Fig. 28. View showing common vibrating bell with cover removed.
and yet very interesting, and important to know. Note carefully the construction and arrangement of
coils, armature, and contacts.
18. VIBRATING BELLS.
causing the hammer to strike the gong, and also
There are several different types of bells, but the
opening the "make and break" contacts. This stops
Series Vibrating Bell is the most commonly used
of any. Figure 28 shows a good view of such a bell the flow of current, demagnetizing the coils and
releasing the armature. As son as the armature
with the cover removed, showing the coils and
falls back and closes the contacts, the magnets pull
parts.
it away again. This is repeated rapidly as long as
Examine this carefully and compare it with
current is supplied to the bell; thus it is called a
Figure 29, which is a sketch of the same type of
Vibrating Bell.
bell, and shows the electrical circuit and operating
principle clearly. Note how easy it is to recognize 19. BELL TROUBLES
each part in the photo, from the simple symbols in Most of these bells have their coils wound for
the sketch, and how the sketch really shows some 6 to 10 volts, and should not be operated on much
90 Section One, Signal Bells

In the more expensive bells, the contact points

are faced with platinum, silver or special alloys
that resist corrosion and burning, as even a very
small amount of burned metal or dirt in these con-
tacts will prevent the operation of the bell.
In some vibrating bells both terminals are
insulated from the frame by little fibre sleeves and
washers, and must be kept so.
If this insulation becomes defective the current
is shorted through the frame and the bell will not
operate. Other bells have only one terminal insu-
lated, and the other is intentionally grounded to the
frame, passing the current through the frame to
the armature, which in this case is also grounded
to the bell frame.
Sometimes the hammer of a bell becomes bent so
it will not touch the gong, or rests too tightly
against it, stopping the proper operation of the bell.

Fig. n. Sketch showing electrical circuit and connections of common

vibrating bell. Observe very carefully the parts of this
diagram, and the explanation given.

higher voltage or the coils will overheat and burn

their insulation off, which destroys them.
Most vibrating bells are made for short periods
of operation only, and should not be allowed to
operate continuously for long periods, or the arc
at the contacts will heat and burn them. If these
contacts become badly burned or dirty, they should
be cleaned and brightened with a thin file. When
a vibrating bell refuses to operate the trouble can
usually be found at the contacts, or a loose termi-
nal nut, or poorly adjusted armature spring.

Fig. 31. Ruggedly constructed heavy duty bell. Bells of this type are
often wound for 110-volt operation, and used where
a very loud signal is desired.

A good undersanding of the parts and operation

of these bells will enable anyone with a little
mechanical ability, to easily locate and repair their
most common troubles.
In Figure 31, is shown one of the larger types
of vibrating bells which are often wound for 110
Fig. 30. Heavy duty bell frame and parts. Note the extra heavy
carbon contacts for making and breaking the circuit at "A."
volt operation.
Series vibrating bells will operate on either D. C.
When the contacts are worn out, they can be re- or A. C. as it does not matter which way current
placed on the more expensive bells, but on the flows through them; the magnets will attract the
cheaper bells it is difficult to remove them and the armature just the saine. For this sanie reason, it
bells can be discarded more economically, because makes no difference which way a battery is con-
of their very low cost. nected to these bells, as far as polarity is concerned.
 Section One, Signal Bells 91

20. SINGLE STROKE BELLS type cannot be obtained conveniently, you can
Sometimes it is desired to have a bell that will easily convert an ordinary vibrating bell to single
give single taps each time the button is pressed, stroke or combination operation, by attaching an
instead of the continuous vibration. extra wire to the stationary contact of the breaker.
Such a bell is called a Single Stroke Bell. Figure See Figure 34, and the extra wire "A".
32 shows a sketch of a bell of this type. The only
difference between this and a vibrating bell is that
it has no make and break contacts, and therefore
cannot vibrate. Each time the button is pressed
and current supplied to this bell, its hammer strikes
one tap on the gong. As long as the switch is kept
closed the magnets hold the hammer quietly against
• the gong, after the first tap. When the switch is
opened the hammer drops back ready for the next
stroke.

Fig. 33. Connections for a combination bell to be used either single

stroke or vibrating. Trace this circuit carefully.

'There are several other types of bells that are

slightly different from the series vibrating type
Fig. 32. Circuit diagram of a single stroke bell. Note that it does not
have any "make and break" contacts. with principles very similar, but they are little
used and can be easily understood with alittle close
These bells are very good for code calling, where observation and a knowledge of general principles
a certain number of distinct strokes are used for
covered here.
each different call. They should be operated on
D. C., as alternating current will cause the hammer
to chatter slightly if held against the gong. This
is due to the regular variations in value of alter-
nating current.
21. COMBINATION BELLS
There are also combination bells which are
arranged to be used either vibrating or single stroke.
Figure 33 shows a sketch of such a bell con-
nected to abattery and two switches, to be operated
either as a single stroke or vibrating bell as desired.
If button "A" is pressed, the current will flow
directly through the coils without having to pass
through the make and break contacts at "C", and
the bell will operate single stroke. The arrows show
the path of current flow, during single stroke opera-
tion. If button "B" is pressed the current will flow
through the armature and make and break contacts,
and then to the coils, and the bell will vibrate be-
cause the magnets can now break the circuit rapidly
as they pull the contacts apart at "C". Fig. 34. Sketch showing method of attaching an extra wire to the
stationary contact to convert an ordinary vibrating bell for
In emergencies or when acombination bell of this single stroke or combination operation.
92 Section One, Buzzers

Another type of bell used extensively in tele- at the contacts, loose terminals, or armature ad-
phone work, and operated on alternating current, justment.
will be taken up in a later section. 25. SILENT SIGNALS
22. SIGNAL BUZZERS In some places an entirely silent signal is desired,
and a visual indication is used instead of a bell or
In certain places such as hospitals and offices
buzzer.
where noise• is undesirable, a bell is too loud, and
For this purpose we have low voltage signal
some device to give asofter note is needed.
lamps of various types. These can be obtained in
For this purpose we have buzzers. These buzzers
voltages from two to twenty, and with colored
are almost exactly the same in construction and
bulbs, in white, red, blue, green, amber, etc. The
operation as the bells, except that the hammer and
different colors can be used to indicate different
gong are left off entirely. The vibration of the
s'gnals or to call different parties.
smaller and lighter armature makes a sort of low
buzzing sound which is sufficient to attract the at-
tention of anyone near it. Figure 35 shows a com-
mon type of office buzzer enclosed in its metal case,
and Figure 36 shows a sketch of the electrical cir-
cuit and parts of this buzzer. Buzzers can be ob-
tained in different sizes, and some have an adjust-
ment screw on them to change the tone and volume
of sound. Figure 37 shows four buzzers of different
sizes.

Fig. 35. Sketch showing coils and circuit of a btuier of the type shown
in Fig. 35.

Some of these lamps can be obtained with minia-

ture threaded bases, to screw into small porcelain
sockets, and can be conveniently located most any-
where desired. Others are made in special sizes
Fig. 35. Common office type buzzer, very similar to a vibrating bell,
except that it has no hammer or gong.
and types, such as those used in telephone switch-
boards, etc.
23. "MUFFLING" OF BELLS When regular signal lamps are not available,
Sometimes when a buzzer is not available it is automobile lamps and flashlight lamps can often be
desirable to partly silence a bell, without putting used to good advantage.
it out of service entirely. This can be done by In many cases both a lamp and bell are used,
plugging the back of the gong with paper, or by or a lamp in the daytime, and a bell at night to
arouse a sleeping person.
removing the hammer ball, or bending it back so
Danger signals often use both a red lamp and a
it does not strike the gong.
bell. RailWay crossing alarms are good examples
24. CARE •AND TESTS OF BELLS AND of this.
BUZZERS Lamps of proper size and voltage rating can
When any bell or buzzer fails to operate, a quick often be connected in parallel with a bell as in
test to find out whether the trouble is in the bell Figure 39-A, or in series as in Figure 39-B.
or some other part of the circuit, can be made by Figure 40 shows acircuit which enables the caller
connecting a cell or battery of proper voltage to use either the lamp or bell as desired.
directly to the bell terminals.
If the bell does not operate then, be sure its
terminals are tight, and its armature free to move.
Clean the make and break contacts carefully with
athin file, or fine sand paper, and you will probably
cure the trouble. If it still does not operate,
examine the coils and the wires leading to them
and, if necessary, test the coils as explained in
Fig. 37. Four office buzzers of different sizes. Each size gives a signal
previous sections. Usually the trouble will be found of a different tone and volume.
 Section One, Signal Lamps and Door Openers 93

o
A

rag. 3s. Several types of low voltage lamps which can be used for
signal circuits.

26. MAGNETIC DOOR OPENERS

A device quite commonly used in connection with
Fig. 39-A. Signal lamp connected in parallel with a bell so they both
door bells is a Magnetic Door Opener, shown in operate at once.
Fig. 39-B. Signal lamps can also be connected in series with bells if
Figure 41. These devices will unlock the door by they are of the proper resistance.
use of magnets, when a button inside is pressed.
They are particularly popular and useful in apart-
ment buildings where the door bell may call some-
one several floors above. Such buildings usually
have speaking tubes or telephones in connection
with the door bells, and after the bell is rung and
the party in the house finds out who is calling, they
can unlock the door if they wish to by merely press-
ing a button in their apartment. Thus they are a

Fig. 40. Connections for operating either a bell mil or silent lamp
signal, as desired.

an advantage to have the bell continue to ring until

it is shut off by the person it is to call. For example
a burglar alarm in order to give a sure warning,
should not stop ringing if the burglar stepped in
through the window and then closed it quickly. To
provide continuous ringing of a bell once the switch
is closed, we use a device called a drop relay.
Figure 43 shows one of these devices, and Figure
44 shows a sketch of the connections of a drop

Fig. 38-A. Panel and cord for silent hospital signal. The lamp is
located behind the glass "bulls-eye" at the left.

great convenience and time saver. Figure 42 shows

a sketch of a magnetic door lock in connection with
a door bell system. Note how the same battery and
the center wire are used for both circuits. Many
worth while economies can be effected in wiring
signal systems, by such simple combinations of
circuits. A number of these will be shown a little
later in this section.
27. DROP RELAYS FOR CONSTANT
RINGING SIGNALS Fig. 41. Magnetic door opener, used to unlock doors in apartment houses
or buildings from a distance, by the use of a push
In certain alarm and signal systems it is often Button and low voltage circuit.
94 Section One, Pony Relays

relay with a bell, battery, and switch, ready to

operate. Trace each part of this circuit and examine
the parts of the device carefully, and its operation
will be easily understood.
_

Fig. 42. Sketch showing connections for a door bell and magnetic
door opener.

When the switch is closed, current first flows

through the circuit as shown by the small arrows,
causing the coils to become magnetized and attract
the armature. This releases the contact spring Fig. 44. Sketch showing complete circuit and connections of drop-relay
which flies up and closes the circuit with the sta- of the type shown in Fig. 43. Examine this sketch and
trace the circuit very carefully.
tionary contact to the bell. Before being tripped,
the contact spring is held down by a hook on the
This relay is a little different in construction
armature, which projects through a slot in the
than the one in Figure 43, but it performs the same
spring. The button "B" extends through the cover
function of causing the bell to ring constantly when
of the relay, and is used to push the contact spring
the relay is tripped. Trace this circuit carefully and
back in place, or reset it, and stop the bell ringing.
compare the terminals "C," "D" and "E" with their
position on the relay in Figure 45, and this will
show you how to properly connect the device in
a circuit.
Drop relays are used very extensively in burglar
alarms, and also in other forms of signals. Some
-
,,pecial bells are made with an extra release spring
and switch to make them ring constantly until re-
set. This is a sort of drop relay built right into the
bell.

Fig. 43. Common type of drop-relay to provide constant rinsing in

alarm or signal circuits.

In tracing the bell operating circuit shown by

the large black arrows, we find the current flows
through the frame of the device from "C" to "D."
The marks or little group of tapered lines at "C"
and "D" are symbols for Ground connections.
From this we see that a ground connection as used
in electrical work does not always have to be to
the earth. But instead a wire can be Grounded Fig. 45. Another type of drop-relay of slightly different construct:on,
but also providing constant ringing.
to the metal frame of any electrical device, allowing
the current to flow through the frame, saving one
or more pieces of wire and simplifying connections 28. RELAYS
in many cases. It is avery common practice in low Earlier in this section it was mentioned that a
voltage systems, and extensively used in telephone closed circuit system is much more reliable than
and automobile wiring. So remember what that an open circuit system, because any fault such as
symbol means whenever you see it from now on. a broken wire or dead battery would make itself
Another type of drop relay is shown in Figure 45, known at once by causing the signal to operate. So
and its circuit and connections with a bell and closed circuit systems are much better for burglar
battery are shown in Fig. 46. alarms, fire alarms, etc., where it is very important
 Section One, Pony Relays 95

spring tension on the armature. This spring is to

pull the armature back each time the magnets re-
A lease it. The large piece of brass with the curved
arch above the armature is called the Bridge, and
supports two adjustable bridge contacts. These
'screw contacts have hollow tips, in which we can
place plugs of metal, hard rubber, or wood, ac-
O DO CO
cording to which contact we wish to use in the
circuit. Note that the armature tip also has small
points of good contact metal on each side where
it touches the bridge contacts.

Fig. 44. 'This sketch shows the method of connecting a drop-relay such
as shown in Fig. 45 to a bell battery and push button
for constant ringing signals.

not to have a fault in the system go unnoticed until

just when the signal is most needed.
We cannot, of course, connect a bell directly in
a closed circuit, or it would ring continually. So
we have an interesting device which can be con-
nected in the closed circuit, using very little cur- Fig. 48. Diagram showing the arrangement of the electrical circuits
rent, and making no noise until its circuit is dis- and terminals of a Pony Relay.

turbed. Then it immediately gets busy and closes

a second circuit to the bell, causing it to ring. 29. RELAY TERMINALS AND
This device is called a Relay. Its name gives CONNECTIONS
a good idea of its function. When it receives an The two connection posts or terminals on the
impulse or has its current interrupted, it passes on right end of the base in Fig. 47 connect to the coils.
an impulse of current to a bell or other device, And of the two on the upper left corner, the right-
similar to the man in a relay race who passes his hand one nearest the armature is connected to the
stick to the next man to carry on. armature, and the left one connects to the bridge.
These connections are made under the relay base.
It is very important to remember which of these
terminals are for the coils, armature, and bridge.
Figure 48 is a sketch of this relay showing its
electrical parts and circuits from the opposite side
to the one shown in Figure 47. Compare this very
closely with the picture in Figure 47, and locate
the coils, armature, bridge, contacts, and terminals,
so you know the location of each and the operating
principle of the relay. Figure 49 shows another
relay of slightly different construction but same
general principle as Figure 47.

Fig. 47. Common Pony Relay such as used in burglar alarm and
telegraph systems. Examine the construction and parts,
and compare with description given.

A relay is in reality a Magnetically Operated

Switch. Figure 47 shows a common type of Pony
Relay, which is used extensively in alarm, signal.
and telegraph work.
Examine this relay very closely. You will note
the Coils or electro magnets, which are to attract
the Armature or movable part of the switch. The
armature is the vertical metal piece. set in pivot
hinges at the left end of the magnets. Then there
is a coil spring attached to it and having its other
Fig. 49. Another type of Pony Relay similar to the one in Fig. 47, but
end fastened to an adjusting screw to vary the of slightly different mechanical construction.
 Norrnz-n Eeder
41 Georgia Ave
96 Brooklyn 7, N y4 Section One, Relay Connections and Circuits

30. OPEN, CLOSED, AND DOUBLE

CIRCUIT RELAYS
Relays can be used in several different ways in
circuits, and according to their use they are called
Open Circuit, Closed Circuit, and Double Circuit
Relays.
To use a relay as an open circuit device, we place
the metal tipped bridge contact screw on the left
side of the bridge arch, and the insulated contact
on the right, or the side away from the coils, as
in Fig. 50-A.

Fig. SI. Connections for a closed circuit relay used to operate a bell
in a simple bulgier alarm system.

common relays have coils of 75 ohms, and they can

be obtained with higher or lower resistance for
various uses. Recalling the use of Ohms law for-
mula, we find that if a 75 ohm relay is used in a
circuit with a 3 volt battery, only .04 ampere will
flow. Or as E÷R=I, then 3÷75=.04.
Many relays are made so sensitive and with such
high resistance coils, that .001 ampere or less will
operate them. But even with the small current
Fig. 50. This sketch shows in detail the manner of arranging and
flow of .04 ampere, it will be best to use a gravity
insulating relay bridges for open circuit, closed circuit,
and double circuit operation.
cell, Edison cell, or storage battery, for the closed
circuit "A", so the continuous current flow will not
For closed circuit operation we reverse them. exhaust it quickly.
For double circuit use we fit both bridge screws As long as this system is not disturbed, the cur-
with metal tips, but remove one screw and insulate rent flowing in the closed circuit "A" and through
it from the bridge arch, by enlarging the hole and the relay coils, will hold the armature away from
fitting it with an insulating sleeve, then replacing the bridge contact, and the bell will remain silent.
the screw in this sleeve. Then we attach an extra But if a burglar disturbs the window or door to
wire to this screw for the extra circuit. See Figs. which the closed circuit switch "C" is attached,
50-A, B, and C. With a drill to enlarge the hole in this will open the circuit and stop the current
the bridge, and piece of fibre or hard rubber, or through the relay coils, and they will release the
even hard wood, for the insulating sleeve, any armature. Tts spring will pull it against the bridge
ordinary pony relay can be easily changed to a contact and close the circuit to the bell giving the
double circuit relay in this manner in afew minutes. alarm.
This is a very important thing to remember, be-
32. PROPER LOCATIONS OF PARTS FOR
cause some time you may not be able to get a
DEPENDABLE CLOSED CIRCUIT
double circuit relay, and it may be very handy to
SYSTEMS
know how to change over a single circuit relay in
this manner. In installing such a system, the relay, bell, and
batteries would usually all be grouped close to-
31. RELAYS USED IN BURGLAR ALARMS gether, possibly all on one shelf, so the wires be-
Figure 51 shows a closed circuit relay connected tween them and in circuit "B," would be short and
up for operating a simple closed circuit burglar have little chance of being damaged. The wires
alarm. Here we have used just the symbol for of circuit "A" would be the long ones running
the relay instead of a complete sketch. Note what through the building to the part to be protected.
a time saver this symbol is, and practice making If these wires should be cut or damaged, or this
a sketch of it until you are sure you can make it battery go dead, the relay would immediately cause
any time, when laying out aplan for asystem using the bell to operate, calling attention to the fault.
relays. While with an open circuit system the wire could
Trace out the circuit in Figure 51 until you un- be cut, or the battery dead, and the system out
derstand its operation thoroughly. Note that cur- of order, without any one knowing it, and thus fail
rent will normally be flowitig all the time in the to operate when needed the most.
closed circuit "A". For this reason most relays of The battery in circuit "B" is not likely to go
this type have high resistance coils, wound with dead so often, as there is very seldom any current
many turns of very fine wire, so they will not use required from it. But it should be tested occa-
much current from the battery. Many of these sionally to make sure it is in good condition. Any
 Section One, Relay Connections and Circuits 97

important alarm system should be tested daily, or This keeps the relays energized, and the local
every evening, before being switched on for the sounder circuits closed also, through the relay
night. armatures and bridges. This may seem like awaste
In Figure 51, in the relay symbol, we only show of current, but the batteries, being of the closed
the one bridge contact which is in use. circuit. type, stand this current drain very well and
When we desire to operate a bell or signal do not cost much to renew when exhausted.
sounder at a considerable distance, an open circuit When an operator wishes to send a message,
relay can be used to good advantage to save send- he opens the auxiliary switch on his key, thus
ing the heavier current required by the bell over opening all circuits. Then each tap of his key
the long line. sends a feeble impulse or very small current over
If we were to send the heavy current over the the line, causing the relays to operate and give
long line, it would cause considerable voltage drop similar impulses, but of much heavier current, to
and we would have to use larger, more expensive the sounders from their own local batteries.
wires, or higher voltage supply. But the relay cur-
rent being very small can be sent over the line
more economically, and the relay will act as a
switch at the far end of the line, to close a Local
circuit to the bell. See Figure 52.
This circuit uses an open circuit relay, and the
bridge contact on the side opposite to the one used
in Figure 51. This method of using a relay to
operate on a feeble impulse of current, and close
a circuit to a larger device requiring more current,
is one of their most common applications.

o Fig. SS. Sketch of simple telegraph system showing line and ground
circuit for the relays and keys, and local battery
circuits for the sounders.

The operator at the other end of course hears

the signals from his sounder. When the sending
operator finishes, he closes his key switch, and waits
Fig. 52. Connection diagram for an open circuit relay used to operate a for an answer. Then the other operator opens his
bell at a considerable distance from the push button.
switch and uses his key to signal back. Sometimes
a number of such relays at various stations are all
33. USE OF RELAYS IN TELEGRAPH
connected to one line, so they all operate at once,
SYSTEMS. GROUND CIRCUITS
when any key is used.
Figure 53 shows two relays at opposite ends of Figure 54 shows a double circuit relay. In this
a line, and operating Sounders in local circuits, in system, as long as the switch "A" is closed the
a simple telegraph system. The primary circuit relay armature is attracted and closes a circuit
includes two line batteries, two key switches, and through the lamp, showing that the circuit is in
two high resistance relay coils. The secondary cir- normal condition. But when switch "A" is opened
cuits each consist of a local battery and sounder, the relay armature is released, allowing the lamp
and include the relay armature and bridge contacts to go out and causing the bell to ring.
as their switches. You will note that only one line These double circuit relays have many uses, some
wire is used in the primary circuit, and the earth of which will he shown a little later.
is used for the other side of the circuit, by grounding
the batteries at each end as shown. This saves
considerable expense in line wire, and is quite com-
monly done in telegraph, telephone, and certain
classes of signal work.
If the ground connections are well made of buried
metal plates, or rods driven deep into moist soil,
the resistance of the earth is low enough so the
losses are not very high with such small currents.
Such ground circuits are not used to transmit
electric power in large amounts, however.
Both of the telegraph keys in this system have
extra switches that are normally kept closed, when
the keys are idle. This allows avery small amount
of current to flow through the line and relay coils Fig. 54. Diagram and connections foe a double circuit relay to operate
a lamp when the system is undisturbed, and to ems a bell
continually, when the system is not in use. when the closed circuit is molested in any way.
98 Section One, Annunciators

This would require more current to operate the

relay. Usually the gap or travel of the armature
contacts should be from 1/32 in. for breaking cir-
cuits at very low voltage and small currents, to /18
in. or Xi in. for slightly higher voltages and heavier
currents; as these have a tendency to arc more,
when the circuit is opened and the points must
separate farther to extinguish the arc quickly.
The armature spring should be adjusted just
tight enough to pull the armature away from the
magnets quickly when it is released, but not too
tight, or the magnet will not be able to pull up the
armature.
The contacts on both the armature and bridge
should be kept clean and occasionally polished with
a thin file or fine sandpaper, as the slight arcing
often burns and blackens them, greatly increasing
their resistance.
When contacts become too badly burned or dam-
aged to repair, they can easily be replaced with
Fig. 54-B. Two additional types of relays used in various classes of
signal circuits. new ones, obtained from the relay manufacturers.
Dust and dirt should be kept off from all parts,
34. RELAY TERMINAL TESTS and all terminal nuts should be kept tight. Cores
of magnets should be kept tight on keeper bar
If you are ever in doubt as to the correct termi-
support.
nals on a relay, a quick test with a dry cell and
Occasionally, but not often, a relay coil may be-
two test wires will soon locate the coil terminals.
come open, grounded, or shorted, or completely
When the cell is connected to the coil wires the
burned out. Simple tests as given in the elemen-
armature will snap over toward the magnets. Con-
tary section on electro-magnets will locate any such
necting a cell and buzzer or small low voltage test
faults. (See Article 101.) In addition to these
lamp, to the armature and bridge terminals, and
pony relays, there are numerous other types used
then moving the armature back and forth by hand,
in telephones, railway signals, power plants, etc.
will soon show which terminal connects to the
Some of these differ in mechanical construction and
closed bridge contact and which to the open one.
shape, from the ones just described, but their gen-
35. ADJUSTMENT AND CARE OF RELAYS eral purpose and principle are very much the same.
So if you have a good understanding of the relays
Relays require careful adjustment to secure good
in this section and always remember that any relay
operation. The pivot screws supporting the arma-
is simply a magnetically operated switch, you
ture and acting as its hinges, should be tight enough
should be able to easily understand most any type.
to prevent excessive side play of the armature, but
Some of the others will be explained in later sec-
not too tight or they will interfere with its free
tions.
movement. By turning one of these screws in, and
the other one out, the contact points on the arma-
ture can be properly lined up with the bridge con-
tacts. The bridge contacts should be adjusted to
act also as stops for the armature. The contact
on the magnet side should be adjusted to allow
the armature to come very close to the core ends,
to reduce the air gap and strengthen the pull as
much as possible. It should not, however, allow
the armature to touch either core end, or it is likely
to stick, due to slight residual magnetism, even
after the coil current is turned off. Some relays
have thin brass or copper caps over the iron core
ends of the magnets, to prevent any possibility of
this.sticking. The crmtact on the side away from
the magnets should be adjusted to allow the arma-
ture just enough swing to effectively break the
circuit at the other contact ;but not too far, or it
will be very hard for the magnets to pull it back,
due to the increased air gap between the armature
Fig. 55. Annunciators of these types are used to indicate where various
and cores. calls on signal circuits come from.
 Section One, Annunciators 99

36. ANNUNCIATORS this "reset" lever, from a switch on the annunciator

In alarm or signal systems where calls may come case, or a short distance away.
from several different points, it is often necessary Figure 58 shows a back view of an annunciator,
to have some device to indicate which place the and the magnets and reset mechanism.
signal comes from. For this purpose we use an
Annunciator. These devices indicate which circuit
is operated, by arrows or numbers which are
dropped into view by electro-magnets. Figure 55
shows two types of annunciators, and Figure 56
shows the electrical circuit of a4 point annunciator.

o
3 I

Fig. 51. Circuit diagram of the connections for a four-drop annunciator.

Note that the drop number 3 has been operated.

Here for example we have four switches that may

be used for office calls, burglar alarms, or hotel Fig. 53. Photograph showing the inside parts and construction of two
common types of annunciators.
room calls. When any one of the switches is closed
current will flow through the respective annunciator
Referring to Figure 56 again, note how one wire
magnet, and on through the bell. When a magnet
from each magnet attaches to a common terminal
is energized the armature is attracted, allowing the
weighted end of the arrow to fall off the catch, and or wire leading to the bell. This is called a Com-
mon Return Wire, as it makes a common path for
the arrow to fly up, as on magnet 3.
current from any magnet to return to the battery.
This is the wire that should go to the bell, so all
coil circuits will operate the bell when they are
tripped. Some annunciators have the bell built in
them, and others do not.

37. ANNUNCIATOR CONNECTIONS AND

TERMINAL TESTS
When installing annunciators it is very impor-
tant to connect the proper wires to the separate
circuits, and to the bell. Sometimes the terminals
Fig. 57. This view shows the mechanical construction of one type of
annunciator drop. Note how the drop is held up by a are marked with numbers on the box where they
small hook on the end of the armature.
enter, but when they are not marked, they can be
found by a simple test Using a dry cell or some
In Figure 57 are shown one of the magnets and other source of current supply, and two test wires,
"number drops" of an annunciator. When this as in Figure 59-A, place one wire on one of the an-
magnet is energized, the armature is attracted and nunciator terminals at the end•of the row or group,
releases the catch from the slot in the drop arm. and hold it there while touching the other wire to
Gravity then causes the drop number to fall. An- the remaining terminals in rotation If this causes
nunciators usually have asystem of rods and hooks, the drops to operate in proper rotation then mark
all attached to one lever, to push the drops back the wire to which your stationary test lead was
in place after any of them are tripped. Some are connected, as the common lead, and the rest accord-
equipped with a strong electro -magnet to operate ing to the numbers of the drops they each operate.
100 Section One, Annunciator Circuits and Tests

If touching the free test lead to certain terminals Some annunciators have a ballast coil connected
causes two or more drops to trip at once, the sta- in parallel with the bell, as at "A" in Figure 60.
tionary lead is not on the common wire, and should This coil carries part of the current when the bell
be tried on the terminal at the opposite end of the is of high resistance and not able to carry quite all
row, because the common lead is usually at one the current required to operate the drop magnets.
end or the other. Sometimes, however, it may be Figure 60 also shows a different symbol which is
somewhere else in the group. often used for the annunciator in plans or diagrams.
Some large annunciators have a separate reset
magnet for each drop magnet, as in Figure 61-A
and B. In Figure "A" the reset coil has been oper-
ated, and has drawn the armature toward it, car-
rying the number on the disk out of view from
the annunciator window. In Figure 61-B the trip
coil has operated, drawing the armature toward it
and bringing the number on the disk into view,
in vertical position in the annunciator window.
(Window and case not shown in this sketch.)

Fig. SL Observe these test diagrams very carefully with the instruc-
tions given for locating annunciator terminals.

By touching the test wires to adjacent terminals

two at a time, when two are found that cause only
one drop to operate, one of these leads should be
the common return. In Figure 59-B, with the sta-
tionary test lead on wire No. 1, touching the other
test lead to wires No. 2, 4, and 5, should cause two
drops to fall each time, if they are reset before each
test. But when No. 3is touched only one drop should
fall, as No. 3 is the common terminal. Then when
the stationary lead is placed on wire No. 3, and the
free lead touched to the others, each one should
cause one drop to operate. Fig. .1. Sketch illustrating arrangement of coils and number disks on
an "electrical reset" annunciator.

Figure 62 shows both sets of coils for a four

point annunciator and their connections. Each trip
coil can of course be operated separately, but when
the reset button is pressed all reset coils operate
at once, resetting all numbers that have been
tripped.

Fig. 60. Diagram showing connections of a three-drop annunciator In

an open circuit, signal system. This annunicator uses a ballast
coil shown at "A," and connected in parallel with the bell to allow
the proper amount of current to flow to operate the drops.

With annunciators that are equipped with a bell

or buzzer permanently connected, it is easier to
locate the common wire, as it is the only one that
will cause the bell to operate when the test battery
is applied. For example, when the test wires touch
two terminals and cause the bell to ring, one of
these terminals must be the common return lead.
Trying each One with another wire will quickly
Fig. 62. Complete diagram of a four-drop annunciator using "electrical
show which one operates the bell. reset" magnets.
 Section One, Annunciator Circuits and Tests 101

Hotels, hospitals, and steamships often have an- tested and found O. K., and all circuits are good up
nunciators with several hundred numbers each. to the annunciator, then the trouble is almost sure
Elevators also use thousands of these devices. to be in the common return wire, bell, or ballast
38. LOCATING FAULTS IN coil, if one is used. If only one drop fails, then its
ANNUNCIATORS own wire, coil, or mechanism is at fault, and care-
When annunciators fail to operate, careful check- ful checking and testing with a dry cell and buzzer
ing and tightening of all terminals will usually should locate it. Here again the rules for testing
locate the trouble. If none of the drops operate, electro-magnets, given in Section 1, Article 101,
and the supply battery to the system has been should be useful.
102

PLAN READING
AND
VARIOUS TYPES OF SIGNAL CIRCUITS

Now that you understand some of the more com- worth more in the field than any beginner can
mon devices used in signal circuits, you will want realize, until he finds out what a great help it is
to learn how they are arranged and connected in on the job, in any kind of electrical construction
the larger and more complete systems. work or "trouble shooting" and maintenance.
But first, in order to be able to more easily under- Don't forget that every principle and bit of prac-
stand and trace out these advanced circuits, we will tice you get in tracing signal circuits will also ap-
cover some of the more definite methods of plan ply to practically any other kind of electrical work.
reading and circuit tracing.
Remember this is one of the most valuable things Also remember that most electrical wiring now-
any electrical man can know, and nothing will give adays is done from plans, and not by guesswork.
you any more confidence, or be of greater help to And when we have adifficult trouble shooting prob-
your success on the job, than a good knowledge of lem in a large machine or system, looking over the
plan reading and circuit tracing. Once you have plan furnished, or making a sketch of the wiring,
learned the real system or "trick" of this, it is really will often speed up the location of the trouble more
very enjoyable and satisfying to trace out almost than anything else. The man who can do this and
every circuit or blue print you come across, and save the most time is the man who gets the best
you will be surprised how much better understand- jobs.
ing you can get of any device or system in this way. Then too, as you carefully trace out and study
each of the following systems you will also be gain-
39. SYMBOLS USED IN SIGNAL DIAGRAMS. ing a knowledge of the principles and operation of
The chart in Fig. 62-A gives a review of the common signal, alarm, and call systems.
most common symbols used in the following dia-
grams and signal systems, and you should study
STRAIGHT WIRES
these carefully, so you will be able to recognize
them quickly when tracing any circuit. You will also + OR -1,-- JOINED WIRES

want to be able to quickly select and use the proper

symbol for any device, when laying out a plan for
a job. OR ± CROSSED WIRES

40. METHOD OF TRACING CIRCUITS, OR OPEN CIRCUIT

PUSH BUTTON SNATCH

READING PRINTS.
In each of the following systems shown, make a

111;111--E
CLOSED CIRCUIT
practice of first examining the plan in general, locat- PUSH BUTTON SWITCH 3DOOR
o EN ER
ing and recognizing all of the devices by their sym-
bols. Then get ageneral idea of the layout, number
DOUBLE CIRCUIT
and arrangement of separate circuits which may PUSH BUTTON SWITCH PONY RELAY

be combined in the one system. Next start with

the primary or first operating circuit, and trace it SINSLC CELL
SOUNDER
out carefully until you can imagine every step of
its operation clearly, then the next circuit, or the
NEY
one which is operated by the first, tracing its opera- —Hill-- 3cett. BATTERY

tion and so on until you are sure you thoroughly

understand the entire system.
E
ANNUNCIATOR
TRANSFORMER
At first this may seem like quite a job, but after
a little persistent practice you get the trick or
method of it, and then you can read most any plan Fig. 12-A. These are some of the moat important symbols used in
signal diagrams and circuits. They should be memorized so you
almost at a glance. The ability to do this will be can easily recognize them when tracing any diagram in the future.
 Section Two, Various Types of Call Systems 103

41. OPEN CIRCUIT SYSTEMS. ing through each bell. A good rule to remember in
Fig. 63 shows an open circuit call or signal sys- tracing such circuits is as follows: Electric current
tem, in which any one of three switches will operate will flow through all paths provided from positive
the bell. Note that the switches are all connected to negative of the source of pressure. It also tends
in parallel. Open Circuit Switches must always be to follow the easiest path, or the greater amounts
connected in parallel, if each one is to be able to of current will flow over the lower resistance paths.
close the circuit. In the case of Fig. 64, both bells being of equal
If open circuit switches were connected in series resistance, and the circuits to them about the same
they would all have to be closed at once, in order length. the current will divide about equally.
to close the circuit. Make asketch of this same cir- The wire which leads from the left terminal of all
cuit, but with the switches in series, and prove this three bells, back to the negative battery terminal,
out for yourself, because it is very important, and can be called a common return wire, as it serves to
making a sketch will help you remember it. carry the current back to the battery, from any or
all of the bells.

o 43. RETURN CALL SYSTEMS.

Fig. 65 shows areturn call system using two bells
and two single contact buttons. This is called a
L_ L_ L_
return call system because either party can signal
III , I 1 t the other, or can answer a call by a return signal if
desired.
Fig. 83. Simple signal system using three buttons in parallel, any on. Button number 1rings bell number 2, and button
of which will ring the bell.
number 2 rings bell number 1. When button num-
ber 1is closed current flows as shown by the small
Fig. 63 shows only three buttons in use, but any arrows, and the large arrows show the path of
number can be connected in this manner to operate current when button number 2 is pressed.
the same device. Such a circuit can be used for the
Note that three main wires or long wires are
signals on street cars or busses, for an office call used in this system.
where several different parties are to be able to call
one person, or for a simple burglar alarm system,
by connecting the window and door contacts of
open circuit type, to the bell and battery as shown.

42. SELECTIVE CALL CIRCUIT.

Fig. 64 shows a selective call system, in which
switch number 1rings bells 1and 2, and switches 2
and 3 both operate bell number 3.
Fig. 45. Return call system. Button No. 1 will ring bell No. 2; butte.
Bells 1 and 2 are connected in parallel and both No. 2 rings bell No. I.
controlled by button I. Buttons 2 and 3 are con-
nected in parallel, and either one will operate bell In Fig. 66 is shown another method of connecting
number 3. a return call system, which causes both bells to
The lower wire leading from the positive term- ring when either button is pressed.
inal of the battery to the stationary contacts of the This system uses two batteries, one at each end,
switches, can be called aCommon Feeder Wire, as it but it saves one main wire, using only two instead
carries current to any of the buttons as they are of three, as in Fig. 65.
closed. When button number 1 is pressed current flows
from battery number 1 as shown by the small ar-
rows, dividing through both bells. When button
number 2 is pressed, the current flows from battery
number 2 as shown by the large arrows, also
operating both bells.
In this system, if the line is very long the bell
nearest the button pressed, may ring a little the

Fig. 114. Selective call system. Button No. 1 will ring bells 1 and
2; buttons Nos. 2 and 3 will ring bell No. 3.

Trace this circuit carefully. When switch num-

ber 1 is closed, current will flow from the battery
through the switch, and then divide, part of it flow- Fig. Mi. Return call system using two batteries, thereby
saving me wire.
104 Section Two, Return Calls and Mine Signal

loudest, because its circuit is shorter and lower Trace this circuit over very carefully, and be
resistance. Trace this carefully in the sketch. sure you understand its operation, as it is often
If the far bell does not ring loud enough, then very important to be able to save these extra wires,
higher voltage batteries, or larger wires should be where the line between bells is long.
used. 45. CALL SYSTEM WITHOUT SWITCHES.
Fig. 67 shows a return call system, using double Fig. 69 shows a system of signaling that is often
circuit switches. very convenient for use on temporary construction
Here also, button number 1rings bell number 2, jobs, where workmen need to signal each other; or
and button number 2 rings bell number 1. in mines or mine shafts.
When button number 1 is pressed the current
flow is shown by the small arrows, and the large
arrows show the path of current when number 2
is pressed. If both buttons should be pressed at
once neither bell would ring. Check this on the
diagram.
This system also uses three main wires.
Fig. 69. Mine signal or alarm circuit which uses no switches. The
bells are caused to ring by short circuiting wires "A" and "B".

No switches are used in this system, and instead

wires "A" and "B" are bare or uninsulated, so any
metal object can be used to "short" them or connect
them together as shown by the dotted line at "C."
Then if the wires "A" and "B" are strung tight
Fig. 87. Return call system using double circuit switches. Trace this
and parallel to each other, a few inches apart and
circuit carefully. supported on insulators, a shovel, pick or piece of
wire or metal touching both wires anywhere be-
44. SAVING WIRES BY USE OF DOUBLE tween points "X" and "X 1", will cause both bells to
CIRCUIT SWITCHES OR "GROUNDS". ring.
Fig. 68 shows how double circuit switches can You may wonder at first why current does not
be used to save considerable wire in connecting a flow all the time in this circuit, as it is always
return call system. closed. Note how the batteries are connected posi-
By using two separate batteries and the double tive to positive, or opposing each other, so if they
circuit switches, one main wire can be eliminated are of equal voltage no current can flow normally.
and the system operated with only two as shown. Of course if one battery was dead the other would
\\Then button number 1 is pressed, current cause both bells to ring continuously.
(shown by small arrows) flows from battery num- When a circuit is made between the two wires
ber 1, and operates bell number 2. When button as at "C" the current starts to flow from both
number 2 is pressed, current (shown by large ar- batteries as shown by the arrows, up through the
rows) flows from battery number 2, and operates connection "C" and then dividing through both
bell number 1. bells, and returning to both battery negatives.
Such a system as this can also be operated from

o
moving cars or elevators, by running the bare wires
along close to the track or in the shaft.
46. SELECTIVE AND MASTER CALLS.
_2 ;
Fig. 70 shows a selective call system, with a
master control, using one battery, three bells, and
three single circuit switches.
A
> 4 > e

Button number 1 operates bell number 1. But-

Fig. 68. Return call system showing how wires can be saved by the
use of double circuit switches, two separate batteries, and a ground
ton number 2 operates bells number 2 and 3 in
circuit. series. And button number 3, which is called the
master button, operates all three bells in series.
When such a return call system is to be installed Trace each circuit carefully.
where the bells are a long distance apart and it is
convenient to make good ground connections at
each end, we can eliminate still another wire, by
the use of ground connections as shown by dotted
lines at "X" and "X'," in Fig. 68. Then we do not
need wire "A", current flowing through the ground
instead. Sometimes a piping system can be used
for these grounds, and no connection to earth is
Fig. 70. Selective signal circuit. Check its operation carefully with
needed. the instructions.
 Section Two, Master Calls and Barn Mann 105

Another method of arranging aselective call sys-

tern with a Master Switch, is shown in Fig. 71. In
this system any one of the double circuit switches
1, 2, 3 or 4, will operate its respective bell of the
same number only, but the single circuit switch
number 5, will operate all bells when all the other
switches are in normal position.
When any one of the double switches is pressed,
its movable contact is disconnected from the upper,
or normally closed contact, so when the movable
contact touches the lower one, current can only Fig. 72. This sketch shows the proper method of connecting vibrating
bells in series, to secure best results.
flow through its own bell, and not to any of the
others.
1bell then acts as a Master Vibrator, making and
breaking the circuits for all the others, preventing
them from interrupting the circuit, and forcing them
to operate in synchronism.
A series connection of bells is often desirable
where they are all to be rung at once and are located
a long distance apart, as it saves considerable wire
in many cases.

48. ECONOMICAL BARN OR GARAGE

ALARM.
Fig. 71. Selective call system with Master Switch. This is a type of
Fig. 73 shows a method of connecting a bell as
system very often used in executives' offices. a combination single stroke and vibrator, and ob-
taining a closed circuit call or alarm system.
When button number 5 is pressed current flows When we recall that a closed circuit system
from the positive of the battery through this button, usually requires a relay to operate the bell, we find
then divides through the closed contacts of all the that this connection effects quite an economy by
other switches and to all bells. Trace this on the saving the cost of a relay.
sketch until you can clearly imagine this operation. Tracing the circuits we find that as long as the
Note how the wire from the positive of the bat- switches are all closed, the current will flow con-
tery is again used as a Common Feeder for all tinuously as shown by the small arrows, through
switches, and also the common return wire used the bell coils, then through the switches and back
for all bells. Of course one separate wire is re- to the battery. This keeps the coils energized and
quired feeding from each switch to its bell, if we holds the hammer quietly against the gong, after
are to operate them separately at times, but a great the first single stroke when it is connected.
amount of wire can be saved by proper use of
Common Feeder and Common Return wires.
This is where asketch or plan laid out in advance
helps to save materials.

47. CONNECTING VIBRATING BELLS FOR

SERIES OPERATION.
When several bells are to be operated in series
as in Fig. 70, or other systems for which they are
connected this way, they will usually not operate
very loudly or steadily without aspecial connection.
This is because they do not all vibrate evenly or
Fig. 73. Simple and economical barn or garage alarm of closed
in synchronism, and the make and break contacts circuit type.
of one bell will open the circuit just as another
closes for its power impulse. This results in rather Then when any one of the switches is opéned,
irregular and weak operation, and the greater the the circuit is momentarily broken, allowing the
number of bells in series, the worse it usually is. hammer to fall back and close the circuit again at
This can be overcome by arranging one bell only the make and break contacts of the bell.
as a vibrator, and all the rest as single stroke bells. The bell will then continue to vibrate, current
This is done by shunting out the make and break flowing as shown by the large arrows, until the
contacts of all bells except the one, as in Fig. 72. switch in the line is again closed. This is a very
Here the current will flow through the make and good circuit to keep in mind when the dependa-
break contacts of bell number 1 only, and on the bility of aclosed circuit system is desired, but must
others it flows directly through the coils. Number be had at low cost.
106 Section Two, Office and Hotel Calls

A bell with high resistance coils should be used, 50. APARTMENT DOOR BELL AND
to keep the amount of current flow small. A closed OPENER SYSTEMS.
circuit battery should also be used, as dry cells Fig. 75 shows a door bell and magnetic door
would soon be exhausted by the constant current opener system for a three apartment building.
flow. This sketch is arranged alittle differently to show
This system makes a very good barn or garage how the wires running up to the various floors can
alarm, where long wires are to be run in the open, all be grouped together and run in one conduit or
between the protected buildings and the house. •cable, and then branches taken off to each bell and
Then if anyone attempts to cut these wires, the switch.
alarm will operate just as though the window or
door switches of the building were disturbed and
opened:
49. OFFICE OR SHOP CALL SYSTEM.
Fig. 74 shows a selective master control call
system that would be very convenient for an office
executive or shop or power plant superintendent,
to signal their various foremen or workmen. Any
one at a time can be called, by pressing the proper
double circuit switch, or all can be called at once
by pressing the single circuit master switch.
The small arrows show the path of current flow
when one of the double switches is operated, and
the large ones show the current flow to all bells
when the master switch is operated.

Fig. 75. Cembhunkas doorbell and nnynmeldc door-opener system. blots

the use of certain wires as common "Feeder" and "Rtuturie wire&

Fig. 74. Another type of mdecdva call system with blaster Contra. Such a system is commonly used in connection
with speaking tubes and telephones in apartment
At first glance this circuit does not look much
buildings, and could be extended to take in as many
like the one in Fig. 71, does it? But look at it
more floors or apartments as desired, just following
again and compare the two closely, and you will
the same scheme of connection as shown.
find they are exactly the same as far as parts and
Any one of the buttons in the lower hall will
operation are concerned. The only difference is in
ring its own bell of the same number. Then if
the position or arrangement of these parts.
the party is at home and wishes to admit the caller,
This comparison is made to show you that it
any one of the apartment buttons marked "A" will
does not matter how or where the bells or switches
operate the door lock.
are to be located, as long as certain general prin-
Fig. 76 shows a similar system of apartment
ciples of connection are followed.
building calls and door opener, including also a
Note that in each of these sketches a common
buzzer at each apartment door, for parties within
feeder runs from the positive of the battery to all
the building to use when calling at any other apart-
the lower or open contacts of the switches. Another
ment, and without going down to the front door
common wire leads from the top of the master
buttons. Trace the circuit and operation carefully.
switch to the top or closed contacts of all double
circuit switches. Then the individual bell wires 51. HOTEL OR OFFICE CALL SYSTEM
are each attached to the movable contacts of the WITH ANNUNCIATOR.
double switches in each case, and a common return Fig. 77 shows a selective, master call system
from the bells back to the battery. that could be used very well in an office or hotel
These are the principle points to note and follow and many other places.
in connecting up any such selective, master, call With this system a party at "A" can call any
system. one of the parties "B", "C", or "D", by pressing
 Section Two, Office and Hotel Calls 107

the bell ringing constantly until some one is aroused

and shuts it off.
Normally, when the system is in operation, cur-
rent flows continually in the two relay circuits as
shown by the small arrows. This keeps both relay
armatures attracted, and no current flows in the
annunciator, drop relay, or bell circuits.

Fig. 76. Doorbell and door-opener system, including separate local

buzzer circuits.

the proper buttons; or he can call them all at once

by pressing the master button.
The party called can also answer back or ack-
nowledge the call with their button, and the annun-
ciator and buzzer show the response to party "A".
Or if "B", "C", or "D", wish to signal "A" at
any time, the annunciator shows which one is
calling.

Fig. 78. "Group" method of connecting a large number of bells and

switches to secure independent operation of each, with the least
number of wires.

But as soon as any switch in either circuit "A"

Fig. 77. Selective signal circuit with Master Control, return call and
annunciator features. This is a very popular form of signal system.
or "B", is disturbed, the relay current stops flowing,
releasing the armature, and closing a circuit to
52. SAVING WIRES BY SPECIAL GROUP the drop relay as shown by the dotted arrows. This
CONNECTION, and SEPARATE trips the drop relay, starting the bell in operation.
BATTERIES. The bell circuit is shown with large arrows.
A system of this type using several separate cir-
Fig. 78 shows a method of connecting a large
cuits gives one an excellent chance to practice step
number of bells and switches in an extensive call
by step tracing of each circuit, and the operation
system, and using separate batteries and a grouping
of all parts of the system: Trace it carefully.
system to reduce the number of main wires.
Any one of the buttons will ring its correspond-
54. SPECIAL ARRANGEMENT OF
ing bell of the same letter. By the use of the VIBRATING BELL FOR CONSTANT
three separate batteries and Cross Grouping connec- RINGING.
tion of the bells and switches, this can be done
with seven vertical line wires, while with one bat- Fig. 80 shows a rather novel method of arranging
tery it would require thirteen wires. a vibrating bell for a constant ringing alarm, with-
out the use of a drop switch or relay. This is done
53. CLOSED CIRCUIT BURGLAR ALARM by placing a piece of hard cardboard, fibre or hard
FOR TWO FLOORS OR APARTMENTS. rubber, between the make and break contacts of
Fig. 79 shows a closed circuit burglar alarm sys- the bell. The spring tension of the armature should
tem for two apartments or floors of a building, hold it there normally, but if cardboard is used
using an annunciator to indicate which floor the it should not be too soft, or it may stick in place
intruder has entered, and also a drop relay to keep when it is released.
I08 Section Two, Burglar Alarms and Drop Relays

This relay has its armature and bridge connected

in series with its coil and the battery. Imagine
you were to push the armature to the left with
your finger, until it touched the bridge contact.
What would happen? The armature would stick
there, because as soon as it touches the bridge con-
tact, it closes a circuit for current to flow through
the coil, which then becomes magnetized and holds
the armature.
Then to get the armature to go back to its normal
position it would be necessary to force it away, in
spite of the pull of the magnets, or to open the
closed circuit switch at "A". This would stop the
current flow through the coils, and allow the arma-
ture to release.

Fig. 79. Two section alarm system using a drop relay for constant
ringing, also an annunciator to show which section of the building
the alarm was disturbed in.

When one of the three open circuit alarm

switches is closed, current will flow directly through
the coils of the bell, attracting the armature and
releasing the cardboard.
This starts the bell ringing until the switch "A"
is opened. Swith "A" should be a lever switch or
snap switch. Fig. Ill. Diagram illustrating the principle of a closed circuit stick relay
This system of course does not give the positive
protection of a closed circuit system, or of one Remember that to connect up a "stick relay," its
using a relay, but is very good for an emergency armature and bridge must be connected so they
job, or one where the cost must be kept very low. will close and hold a circuit through the coils when
the armature is attracted.

56. OPEN CIRCUIT STICK RELAYS.

Now let's see how we connect this stick relay
in a simple open circuit, constant ringing alarm
or call system, as in Fig. 82.
Here again we notice that the armature and
bridge are in Series with the coils, and the bell is
connected in Parallel with the coils. These are the

Fig. $O. Simple method of arranging an ordinary vibrating bell to

secure constant ringing feature.

55. STICK RELAY CIRCUITS.

It is possible to connect an ordinary pony relay
in an alarm circuit, so that it will provide the ad-
vantage of constant ringing of the bell, without the
use of a drop relay. This is done by connecting the
relay to operate as a Stick Relay.
This term comes from the manner in which the
relay armature closes a circuit to the coil, and
causes the armature to stick and continue to feed
the coil until it is forced away, or its circuit broken
Fig. V. Open circuit alarm system using a stick relay for constant
by another switch. (See Figure 81.) ringing when alarm is tripped.
 Section Two, Burglar Alarms and Relay Circuits 109

two principle rules to follow in arranging such a This is a very simple and dependable alarm sys-
system. tem, and one you may often have use for.
The parallel group of open circuit switches is 58. THREE SECTION ALARM SYSTEM.
connected in series with the battery and relay coil. Fig. 84 shows a system of this same type, with
Normally there is no current flowing in any part three separate sections for three different floors or
of this system, and the relay armature is not touch- apartments, and an annunciator to indicate which
ing the bridge until the switches are disturbed. If section is disturbed.
any one of the open circuit switches is closed even When an alarm switch in any one of the sections
for an instant, current will start to flow through the is opened, the relay sends current through the
relay coils and bell in parallel, as shown by the proper annunciator coil and keeps the bell ringing
small arrows. constantly until the reset button is pressed.
This causes the armature to be attracted, and
then it feeds current to both the coil and bell, even
though the first switch is opened in case the burglar
closes the window quickly.
The larger arrows show the path of current which
keeps the relay coil energized and the bell ringing, 7f.
I'
after the system is tripped.
To stop the ringing of the bell and restore the
system to normal "set" condition, we press the
-0

L
Reset Switch "A".
This stops the current flow through the coils long
enough to release the armature; then we allow
switch "A" to close again, and if the open circuit
rz_LHIII
switches are again normal or open, the system re-
mains quiet until again tripped.
57. DOUBLE CIRCUIT STICK RELAY.

L 3 H1-rt,
In Fig. 83 is shown a double circuit "stick relay" 4—

system, which gives both the advantages of con-

stant ringing and closed circuit reliability.
Here we have the relay armature, bridge, coils,
closed circuit alarm switches and battery, all con-
lip
nected in series. An open circuit reset switch at
"A" is used in this system. To set the system in
Fig. 84. Closed circuit burglar alarm system of three sections, each
order, this switch is pressed and current starts to using stick relays for constant ringing; and an annunciator to
indicate point of disturbance.
flow at once, as shown by the dotted arrows. This
The relay armatures in this Figure and also the
energizes the relay coil and attracts the armature.
arrows, are shown as the system would be if sec-
Then the reset switch can be released, and the
armature will stick in place, as it now feeds the tions 1 and 3 were normal, but section 2 has been
disturbed causing the alarm to operate. Observe
coils, and a small current will flow continually as
the armatures and arrows, and trace all circuits
shown by the small solid arrows.
carefully to be sure you understand them.
At first glance such a diagram as Fig. 84 looks
quite complicated and appears hard to understand,
but you have probably found by now, that taking
one section at a time, it can be traced out quite
easily. This is true of even the largest circuit
plans of telephone or power plant systems, and
if you practice tracing each of these diagrams care-
fully, you will soon have confidence and ability to
read any circuit plan.
59. COMBINATION CLOSED AND OPEN
CIRCUIT ALARMS.
Fig. 85 shows a method of using double circuit
switches to operate both the relay and annunciator
Fig. 83. Double circuit stick relay used in a closed circuit burglar in a closed circuit constant ringing system.
alarm system. This is a very simple and efficient alarm circuit.
When any one of the alarm switches is pressed,
Now if any one of the closed circuit alarm switches it opens the relay coil circuit and closes the annun-
is opened, the current stops flowing through the ciator circuit at the same time.
coil, releasing the armature, which closes a circuit In this system the annunciator shows exactly
to the bell, as shown by the large arrows. which window or door is disturbed.
 Norman Seder
1
1
t 1 Georg ia Ave l
rooklyn 7. N. Yi
Section Two, Balanced Alarms and Window Foil

A number of such circuits could be arranged to

protect separate floors or apartments in a building,
and then all connected together through one annun-
ciator and alarm bell as in Fig. 84. The additional
annunciator would then indicate to the watchman,
janitor or owner, which floor or apartment the
alarm came from. ------
The small arrows in Fig. 85 show where current
will normally flow when the system is "set". The
large arrows show where current would flow
through both the annunciator and bell circuits, if ----- •
_
switch number 2 was disturbed. o
After this system is tripped and the bell is ring-
ing what would you do to stop the bell and reset
the alarm?
60. BURGLAR ALARM FOIL FOR WINDOW
PROTECTION. Fig. 81. This diagram shows the use and application of burglar alarm
foil for the protection of glass windows and doors.
In addition to window and door contacts, switches
and alarm traps, some alarm systems use tinfoil This relay has two coils wound in opposite direc-
strips for the protection of glass windows or thin tions on each core, so when current flows through
wood panels that could be easily broken. them equally they create opposing magnetic flux
and do not attract the armature.
The variable resistance at "A" is used to balance
the current flow through coil "R", with that of coil
"L", by being adjusted so that its resistance is
equal to that of the entire alarm circuit. The alarm
circuit includes the wire, switches, and the resist-
ance unit "B" which is in series with the closed
circuit switches.
As long as the alarm circuit remains of equal
resistance to that of the balancing circuit, the cur-
rent from the battery divides evenly through coils
"L" and "R". But if any switch is opened or
closed, or the wires are changed, the resistance of
the alarm circuit will be changed and more current
will flow through one coil or the other, and magne-
tize the relay core.

Fig. 85. Combination alarm system using double circuit switches to

operate both the stick relay and the annunciator.

Tinfoil for this purpose can be bought in rolls,

prepared for cementing to the inner surface of the
glass or panel to be protected. It is then connected
into the regular alarm circuit by attaching wires
to its ends.
If the glass is broken it will crack the tinfoil
and open the circuit, causing the alarm to operate.
Fig. 86 shows a large show window and small
window above the door protected by burglar alarm
foil, and the door and two small windows by door
and window springs. All are connected in series
to form the closed circuit for the relay coil.
Fig. 87. Balanced resistance alarm circuit. This is a very dependable
Disturbance of any one will cause the bell to alarm system, as it is almost impossible to tamper with it without
causing the alarm to sound.
ring.
61. BALANCED ALARM SYSTEMS. For example, if any closed circuit switch is
Burglar alarms can be arranged so that it is opened, the current through coil "L" stops flowing.
nearly impossible for even an expert to disturb or leaving the flux of coil "R" unopposed and strong
tamper with them without giving the alarm. enough to attract the armature and cause the bell
Fig. 87 shows asystem using circuits of balanced to ring. Or, if any open circuit switch is closed,
resistance and a specially wound relay. it affords a much easier path than the normal one
 Section Two, Lock Switches and Fire Alarms 111

through resistance "B", and more current at once when he sees it. The automatic alarms are those that
flows through coil "L", overcoming the opposing are operated by the heat of the fire, and send in the
flux of coil "R", and again attracting the armature alarm without the aid of any person.
and ringing the bell. One simple type of manual fire alarm switch is
Variations of this principle can be used in several the "break glass" type, in which the switch is held
ways in different types of alarm circuits, making in a closed normal position by a small pane or win-
them very dependable and safe from intentional or dow of glass. In case of fire the person sending the
accidental damage. alarm merely breaks the glass, which allows the
switch to open by spring action and give the alarm.
62. LOCK SWITCH CONNECTIONS. One of these devices is shown in Fig. 89. The
Fig. 88-A shows how a lock switch can be con- illustration at the left, with the box closed, shows
nected in a burglar alarm system, to allow the clearly how the glass holds the switch button com-
owner or watchman to enter the building without pressed against a spring, and also the small iron
sounding the alarm, and also to turn off the system hammer provided for convenience in breaking the
during the day. glass. At the right the box is shown open and the
switch button can be seen in the center.

A Box Closed Box Open

Fig. 89. Fire alarm box of the "break glass" type. Note the hammer
used for breaking the glass, and the location of the push button
in the box which has the cover open.

64. PULL BOXES AND CODE CALL

DEVICES
Figs. 90 and 91 show two different types of fire
alarm "pull boxes". To send an alarm from this
type of box, the operator opens the door and pulls
the hook or crank down as far as it will go and
then releases it.
8 When it is pulled down it winds a spring inside,
and when released the spring operates a wheel or
Fig. 88. These circuits "A" and "B" show two different methods of
notched cam that opens and closes a switch several
connecting a lock switch to a burglar alarm circuit. times very rapidly. These notches or cams can be
arranged to send a certain number of impulses in
This switch is connected in parallel with the en- the form of dots and dashes, or numbered groups
tire line of switches here, and when it is locked of dots, to indicate the location of any particular
closed, any of the others can be opened without pull box.
tripping the alarm.
Or we can connect it to one switch only as in
Fig. 88-B. In this case only the one door and
switch can be opened. Then when the lock switch
is again locked open, the alarm will operate if any
other switch is opened.
63. FIRE ALARM DEVICES AND CIRCUITS.
Fire alarms are very similar in many ways to
burglar alarms, using many of the same parts such
as relays and bells; and also many of the same
types of circuits.
The principle difference is in the types of switches
used.
There are manually operated fire alarms and auto-
matic ones; the manual alarms being merely a signal
Fig. 90. This is a fire alarm "pull box" which sends in numericla or
system by which someone sends a warning of fire signals to indicate it location.
 Norrnan §popr
41 Georeja Ave:
Brr•cklyn 7, N. Y=
112 Section Two, Fire Alarms

the manufacturer of such devices. So you can

readily see what an advantage it is to know how
to read these diagrams.

Fig. 91. Another type of fire alarm pull box which also sends
code signals.

This enables the fire department crews to proceed

direct to the location of the fire.
Fig. 92-A shows how a notched wheel can be
arranged to open the contacts of a closed circuit
fire alarm, giving a series of short signals and
sounding the.number 241. Fig. 92-B shows a cam
Fig. 92-C signal or alarm box of the code calling type, showing code
wheel arranged to close the contacts of an open wheel and contact springs.

circuit system and send call number 123.

From this we see that such boxes are merely 65. SIGNAL RECORDERS
mechanically operated switches or sending keys. In fire alarm, bank burglar alarm, and police call
Certain types of industrial or shop "code call" systems, it is often desired to keep a record of the
systems use a mechanism similar to these to send numerical code call sent in by the signal box, in
number calls for different parties in the plant. These addition to hearing the call sounded on the bell or
will be explained later. horn. This helps to prevent mistakes in determining
where the call comes from.
For this purpose we have recording machines
which mark or punch the call on a moving paper
tape as the signal comes in, thus giving an accurate
and permanent record of it. Such adevice is shown
in Fig. 94.

Fig. 92. This sketch shows the arrangement of the code wheel and
contacts of closed and open circuit code call systems.

Fig. 93 shows a fire alarm control cabinet, which

is used to control and check the condition of such
systems. These cabinets are equipped with relays
which receive the small impulses of current from
Fig. 93. Fire alarm control cabinet, showing relays, test meter, and
the alarm box lines, and in turn close circuits send- connection diagram.
ing heavier currents to the gongs or horns located
near the cabinets. There is a spring and clockwork mechanism kept
Meters are also often provided for indicating the wound and ready to pull the tape through, at a
amount of current flow through closed circuit definite speed. The first impulse of the signal
systems, and thereby show the condition of the operates a relay or magnetic trip that releases or
circuits. starts the spring and tape.
Note the diagram of connections which is in the Then another magnet operates a small pen arm,
cover of this cabinet, and is usually furnished by shown on the outside of the box in this case, and
 Section Two, Fire Alarms and Code Signals 113

marks every impulse on the tape in the form of fire or excessive heat near it, the circuit will be
dots and dashes. broken and the alarm operated.
Automatic fire alarms use thermostatic switches Fig. 96 shows a fire alarm system in which all
or fusible links, to open or close circuits and send three types of switches are used. The "break glass"
an alarm as soon as a certain temperature is switches can be located where they are easily
reached. This type of system is very valuable in accessible to persons who might observe the fire,
warehouses and buildings where no people or and the thermostats and links installed in other
watchman are about to notice a fire immediately. places in the building where no one is likely to be.
In this sketch, "A" and "A-1" are fusible link
switches. "B" and "B-l" are "break glass" switches,
and "C" and "C-l" are thermostatic switches. All
of these are of the closed circuit type. In addition
to these, an open circuit thermostat switch is
shown at "D" to operate the bell direct in case of
fire near the relay and alarm equipment. Fig. 96-A
shows a fire alarm fuse or link.

Fig. 94. Recording device for receiving code calls on paper tape. Fire
and police departments use such recorders.

Thermostatic switches can be set or adjusted so Fig. 9e This sketch shows the connection of several different tYP«
a rise of even a few degrees above normal tem- of fire alarm switches in one system.

perature will cause them to close a circuit almost

immediately. 67. INDUSTRIAL SIGNALS AND HEAVY
DUTY BELLS
One switch of this type was explained in Art. 15
of this section. Another type is shown in Fig. 95. In factories, industrial plants and power plants,
There are various types in use but all are quite where signals are used to call department foremen
simple and merely use the expansion of metals and various employees, and where the noise would
when heated, to close or open the contacts. inake ordinary small bells difficult to hear, large
heavy duty bells or horns are used.
Any number of such thermostats can be con-
nected on a fire alarm circuit to operate one general The bells used for such work are very similar to
alarm, through the proper relays. the smaller ones, but are much larger and are
usually wound to operate on 110 volts. Instead of
using the vibrating armature pivoted on one end,
they often tse a rod for the hammer. This rod is
operated by the magnets in the case. Two bells of
this type are shown in Fig. 97, and the hammer
rod can be seen under the gong of the larger bell.

Fig. 95. One type of thermostatic fire alarm switch, that can be
adjusted to open or close an alarm circuit by expansion at tem-
peratures above normal.

66. FUSIBLE LINKS FOR FIRE ALARMS

The fusible link fire alarm is made of a soft metal Fig. 96-A. Fire alarm fuse which melts when heated above normal
alloy something like electrical fuse material. Some temperature, opening the circuit and causing alarm to sound.

of these metals are made which will actually melt

in warm water, or at temperatures of 125 degrees 68. SIGNAL HORNS OR "HOWLERS"
and up. Such fusible links can be located at various Horns have a very penetrating note and for very
points where fire might occur, and all connected in noisy places are often preferred to bells. They are
series in the alarm circuit. If any one is melted by made to operate on either D. C. or A. C., and at
114 Section Two, Industrial Calls and Signal Horns

110 volts, or can be obtained for any voltage from

6 to 250.
Some such horns are made with a vibrator which
strikes a thin metal diaphragm at the inner end
of the horn. Others have small electric motors
which rotate a notched wheel against a hard metal
cam on the diaphragm, causing it to vibrate or
"howl" loudly. Many of these horns are called
"howlers".

Fg. 99. Motor operated signal horn which produces a very penetrating
note, and is excellent for industrial and power-plant use. (Photo
courtesy of Benjamin Electric Company.)

Fig. 101 shows the connection diagram for a

group of horns with such a relay.

69. AUTOMATIC SIGNALING MACHINES

In large plants where agreat number of different
numerical or code calls are used for signaling
different parties, an automatic signaling machine
is often used. With this device, the operator simply
pushes a button for a certain call, and this releases
or starts a spring or motor operated disk or code
Fig. 97. Two types of large heavy duty bells for use in industrial
plants or noisy places.
wheel, which sends the proper signal or number
of impulses properly timed, in a manner similar to
Fig. 98 shows two horns of the vibrator type, and the fire alarm already explained.
Fig. 99 shows one of the motor operated type.
Fig. 100 is a sectional view of a motor horn,
showing all its parts.
Ifeavy duty bells and horns require more current
to operate them, than can be handled by the ordi-
nary small push button, and these low voltage push
buttons should not be used on 110 volts.

Fig. in. Sectional view showing parts and construction of motor

operated horn. (Sketch courtesy of Benjamin Electric Company.)

A box with anumber of these buttons and wheels

can be used to conveniently call any one of a num-
ber of parties, by just pressing the proper button
once, and this does not require the operator to
remember a number of code calls.
A diagram for connecting such a device to signal
horns operated from a transformer is shown in
Fig. 102.
Extra push buttons are also shown for sending
special calls not included on the automatic signal
Fig. 98. Two styles of signal horns using magnetic vibrators to
produce a loud note. box.
A time clock is also connected in this system to
So we usually connect the switches to a special sound the horns at starting and quitting periods
relay which has heavy carbon contacts, to close for the employees.
the high voltage and heavier current circuit to the These clocks have two program wheels, one of
bells or horns. which revolves with the hour hand, and one with
 Section Two, Industrial and Automatic Signals 115

Then, by following a circuit diagram, many mis-

takes and time losses can be avoided in making the
final connections.
In drawing up plans, or in copying them from
other prints, it is usually much easier to sketch the
parts and devices on the paper first, in about the
same location and proportional spacing as in the
original plan, or as they are to be installed in the
building. Then draw in the wires and circuits one
at a time, keeping them as straight and simple as
possible. Lay out the wires and connections first to
get the desired operation and results. Then go over
the plan again, and possibly redraw it to simplify
it and shorten wires, making use of "common wires”
eliminating unnecessary crossed wires, etc.

71. LAYOUT OR LOCATION OF PARTS IN

THE BUILDING
By going carefully over the building with the
plans, and using good common sense in choosing
the location for the various devices and wire runs,
you can make a more satisfactory job and save ad-
ditional time and labor on the installation.

Fig. 101. Connection diagram for signal horns and Master relay. This BENJAMIN SIGNALS
relay operates on low voltage and very small current, and closes a
high voltage, heavy current, circuit to the horns. (Courtesy Ben-
jamin Electric Company.)

the minute hand. These wheels carry adjustable

lugs or projections which open or close electrical e roes
contacts as they come around.
Schools often use these program clocks with
signal systems, to start and dismiss various classes.

70. INSTALLATION OF CALL AND SIGNAL

SYSTEMS
//O Yoe
Now that you have learned the operating prin- A. C
ciples of these signal devices and circuits, and know
how to trace and understand the diagrams and TRANSFORMER
T77
plans, you will want to know more about how to
install them. elons/brrner eberseCelèns RECORDING CLOCK
/-2 -6 lio/e.'s
In making any electrical installation, the first f-3 -/2 Yo/es
thing should be the plan or layout, and circuit
diagram. So as soon as we have decided upon the
type of system desired and how it should operate
to give best service, we should decide on the
location of the various parts, and then lay out the
L Q Q Q Q G. Q-

circuits accordingly. r
Of course in many cases a complete plan is PUSH BUTTONS
AUTOMATIC SELECTIVE
furnished for new installations, by the architects in CALLING DEVICE
case of new buildings, or by the engineering or con-
struction departments of large power or industrial Fig. 102. This diagram shows the connections for signal horns operated
from a transformer, and controlled either by a time clock or auto-
plants. But if such plans are not furnished, you matic signal device. (Courtesy Benjamin Electric Company.)

should at least make up a rough layout before any

work is started. For example, when installing a simple door bell
This can be drawn approximately to scale for system in a home, the bell should be located in a
the various distances between devices, or length of rear room, probably the kitchen, because both its
wire runs, and this will enable you to estimate and noise and appearance would probably be objection-
select the required materials with best economy. able in the parlor or dining room. Usually some
116 Section Two, Installation Methods

"out of the way" place can be found in a corner or first, and hooked or snared at the outlet opening,
hall or behind a door, and preferably quite high then drawn through with the signal wires attached.
from the floor, so it is out of reach of children and A little "kink" that often comes in very handy
safe from accidental damage. By considering where in either signal or light wiring is as follows:
the wires can best enter the room and placing the When you desire to locate the exact spot to drill
bell on this side if possible, time and material may up or make the hole in the basement ceiling, so that
be saved. it will come directly under the center of the parti-
The battery or transformer should usually be tion above, or some other certain spot, stick the
located in the basement or attic near to the bell or point of a magnetized file in the floor above or ceil-
wires. However, the battery or transformer can ing below, and then use a pocket compass to locate
sometimes be located on a small shelf or attached this spot on the other side.
to the wall right with the bell, or in a small box. The compass needle will be attracted by the file
The buttons of course must be located at the tip. Moving the compass around will locate the
proper doors, and preferably on the door casing. center of attraction, which should be the point
Their height should be carefully chosen to be directly opposite the file tip. Then measure the
within convenient reach of grown-ups, but usually distance between the spot located by the compass
not low enough for small children to reach, unless and to the edge of the partition, and add one-half
a lower mounting is requested by the owner. the thickness of the partition. Measure off this
distance in the same direction from the file and
72. RUNNING THE WIRES you should have a point about in the center of the
All wires should be run concealed whenever partition.
possible. Very often it is possible to drill two small In other cases measurements in two directions
holes in the door casing strip directly beneath the from certain outside walls may be accurate enough.
button and, by loosening the strip, run the wires Sometimes an exact spot can be located best by
under it to the basement or attic. drilling through the wall or floor with a long thin
If it is not possible to get behind the strip, per- feeler drill, 1/8 or 3/16 in diameter.
haps the holes can be drilled at an angle to get the If the hole does not come near the exact spot de-
wires into the edge of a hollow wall. Or, if neces- sired, it will serve as an accurate point to measure
sary, they can be run in the corner at the edge of from, and can be easily plugged and concealed
the door casing and covered with a strip of wood afterward.
or metal moulding. Fig. 103-A shows how to use the magnetized file
Where wires can be run through the basement and compass and make the measurements to locate
or attic they can usually be stapled along the base- the center of partition. Fig. 103-B shows by the
ment ceiling or attic floor. Care should be taken to dotted lines how the small "feeler" holes can be
run wires where they will be least likely to receive drilled for the same purpose. The first hole should
injury, and they should always be run as straight be drilled down at the proper angle and the second
and neatly as possible. one drilled up, to try to strike the center of the
Sometimes it is advisable to lay a narrow board
to run the wires on across ceiling or floor joists in
unfinished basements or attics.
\V hen making long runs of wire always keep in
mind the saving of time and material that can be
made by using a common feeder wire to a number
of switches, or a common return wire from bells to
battery. This should also be carefully considered
when laying out the diagram and plans.
Where it is desired to run wires vertically through
walls, they can be "Fished" through by dropping
a weight on a string from the upper opening to the
lower one. This device is often called a "Mouse".
If the weight or "mouse" does not fall out of the
lower hole, the string can be caught with a stiff
wire hook and pulled out of the hole.
Then the wires can be pulled through with this
string, or if necessary another heavier cord can be
pulled through first, if the wires are too long and
numerous to be drawn in by the light cord on the
"mouse". Fig. 113-A. Sketch showing uses of magnetized file and compass to
locate spot to drill for wires. "B," dotted linos show how the
In horizontal runs through walls a steel "Fish "feeler drill" can be used. "C," dropping a "moues" on a sfiing,
through holes in wall and floor. "D," pulling the wires in with
Tape" (spring steel wire) can be pushed through the cord which was attached to the "mouse."
 Section Two, Installation Methods and Trouble Tests 117

partition. Or, the first one can be drilled straight conduit because of defective insulation as in Fig.
down and then the proper distance measured over 104-E
to partition. For this test we again disconnect the devices
Figs. 103-C and 103-D show the method of drop- from the wires, and connect the test bell and bat-
ping a "mouse" through the holes and pulling the .tery as shown.
wires in. With one test lead on the conduit, try the other
lead on each wire. It will not ring on Nos. 1, 2, or 3,
73. RUNNING SIGNAL WIRES IN
but will ring on No. 4 which is touching the pipe
CONDUIT
at "X", thus making a closed circuit for the test
In some cases, especially in modern fireproof
bell.
office or factory buildings, signal wires are run in
conduit. Conduit, as previously mentioned, is iron
pipe in which the wires are run for protection from
injury and to provide greater safety.
Signal wires should always be run in separate
conduits of their own, and never with wires of the
higher voltage lighting system.
A fish tape is usually pushed through the conduit
first, and used to pull the wires in.
74. TESTING TO LOCATE PROPER WIRES
FOR CONNECTIONS
When a number of wires all alike and without
color markings are run in one conduit, cable or
group, it is easy to find the two ends of each wire
by a simple test with a battery and bell, or test
lamp.
Simply connect one wire to the conduit at one
end, and then attach the bell and battery to the
conduit at the other end, and try each of the wires
on the bell, until the one that rings it is found.
This is the same wire attached to the conduit at Fig. 104. Sketches showing methods of testing for various faults in
wires run in conduit. Compare carefully with test instructions
the other end. (See Fig. 104-A.) Mark or tag given.

these ends both No. 1or both "A", and proceed to

76. EMERGENCY WIRES, AND PULLING-IN
locate and mark the others in the same manner.
REPLACEMENTS
When testing or "ringing out" wires in a cable
Where long runs of wires are installed in conduit
or open group with no conduit in use, very often
some other ground to earth or some piping system, or signal cables, it is common practice to include
one or more extra wires for use in case any of the
can be obtained at each end, making it easy to test
others become damaged.
the wires. (See Fig. 104-B.)
This is especially good practice with cables, be-
75. TROUBLE TESTS cause it is difficult to remove or repair the broken
When troubles such as grounds, opens or shorts wire. In a conduit system, where no extra wires
occur in wires in conduit, the fault can be located are provided and a new wire must be run in to
as follows: replace a broken or grounded one, it is sometimes
Suppose one wire is suspected of being broken easier to pull out all wires, and pull a new one back
or "open." Connect all the wire ends to the conduit in with them.
at one end of the line, as in Fig. 104-C. Then test Where this is not practical or possible, it some-
with the bell and battery at the other end, from times saves time and money to pull out the broken
the conduit to each wire. The good wires will each or bad wire, and then attach two good wires to the
cause the bell to ring, but No. 2, which is broken end of one of the remaining wires, and pull it out,
at "X" will not cause the bell to ring, unless its pulling in the two good ones with it. This replaces
broken end happens to touch the conduit. both the bad wire and the one good wire pulled out.
When testing for short-circuits between wires, If the bad wire was not broken but only grounded,
disconnect all wires from the devices at each end it can be used to pull in the new wire; but, of
of the line and test as in Fig. 104-D. course, a broken wire cannot be used for this pur-
When the bell is connected to wires Nos. 1and 2 pose. Therefore, it is often advisable to sacrifice
it will ring, as they are shorted or touching each one good wire, to pull in two new ones.
other at "X", through damaged insulation. Con- The several tests and methods just explained are
necting the bell to any other pair will not cause very valuable and should be thoroughly understood,
it to ring. for use on other wiring systems as well as signal
Sometimes one wire becomes grounded to the wiring.
118 Section Two, Signal Wiring Materials

While some of these tests were explained for and easily located at each end of the cable. Such
wires in conduit, they can be also used on groups cables simplify the running of the wires, save space
of open wires or cabled wires, by using in place and time, and make a much neater job in offices
of the conduit, some other ground or an extra wire, and places where numerous separate wires would
run temporarily for the tests. be undesirable.
In large signal installations terminal blocks are
77. SIGNAL WIRING MATERIALS
used on some of the equipment, and all wires are
Now for the materials. In addition to the bell, brought to numbered terminals on these blocks.
battery or transformer, and push button switches, Then with the plans, on which the wires can also
we will need the proper amount of wire, and in case be numbered, it is very simple to make proper con-
or open wiring, staples to fasten the wire in place. nections of cables with dozens or even hundreds of
Ordinary bell or annunciator wire as it is called, wires.
is usually No. 16 or No. 18, B. & S. gauge, and is This is common practice with telephone installa-
insulated with waxed cotton covering. It can be tions and elevator signals, and also on modern
bought in small rolls of 1/2 lb. and up, or on spools radio sets, as well as for office and industrial call
of 1 lb., 5 lbs. or more. It can also be bought in systems.
single wires, or twisted pairs, and with various
colored insulation.
Where several wires are to be run together, the
use of different colors helps to easily locate the
proper ends for final connection.
For damp locations, where the cotton insulation
might not be sufficient, wire can be obtained with
a light rubber insulation and cotton braid over it.
As ordinary door bells use only very low voltage,
it is not necessary that the wires be so heavily
insulated. In many cases they can be run with no

*ON
other protection, such as conduit or mouldings.
To fasten the wires we use staples which have
paper insulation to prevent them from cutting into
insulation of the wire. However, these staples
should not be driven too tightly down on the wires,
and never over crossed wires, or they may cut
through the insulation, causing a short circuit.
Fig. 1110. Bell wires can also be fastened with the large beaded nails
Such a"short" under astaple is often hard to locate, and cleats shown here.
and great care should always be used in placing
and driving the staples. 78. CAUTION NECESSARY FOR SAFE AND
Small cleats with grooves for each wire, and holes RELIABLE WIRING
for screws to fasten them, are sometimes used. In Considerable care should be used when drawing
other cases where twisted pairs of wires are run, bell wires through holes and openings, or the insu-
a small nail with a broad insulating head is driven lation may be damaged. Where the wires are left
between the two wires, so the head holds them against the edge of a hole they should be protected
both. Fig. 105 shows several sizes of insulated from damage by vibration and wear, by means of a
staples, and Fig. 106 shows the nail and cleats piece of hollow "loom" or insulating tubing slipped
mentioned. over the wires and taped in place. Also, where
wires cross pipes or other wires, they should be
well protected with such extra insulation.
Even though signal and bell wires carry low
voltage and small current, they are capable of creat-
ing sparks and starting fires if carelessly installed.
So, for this reason and also that the finished
system will give good service, all signal work should
be done with proper care.
Fig. 105. Several different sizes and styles of insulated staples used
Low voltage signal wires must never be run in
in bell wiring. the same conduits with higher voltage lighting or
power wires as it is very dangerous, and is also a
On installations where a large number of wires violation of the National Electric Code, which will
are to be run in a group, cables with the desired be explained in later sections.
number of wires can be obtained. These wires are If such wires were run with high voltage ones,
usually marked by different colored insulation, so and a defect should occur in the high voltage wires
that the ends of any certain wire can be quickly and allow them to touch the signal wires with their
 Section Two, Systematic "Trouble Shooting" I19

thinner insulation, it would create aserious fire and If the power supply and all bells, relays, and
shock hazard. switches are tested and O. K., then start testing
When installing bell transformers, the wires from the main wires and circuits with the proper switches
the lighting circuit to the transformer primary must closed to energize them. Use a test lamp of the
be regular No. 14 rubber covered lighting wire, and proper voltage, or a voltmeter, to make sure the
must run in conduit, B X, or approved fashion for current can get through the lines.
110 volt wiring, according to the code of that par- Any time you are not sure just how to test the
ticular town or territory. wires, just refer back to Article 75 of this section
When making splices or connections to devices and refresh your memory on the various steps.
all wires should be well cleaned of insulation No one can remember all these things perfectly
and all connections carefully made and well the first time, but referring back to them and trying
tightened. Splices in wires should be carefully them out on the job at every opportunity is the
soldered and well taped, to make secure and well quickest and surest way to fix them in your mind.
insulated joints. Never be ashamed to refer to a plan or notes
Any bell or signal system should be thoroughly when you have a problem of connection or other
tested before leaving it as a finished job. Pride in trouble. The most successful electricians and engi-
your work and neatness and thoroughness in every neers always follow plans.
job should be your rule in all electrical work. That When a system has several separate circuits,
will be the surest way to make satisfied customers test them one at a time and mark them off on the
and success, in your job or business. plan or sketch as each is proven O. K. In this man-
79. TROUBLE SHOOTING ner you know at all times how far you have gone,
and where to look next, and can feel sure of corner-
In each section of this work on signal devices
and circuits, common troubles and methods of lo- ing the trouble in one of the circuits or devices.
cating them have been covered. In order to apply Remember a portable battery and bell, buzzer,
or test lamp, and a few pieces of test wire, used
your knowledge of these things to solve any troubles
in signal systems, your first step should be to get with a knowledge of the purpose and principles of
the circuits and devices, and plain common sense,
a good mental picture of the system, either from
will locate almost any signal trouble.
the plan or by looking over the system and making
When any certain device is found to be out of
a rough sketch of the devices and connections.
Then go over it one part at a time Coolly and order, you also have its troubles and repairs covered
in the section on that device, in this Reference Set.
Carefully, and try to determine from the faulty ac-
Refer to it if you need to.
tion or symptoms of the system where the trouble
may be. Welcome every "trouble shooting" job as a
chance to get some excellent experience.
80. KEEP COOL AND USE A PLAN AND A
SYSTEM 81. PUTTING YOUR TRAINING INTO
A great mistake made by many untrained men PRACTICE
in trouble shooting, is that they get rattled and
Now, if you have made acareful study of this sec-
worried as soon as they encounter a difficult prob-
tion so far, you should be able to install almost any
lem of this nature. They forget that aplan or rough
ordinary call or signal system.
sketch of the wiring will usually be of the greatest
help, and they make a few wild guesses as to what You may doubt your ability to do this, but that
the trouble is. If these don't hit it, they often get is natural at first, as most of us have felt this way
still more rattled and indefinite in their efforts, and on our first jobs. But the thing to do is to get out
as a result sometimes mess up the system making and try it the first time you have an opportunity
it worse instead of improving it. after graduation.
Remember that Every Trouble Can Be Found, Start with a small job if you wish, and you will
and Someone Is Going to Find It. If you can do it, quickly find that you can apply every principle
it will be to your credit and often put money in covered in this Set and in your shop work. After
your pocket. or get you a promotion. the first job or two, your confidence will grow and
You can find any fault, by thoughtful systematic you will be ready to tackle any work of this nature.
testing of each circuit and device and applying the Many hundreds of our graduates have started
knowledge you have of this work. their present successful contracting businesses by
In general, a good rule to follow is to first test a few bell wiring jobs at first.
the source of current supply. See that it is alive and Fig. 107 shows a floor plan of a house equipped
at proper voltage. A test lamp or voltmeter will with a modern bell call system, that affords great
do this nicely. convenience in any home. Here are shown front
Then test the devices that fail to operate, using and back door buttons, and buttons to call a maid
a portable battery and test wires to make sure the from the parlor, bedroom, or dining room. An
device itself is not at fault, or has no loose annunciator indicates which door or which room
terminals. any call comes from. The switch in the dining
120 Section Two, Starting a Business

room can be a floor switch under the table for foot signal system would be a great improvement and
operation, while those in the other rooms can be convenience, and well worth the very small ex-
neat push buttons in convenient locations on the pense, or that a burglar alarm system would be
walls. excellent protection for their property, or perhaps
In homes where no maid is kept, several of these fire alarms from shops, garages, barns, etc., to the
buttons may not be necessary, but practically every houses.
home should have a door bell. Both practice in salesmanship, and electrical
They are becoming quite popular in many rural practice are extremely valuable to every beginner.
and farm homes. And in these homes a call bell 83. GOOD WORKMANSHIP IMPORTANT
from the house to the barn or garage is often a
In every job you do, from the smallest door bell
great convenience. system to the most elaborate burglar or fire alarm
In Fig. 107 the wires are shown in asimple layout
system, make a practice of doing nothing but first
to be easily traced, but they should be run through class work—work that will be a credit to your
the basement or attic, or through the walls where profession, your school, and yourself.
necessary.
Whether working for a customer or an employer,
start building your reputation with your first job,
and keep this thought in mind on all the rest.
84. ESTIMATING JOB COSTS
Try to do all work at a fair price to the customer,
and a fair wage, plus a reasonable profit for your-
self.
A good plan on the first job or two, is to do them
on a "time and material" basis. After determining
the type of system desired and parts and materials
needed, let the customer buy them, and then charge
for your time on installing them by the hour.
Keep a record of your time, wages, materials,
and costs, and these will help you estimate future
jobs quite accurately. Then you can buy your own
materials, and charge 25 per cent or more for hand-
ling them and for overhead or miscellaneous ex-
pense; in addition to a good wage for your time,
all in the estimate figure.
In many cases, time and money can be saved on
alarm installations by arranging the relays, bells,
batteries, and reset switch all on one panel or shelf
board, in advance at your home or shop. Then
when you go to the job, it is only necessary to
mount this assembled unit and install the wires and
proper switches.
And again let us emphasize the value of doing
Fig. 107. Diagram showing layout of wiring for doorbell and conveni-
ence call system with annunciator. Such systems are commonly
all work neatly and with good workmanship, both
used in modern homes and are very well worth their cost of for the appearance of the job, and for its quality
installation.
and dependability of operation.
82. STARTING A BUSINESS OF YOUR OWN A customer is usually better satisfied in the end,
To start a business of your own or side line jobs to have a first class job done at a fair price, than
for extra money in bell and signal wiring, as men- to have a poor job at a cheap price.
tioned before, very little capital or material is 85. VALUE OF ADVERTISING
required. Don't hesitate to let the people in your neighbor-
Many men have started big businesses with only hood know of your training and ability. With just
a few pounds of annunciator wire, a box of staples, a little confidence and real ambition you can do
afew push button switches, and acouple of bells and these things you want to. Prove it to them and to
buzzers, along with a few tools, such as pliers, yourself, and be proud of your training, and every
knife, screw driver, hammer, brace and bit, key- job well done.
hole saw, star drill for brick walls, etc. Very often the repair of bell and signal systems
You may not even need to buy any materials, already installed, will bring you some extra money.
and only a few tools, until you get your first jobs After completing your entire course you will be
lined up. able to do repair and installation work, not only
A little salesmanship will often convince the on signal and alarm systems, but also on radios.
owner of a home, shop, or store that a door bell or lighting systems, electric motors, appliances, etc.
 Section Two, Starting a Business 121

Fig. 107-B This photo shows a view of the more common parts and materials used in signal and alarm wiring.

If you have spare time evenings and week ends, 3 long electrician's bits, 24" to 36", for long holes
and wish to do such work aside from your regular through walls and floors, and through mortar
job, or to make a business and specialty of it, it joints in brick walls.
wjll usually pay to do alittle advertising. An adver- 1 pair side cutter pliers.
tisement in your local newspaper, and printed cards 1 pair long nose pliers.
left at houses and shops will call attention of people 1 pair diagonal pliers.
to yourself, as a trained man available to install or 1 claw hammer.
service such equipment for them. In many cases 1 light machine hammer.
this will bring all the work of this kind that you 1 staple driver.
can handle, especially after you have done some 1 compass saw.
work and have a few satisfied customers boosting 1 hack saw.
for you. 1 carpenter's saw.
Small advertisements and a few hundred cards 1 small pipe wrench.
of the type mentioned can often be gotten out at 1 small set of socket wrenches.
as low a cost as five to ten dollars. 2 small star drills.
If you should make a specialty of this line of 1 Yankee drill.
2 ignition point files, for bell contacts.
work, and build up quite an active shop and
business, then you can add to your tools and ma- 20-ft. of steel fish tape.
1 wood chisel.
terials to make a more complete equipment for
1 cold chisel.
greatest time saving and convenience.
1 doz. assorted push button switches.
For a more complete list of tools and materials
3 to 6 vibrating bells.
in case you want them later, see the following list.
3 to 6 vibrating buzzers.
Remember, however, that you can make a good
3 drop relays.
start in this work with probably no more than one
3 bell transformers.
tenth of this amount. 12 dry cells, No. 6.
1 2" screw driver for bell adjustments. 5 lbs. No. 18 annunciator wire.
1 4" screw driver for small screws. 3 boxes insulated staples.
1 6" screw driver for small screws. 1 electric or gasoline soldering iron.
1 ratchet for wood bits. 3 rolls friction tape.
6 assorted wood bits. 1 lb. solder.
122 Section Two, Starting a Business

After getting astart in this work so you are buying wiring or not, every bit of the knowledge of these cir-
considerable of materials and parts, you can get dis- cuits and devices that you have gained in this sec-
counts or wholesale prices from your dealer, or by tion will be of great help to you in any line of elec-
sending to some mail order house, and in this manner trical work, and particularly if you should enter
make still more profit on your jobs. any of the other great fields of a similar nature,
Now, whether you choose to follow bell and alarm such as railway signal, telephone, or radio work.

NOTES
•

•
124

TELEPHONES

The telephone industry today is one of the great- their own private telephone systems, and in any
est branches or fields of electrical work, and is line of electrical maintenance work you are likely
rapidly expanding year by year. to find good use for this knowledge.
Tens of thousands of trained electrical men are
kept constantly employed in the fascinating work 88. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
of this field, and its continuous rapid development The telephone is an instrument for transmitting
creates new jobs for many more yearly. sounds and voice from one point to another. Tele-
The modern telephone is a form of electrical phones do not actually carry the sound itself, but
signalling device of the most refined type. It has instead reproduce it by means of electric current
become one of the greatest factors in our present impulses.
civilization and is an absolute necessity in modern In order to understand how this is done, we
business. should first know something of the nature of
Important business transactions are carried on sound. Most everyone knows that any sound is
over the vast telephone network of this country transmitted by means of waves in the air. These
every minute of the day and night, saving vast air waves may be set up by one's voice, clapping
amounts of time and making distances seem very of hands, firing a gun, or anything that causes a
small. disturbance of the air.
Today a farmer can talk to his neighbor a few Different sounds have waves of different volume
miles away, or call the nearest town for groceries, ind frequency. A loud sound has waves of greater
machinery repairs, or the doctor—all for a few volume or energy, and a low or feeble sound has
cents cost. waves of less volume or energy. A high pitched
A resident of any large city can call any indi- sound has waves of high frequency, and a low
vidual, one of the thousands or millions of people note has waves of lower frequency.
who may live in that town, or in any town ;n These little puffs or waves of air strike our ear
the country. drums and cause them to vibrate and transmit
In a few minutes a connection can be established impressions of various sounds to our nerves and
from New York to Los Angeles, or from New brain, thus enabling us to hear them. Figs. 108
Orleans to Duluth, and a business or social con- and 109 show several different forms of sound
versation can be carried on for a few dollars. waves, represented by curves showing their volume
\Ve can also talk to people across the ocean, and frequency.
through undersea cables, «or by means of the com-
bination telephone and radio connections now in
common use.

86. GREAT FIELD FOR MEN WITH ELEC-

TRICAL TRAINING
To keep all this vast and marvelous system of
telephones functioning perfectly requires thousands
of well trained electrical men who are familiar with
circuit tracing, trouble shooting, and care and ad-
justment of the relays, bells, coils, etc. Many
more men are required to install the thousands
of new telephones constantly being added to this
vast system.
87. TELEPHONE KNOWLEDGE VALUABLE
IN ANY LINE OF ELECTRICAL WORK
The telephone field is one in which you can use
many of the principles that have been covered so far
in this signal section, and in the sections which
follow there will be much information applying to
telephones in particular. And even though you may
not desire to specialize in or follow telephone work, Fig. 108. This sketch shows a number of different forms of sound waves
represented by curves. The upper line shows two groups of waves,
you should at least have an understanding of the both of about the same frequency, but the first group of considerably
greater volume than the second. The second line shows two groups
fundamental principles of telephone equipment. of about the same volume, but the first is of much lower frequency
than the second. The third line shows waves of varying volume and
Many power plants, factories. shops and offices have varying frequency.
 Section Three, Telephone Principles 125

in order to be heard by the ordinary human ear, This simple telephone would serve to transmit
sound waves must be between 16 per second and the sound only in one direction, but would not per-
15,000 per second, in frequency. These are called mit return conversation. For two-way conversa-
Audible sounds. Many people cannot hear sounds tion we can connect a transmitter and receiver at
of higher pitch or frequency than 8,000 to 9,000 each end of the line, all in series with a battery,
waves per second, and it is only the highest of as shown in Fig. 111.
musical or whistling notes that reach a frequency
of 10,000 or more per second.
Sound waves travel about 1,100 feet per second

A
in air, and abount 4,700 feet per second in water.
Ordinary sounds can only be heard at distances
from a few feet to a few hundred feet, and the
loudest sounds only a few miles.
This is, because the actual amount of energy in
the sound waves is very small and is quickly lost
in traveling through air.
Electricity travels at the rate of 186,000 miles
per second, and can be transmitted over hundreds
13
of miles of wire without much loss. So if we
change sound wave energy into electrical impulses
and then use these impulses to reproduce the
sounds at a distance, we can greatly increase both
the speed and the distance sounds can be trans-
mitted.
This is exactly what the telephone does.

Fig. 110-A. Sound waves strildng the transmitter are reproduced elec-
trically by the magnets in the receiver.
B. When feeble waves strike the transmitter only small cur-
rents flow in the circuit.
s\P C. When stronger waves strike it heavier currents flow.

PIANO C
When sound waves enter either transmitter, both
receivers are caused to operate, so this system can
be used to carry on conversation both ways.
However, we still do not have any means to
call the distant party to the telephone.
This can be arranged very easily, as in Fig. 112,
CLARINET C
by simply attaching a return call bell and push
Fig. 100. These waves are typical of various musical notes, having the
small variations in frequency and volume occurring at regular inter- button system. In this circuit we have made use
vals, forming groups or large variations in the general note.
of one of the talking circuit wires, and a ground
path for the bell circuit, but it still requires an
89. TRANSMITTING AND REPRODUCING extra wire for the signals. This wire can be elimi-
SOUND WAVES ELECTRICALLY nated by the use of a Receiver Hook Switch, to
In Fig. 110-A is shown a sketch of a simple form separate the talking and ringing circuits when the
of telephone. Sound waves striking the Transmit- receiver is up or down.
ter at the left, cause it to vary the amount of
current flowing from the battery through the
transmitter, and also through the Receiver at the
right. These varying impulses of current through
the receiver magnet vibrate a thin diaphragm or
disk and set up new air waves with the same fre-
quency and variations as those which operated the
transmitter. Thus the original sound is reproduced
quite faithfully.
This illustration of the telephone principle shows
that the actual sound does not travel over the
wires, but that the wires merely carry the elec-
Fig. 111. Two transmitters and two receivers connected in series to form
trical impulses. a simple two-way telephone circuit.
Figs. 110-B and 110-C show the same circuit with
different amounts of current flowing in each case, The circuit shown in Fig. 112 can be used for
as they would be at the time different sound waves a very practical telephone for short distances, such
strike the transmitter. as between a house and barn, or in a large shop
 Norman Beder
124.1 Georgia Ave.
Section Three, Telephone Parts
Bru,,Idyn 7, N. Y1
or office building. But for longer distances we 91. TRANSMITTER
should also have the hook switch to save the extra
The transmitter, as was mentioned before, acts as
wire, and an Induction Coil to increase the voltage
a valve to release from the battery, electric current
for the long line. The bells should also be of a
impulses in synchronism with the sound waves
special high resistance type, so they will operate
which operate the transmitter. This is done by the
on less current and maintain better line economy.
use of a variable resistance in the form of carbon
granules (particles) in a small cup-like container.
This cup has a loose cover or front end, which

fL,
is attached to the thin disk or diaphragm directly in
front of the mouthpiece.
The mouthpiece acts as a sort of funnel, to con-
centrate the sound waves on this disk. As the
waves strike the disk, they cause it to vibrate
slightly and this moves the loose end of the carbon
container and compresses and releases the carbon
o grains or granules. See Fig. 113, which shows
triese parts in detail.
The transmitter circuit is arranged so the cur-
rent from the battery must flow through the carbon
granules from one end of the cup to the other.
Fig.112. Simple telephone system for two-way conversations, and in- When the carbon particles are compressed tightly
cluding bells and buttons for calling the parties to the telephone.
the contacts between them are better, their electri-
cal resistance is lower, and they allow a strong cur-
90. IMPORTANT PARTS AND DEVICES
rent to flow. When they are released and their
Now we have found that the more important contacts loosened, the resistance increases and less
parts of a telephone are the Transmitter, Receiver, current will flow.
Bell, Hook Switch, Induction Coil, and Battery, or So, as the various sounds strike the transmitter
source of current supply. Some types of telephones and cause the disk and button to vibrate rapidly,
also require a special Magneto to operate the high it controls or liberates from the battery corre-
resistance bells. sponding impulses of current. Fig. 114 is a sketch
In order to more thoroughly understand the showing the connections and electrical circuit
operation of various types of telephones, and also through a transmitter.
their care and repair, we should now find out more Fig. 115 shows several different forms of electric
about each of these important parts mentioned. current represented by curves. The straight lines
Although there are many styles of telephones are base or zero lines, and are considered as points
and various circuits and systems, they all use these of no current value. When the curve goes above
same fundamental parts, and if you get a good the line it represents positive or current in one
general knowledge of these parts it should be much direction; and when it goes below it means nega-
easier for you to understand any ordinary telephone tive or current in the opposite direction. Fig.
installation. 115-A shows a steady or continuous flow of direct

Fig. 113. This diagram shows two different views of a telephone trans-
mitter and its parts. Examine each very closely,
and note the names of each part.
 Section Three, Transmitters 127

current, such as the battery would ordinarily ating principle to the one in Fig. 113. This trans-
supply. Fig. 115-B shows pulsating direct current mitter has the disk or diaphragm mounted in a
such as the transmitter would produce. The height soft rubber ring, to allow it free movement without
of the curve above the line indicates the value of rattling or chattering.
the various current impulses. While this current Sometimes the carbon granules in a transmitter
varies in amount, it is still flowing all in one become packed or worn and need to be removed.
direction. In many transmitters the entire cup can be easily
removed and exchanged. Loose terminals, broken
connections, or dirt around the diaphragm also
cause occasional trouble.

92. RECEIVER
The ordinary telephone receiver consists of a
strong permanent magnet of horsehoe shape, a pair
of electro-magnet coils at the ends of the permanent
magnet poles, a thin disk or diaphragm, and the
shell and cap in which these parts are enclosed.
See Fig. 117. The receiver at the left shows the
parts named, while the one at the right shows a
slightly different type which does not use the large
permanent magnet, but just a strong electro-mag-
net instead.

Fig. 114. Simple sketch showing principle of telephone transmitter

button, and how the varying pressure on the carbon granules
varies the resistance and current flow in the circuit.

Fig. 115-C shows ordinary alternating current,

such as a magneto or A. C. generator would pro-
duce. This current continually varies in amount
and regularly reverses in direction. Fig. 115-D
shows alternating current of irregular frequency
and varying volume, such as produced by a tele-
phone induction coil, which will be explained a
little later.
Fig. 116 shows another type of transmitter of
slightly different construction, but similar in oper-
Fig. 116. Sectional view of a common type of telephone transmitter.
The carbon cup is here shown empty or with-
out any carbon granules in it.

The permanent magnet normally holds the iron

disk attracted when the receiver is not in use.
When "talking current," or current from the talk-
ing circuit, passes through the coils of the electro-
magnets, its current variations strengthen and
weaken the pull of the permanent magnet on the
diaphragm, causing it to vibrate.
Telephones using induction coils have alternating
current in the line and receiver circuits. This cur-
rent reverses rapidly, and the reversals or alterna-
tions are of the same corresponding frequency and
volume as the sound waves which caused them.
Some of these impulses were shown in Fig.
115-D. As these impulses pass through the receiver
coils, they not only vary the magnetic strength
of the coils, but also actually reverse their polarity.
This causes the electro-magnets to strengthen the
Fig. 115. Various kinds of electrical current represented by curves. polarity and aid the pull of the permanent magnets
Examine each curve very closely and compare
with the explanations given.
on the diaphragm while the current flows in one
 128 Section Three, Receivers

Riceivup
CORO
RECEIVER__
caw OTRAIM LOOP

SHELL

WEIGHT

PERMAMeMT
RAGNET SHELL

FrPAIN LOOP

tepwuNAL VARNISHED
PLATE CAMBRIC
' TURING TERMINAL PLAT!

E.RA.53 CUP
FIBRE ISLOCK
eR.A.53 DOLT
,— 55453 CUP
COIL

CUP LUG COIL

IRON YOKE --- COIL WIRE

DIAPHRAGM DIAPHRAGM
COIL MOE

CAP CAP
FLA.MGE FLANGE

Fig. 117. Two sectional views showing the construction and parts of two
types of telephone receivers. Examine all the parts carefully and
note the names of each. The receiver on the right has a lead weight
at the top of the shell to make it heavy enough to operate the hook
switch, which will be explained later.

direction. But when it reverses, the magnetism By disconnecting the talking circuit, it saves
of the coils opposes that of the permanent magnet wasting the battery current when the 'phone is
and weakens it, thus making a considerable varia- not in use. It also disconnects the bell circuit
tion in pull on the diaphragm. when the 'phone is in use, and thus prevents the
The coils of the receiver electro-magnets are bell from being rung while parties are talking.
usually wound with many turns of very fine wire, I-Taving this switch operated by the receiver makes
and if these coils are bruised or scratched it often it automatic, as the party naturally removes and
breaks one or more turns of the wire and stops replaces the receiver when starting and finishing
the operation of the receiver. the conversation.
Some of the other more common receiver troubles Fig. 119 shows avery simple type of hook switch.
are as follows: Loose end cap, allowing diaphragm While the receiver is on the hook it holds the hook
to fall away from magnets; bent diaphragm, weak down, and the end of the hook lever presses against
permanent magnet, loose cord connections, or the center contact of the switch, keeping it in con-
broken receiver cord. The wires in these cords tact with the spring "C." This closes the ring-
often become broken inside the insulation, from ing circuit.
.twisting and kinking, or from rough handling and
dropping of receivers.
Testing with a dry cell, first at the cord tips,
then at the receiver terminals, and listening for a
click at the diaphragm as the circuit is made and
broken, will easily disclose this trouble.
Another type of receiver, often called a "watch
case" type, is shown in Fig. 118. These small
receivers are used in head sets for telephone oper-
ators, and are very similar to those used by radio
operators.
Their construction is much the same as the
larger ones, except that they are much lighter in
weight and have the permanent magnet in more
Fig. 118. Sectional view and front view of watch case receiver, such as
of a circular shape. used on telephone operators' head sets.

93. HOOK SWITCH When the receiver is removed from the hook,
The receiver is hung on a spring hoc.* when not the spring causes the hook to raise and the end
in use, and this hook operates a switch to discon- of the hook lever to move to the left, allowing the
nect the talking circuit and places the ringing cir- center spring to make contact with "A" and close
cuit in readiness for the next call. This is called a the talking circuit. It also opens the ringing cir-
Hook Switch. cuit at the same time.
 Section Three, Hook Switches and Induction Coils 129

There are a number of different types of hook the impulses in the talking circuit, so they can be
switches, but the principle of all of them is very transmitted over long lines with less loss.
similar and easy to understand. When a transformer "steps up" the voltage, it
If the contacts of a hook switch become burned reduces the current in the same proportion, and
or dirty, or if the contact springs become bent out the less current we have to send through the re-
of shape, it is likely to cause faulty operation of sistance of any line, the less loss we will have.
the talking and ringing circuits. By briefly recalling your study of Ohms Law and
voltage drop principles, this should be quite easily
understood.
Induction coils have a primary and secondary
winding around a core of soft iron, and when the
current impulses are sent through the primary,
corresponding impulses of higher voltage are set
up in the secondary by magnetic induction. Thus
the name, "induction coil."
Fig. 120 shows a sketch of an induction coil.
"C" and "C" show the ends of a core which is
made of a bundle of soft iron wires. "H" and
"H" are ends or "heads" to support the coil on
the core. "P" and "P-1" are the terminals of the
primary winding. "S" and "S-1" are the terminals
of the secondary winding.

Fig. 119. Sketch showing the principle of a simple "receiver hook

switch." Note what the operation of the spring contacts
would be if the receiver was raised and lowered.

94. BATTERIES AND CURRENT SUPPLY

Telephones require, for the successful operation Fig. 120. This sketch shows the construction of the windings and core
of a telephone induction coil.
of their talking circuits, direct current supply of
a very "smooth" or constant voltage value. This The primary winding should be connected in the
is because we do not want any variations in the transmitter and battery circuit. The secondary
current, except those made by the transmitter and winding connects to the receiver and line circuit.
sound waves. These connections will be shown a little later, in
In small private telephone systems and rural a diagram of a complete telephone circuit. •
lines, dry cell batteries are often used, and in many Fig. 121 shows a single, and also a double induc-
cases each 'phone has its own battery. tion coil. Fig. 122 shows asketch of the coils, core,
Large telephone systems for city service use and terminals of the induction coil as they are
storage batteries or D. C. generators for talking often shown in connection diagrams.
current supply. Generators for this use have We recall from an earlier section on transformer
special windings and commutators for providing principles, that transformers will not operate on
"smooth" D. C., as even the slight sparking and ordinary direct current, but in the case of this
variations of voltage at the commutator of an ordi- telephone induction coil, the current from the bat-
nary power generator would produce a disturbing tery is caused to pulsate or increase and decrease
hum in the 'phone receivers. rapidly, by the action of the transmitter.
Rural line telephones often use a hand-operated
magneto to supply current to ring the bells, and
some small exchanges do also. However, most
exchanges use a generator to produce alternating
current or pulsating direct current, for the operators
to ring the various parties by merely closing a key
switch.

95. INDUCTION COIL

As mentioned before, most telephones that are
to be used on lines of an y great length use an
induction coil. The purpose of this coil is to Fig. 121. On the left is shown a single induction coil with the terminal
act like a transformer and increase the voltage of connections plainly visible. On the right is shown a
pair of coils mounted on one bass.
130 Section Three, Telephone Bells

These variations in the talking current cause the high voltage, which makes «them economical to
flux of the primary coil to expand and contract, and operate on long lines.
induce the higher voltage impulses in the secondary. The operating principle of the polarized bell can
be easily understood by referring to Fig. 123. You
will note that when current flows through the coils
in one direction it sets up poles on the electro-
magnets, which attract one end of the armature
and repel the other, causing the hammer to strike
the left gong as in Fig. 123-A.
Then, if we reverse the current as in "B," this
reverses the poles of both electro-magnets, causing
them to attract and repel opposite ends of the arma-
ture to what they did before. This makes the
hammer strike the right-hand gong.

Fig. 122. The primary and secondary windings and core of an induction
coil are often shown in the above manner in electrical diagrams.

96. TELEPHONE BELLS

While some telephones in small private systems
use ordinary vibrating bells, the more common
'phones in general use in public systems use a
Polarized bell, which operates on alternating cur-
rent.
These bells have two electro-magnets and an
armature, which is a permanent magnet; and two A
gongs instead of one, as in the case of the vibrating
bell.
Fig. 122-B shows two views of this type of tele-
Fie 123. These sketches show the electrical circuit of a polarized tele-
phone bell. phone bell. Note the polarity and position of the armature in "A."
and again in "B." after the current has been reversed.
In some cases, instead of the armature itself
being a permanent magnet, a larger permanent Then, if we supply alternating current from a
magnet is mounted behind the bell coils and with magneto or central generator, it will cause the coils
one end close enough to the armature to maintain to rapidly reverse and operate the hammer at the
induced poles in it. same frequency as that of the current supply.
The coils of these bells are usually wound with Check carefully the polarity of the permanent
many turns of very fine wire, and are designed to magnet, the movable armature, and the electro-
operate on very small amounts of current at rather magnets in both bells in Fig. 123.

ARMATURE >AMINE, ARMATURE

RETAINING SPRING ADJUSTING SCREW
PRMATUP

eiESIDUAL

BIASING SPRING

CLAPPER ROD
COILS

TERINA

MAGNET CLAMP

CLAPPER
Fig. 122-B. Front and side views of a polarized telephone bell. Note
the end of the permanent magnet, which is used to magnetize the
armature by induction. Also note the biasing spring attached to one
end of the armature.
 Section Three, Telephone Bells 131

97. BIASED POLARIZED BELLS FOR PUL- polarities of the magnets in both bells "A" and
SATING D. C. OPERATION "B" in this figure.
Sometimes these polarized bells are equipped \Vhen telephone bells fail to operate, the trouble
with a Biasing spring attached to their armature. can usually be found in a loose connection, broken
This spring can be noted in Fig. 122-e. It enables coil lead, weak permanent magnet, loose gongs, or
the bell to be operated on pulsating direct current, magnet cores loose on keeper or frame.
which is sometimes used by the operators at central
stations for ringing various parties on the line.
In such cases a rotary pulsating switch is used
in the battery circuit to provide the interruptions

in the current. The biasing spring normally holds

the hammer against one of the gongs when the
bell is idle. When current is sent through the coils
in the proper direction, the electro-magnets will
attract and repel the proper ends of the armature.
to cause the hammer to strike the other gong.
When the current is interrupted, the spring
draws the armature and hammer back again, strik-
ing the first gong once more. This will be repeated
as long as the pulsating current flows. See Fig.
124. The pulsating wheel "W" has alternate sec-
tions of metal and insulation, so as it is rotated
it rapidly makes and breaks the circuit of the
battery and bell.
Fig. 125 shows a very good view of a telephone
bell with the gongs removed. Fig. 125. Photograph of coils, armature, and hammer of a common
telephone bell.

99. TELEPHONE MAGNETOS

As mentioned before, rural lines often use mag-
netos at each 'phone for the subscriber to ring any
other party on that line, and also to call the central
operator. These magnetos, when operated by the
hand crank at normal speed, produce alternating
current at fairly high voltage, usually from about
80 to 100 volts, and at a frequency of about 20
cycles.

Fig. 124. This sketch shows how a "pulsator" or interruptor can be

used to supply pulsating current from a battery and
for the operation of telephone bells.

98. POLARIZED BELL WITH PERMANENT

MAGNET ARMATURE
Another type of polarized hell used in some tele-
phones, has both coils wound in the same direction
and uses the permanent magnet for an armature.'
A
See Fig. 126.
In these bells the armature has unlike poles at
opposite ends, so in order for one of the electro- Fig. 126. This sketch shows the construction and windings of another
magnets to attract and the other to repel, they type of polarized bell, which uses a nermanent magnet for its arma-
ture. Note the polarity and position of armature at "A," and again
must have like poles. When alternating current is at "B," after the current has been reversed.

passed through this bell, the polarity of both elec-

tro-magnets changes at the same time. This causes Fig. 127 shows a sketch of a magneto of this
attraction of first one end of the armature, and type. The armature is usually of the shuttle type
then the other. with just two large slots, in which are wound many
Observe carefully the direction of current and turns of very fine wire. It is located in the base
 Norman Bader
132 41 Georgia Ave. Section Three, Magnetos
rrooktyn 7, N. Y.
of the magneto between the poles of several large Some exchanges use a power-driven magneto,
horseshoe magnets. having it operated continuously by a small motor.
The magnets supply the magnetic flux which is in this case it is only necessary for the operator
cut by the armature winding to generate the volt- to close a key or switch to ring the party being
age. The armature is revolved quite rapidly by called.
means of a large gear on the hand crank shaft, and In Fig. 128 the spring contacts operated by the
small pinion on the armature shaft. magneto shaft are quite clearly shown.
The permanent magnets in these magnetos often
become weak after a certain age and need to be
remagnetized or replaced. Sometimes alittle oil and
dirt collects on the contact springs, causing them
to fail to make good connections; or they may
become bent or worn so they do not make proper
contact.

100. COMPLETE TELEPHONES AND

CIRCUITS
Now that you understand the function and opera-
tion of the important parts of a telephone, let's see
how they all work together in the complete 'phone.
Fig. 129 shows a common type of party line tele-
Fig. ln. Diagram of telephone magneto showing shaft extension which phone used on rural lines and in small towns.
operates contact springs.
The view on the left shows the box closed, and
The crank shaft shown at "0" is equipped with the location of the receiver, transmitter, and bell
a slotted extension and spring which pushes out gongs. On the right the box is opened up, show-
against the contact spring "N" each time the crank ing the battery and magneto, hook switch in the
is turned. This operates a sort of "shunt" switch. upper left corner, and bell magnets on the door.
When the magneto is idle this spring falls back, The induction coil is not visible in this view.
touching contact "C," and shunts out the magneto
winding from the line circuit, so the talking current
does not have to pass through this resistance.
When the crank is turned the shaft is forced out
a small distance and opens these contacts, allowing
the magneto current to flow to the line and bells.
One end of the armature winding is usually
grounded to the shaft, and the other end is insu-
lated and carried out through the center of the
shaft, which is hollow. This end or tip of the
shaft is in contact with the small spring as the
shaft rotates.
Fig. 128 shows two photos of telephone mag-
netos. The one at the right is equipped with a
hand crank for use in a subscriber's telephone.
Fig. 129. Common type of party line telephone used on rural lines. Th's
The one at the left is equipped with an extension telephone is complete with its own batteries and magneto.
shaft such as used by central operators in some
of the small exchanges. You will note that this 'phone is complete with
all necessary parts, and has its own current supply
for both the talking and ringing circuits.
Two or more telephones of this type can be
connected in parallel on a line, and if desired can
be operated without any central exchange or any
other equipment.
Any party can ring any other party by a system
of different calls, arranged in combination of short
and long rings, similar to -dots and dashes.
Party lines with a number of these 'phones can
also be run to a central office and from there they
can be connected to any other line on the entire
system. This is the purpose and function of a
Fig. 1.28.1 These photos show two telephone magnetos. The one on the central office or telephone exchange. It is practical
left for use in a small exchange, and the one on the
right for a subscriber's telephone.
to have on one line only a certain limited number
 Section Three, Complete Telephone Circuits • 133

of 'phones, as otherwise the line would always be its spring contact is open and keeps the magneto
busy, and no other subscriber could use it while winding out of the ringing and line circuit at
two parties were already talking over it. On rural present. When the magneto is operated, the shaft
lines the number of parties may be from ten to pushes out and closes the circuit, and sends current
twenty per line. In cities, there may be from two through the bell and also out on the line to the
to four parties per line. other bells.
When a subscriber on one line wishes to talk In order to ring anyone, the receiver must be on
to someone on another line, he or she signals the the hook, keeping the hook down and holding the
central operator, who can, by means of switches main spring or line contact to the right and in
and plugs, connect the Calling Line to the one contact with the spring on that side. The ririging
called and then ring the party desired on the Called current then flows as shown by the dotted arrows.
Line. The equipment and operation of exchanges
is covered later.
Fig. 130 shows a complete diagram of the elec-
trical circuit and connections of a telephone of the
type shown in Fig. 129. Here we can see the rela-
tion of each part to the others and get a clearer
idea of how they all operate together.
Trace out this circuit very carefully, until you
are sure you clearly understand its entire operation.
The receiver is shown off the hook and the hook
is raised, allowing the main contact spring to move
to the left and close the two contacts on that side,
completing the talking and line circuit. The large
arrows show where the current flows from the local
battery, through the transmitter, induction coil pri-
mary, hook switch contacts, and back to the battery.

Fig. 131. Circuit diagram of another telephone using a different hook

switch and set of magneto contacts. Trace the circuit very
carefully and observe its operation.

Fig. 131 shows another telephone circuit, using

oo a hook switch with only three spring contacts
instead of four, and a magneto with three contacts
instead of one or two. Compare this diagram care-
fully with Fig. 130. Here again the large arrows
r >
°doh° 7-- show the transmitter and local battery circuit; the
small arrows, the receiver and line circuit; and the
dotted arrows, the ringing circuit.
You will note that this hook switch does not
make and break the ringing circuit as did the one
in Fig. 130. Here the ringing circuit is controlled
by the magneto springs. When the magneto is
idle, the long center spring presses to the right,
Fig. 1311. Diagram showing connections and circuits of a telephone such
keeping the bell connected to the line, ready to
as shown in Fig. 129. receive an incoming call. When the magneto crank
is turned it forces the shaft outward and pushes
When the party talks into the transmitter, this the center spring to the left. This short-circuits
local current is caused to pulsate and sets up the bell and makes a connection direct to the line
induced impulses of higher voltage but smaller to ring outside bells. In this type of 'phone the
current, in the secondary coil, receiver and line subscriber's own bell does not ring when the mag-
circuit. This is shown in the small arrows. You neto is operated.
will remember that this current induced in the There are a number of different ways to arrange
secondary coil and in the receiver circuit is alter- party line telephone circuits, hook switches, mag-
nating and rapidly reverses, so we show the arrows neto contacts, etc.; but if you have a good under-
both ways. It also flows a short distance through standing of these fundamental circuits and the oper-
one of the same wires with the battery current, but ation and purpose of these important parts, you
this does no harm. should have no difficulty understanding any 'phone
The magneto is shown here in idle position, so circuit after tracing out its wiring or diagram.
134 Section Three, Central Energy Telephones

101. CENTRAL ENERGY SYSTEMS Fig. 133 shows a complete telephone of this type,
AND 'PHONES for wall mounting. The bell, condenser and coil are
In large city telephone systems a central source mounted in the box, while the receiver is on the
of current supply is generally used for both the usual hook on the side, and the back of the trans-
talking and ringing. In such systems the subscrib- mitter can be seen in the front of the open cover.
er's 'phone does not need a battery or magneto. Note the terminal blocks to which all connections
The hook switch and circuit are so arranged that are brought and numbered, making it easy to con-
as soon as the receiver is removed from the hook, it nect up or test the telephone.
closes a circuit and lights a small lamp on the
exchange operator's switchboard:
The operator then plugs her 'phone onto this
calling line and closes her key so the caller can
give her the number desired. Then, if the called
line is not busy, the operator connects the calling
line to it and rings the party to be called.
A simple circuit for a telephone of this type is
shown in Fig. 132. Keep in mind, when tracing this
circuit, that the current supply comes in on the line
from the exchange.

Flg. 133. Photograph of wall type telephone for central energy systems.

Fig. 134 shows another telephone of the central

energy type, for use on a desk. This desk-type
'phone has the receiver and transmitter mounted
on aseparate stand for convenient use on the desk;
while the bell, coil, and condenser are in a separate
box to be mounted on or near the desk.
The hook switch is inside the upright handle of
the stand.

Fig. 132. Wiring diagram for a simple telephone to be used on a central

energy system. This telephone gets all the energy
from the line and central supply.

You will note that a condenser is used here

to prevent the direct current for the transmitter
circuit from passing through the bell or receiver
circuits.
A condenser will pass or allow alternating current
or pulsating direct current to flow in the circuit,
but it blocks or stops ordinary direct current.
The "talking current," shown by the large arrows,
comes in on the left line wire and passes through
the induction coil primary, hook switch, transmit-
ter, and back out on the right line wire. When the
party is talking, the induced current in the secon-
dary coil, shown by small arrows, flows out through
the condenser and right line wire, to the receiver of
the operator or called party; and back in the left Fig. 134. Common desk type telephone with bell box to be mounted
separately.
line wire, through the primary coil, hook switch and
subscriber's own receiver, and returns to the
secondary coil. In tracing the receiver and line 102. TELEPHONE EXCHANGES
circuit, consider the secondary coil as the source of As already mentioned, the telephone exchange
this energy. serves to connect telephones of one line to those of
A different symbol is used here for the bell, as other lines, and there are thousands of these central
it is simpler to draw in plans and easy to recognize exchanges throughout this country, to handle the
once you are acquainted with it. many millions of telephones in use.
 Section Three, Exchange Switchboards 135

The exchange in the small town handles the calls

of the subscribers in the town, those of rural lines
calling in to city 'phones, and those of one rural
line calling through to another line, perhaps run-
ning out of town in the opposite direction. Thus
this exchange serves the 'phones in that town and
surrounding territory. Then it has its Trunk Lines
connecting to exchanges of other cities, and can
complete a circuit for one of its own subscribers,
through the exchange of another town several hun-
dred or even several thousand miles away.
This vast network requires many types of elabo-
mom; e-rAtete
4
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rate exchange circuits, which it is not our pur- nedeler i
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specialized type of work. They also require much 64444446444 4444464644 I
more time than the average electrician cares to
spend on such circuits, unless he intends to spe-
cialize in telephone work. But, in order to give
you a 'better understanding of the general opera-
tion of the exchange in connection with the
'phones we all use daily, and also to give you a
good foundation to work from in case you should
later specialize in such work, we will cover in the
following material some of the fundamental parts
and principles of exchanges.
Telephone exchanges are of two general types,
namely, manual and automatic.
The general function of either type is to receive
a signal from the calling subscriber, and get a con-
nection and ring his party on any other line as
quickly as possible.
With the manual exchange, the plugging, switch-
ing and ringing operations are performed by hürnan
operators, usually girls. With the automatic ex-
change these operations are performed by electrical
and mechanical equipment.

103. SWITCHBOARDS FOR MANUAL

OPERATION
Fig. 135 shows a manual exchange or switch- Fig. 135. A small exchange switchboard of the magneto type, showing
plugs, Jacks, and the operator's transmitter and receiver.
board, for handling one hundred lines. These lines
are brought up to Jacks on the upright front of the again, the operator can hear the party answer.
board. When he does, she can release the key to vertical
On the flat, desk-like, part of the board is aset of or neutral position. The parties then carry on their
Plugs, attached to Cords beneath, and also a set of conversation through the wires in the cords.
Key Switches. Directly above each jack is a Drop The cords are equipped with very flexible wires,
similar to an annunciator drop. and have weights on little pulleys as shown in the
When a subscriber on any line signals the oper- left view in Fig. 136. At the right is shown a large
ator, the little drop window or shutter for his line view of the pulley and weight. These weights keep
falls down, showing the operator that someone on the cords straight and pull them down again each
that line is calling. There are two plugs in front of time the plugs are dropped to idle position.
that line, one for talking and one for ringing. The operator's head-set is shown lying on the
The operator lifts the talking plug and inserts it keyboard in Fig. 135, and the transmitter is shown
in the line jack opening. Then, by pressing her on an adjustable arm and cord in front of the
key in one direction, she can answer the Calling board.
Party and receive the number he wishes to call. Fig. 137 shows a closer view of the keys, plugs,
If the line of the party desired is not busy, the and jacks of a board of this type. The key switches
operator then lifts the other plug in line with the are shown in the foreground, and directly behind
first one, and places it in the jack of the "called" these and indicated by the arrow is a row of small
line. Then, by pushing the key in the other direc- lamps to show the condition of the circuit to the
tion, she can ring the party desired. operator. Behind the lamps are the plugs, and
By pushing the key back to the listening position above are the plug jacks and drops.
136 Section Three, Switchboard Parts

complete the lamp circuit. The forward end of the

lamp is all that shows in the opening they are
placed in.
The bull's-eyes are made in white and various
other colors to indicate various circuit conditions.

Fig. 134. The view on the left shows the manner in which the plug cords
are held straight by the weighted pulleys. A larger view of
one of these pulleys is shown on the right.

104. KEY SWITCHES

A very good view of two switchboard keys is
shown in Fig. 138. The levers or key handles can
be pushed in either direction, and their lower ends Fig. 138. Here we have an excellent view of two key switches, showing
have rollers or cams that push and operate a set of how the key levers and rollers operate the spring contacts,
and open and close various circuits.
spring contacts on either side, depending on which
way they are pushed. Examine these switches and 106. PLUGS
all their- parts carefully.
Fig. 140 shows a cord plug. These plugs can be
made with two, three, or more separate metal ele-
ments for as many separate circuits through them.
The plug tip at the extreme right end is part of a
small metal rod which runs through the center
of the plug to the left end, where the wires are
attached. Around this is placed atube of insulating
material. Then another slightly larger, but shorter,
metal sleeve is fitted over this. Still another tube
of insulation, and a third metal element are often
fitted over the first ones, and then an outer shell
of insulation over the whole.
The several separate metal elements and ends
of the black insulating sleeves can be seen in Fig.
140, which is an actual size view.
When these plugs are inserted in the jacks, the
various jack springs make contact separately with
each of the plug elements and circuits.
Fig. 137. This photo shows very clearly the arrangement of the operator's
key switch, plugs, and jacks.

105. SWITCHBOARD LAMPS

Fig. 139 shows a special type of lamp used for
switchboard signals, and also two of the glass caps
or 'bull's-eyes" that are used over the ends of the
lamps.
These lamps are made very small in order to
get them in the small spaces on the boards. The
actual size is only about one-fourth that of the
photo in this figure. The bulb is field in the two
metal clips shown on the top and bottom, and these
are separated at the base by a piece of hard insula-
tion. The lamps are pushed into their sockets end- Fig. 139. The upper view shows one of the special telephone switchboard
lamps, and below are shown two types of glass caps,
wise, and these metal strips make the contacts to or bull's-eyes used with such lamps. •
 Section Three, Switchboard Plugs and Jacks 137

107. JACKS AND DROPS spring 5 and thimble 7, thus making a circuit from
A complete jack, with the drop and drop magnet the line to the cord wires.
mounted above it, is shown in Fig. 141. This view 108. SIMPLE SWITCHBOARD
clearly shows the jack thimble, contact springs, CONNECTIONS
wire terminals, drop magnet, armature, and shutter.
A sectional view of part of a switchboard is
Examine the photo and printed description very
shown in Fig 143. This shows the line connection
carefully.
to a simple jack and drop of the separated type;
and also the plug, cord, and switch connections.
When an impulse comes in on the line, the drop
magnet releases the shutter, the operator inserts
one plug and closes her key to listening position.
After receiving the number she inserts the other
Fig. 140. Full-sized view of a switchboard plug showing how the several
plug in the jack of the called line (not shown) and
circuits are obtained through its tip and insulated sleeves. pushes key to ringing position, sending current
from the board magneto to ring the called party.
Note that the armature to operate the drop is at
When this party answers, the talking current from
the left end of the drop magnet, hinged at the top.
the two lines flows through the jacks, plugs. cords,
and attached to a long lever arm which runs over
and key switch. When the conversation is finished,
the top of the magnet to the drop latch at the right
the plugs are pulled and dropped to their present
end. This construction enables a very small move-
positions in the diagram, the drop reset, and the
ment of the armature to give a greater movement
key restored to normal position.
at the drop latch.
The plug would be inserted from the right in the
'thimble at the lower right-hand corner; and as it
goes in, its tip and sleeve elements make contact
with the spring shown. It forces some of the
springs apart, opening certain circuits, and closes
others from the springs to the cord wires.
Fig. 142 shows two diagrams of jack and drop
circuits from opposite sides, one without the plug
and one with the plug in.
In the upper diagram you will note that springs
3 and 4 are making contact, also springs 5 and 6.
Springs 5and 6close acircuit from the line through
the drop magnet.

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Fig. 142. The upper sketch shows the electrical connections and position

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of contact springs without the plug inserted. Below are shown the
4 electrical circuit and position of springs with the plug in the jack.

-
Fig. 144 shows a switchboard with some of the
Fig. 141. This descriptive diagram shows the parts of a telephone jack
cords in place in the jacks for conversations between
and drop complete. Examine each part and its descrip- various lines.
tion very carefully.
Many large switchboards use only the signal.
In the lower view, showing the plug inserted, lamps to indicate an incoming call, and do not use
we find that springs 5 and 6 have been opened, the magnetic drops.
breaking the circuit through the drop magnet, as Fig. 145 shows two views of the inside and back
it is not needed while the plug is in. Springs 3 of a manual switchboard. In the left view you
and 4are also opened. This is done by an insulating can see the drop magnets in the upper section, a
piece which is not shown here, but fastens 5 and 3 group of relays in the center, and the induction coils
together mechanically, so the upward movement of and part of the terminals below. At the extreme
5 also forces 3 up. Springs 3 and 4 are not shown right of this view are shown the wires grouped or
connected to any circuit in this illustration. cabled along the side of the cabinet.
Referring again to the lower view, we find that In the right-hand view the relay panel or "gate"
the plug has a circuit to its tip and sleeve from is opened, showing the jacks and cords,
138 Section Three, Switchboard Construction

covered wires inside it, and covering of extra in-

sulation between them and the lead sheath. Cables
of this kind are very necessary to carry the vast
numbers of wires in telephone systems.

Fig. 143. This simple sketch shows the general operating principle of a
manual switchboard.

Fig. 146 shows a small desk type switchboard

Fig. 144. Side view of a magneto type switchboard with some of the
for mounting on a table or desk in private offices, plugs in place in the various line jacks.
where an operator is to be able to call various
people in the building. The lower view in the same figure shows a
Telephone wiring requires men who are expert terminal block to which a number of wires can be
in reading plans and making careful and accurate neatly and conveniently connected. The wires from
connections of the thousands of wires and devices a cable can be soldered to the lower ends of the
used in the switchboards. terminal strips, and the switchboard wires con-
nected to the other ends by means of the small
109. TELEPHONE RELAYS screws shown.
The top photo in Fig. 147 shows a telephone
relay. Its armature is at the right-hand end of
the magnet, and is bent and hinged to the corner
of the magnet frame. When the magnet attracts
the lower end of the armature to the left, its upper
horizontal portion moves upward at its left end,
pushing the center contact springs upward. This
causes them to break circuits with the lower con-
tacts and make circuits with the upper ones. So
you see that while these relays are constructed
differently and are much smaller and more compact
than the pony relays used in alarm and telegraph
systems, still their operation and principles are
much the same.

110. CABLES AND TERMINALS

The center photo in Fig. 147 shows a piece of Fig. ¡4$. These two views of the rear of a switchboard show the relays,
drops, and cords very clearly. Note the neat and com-
lead-covered telephQne 'cable with many paper- pact arrangement of all parts and wires.
 Section Three, Exchange Circuits 139

Some exchanges also use a ground connection to

earth for ringing their subscribers.
Fig. 147-1) is a complete wiring diagram of a
simple manual exchange showing just two sub-
scribers' 'phones connected through the exchange.
The different circuits are marked with different
kinds of arrows and symbols.
Trace out carefully, one at a time, the transmitter
and receiver circuits of the calling subscriber's

148. Small desk type telephone exchange.

These terminal blocks greatly simplify the wiring

and testing of telephone and switchboard circuits.
In wiring telephone switchboards, ground con-
nections are also used to simplify much of the
wiring. Metal strips and plates are used for com-
mon ground connections to the battery negative
terminal. This eliminates a number of unnecessary Fig. 147. The upper view shows a telephone relay. In the center is
shown a section of telephone cable. Below is a group
wires. nf terminal springs in a terminal block.

X
FIRST CENTRAL STATION SECOND
7.
. SUBSCRIBERS SUBSCRIBERS
X
TELEPHoNE TELEPHO/VE

•—o^oi -x _ -o-^<>.
1

L
-
Ji
e

MOOPOneer —*t.11.Q1Ltit itft

00 0 ••
4

I
Fig. 147-D. Complete diagram of a simple telephone exchange with two subscribers' t ele hones connected. This will enable you to trace the
talking and ringing circuits which are marked with different forms of arrows and symbols. Carefully tracing this diagram will help you to
understand telephone exchange principles more hilly.
140 Section 3, Telephone Exchanges

'phone at the left, and through the exchange to the

called subscriber's 'phone at the right. Also trace
the operator's magneto and calling circuit to the
called 'phone; and the operator's talking circuit.
Note the positions the various keys must be in to
get the different circuits closed, and in order to
trace some of the circuits it will be necessary for
you to imagine certain switches are closed to the
opposite positions.
There are many other types of exchange circuits,
and this simple one shown here is more typical of
an army field telephone exchange, but is chosen
because of its simplicity and just to give you agood
idea of their general nature.

TRUNK
MANUAL
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CALLING SOOSCH/SeZ CALLED SUBSC.faree
Fig. 147-G. Rear view of a central exchange switchboard of the type
shown in Fig. 147-F. Note the very neat and compact manner in
Fig. 147-E. Simple "one-line" diagram showing a telephone circuit which all parts and wires are arranged to simplify connections and
through two exchanges and a trunk line. testing of such exchange units.

Fig. 147-E is a simplified diagram showing how

shows the rear of such board. Note the very neat
a call from one subscriber is routed through his
and systematic arrangement of all parts and wires,
local exchange over a trunk line to the distant
which greatly simplifies the wiring and testing of
exchange, and from there to the called subscriber.
such switchboards.
This sketch is what is known as a one-line dia-
In apartment houses and offices, small telephone
gram, using only one line to trace the pairs of line
installations called inter-communicating systems
wires actually used.
are often used.
Fig. 147-F shows a photo of a large manual
exchange switchboard in operation, and Fig. 147-G Any party of the group can call any other party
by means of proper push buttons. There are sepa-
rate push buttons and call circuits for each 'phone.
These systems are very useful and practical
where the lines are not long and where the system
is not large enough to pay to keep an operator.
Fig. 147-H shows the wiring diagram for three
such 'phones. Trace out the talking and ringing
circuits, and the operation of the system will be
clearly understood. A, B, and C are groups of push
buttons for calling the different 'phones. The num-
bers on each button contact indicate which 'phone
it will call.

Fig. 147-I shows a photo diagram of five different

styles of 'phones which can be obtained for such
inter-communicating service.
Fig. 147-J shows two types of inter-communicat-
Fig. 147-F. This photograph shows a section of a large manual telephone ing 'phones, one with the push buttons on a desk
exchange. Each operator controls a section of the board
with its respective plugs and jacks.
block, and the other having them on its base.
 Section Three, Intercommunicating Telephones 141

C.1

+14•••-
•

I
likw41111-1
Fig. 147-H. Wiring diagram of three telephones on an inter-communi-
cating system.

Fig. 147-I. Photo diagram of several types of inter-communicating tele-

phones, showing their connections and batteries, and ringing and
talking wires. Such telephone systems are commonly used to com-
municate with various offices in one building. No exchange or
Fig. 147-J. Two types of inter-communicating telephones. The one on operator is needed, as each party ir called by one of a number of
the right has the call buttons on the base uf its stand. push buttons.
142
Norman Eeder
41 Georgia Ave.
Brooklyn 7, N. Y.

AUTOMATIC TELEPHONES

Automatic exchanges do all switching, ringing, When this finger plate rests in the normal posi-
and signalling by means of electrical and .nechan- tion, there is a number on a white stationary disk
ical devices. This not only saves the cost of labor directly under each of these openings. Starting at
of numerous operators, but accomplishes faster and the one on the right hand side, and reading counter-
more accurate operation. It provides much more clockwise, these numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
complete privacy for telephone conversations, and, 8, 9 and O.
because it is purely electrical and mechanical, the
When the subscriber wishes to dial or call party
possibility of human error is largely eliminated.
No. 246, he places his finger in the opening over
The automatic telephone exchange is undoubt- No. 2, and pulls the dial around to the right until
edly one of the greatest triumphs of telephone his finger strikes the Stop Hook shown at the bot-
engineering, and they are rapidly replacing many tom of the dial, and then releases it. Ile then places
of the largest manual exchanges in this country. his finger in the opening over No. 4, and again pulls
There are several different types of automatic the dial around to the right until his finger is
telephone equipment, and most of them are still stopped by the hook. Once more the dial is re-
undergoing rapid changes in the processes of devel- leased, and allowed to return to normal position.
opment and perfection. One of the most successful Then No. 6 is dialed in the same manner.
systems is called the "Strowger System", after the
man who developed it. Each time the dial is rotated clockwise it catches
and winds a helical spring inside the case, and a
Complete automatic exchange circuits require a
pawl secured to the rotating plate slides over the
great deal more time and study than most students
teeth of the ratchet on a combined ratchet and gear
would care to spend on the subject, unless they
wheel. When. the finger plate is released the spring
were preparing to specialize in this work. The
causes it to return to normal position, and the pawl
fundamental principles of this equipment, however,
in this backward movement engages the ratchet and
can be quite simply explained.
gear wheel, turning them back with it at a definite
The following paragraphs are intended to give
speed, a certain exact distance for each number
you a general understanding of automatic tele-
dialed.
phones.

110. SIMPLE OPERATING PRINCIPLE

The Strowger System uses what is known as the
"step by step" equipment. When the subscriber
wishes to call a certain party, he dials the desired
number with the dial on his own telephone. This
dial in its rotation sends a number of impulses
to magnets and relays at the exchange, causing
them to move a selector element which picks out
the desired line. Other parts of the mechanism
then test the line to determine whether it is busy
or not, and if it is clear an automatic switch starts
ringing the called party.

111. DIALS, CONSTRUCTION, AND

OPERATION. •
The principle difference between a subscriber's
'phone to be used on an automatic exchange and
.those for manual systems is the dial. The trans-
mitter, receiver, and other parts remaining funda-
mentally the same.
Fig. 148 shows an ordinary desk telephone,
equipped with a dial for automatic operation. You
will note that this dial has ten holes or finger open-
Fig. 141. Desk telephone equipped with dial for use on automatic
ings, around the outer edge of the rotating part. exchange systems.
 Section Three, Automatic Telephones 143

112. IMPULSE SPRINGS.

FINGER PLATE
The rotation of this main gear drives a smaller PAWL
ttATCHeT-GEAIz
gear or pinion at higher speed, and this pinion ro- riwGerz sTop

tates an Impulse Cam, which rapidly opens and

PIN*Os.1
closes a set of contacts or Impulse Springs. By
means of a worm wheel the pinion also rotates a
small speed governor, which causes the gear and
dial to turn at a definite speed. This, of course, C.OVERIVOIR CUP
is necessary to make the impulse springs open and WORM WHEEL

close at regular intervals. 1W:0,J 9PR,NJG,

Fig. 149 is a sketch showing the various parts

.GOVERNOR
PHENOL - FIBRE CAM ,
we have just mentioned. Examine this sketch IMPUL5E 9PRINGB

closely, and observe how the main gear drives the

pinion, impulse cam, and governor. In the lower
right hand corner of the sketch another view of Fig. 150. Another view showing some parts of the dial mechanism more
clearly.
the cam and impulse springs is shown. The ar-
rows indicate theit position with respect to the the dial returns to normal. In addition to cutting
other parts. This view of the governor shows out the resistance of the other telephone parts,
quite clearly how it operates. these springs also prevent the clicking that would
otherwise occur in the receiver during the opera-
tion of the dial.
The impulse cam revolves one-half revolution for
each movement of one number on the dial, and as
the cam has two projections it opens the impulse
springs twice in each revolution. Thus, when we
dial the number 8, the cam makes four revolutions,
and opens the spring contacts eight times. The
dial is so set with a certain distance from the num-
ber 1 to the finger hook, that an extra one-half
revolution is made each time any number is dialed.
This will be explained later.
Fig. 152 shows a better view of the top of the
dial, and its numbers.

Fig. 149. This sketch shows the mechanism and operating principles of
the dial and impulse springs.

If the governor shaft attempts to rotate too fast GIOVIIRNOR

CUP
the small governor balls fly outward on their
springs, due to centrifugal force, and rub the inside BPRING.,
of the cup, thus retarding the speed of the mecha-
nism. thIPULZU
SPRIAJG8
Fig. 150 shows another view of this same mecha-
nism, in which some parts can be seen a little more
clearly than in Fig. 149.
Fig. 151. This photograph shows an excellent view of the impulse springs
Fig. 151 shows a photo of the complete dial and cam, shunt springs, and governor of a dial.
mechanism. In this view you can get an excellent
idea of the arrangement of the parts. In addition
113. LINE BANKS AND "WIPER"
to the impulse springs at the left of the cam, you
CONTACTS.
will also note an extra set of spring contacts called
"Shunt Springs". These are used to temporarily The various groups of impulses, sent into the
short circuit the other parts of the telephone, during exchange by dialing different numbers, cause cer-
ringing operation. This is necessary because it tain relays to energize as each impulse passes
would be difficult to send the ringing impulses through them. These relays and magnets, as be-
through the resistance of these other parts. fore stated, perform the switching and ringing
These springs are operated by a small additional operations.
cam as soon as the dial is turned from the "off- In order to enable you to understand this equip-
normal" position. But they are opened as soon as ment and these circuits more easily, let us first
 144 Section Three, Automatic Telephones

examine the arrangement of the various line termi- from the bottom. The next three impulses received
nals at the exchange. would cause the wipers to make three steps to the
For an exchange to handle 100 lines, the terminals right, and engage line No. 33.
of the lines would be arranged in a Bank of Con- So we find that these numbers are arranged as
nectors as shown in Fig. 153. they are, for convenience and simplicity in the
operation of the mechanical selector.
This figure gives us some idea of the arrange-
ment of the various lines and the connector bank
at the exchange.

114. WIPER SHAFT AND SELECTOR

MECHANISM.
Fig. 154 shows a sketch of the wipers attached
to the shaft which raises and rotates them step
by step. It also shows the Vertical Magnets—V.
M., and the Rotary Magnets—R. M., which lift and
rotate the shaft step by step.
By means of a special relay ifi the exchange cir-
cuit the first impulses which are sent in by the
dial con -
le to the lifting magnets, and the next group
of impulses are switched to the rotary magnets.
Fig. 155 shows photos of both sides of one of
these selector units.
Fig. 152. Front view of dial, showing finger plate, holes, numbers and Figs. 154 and 155 should be referred to while
finger stop. tracing out the circuit diagram in 156.

In order to eliminate unnecessary wires and sim-

plify this figure only two telephones, Nos. 14 and
33, are shown connected to the bank at present.
At first glance the arrangement of the line numbers
in this connector bank may seem peculiar, but sup-
pose some automatic device was to move the
Wipers of the calling telephone step by step, up
into this bank and select a certain line, say No. 14.
One step upward would bring the wipers in line
with the lower row of connectors. Then four steps
to the right would bring them in contact with No.
14. Dialing the numbers 1 and 4 would have ac-
complished this.

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rwasumsosaan
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eennanegiUM
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weet5

Fig. 153. Simple sketch showing the arrangement and principle of the
connector hank of an automatic exchange.

Then suppose we dial the number 33. The first

three impulses sent in by the dial would cause the
switching magnet to lift the wiper three steps, Fig. 154. This diagram shows the arrangement of the selector mechanism
with its vertical magnets, rotary magnets,
bringing it in line with the third row of contacts wipers, and wiper shaft,
 Section Three, Automatic Telephones 145

.;
RESTRICTED LEVEL
RESTRICTED 1EYEl.
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RELEASE MAGNET
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RELEASE MAGNET'
VERTICAL RACA
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ROTARY RACK
ROTARY ROTARY RACK
MAGNET

SPR/NO
CAM SPRING

Tesnetar ads Tée

MULTIPLE BANK 7 14JA
800.5 PRIVATE MULTIPLE BANK
PRIYATEMPER
PRIVATE IV/PL

L/Neneher/i. LINE ANLT/PIS BANK LI/YE 1Y/PER

Fig. 1.5.5. Two photographs showing front and opposite sides of a complete selector unit. Note the relays above; vertical and rotary
magnets, wiper shaft and rack in the center; and the connector banks below.

At the top of each unit in Fig. 155 are the relays if you are sufficiently interested in the principles
which perform different switching operations in the of automatic telephones, or should later decide to
exchange circuit. Underneath these are the vertical prepare to specialize in this field, this simplified
magnets or lifting magnets, and below are the circuit should be of great help to you in obtaining
rotary magnets. an understanding of the most important parts.
On the shaft are two sets of notches called the In order to trace a circuit of this kind, it is
Vertical Rack and Rotary Rack respectively. These necessary to do it step by step, and very carefully.
are engaged by the hooks which are operated by If this method is followed, it will be found very
the lifting and rotary magnets. interesting, and not nearly as difficult as it first
After the selector has completed a connection to appears.
acertain line, and the conversation is finished, then, This diagram shows a complete connection be-
when the subscriber hangs up his receiver, it closes tween a calling telephone, the automatic exchange,
a circuit to the Release Magnet, which trips the and the called telephone. Each circuit is traced
locking mechanism, allowing the wipers and shaft with different types of arrows to make them easier
to return to normal position by the action of a to follow.
spring and gravity. The equipment in the calling phone consists of
an ordinary transmitter, receiver, bell, condenser,
115. SIMPLIFIED CIRCUIT OF IMPORTANT and switch hook; and in addition to these, the
PARTS. impulse springs, and shunt springs used with the
In Fig. 156 is shown quite a complete diagram dial telephone.
of the more important circuits of the automatic As soon as the receiver is lifted from the hook,
exchange. the hook switch will close the circuit, shown by
It is not at all necessary for every student to the small solid arrows, from the positive terminal
trace and understand this diagram at present, but of battery No. 2, through the top winding of relay
it provides excellent circuit tracing practice, and "I.". Then through the shunt switch, impulse
146 Section Three, Automatic Telephones

Fig. 156. Complete simplified diagram showing the wiring and operating principle of the fundamental parts of an automatic telephone ex-
change. Trace this circuit very carefully with the complete instructions given in these nages.

springs, and top contact of the hook switch at tracts its armature. So we find that both relays
caller's 'phone, back through the lower winding of "L" and "R" became energized merely by the sub-
relay "L", and to ground. scriber removing his receiver from the hook.
You will note that the ground connections in Now, assume that he dials the figure 1. When
this circuit are returned to negative of the bat- the dial is released, and as it returns to normal,
teries, so when starting to trace a circuit from any the cam is rotated one-half turn, and opens the
battery, as soon as this circuit is completed back impulse spring once. This momentarily opens the
to ground, you will know it has returned to nega- circuit of the line relay "L", which is de-energized
tive of the battery. for an instant, and its contacts open the circuit of
To simplify this circuit a number of separate release relay "R".
batteries are shown. However, relay "R" remains energized through
These current impulses in the circuit we have this short period even though its circuit was mo-
just traced, will cause relay "L" to become ener- mentarily opened. This is because it is a Slow
gized and attract its armature. When this arma- Acting relay, and does not release its armature
ture is pulled down it closes a circuit shown by the instant the current is interrupted, but holds it
the large solid arrows from the positive of battery for about a second afterward. This will be ex-
No. 3, through the coil of relay "R", "make" contact plained later.
of relay "L", and to ground, which completes this If the calling subscriber now dials the number 7,
circuit. opening the impulse springs seven times, the cir-
The term "make contact" is used here, meaning cuit of relay "L" will be broken each time, and
the contacts made when the relay is energized and allow its armature to release momentarily seven
the armature attracted. The term "break contact" times. Each time it releases, the circuit of relay
when used, means the contacts that are closed when "R" is broken for an instant, but relay "R" acts
the relay is de-energized. In other words, the con- too slowly to de-energize and release its armature
tacts made when the armature is attracted are during these periods, so it remains closed through-
referred to as "make contacts". Those made when out the seven short interruptions of its circuit. But
the armature is released are called "break contacts". something else did happen.
When the circuit just traced through relay "R" Keeping in mind that the armature of relay "R"
is completed this relay becomes energized and at- is now attracted to the "make contact", we find
 Section Three, Automatic Telephones 14/

that the first time the armature of relay "L" was As soon as the line wipers are in contact with
released it closed a circuit shown by the small No. 75 in the bank a circuit is completed through
open arrows from the positive of battery No. 5 the bell of the called telephone. This circuit can
through the vertical magnet, V.M., through relay be traced (backwards) by the large dotted arrows
"S", "break contact" of 0.N.S., "make contact" of from the top brush of the generator, through Inter-
relay "R", "break contact" of relay "L", and to mittent Ringing Switch, "break contacts" of relay
ground. "C", lower switch spring and lower contact No. 75
The letters "O. N. S." stand for Off Normal on the bank, "make contact" of hook switch, bell
Switch, which will be explained later. and condenser, then back to the upper contact in
This circuit we have just traced energizes both the bank and upper wiper spring, on through the
the vertical magnet and relay "S". Relay "S", top "break contact" of relay "C", low resistance
being another slow acting relay, will retain its winding of relay "C", through battery No. 6, to
armature in an attracted position during current ground.
interruptions of a fraction of a second. This is a long circuit to trace and should be gone
over again until you llave it well in mind.
The second time the armature of relay "L" was
You will note that relay "C" has two windings,
released it allowed current to flow, as shown by
one of low resistance and the other ahigh resistance
the large open arrows, from positive of battery
coil of many more turns. The low resistance coil
No. 5 through vertical magnet and relay "S" again,
is to receive a heavy current impulse to first attract
then through the "make contact" of relay "S,"
"make contact" of the off normal switch, "make the relay armature, then the high resistance lock-
ing coil will hold the armature attracted with less
contact" of Relay "R," "break contact" of relay
current.
"L," and to ground.
The current from the generator is A. C. and will
The off normal switch is operated by the line
not energize the coil of relay "C." The intermittent
wiper shaft as soon as it moves from off normal
switch at the generator keeps making and breaking
position. So as soon as the dialing operation is
the circuit at regular intervals, so the called sub-
started, the first movement of this shaft closes cer- scriber's bell rings for short, repeated periods and
tain contacts and circuits, but when the shaft is
not continuously.
dropped and allowed to fall back to normal, it again
This flow of alternating current through battery
opens these circuits.
No. 6 to ground does no particular harm to the
Shortly after the last impulse of current has battery. We will remember from an earlier article
passed through the relay "S" it will de-energize and that the alternating current will pass through the
cannot again become energized, because the circuit condenser at the bell, but this same condenser will
has been opened at the off normal springs. Each of not allow direct current to pass. As soon as the
the seven impulses passing through the vertical called subscriber lifts his receiver off the hook a
magnet causes it to raise the wiper shaft one step, flow of direct current from battery No. 6, and
so the line wiper will now rest in line with the sev- traced by the round dots, passes over the same
enth row of line bank contacts. circuit we have just traced to the bell, except that
Now we are ready for the subscriber to dial the the bell is now cut out by ,the hook switch, and
second number. Let's assume that he dials No. 5. the transmitter is placed across the line.
This again rapidly opens the line circuit five times, Trace this carefully by following the round dots.
causing the line relay "L" to release momentarily This flow of direct current will now energize the
the same number of times. Each time relay "L" low resistance winding of relay "C," closing contact
is de-energized, now since the off normal switch "K," which acts quickly before 'any of the other
is opened, a circuit can be traced as shown by the contacts of this relay can move, thus closing a
small dotted arrows from the positive of battery lock circuit in which current flows from the positive
No. 4, through the rotary magnet R. M., break of battery No. 6 through the high resistance wind-
springs of relay "S," "make contact" of off normal ing of "C," lower "make contact" of relay "C,"
springs, "make contact" of relay "R," "break con- "make contact" of relay "R," and to ground. This
tact" of relay "L," and to ground. circuit is traced by the square dots.
These impulses in this circuit will cause the With relay "C" fully operated, the talking circuit
rotary magnet to become energized each time and is now complete through both telephones. This
rotate the wiper shaft, carrying the wipers five steps circuit can be traced by the short dashes across the
to the right. This brings them in contact with No. line.
75 of the line bank, as indicated in the diagram. Now, when the calling subscriber hangs up his
The dotted lines from the normal position of the receiver and breaks the circuit through the line
line wipers show the upward movement of the relay "L," it in turn releases and breaks the circuit
shaft caused by the vertical magnet, and the rotat- through relay "R," which, after an instant of delay
ing movement to the right caused by the rotary because of its slow action, releases its upper arma-
magnet; and they show the circuit which will now ture and makes the circuit from battery No. 1
be completed to the called subscriber's telephone. through the release magnet "Y," "make contact"
148 Section Three, Automatic Telephones

of off normal spring, "break contact" of relay "R," low resistance of this ring circuit allows the current
"break contact" of relay "L," and to ground. flow to continue with infinitely small voltage, and
This circuit will energize the release magnet "Y." as long as there is any flux left from the decreasing
which trips the wiper shaft, allowing it to fall back current, both in the main coil and in the ring itself.
to normal position. This action interrupts the cir- This persisting flow of current in the ring devel-
cuit of release magnet "Y," because the dropping ops enough magnetism in the core to cause it to
of the wiper shaft opens the "make contact" of the retain its armature a little longer. Thus we get
off normal spring. the terms "slow acting" relay.
When relay "R" was de-energized it also opened By changing the size of these copper rings, or
the high resistance locking circuit of relay "C," the number of turns when a shorted coil is used.
allowing its contact to move back to normal posi- we can vary the amount of time the relay will delay
tion. its action from a very small fraction of a second
Telephone No. 48 merely shows where another to one or more seconds.
telephone of this number would be connected in Fig. 157 shows two sketches of relays of this type.
the back. It is not expected that you will perfectly 'I'he one at "A" uses a short-circuited coil. The
understand all of this diagram the first time you one at "B" uses a copper ring.
trace it through, as it is rather complicated and
one which requires some time to absorb. But if
you are interested enough in this branch of work
to trace each step of the operation through this
circuit several times it will not only be excellent
practice, but will give you a good understanding
of the fundamental principle and more important
parts of this type of automatic telephone.
There are a number of other auxiliary relays and
contacts used with this equipment in larger ex-
changes where it is necessary to have a number
of line banks from which to select.
There is also an added mechanism which auto-
matically tests out any line before completing the
calling circuit. If that particular line is busy at
Fig. 158. This sketch shows the use of a dash-pot to slow the action
that instant, this relay will close a circuit which of solenoids and electro-magnets.
gives an intermittent buzzing note to the calling
subscriber, indicating that the line he desires is Some relays have what is called a "dash-pot"
busy. attached to their armature to slow its action. These
dash-pots may consist of a plunger in a cylinder
filled with oil or air which only allows the plunger
to move rather slowly as the oil or air escapes past
the edges or through the small opening in the
plunger.
Fig. 158 shows a relay equipped with such a
dash-pot.
Various selective circuits can be arranged in
automatic telephone systems by the use of con-
densers and choke coils of different sizes.
A condenser placed in the circuit of certain relays
Fig. 157. Two types of slow acting relays. The one on the left has a
short-circuited coil of a few turns, and the one on the right has a
will only allow alternating current to pass through
large copper ring around the end of the core. and stops all flow of direct current. A choke coil,
however, will allow direct current to pass rather
116. SLOW ACTING RELAYS freely, but quite effectively blocks the flow of
The slow acting relays used with these automatic alternating current.
telephones are very interesting devices. In addition Many of the telephones being installed nowadays
to the regular winding on the core there is also a for use with manual exchanges are also equipped
heavy ring of solid copper placed around the core with a place to mount the dial, because in many
end. Or, in some cases, just ashort-circuited wind- localities it is expected that the automatic exchange
ing of a few turns. This copper sleeve, as it is will replace the manual in a short time.
called, acts as a single turn secondary winding. Fig. 159 shows a very convenient, modern type
When the current is interrupted in the main coil of desk telephone. With this telephone the receiver
of the relay its collapsing flux induces a rather and transmitter are both mounted on one handle,
heavy current in this copper ring. The extremely so the subscriber doesn't have to move a trans-
 Section Three, Automatic Telephones 149

mitter stand close to his mouth to carry on a con- tions. Some lines which use a two-wire or metallic
versation. This receiver and transmitter, when not talking circuit use a ground circuit for ringing.
in use, are laid in a "cradle" which has a small Telephone line wires are usually bare and with-
strip in the bottom that is attached to a spring out any insulation except the small glass insulators
in the stand. This operates a hook switch each which support them on the poles. Under normal
time the receiver is removed from or replaced in conditions this is sufficient insulation, because they
the "cradle." do not operate at high voltages. Many telephone
lines use galvanized steel wire and some use copper
wires. Most all of us have seen trunk lines follow-
ing highways or railroads from one town to another
and with their dozens of wires on numerous
cross arms on the poles. This type of line is being
replaced in many localities by the more compact
telephone cables.
The large masses of open wires on the older lines
offer a great deal of wind resistance and accumulate
enormous loads of sleet at certain times of the year.
This has a tendency to break down poles and dis-
able the lines, making them very costly to keep in
repair. Where cables are used, one lead sheath
about 2 to 3 inches in diameter may carry from 500
to 1,200 pairs of small wires. These individual wires
are all insulated from each other with proper wrap-
pings and the entire cable insulated from the lead
with an additional wrapping. Such cables are very
heavy and not strong enough to support their own
Fig. 159. Modern desk type telephone equipped with dial for automatic
operation. weight between long spans. Therefore, they are
usually supported by what is called a "Messenger"
Fig. 160 shows a room in an automatic telephone cable made of stranded steel wires, and to which
exchange. At the right can be seen a long bank the lead cable is attached at frequent intervals by
of selectors with white covers over their mech- means of hooks or wire supports.
anisms.
Fig. 161 shows a view in another exchange with
a switchboard at the left, selector banks in the rear.
and a motor generator for supplying the talking
and ringing current at the right.

117. TELEPHONE LINES

The operation of the millions of telephones in
this country today requires a vast network of
telephone lines. These lines can be divided into
two general classes—the small individual or party
lines which connect one telephone or a small group
of telephones to the central exchange, and main
lines, or Trunk lines, as they are called, which
connect from one exchange to another.
The individual or party lines, of course, are only
in use when the subscribers whose telephones are
Fig. kW This photograph shows a view of the selector units in an
on them are talking. automatic telephone exchange.
The trunk lines, however, carry the main business
between exchanges and large towns, and are kept The lead sheath protects the wires from moisture
busy the greater portion of the time. These trunk and injury, and cables of this type can be run un-
lines might be called the arteries of the telephone derground in cities, as well as overhead on poles
system and are fed by the smaller branch lines from across the country. In connecting or repairing such
each exchange. cables the small wires are spliced separately, sol-
dered. and carefully reinsulated with sleeves of
118. GROUND CIRCUITS. CABLES paper or other insulation over the splice. The
Some telephone lines are made up of two insu- numerous splices are often staggered or made a
lated wires for each circuit and known as metallic few inches apart to prevent too large a bulge in the
circuits. Other lines use one insulated wire on the cable at the joints.
poles, and the other side of the circuit is completed When the wires are all spliced, a large lead
through earth by carefully made ground connec- sleeve, which has been previously slipped over the
 Nornw"
41, Geor gia

Brooklyn 7, Nf Y
150 Section Three, Automatic Telephones

cable, is then slid over the splice and sealed in place 120. PHANTOM CIRCUITS
with hot lead, similar to a "wiped" joint in lead Considerable economy and saving of wire can be
piping. effected in telephone line construction by the use
The entire splice is then dried out by pouring of what are known as "Phantom" circuits. By this
hot parafin through it and finally filled with parafin method one additional circuit can be obtained for
or other insulating compound, and the small filler each pair of lines already in existence. This can
hole in the lead sleeve is then sealed tightly. be done without the addition of any other wires,
All moisture must be kept from the inside of such merely by using two existing lines, one to form
cables and splices. each side of the new line or phantom circuit.
By the use of proper induction coils, or Repeater
Coils, as they are called, a conversation can be
carried on over this phantom line without inter-
fering with either of the two actual lines. A re-
peater coil is simply a transformer with primary
and secondary windings of an equal number of
turns.
Fig. 162 shows the manner in which a phantom
circuit is obtained from two metallic circuits. Lines
No. 1and 2 are ordinary metallic lines or physical
circuits using repeater coils to transfer the current
impulses from the transmitter circuits to the lines.
Line No. 3 is a phantom circuit obtained by con-
Fig. 161. Here we have another view of an automatic exchange showing
nection of its coil to the exact center of each of the
the switching units in the background, power switchboard on
the left, and motor generator on the right.
others on lines 1 and 2. With this connection the
current in line 3 can divide equally through each
of the other lines or pairs of wires and, therefore,
119. LIGHTNING PROTECTION AND
does not interfere with their talking currents at all.
TRANSPOSITION With four metallic circuits we can obtain two
Where open wire lines are used, it is customary phantom circuits directly, and then athird phantom
to run lightning ground wires from the top of circuit between the first two, so we find that where
certain poles along the line down to an earth ground a considerable number of trunk lines are run from
at the bottom of the pole. These wires serve as point to point a large number of phantom circuits
small lightning rods to drain severe static charges can be arranged to use the same lines.
and lightning from the telephone line. Small light-
ning arresters are often used at the 'phones on rural
party lines to ground any lightning charges and
prevent damage to telephones and property.
Where telephone lines run parallel to power lines
they often pick up, by magnetic induction, an inter-
fering hum. To avoid this, the pairs of wires should
occasionally be crossed into opposite positions on
the poles or cross arms, so that one wire will not
be closest to the transmission line throughout its
entire length.
This crossing of wires to prevent induced inter-
ference is known as transposition. Sometimes it is
also done to avoid "cross-talk" or induction from
other telephone wires.
Transposing the wires frequently and evenly will
balance out most of this induction. Telephone lines
should never be left close enough to high voltage Fig. la. Elementary sketch showing how a phantom circuit is obtained
from two metallic or physical circuits.
power lines so that there would be danger of them
coming in contact with each other, for in case they This practice is also followed in telegraph work.
did people using the telephone lines might be Telephone lines, if used on trunk circuits and
injured. special radio station wires, are constructed with a
Satisfactory telephone operation depends to quite carefully determined amount of resistance. Special
an extent on proper line construction. Therefore, resistance and impedance coils are placed in the
all telephone lines should be made with the proper circuit of such lines to make them most efficient
materials and the wires properly spliced with low in the handling of certain frequencies set up by
resistance joints, ground connections kept in good voices or musical notes. This principle will be
condition. etc. more fully explained in a later section on radio.
 Section Three, Automatic Telephones 151

Operators of radio broadcast stations frequently of shape; wire terminals, which may have become
lease wires from the telephone companies to use in corroded or loose on the binding screws; weak bat-
picking up and transmitting certain news or enter- teries, weak magneto magnets, weak receiver mag-
tainment features at quite a distance from a broad- nets, etc.
cast station. Telephone systems are becoming Telephone circuits and equipment can often be
more and more linked up with the radio stations, tested very conveniently with a telephone receiver,
not only for amusement programs, but for the trans- as well as with test lamps and buzzers. The re-
oceanic and commercial conversations as well. ceiver can be used to determine if the talking cur-
121. TELEPHONE TROUBLES rent is coming through to certain circuits, and also
to determine whether high resistance circuits are
Faults and troubles arising in telephones or tele-
completed or not, by the clicks which should be
phone exchanges can usually be located by the same
heard in the receiver when its term nais are touched
general methods of systematic testing that have
to any line circuit.
been covered in connection with other signal cir-
cuits. A diagram of the wiring apd connections is Careful application of your knowledge of the
always of the greatest help in testing any telephone principles of fundamental telephone parts and cir-
circuit. cuits and methods of systematic trouble shooting
Some of the more common telephone troubles should enable you to locate most any of the ordi-
which occur in the separate parts, such as trans- nary troubles in telephone equipment.
mitter, receiver, hook switch, etc., have already been Don't forget that a thorough understanding of
mentioned. Other likely places to look for faults the material covered in this section on telephones
are at the spring contacts of key switches and relays, will be of great help to you in any line of electrical
which may have become burned, dirty, or bent out or radio work.
 153

C YM
aectrical School
CHICAGO - -ILLINOIS
ESTABLISHED 1899 COPYRIGHT 1942

ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION
AND

WIRING FOR LIGHT AND POWER

Section One

Code, Conductors, Splicing and Soldering

Types of Wiring Systems
154

ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION

Wiring for Light and Power

Electrical construction and wiring offers a tre- paying work, maintaining and repairing their elec-
mendous field of opportunity for practically trained trical machines, lights, and wiring circuits; and in-
men, both in interesting jobs at good salaries with stalling the new motors, lights and wiring as it is
various companies and employers, and also to enter required.
a business of their own. The field of Electrical Maintenance work re-
Naturally, every piece of electrical equipment quires men who know the principles and methods
manufactured and sold each year, must have wiring of modern wiring thoroughly, so every electrical
and circuits to carry the current to it, when it is man should obtain a thorough knowledge of the
installed. This includes the billions of dollars worth material covered in this sectién, whether he intends
of electrical machinery and appliances made each to specialize in wiring and electrical construction
year, and also the millions of electric lights and or not.
lighting fixtures. The electrical maintenance man in any plant will
In thousands of old buildings and existing plants, usually have a great variety of interesting work to
new wires and extensions to the circuits must be do, and an opportunity to use every bit of general
run each time additional equipment is installed; knowledge he can obtain.
and in the new buildings erected, complete new
wiring systems must be installed. 2. VALUE OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE OF
Today almost every new home erected in any WIRING
city or small town, is wired for electric lights and The electrician in the small town will also usually
appliances when it is built. Tens of thousands of be called upon to wire door bells, lights, and power
old houses are being wired, and thousands of others motors; and to shoot trouble and make repairs on
rewired or having improvements and additions everything from a burned out fuse or dead dry cell,
made to their wiring, to provide better lighting and to shorts in wiring or faults in power machinery.
more complete use of electrical convenience devices. And even the man who specializes in one line of
Plans are being made to rapidly electrify the electrical work, can always use a good general
last few small towns, which have not yet had elec- knowledge of electricity, and particularly of
tricity, and even the farms are now rapidly elec- methods of wiring.
trifying. Nearly one million farms already have Many of our graduates make good money in a
their buildings wired, and electric supply from their business of their own in this field, contracting gen-
local power companies' lines, or their own private eral wiring or specializing in either the wiring of
light plants. Many of our graduates who came from new buildings or old houses.
farms, have returned to their own home territories, In addition to wiring contracting, many of them
and made a good living wiring houses and farm do electrical merchandising, selling lighting fix-
buildings, installing and servicing farm light plants, tures, electrical appliances for the home, radios, etc.
radios, refrigerators, lights, and motors. A business, often started in a very small shop or
the basement of their own home, frequently pays
1. GOOD KNOWLEDGE OF WIRING from $5,000.00 to $10,000.00 or more per year.
NEEDED IN MAINTENANCE WORK
Factories and industrial plants throughout this 3. IMPORTANT POINTS IN WIRING
country are over three-fourths electrified at present, The important things to be considered in any
and thousands of them employ from one to a dozen electrical wiring job are: First, the selection of
or more electrical wiremen, just to take care of wires of the proper size to carry the amount of cur-
their electrical construction and continual expan- rent required by the devices, and with the proper
sion. insulation according to the voltage of these wires;
The few old plants which have been operated by Second, proper mechanical support and protection
steam or other power, are rapidly changing over for the runs of wire; Third, secure and permanent
to electric power and machines, and modern electric splices and connections; Fourth, protection and pre-
lighting. cautions to eliminate all danger of fire or shock.
Practically every new factory or industrial plant Each of these features will be covered thoroughly
built nowadays, is completely wired and electrified. in the following sections. When installing any
These plants keep thousands of trained electrical wiring system these points should be constantly
men constantly employed in interesting and good kept in mind, and all work done accordingly.
 Wiring, Section One, Code and Wiring Rules 155

In former years a lot of electrical wiring was in- deemed safe and reliable, and meet the laboratory
stalled rather carelessly, mainly with the idea of standards for quality, they carry the underwriters
supplying current to the devices requiring it, but stamp of approval.
without proper consideration for permanence, and This is a good indication for the conscientious
safety from fire and shock hazard. As aresult many electrical man to follow in selecting the best of
fires originated from defective wiring, causing short materials.
circuits, sparks, and flashes, or just overheated Some states have prepared special codes and rules
wires. In other cases, people received electric of their own, usually applying to wiring in schools,
shocks or injuries by coming in contact with wires auditoriums, theatres, and other public buildings,
that were not properly insulated. and also to transmission lines, and outdoor con-
4. INSPECTION—AN ADVANTAGE TO THE struction where the public is involved. These rules,
however, are similar to those of the National Code.
TRAINED MAN
A number of towns and cities have their own
Nowadays there is a general tendency in all elec-
local code or rules, which in general may be based
trical construction to follow certain very high
standards in the selection of materials, quality of upon or similar to the National Code, but will have
workmanship, and precautions for safety. A great a few specific rules on certain classes of work,
deal of the old wiring is being entirely replaced, and which are more rigid than the National Code.
In addition to the National Code and local codes
new wiring in most towns and localities must be
done according to very strict inspection require- of certain cities, the power companies to whose
lines the wiring system may be connected may have
ments. This is not at all a handicap, but rather it
some special rules regarding service wires,
is a decided advantage for the trained electrical
man who knows how to do this work as it should meter connections, size and type of devices, and
be done, and according to these rules. It makes his class of equipment connected to their system. So,
services much to be preferred to those of the man in starting to do wiring in any town, it is well to
who does not know modern methods, or will not familiarize yourself with these local rules if there
recognize the value and importance of safety-first are any.
rules in electrical wiring. In addition to these important rules, if you will
also follow the instructions given in the following
5. NATIONAL ELECTRIC CODE pages, and apply your knowledge of general prin-
To standardize and simplify these rules and pro- ciples of electricity, along with good common sense
vide some reliable guide for electrical construction and careful workmanship, you should be able to do
men the National Electric Code has been provided. most any kind of electrical wiring quite success-
This Code was originally prepared in 1897, and is fully.
kept frequently revised to meet changing condi- Certain things in electrical wiring are done ac-
tions, and improved equipment and materials. It is cording to what might be termed "standard prac-
a result of the best efforts of electrical engineers, tice". That is, while there are no set rules for them,
manufacturers of electrical equipment, insurance experienced electrical men have found that certain
experts, and architects. ways or methods are generally best, and these have
This Code book is now published by the National been more or less generally adopted by men on the
Board of Fire Underwriters, and contains simple job.
specific rules and instructions which, if followed, all For example, when installing single pole push
tend to make electrical wiring and construction button switches, the white button is always placed
safe and reliable. Every electrician should have an at the top. Following general rules of this kind
up-to-date copy of the National Code at all times, simplifies the work a great deal and avoids con-
and should familiarize himself with the more im- fusion, both in the wiring, and to the owners of the
portant rules pertaining to his work, and if he does buildings in which it is installed.
he will find them of great help in making certain
Every electrician should always be on the alert
decisions on the job, and performing his work in to notice and remember these little details or
a manner that will always be a credit to himself "wrinkles" of the trade. A number of them will be
and his profession. mentioned in this section.
6. STATE AND LOCAL CODE RULES
Most states now require that all electrical work 7. CLASSES OF WIRING SYSTEMS
be done in accordance with the National Code, and Wiring systems can be separated into the follow-
even in the few states where this may not be re- ing classes:
quired throughout, most of the tewns and cities do D. C. or A. C. systems, and two wire or three wire
require that all wiring within their limits follow systems.
the Code. Whether direct or alternating current is to be
Throughout the following pages we shall quote used depends entirely on which .is available from
occasionally some rules of the National Code. the power companies' lines; or, in the case of a
The Underwriter's laboratory also tests various private plant, which type of plant is used.
electrical materials and supplies, such as wire, Direct current is generally used only where it is
switches, fuses, insulations, etc. If these are not to be transmitted over distances greater than
156 Wiring, Section One, Conductors and Insulation

one-half mile. It has certain advantages for the switch, to measure all the energy used in the entire
operation of special types of variable speed motors, system.
and motors requiring extra heavy starting power The Edison Three Wire System can be applied to
for frequent starting and stopping; also where either A. C. or D. C. installations. It provides two
storage batteries are to be charged from the lines, different voltages, one for lights and one for motors,
or where arc lamps, and other special D. C. equip- and also effects a considerable saving in wire size,
ment are in use. where used for lighting only. This system will be
Alternating current is equally as good for light- explained in detail later.
ing with incandescent lamps, and much more desir- 8. WIRING MATERIALS—CONDUCTORS
able and economical where the energy has to be Before going farther into the methods of wiring
transmitted considerable distances. In such cases, it will be well to consider some of the materials
it can be transmitted at high voltage for line used.
economy, and then the voltage reduced at the Conductors used in wiring for light and power
customer's premises by use of step-down trans- must be somewhat different from those used for
formers. low voltage signal wiring, as they usually carry
For power purposes, recently developed alter- much heavier currents and at higher voltages. They
nating current motors will also meet almost every are of course made of copper, as this we know is
condition that direct current motors formerly were one of the best conductors of electric current,
needed for. By far the greater number of wiring and its softness and flexibility make it very desir-
jobs which you will encounter will probably be on able for use in inside wiring.
alternating current systems. The very low resistance of copper enables it to
The materials and methods used are just about carry the current with much less voltage drop
the same for either D. C. or A. C. systems, except and heat loss. So copper wires and cables are used
for a few precautions on A. C. circuits which will almost entirely for wiring for light and power.
be covered later. Copper wires for interior wiring are usually
1he simple two wire system is in common use "annealed" or softened by a heating process as this
for wiring small homes and buildings where only makes the copper much more flexible and improves
one voltage and small amounts of power are re- its conductivity.
quired. The circuits and connections for such a \\Te found that No. 18 or 16 B. & S. (Brown &
system are extremely simple, and consist merely of Sharpe) gauge wires were used for bell wiring, but
running the two wires to each lamp or device to be No. 14 is the smallest sized wire allowed in wiring
used, and of course with the proper fuses and for light and power. Sizes 14, 12, 10 and 8 are used
switches. Fig. 1shows the important parts of atwo in solid wires, but when used in conduit the larger
wire lighting system. sizes are stranded to obtain greater flexibility.
9. INSULATION
Bare conductors can be used in afew places such
as on switchboards and distribution panels where
they can be rigidly supported and held apart on
proper insulators, or insulating panels. For general
wiring, however, the wires must be properly in-
sulated to prevent persons from coming in contact
with them, and also to prevent short circuits and
grounds which would not only interfere with opera-
tion of the attached equipment, but also cause fire
hazards.
Rubber and braid coverings are the most common
forms of insulation. The rubber being of extremely
high resistance to electricity provides excellent in-
sulation to confine the current to the wires and
prevent leakage to the other wires or metal objects.
The cotton braid covering is used over the rubber
Fig. 1. This sketch shows a simple two-wire system with the service to protect it from mechanical injury. This is called
wires, mains and branch circuits.
ordinary rubber covered (R.C.) wire, sometimes
This system consists of the Service Wires which designated by the letter "R" only.
lead to the power supply, Service Switch and Fuses, It is made with both single and double braid
Meter, Main Wires or Feeders, and Branch Circuits. coverings, and is very generally used in interior
Each branch circuit has its own switch and fuses. wiring. Fig. 2 shows three forms of rubber and
The separate light switches are not shown in this braid insulation on solid wires, and Fig. 3 shows
diagram. All of the circuits marked "B" are branch both a solid and a stranded wire with their
circuits, while "A" and "Al" are the main wires insulation.
which feed the branch circuits. The Watthour For outdoor use, we have wires with weather
meter is connected in the mains, near the service proof (W. P.) insulation, consisting of three or
 Wiring, Section One, Conductors and Insulation 157

Fig. Z. Three samples of insulated conductors. The wire at the left is covered with rubber only. The one in the center has a layer of
rubber and one of cotton braid. The one on the right has one layer of rubber, and two layers of braid. These would be called respectively:
Rubber covered (R. C.). Rubber and braid covered, and Rubber and double braid covered.

more layers of braid, soaked or impregnated with The outer braid coverings on wires are some-
moisture resisting compound of a tarry nature. times made in different colors, particularly black
This kind of insulation is much cheaper than and white, or light gray; or with a colored thread
rubber, and is required for outdoor use in many woven into them in order to easily mark or identify
cases, and in some damp locations inside buildings. certain wires. Reasons for this will be explained
It should not be used where it is subject to heat or later.
fire, as it is inflammable. For extremely damp places or where wires are
Fig. 4 shows three pieces of wire with weather to be run under ground, we have wires and cables
proof insulation. with alead sheath over the insulation.
For places where the wire is subjected to heat
but not moisture, Slow Burning (S. B.) insulation 10. WIRE SIZE VERY IMPORTANT
with fire resisting braids is used. Copper wires can be obtained in almost any de-
Some wires for use in very dry hot places, or for sired size and with a variety of insulations for
heater cords, are covered with a layer of asbestos various uses.
fibres for maximum heat and fire resisting insula- It is very important to use wires of the proper
tion. size for any wiring job, because if they are too small
for the current load they have to carry, they will

Fig. 3. Examples of solid and stranded conductors with their insulation.

The stranded conductors are used in the large sizes
because they are more flexible.

Conductors are also prepared with a combination

of slow burning and weather proof insulation
(S. B. W.). Two such wires are shown in Fig. 5.
Insulated wires are often made up in twisted pairs
as shown in Fig. 6, for lamp cords and leads to
portable devices. Such wires are usually made of
many strands of very fine wires for good flexibility.
The copper wires are usually "tinned" or coated
with a thin layer of lead and tin alloy, to prevent
corrosion from contact with the chemicals in the
rubber, and to make it easier to solder them when Vg. 4. These wires have what is called "water-proof" insulation, or
braid filled with tarry water-proof compound. They ate for use
splicing. outdoors or in damp locations.
158 Wiring, Section One, Conductors and Current Capacities

The National Code specifies the maximum

amount of current that shall be allowed on the
common sized wires, and this should be followed
closely for safe and satisfactory results in any
wiring system.
Fig. 7 shows a convenient table which gives the
maximum current capacity of each size of rubber
insulated wire from No. 14 up, to 2,000,000 C. M.
If wires are allowed to carry more than these
amounts of current for any length of time, they
will heat up and the rubber will rapidly lose its
insulating quality at these higher temperatures.

ALLOWABLE CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACI-

TIES OF CONDUCTORS IN AMPERES
Fig. S. In this view the upper conductor has a special fire resisting Not More Than Three Conductors in Raceway
covering known as "slow burning" insulation. The lower conductor
or Cable
has a combination covering of both water-proof and slow burning
insulation.
(Based on Room Temperature of 30° C. 86° F.)
Paper
overheat. Excessive heat not only increases the Synthetic Synthetic
Type SN
resistance of the wire and creates a greater voltage Rubber Ulee
A Asbestos Impreg-
Size Rubber Type Var-Cant nated Asbestos
drop and energy loss, but it also damages the in-
Asbestos
AWG TypeRW Type RU RHT var_c- a. Type Asbestos Type A
MCM Type R TypeRH Type AYA Type AI
sulation and in some cases results in completely Rubber
Type
AVB Tee
A vL
burned out wiring or causes fires. RPT
Type RP
Var-Cam
Type V

If wires that are too small are used, the excessive 14 15 18

23
22
27
23
29
28
86
29
38
32
42
12 20
voltage drop causes the lights or equipment to re- 10
8
25
35
31
41
37
49
38
50
47
80
49
83
54
•
71
95
ceive less than their rated voltage, which usually re- 6 45 54 65 68 80 85

75 78 94 99 110
sults in unsatisfactory operation. This is particu- 5
4
52
60
63
72 86 88 107 114 122
5 69 83 99 104 121 131 145
larly true of lighting systems, as a very few volts 2 80 96 116 118 137
161
147
172
163
188
1 91 110 131 138
drop will cause an incandescent lamp to deliver 151 157 190 202 223
0 105 127
much less than its rated light. 00
000
120
138
145
166
173
199
184
209
217
243
230
265
249
284
0000 160 193 230 237 275 308 340

250 177 213 255 272 315 334 372

300 198 238 285 299 347 380 415
350 216 260 311 325 392 419 462
400 233 281 336 361 418 450 488
500 265 319 382 404 468 498 554

600 293 353 422 453 525 543 612

700 320 385 461 488 562 598 688
750 330 398 475 502 582 621 890
800 340 410 490 514 600 641 720
900 360 434 519 558 ... ... ...

1,000 377 455 543 583 681 730 811

1.250 409 493 589 643 ... ...
1,500 434 522 825 898 ié..i ... ...
1,750 451 544 650 733 ... ...
2.000 483 558 666 774 WI ... •••

Fig. 7. This very convenient table gives the current carrying capacity
for the various sizes of wire, with various grades of insulation.

For wires with other insulation than rubber, you

will note that the correct carrying capacity is some-
what higher, as these insulations will stand slightly
higher temperatures without damage.
Examine the table in Fig. 7 very carefully, and
become familiar with its use, as it will be very con-
venient to you many times from now on.
The first column gives the wire sizes in A. W. G.
gauge numbers, from 14 to 0000 or "four ought"
as it is called. From this size up the larger cables
have their sizes given in circular mil area, with the
last 3 zeros left off, and can be followed on down
the third column to 2,000,000 circular mils.
The second column gives the current capacity
for rubber insulation, and the following columns
give the current capacity for other insulations such
Fig. 6. Conductors are often arranged in pairs for
running two-wire cicuits. Several types of these are
convenience in
shown above.
as synthetic rubber, paper, cambric, asbestos, etc.
 Wiring, Section One, Conductors and Splicing 159

The term Circular Mil means the area of a round

wire one thousandth (1/1000) of an inch in dia-
meter. This is the common term for rating and
calculating sizes of electrical conductors, and will
be covered more fully in a later section on wire
calculations.
The longer a wire, the greater is its resistance,
and the Voltage Drop is proportional to both the
Resistance and the Current carried. Therefore.
where the wire runs are quite long, we may not
wish to allow even the amount of current that the
code table does, because the voltage drop would
be too great.
In such cases we can determine the exact size of
wire to use for any given current load and any de-
sired voltage drop, by use of a simple formula Fig. 9. Two coils of ordinary rubber and braid covered No. 14 wire,
such as commonly used in house wiring jobs. The advantage of
which will also be given and explained in the sec- having the insulation in black and white colors will be explained
later.
tion on wire calculations.
Referring again to the table in Fig. 7, you will portance for any electrician to have, whether he
note that the larger the gauge number the smaller follows new wiring or maintenance and repairs.
the wire. This is a good point to keep in mind so The old saying that•a chain is no stronger than
you will not become confused on the sizes and its weakest link, applies in slightly different words;
numbers. almost as well to a wiring system or, the circuit
Fig. 8 shows a wire gauge often used to deter- or system is no better than its splices.
mine the exact size of a wire by slipping the bare Splices properly made and soldered will last
end of the wire in the slots until one is found that almost as long as the wire or its insulation, but
it just fits snugly. The gauge number is marked poorly made splices will always be a source of
on the disk at that slot. Be sure to fit the wire to trouble and will overheat, burn off their taping,
the straight slot and not in the circle at the end of and cause high resistance circuits and sometimes
the slot. fires.
A good test of an electrician is in the kind of
splices he makes.
The requirements for a good splice are, that it
should be Mechanically and Electrically Secure be-
fore the solder is applied. Solder is then applied,
not only td strengthen the splice or improve its
conductivity, although it does do both to some ex-
tent, but for the real purpose of preventing cor-
rosion and oxidization of the copper.

12. COMMON TYPES OF SPLICES

Fig. S. A wire gauge of this type is commonly used to determine the
size of wires for various uses.
Several of the more commonly used splices are
the Pigtail, Western Union, Tee or Tap, Knotted
Tap, Fixture Splice, and Stranded Cable Splice.
It often comes in very handy to remember that
Each of these will be explained in detail.
when you have a wire of any certain size, another
wire three sizes larger will have just about double 13. STRIPPING AND CLEANING WIRES
the area; or one three sizes smaller, about one-half
The first very important step in making any
the area. For example, anumber 3wire is just about
splice is to properly strip and prepare the ends of
double the area of a number 6; or a number 2 wire
the wire. Stripping means removing the insulation
just half the area of a number 00.
from the wire a proper distance back for the splice
Another very handy fact to remember is that a
to be made. This may range from 172 inches to 3
number 10 wire has approximately one ohm re-
or 4 inches for various splices.
sistance per thousand feet, and a number 14 wire
The rubber and braid should be removed with a
has about 2.5 ohms per thousand feet.
knife, as shown in the upper view in Fig. 10. The
knife and wire should be held in a position similar
11. SPLICING
to that used when sharpening a pencil, and the
In running wires for any electrical system, it is braid and rubber cut through at an angle as shown.
necessary to make numerous splices of various Be very careful not to cut or nick the wire, as it
kinds, and a good knowledge of proper methods reduces the conducting area, and makes it very
of splicing and soldering is of the greatest im- easy to break at that point.
160 Wiring, Section One, Splicing

Never cut the insulation as in the lower view in 15. WESTERN UNION SPLICE
Fig. 10, as one is almost certain to nick the wire in For splicing straight runs of wire the Western
cutting in this manner, and it makes amore difficult Union splice is one of the oldest and most com-
splice to properly tape. monly used. It is a very strong splice and will
After cutting through the insulation and down stand considerable pull and strain on the wires. It
to the wire, let the blade slide along the wire, can be used for splicing large solid conductors and
stripping the insulation to the end; keeping the line wires as well as the smaller wires.
blade almost flat against the wire, so it does not In starting a Western Union splice, strip and
cut into the copper. clean about four inches of the end of each wire.
After removing the insulation with the knife the Hold the ends together tightly with your hand or
wire should be scraped with the back of the blade, pliers as in Fig. 12-A, gripping them at the point
to remove all traces of rubber and until the wire is where they cross. Twist them together a couple
thoroughly clean and bright. If the wire is tinned of gradual or spiral turns as in Fig. 12-B. These
do not scrape deep enough to remove the tinning, are often called "neck" turns. Then wrap the end
but leave on as much as possible, as it makes of each wire around the other wire in five or six
soldering easier. neat, tight turns as in Fig. 12-C. A little practice
will be required to get the knack of wrapping these
ends tightly and smoothly by hand. If one or two
turns do not grip the straight wire tightly, pinch
them down carefully with the pliers.
To finish this splice, trim the ends off and pinch
them down tight with the pliers, so they will not
project and damage the tape later. The splice
should then appear as in Fig. 12-D.
Fig. 10. This sketch shows the proper method of stripping the insulation
from a wire in the upper view. The lower view Practice making this splice a number of times,
shows the wrong way.
as it is one of the most common and important ones
used, and every practical man should be able to
It is impossible to do agood job of soldering if the make it well. Each time you make it examine it
wires have bits of rubber, dirt, or grease left on carefully and try to improve until it is perfect.
them, and as they are very difficult to clean after
Be careful not to nick or mar wires any more than
they are spliced, be sure to do it properly before
necessary with the "bite" of your pliers, when
starting the splice.
gripping them during splicing.
A number of wire stripping tools are made and
on the market, and some of them are quite fast in
operation, but for rubber covered wire and for doing
the work right on the job, nothing is much handier
than a good sized electricians' knife with a sturdy
blade of good steel. A piece of sandpaper can be
used to clean the wire if desired.

14. "PIG TAIL" SPLICE

To start a Pig Tail splice, strip and clean about
two inches on the end of each wire, then hold the
wires as in Fig. 11-A, and twist them together a
few turns with your fingers; then finish the ends
with a pair of pliers. Be sure that both wires twist
around each other, and that one does not remain
straight while the other wraps around it. They
should appear as in Fig. 11-B.
This splice should have at least five good tight
turns, and then the end should be bent back as in
Fig. 11-C to prevent it from puncturing the tape.
Three or more wires can be connected together
by a pig tail splice, and it is commonly used in
making splices of wire ends in outlet boxes, and at
places where there is no strain on the wires.
In making any splice, always be sure to wrap or
twist the turns tightly around each other, as they
should not be able to slip or shift upon each other
when the splice is complete but not yet soldered.
Make the splice itself tight and strong, and don't
Fig. 11. This diagram shows very clearly the several steps in making
depend on the solder to do this. a "Pigtail" splice. Examine it very carefully.
 Wiring, Section One, Splicing 161

16. TAP OR TEE SPLICE

When a tap or branch is to be connected to a
main or "running" wire, we use the Tap splice
shown in Fig. 14. For this splice, bare about
1inch on the main wire, and about 3 inches on the
end of the tap wire. Then wrap the tap wire tightly
about the main wire from five to eight turns, as
shown in the figure. The turns should be tight
enough so they cannot be slid along the straight
wire.

--8111/Ir

Fig. IS. Simple "Tap" splice used for tapping a "branch" wire to
"main" or "running" wires.

Fig. 12. The above four sketches show the steps and procedure
making a "Western Union" splice.
in 17. KNOTTED TAP SPLICE
Where there is a possibility of some pull or strain
When making a double Western Union splice in on the tap wire, we can use the Knotted Tap splice
a pair of wires together, always stagger them as which cannot be pulled loose as easily. This splice
shown in Fig. 13, so each splice lies near to undis- is shown in Fig. 15, and is very easily made, by
turbed insulation of the other wire, and so they do simply giving the wire one turn on the side of the
not make a large bulge when taped. tap wire opposite to the side on which the main
Fig. 13-A shows how the ends of the wires should group is to be, and then doubling back around the
be cut in uneven lengths for such a splice. In 13-B tap wire, and winding the balance of the turns in the
is shown the method of spreading them apart to opposite direction around the main wire. This locks
make the splices, and in 13-C the appearance of the the first turn so it is very secure and hard to pull
finished splice, before soldering and taping. loose.

F sr. IS. "Knotted Tap" splice. Note carefully the manner in which the
wire is first looped around the branch conductor to
lock it securely in place.

18. FIXTURE SPLICE

The Fixture Splice which is often used to fasten
together two wires of different sizes, is shown in
Fig. 16. The various steps in making this splice
Fig. 13. When making splices in pairs of conductors they should be are as follows: First bare about 5inches of the end
staggered as shown above so each splice will be near to
good insulation on the other wire.
of one wire, and 3 inches on the other wire; then
 Norman Beder
41 Georgia Ave:
162 Wiring, Section One, Splicing
Orooklyn 7, N. YI

wire is much easier to bend, and can be quickly

and tightly wound around the large ones. In
addition to winding the small wire around both the
large ones where they overlap, also wind a few
turns around each wire at the end of the splice, as
shown in the figure. The ends of the large wire
should be slightly bent outward to hold the smaller
wire wrapping in place, and prevent the large ones
from being pulled out; but be careful not to bend
them out far enough to puncture the tape. This
splice when well soldered makes one of good con-
ductivity, because of the great area of contact be-
tween the small wire turns and the two large ones.
20. STRANDED CABLE SPLICE
There are a number of methods used in splicing
stranded cables, but the most important points to
keep in mind are to be sure to secure enough good
contact area between the two groups of wires to
carry without overheating the same load of current
that the cable will, and to keep the diameter of
the splice down as much as possible.
The wires should be stripped back about ten or
twelve times the cable diameter, and each strand
separately cleaned. Then spread the strands of each
cable out fan-wise, as in Fig. 18-A, and butt the
cable ends together. Sometimes it is well to cut off

Fig.». The above views show the method of making a "Fixture"

splice, which is used for connecting together
two wires of different sizes.

place them together as shown in Fig. 16-A, with

about half the length of the longer bared end cross-
ing the other end, near the insulation. Then twist
them both together, as in "B", being sure that they
both twist about each other evenly. Then spread
the wires apart and bend the twisted ends down
tight to the longer remaining bare strip as at "C",
and wrap both ends tightly around the wire at this
point. The finished splice is shown at "D".
19. CONVENIENT SPLICE FOR LARGE
SOLID WIRES
Another splice that is very handy for connecting
large solid wires together is the one shown in Fig.
17. This splice is made by simply laying the ends
of the two large wires together, overlapping from
2 to 4 inches according to their size, and then wrap-
ping them both with a smaller wire. The smaller

Fig. 17. A very convenient splice to use on large solid conductors. By

wrapping them in this manner with the smaller wire we Fig. 18. Examine this diagram very closely and it will be a great hep
don't have to bend or twist the stiff heavy wires. to you in making neat and efficient cable splices.
 Wiring, Section One, Splicing and Soldering 163

the ends of a few of the center strands at the point 21. SOLDERING SPLICES
where they butt together, in order to reduce the All splices made in permanent wiring should be
diameter of the finished splice. A few less than carefully soldered, to preserve the quality and con-
half of the strands can be removed without re- ductivity of the splice.
ducing the current carrying capacity of the joint We have already mentioned that altho solder-
below that of the cable. This is because the wires ing does improve the strength and conductivity of
of each cable overlap each other, maintaining an a splice to some extent, the main reason for solder-
area equal to that of the cable anyway. ing is to prevent corrosion or oxidization from
spoiling the good contact of the wires.
22. COPPER OXIDE AND ITS EFFECT ON
JOINT RESISTANCE
Copper rapidly oxidizes or "rusts" when exposed
to air or moisture, and also corrodes very quickly
if any chemicals or chemical vapors come in con-
tact with it.
A bright copper wire soon forms a thin brownish
film of oxide on its surface if it is not tinned or
covered in an air tight and moisture-proof manner.
This film will even form between the wires where
they are in contact with each other. Copper oxide
is of a very high resistance to electric current flow,
and avery small amount of it which may be almost
unnoticeable, greatly increases the resistance of a
splice. This would be likely to cause serious heat-
ing of the joint, after a period of possibly a few
weeks or months from the time it was made, even
though the splice was of low resistance when new.
A very thin layer of solder, properly applied so
that it actually unites or alloys with the clean cop-
per surface, will prevent this oxidization or cor-
rosion, and maintain almost indefinitely, the original
low resistance of the splice.
In order to obtain this proper bond between the
solder and the copper, the copper must be abso-
lutely clean, then treated with a Flux which makes
the solder flow freely; and the splice and soldering
copper must both be well heated.
If these rules are all kept in mind and carefully
Fig. 19. Method of making a "tap" splice with stranded cables. Note
how the wires of the "tap" cable are divided and each group followed, you can easily do a good job of soldering
wrapped in opposite directions around the "running" cable.
that will be a credit and source of pride to you on
every job.
•Next wrap one strand at a time around the cable, 23. SOLDERING COPPERS
starting with strands from the outer surface of the To heat the splice and melt the solder we use a
cable, and wind these over the others which are Soldering Copper of the proper size, and which
laid tight along the cable. See Fig. 18-B. When one must be kept well cleaned, tinned, and heated.
strand is all wound up, start with the next tight to These tools are often called "soldering irons", but
the finish of the first, but continuing to wrap them they are made of good copper because copper can be
all in one layer if possible. readily tinned so the solder will adhere to it and
The finished splice should appear neat and com- flow over its surface or point; and also be-
pact as in Fig. 18-C. cause copper will quickly absorb heat from a torch
In making a tap cable splice, bare several or flame, and easily give up its heat to the splice
inches of the main cable and thoroughly clean all and solder. Copper is an Excellent Conductor of
the outer strands, removing all rubber from the Heat, as well as electricity, and if you keep in mind
grooves with a wire brush or pointed tool or knife. that the function of the soldering copper is to im-
Then spread the cleaned strands of the tap cable, part its heat to the splice, as well as to melt the
dividing them in half and butt them against the solder, you will find it much easier to understand
main cable in the center of the bare spot as in soldering and will make a much better job of it.
Fig. 19-A. Then wrap them in opposite directions Fig. 20 shows a common soldering copper of the
around the main cable in one layer or as few layers type that is heated in the flame of a blow torch or
as possible, as in Fig. 19-B, which shows the com- gas soldering furnace. Such coppers must• be re-
pleted splice. heated frequently, and where much soldering is to
164 Wiring, Section One, Soldering

coating. Or when asmall hole is worn in the block,

place a little solder in this hole or pocket and melt
it with the "iron," while rubbing it in the solder
and against the salammoniac at the same time. This
is called "tinning" the "iron."
Dipping the point of the hot soldering copper
into the flux occasionally, helps to keep the tinning
bright.
Fig. U. An ordinary soldering copper of the type commonly used in
electrical work.

be done, it is often well to use two of them so one

can be heating while the other is in use. Fig. 21
shows a blow torch in use for heating an "iron".
Soldering coppers can be obtained in various
sizes, the smaller ones being more convenient for
some classes of work, and the large ones holding
the heat longer. A half pound copper and a one
pound size are generally very good for ordinary
wiring.
Wherever electricity is available an electric
soldering "iron" can be used very conveniently, as
they remain hot while in continual use. They are
Fig. 22. Electric soldering irons are very convenient where electric
made in different sizes and with various sized and current is already available.

shaped tips for use on different sized splices and

various types of work. Two of these electric "irons" 25 SUFFICIENT HEAT IS IMPORTANT
are shown in Fig. 22. Never try to solder asplice without awell tinned,
well heated "iron" as it will only waste time and
result in a poor job.
If the iron is not hot enough the solder will melt
very slowly and become pasty, instead of flowing
freely as it should. The iron should be hot enough
so the solder will melt almost instantly when
touched to its point.
When heating an iron with a blow torch or gas
furnace, be sure the flame is blue and clean, other-
wise it will blacken and dirty the iron.

26. SOLDER FOR ELECTRICAL USE

Solder as used for electrical work is usually made
of about half lead and half tin. It can be bought in
the form of long bars, solid wire solder, and "resin
core" wire solder.

Fig. 21. This photo shows a gasoline blow torch such as commonly
used for heating soldering coppers, and splices
in electrical conductors.

24. CLEANING AND TINNING

The point of any soldering "iron" must be kept
bright and clean and well tinned, or it will not
"flow" the solder properly or convey its heat readily
to the splice.
When the irons are very dirty or covered with a
heavy scale, or pitted, they should be smoothed and
cleaned with a file. When in use on the job they
require occasional "brightening up." It can be done
by rubbing the point on a block of salammoniac
which is obtainable in small cakes from electric
shops and hardware stores. See Fig. 23.
Rub the heated point on the block and im-
Fig. 23. This photo shows the method of cleaning and tinning a
mediately apply a little solder to it in an even thin soldering copper with a block of salammoniac.
 Wiring, Section One, Soldering 165

The wire solder is most commonly used for ap- 29. CONDUCTING THE HEAT TO THE
plying to small splices, and the bar solder for large SPLICE
cable splices and for melting in a solder pot. Always remember that heat will travel or flow
The resin core solder is very convenient as the
through metals much easier than through air, and
resin carried in the hollow wire acts as a flux, auto-
while copper is an excellent conductor of heat, there
matically applied as the solder is melted.
is very little actual contact area between the solder-
27. SOLDERING FLUX ing copper and the rounded turns of the splice.
Flux should always be used on any splice before
applying the solder, as it dissolves the oxide on the
metal and causes the solder to flow and unite with
the metal much more readily.
Resin is a very good flux and can be used in bar
form or powder, and melted on the hot splice.
Muriatic acid was formerly used, and while it is a
very active and effective flux, it should not be used
on electrical work, as it causes corrosion of the
wires later. No acid flux should be used on elec-
trical splices.
Several kinds of good flux are prepared in paste
form which is very convenient to apply.
These fluxes should be applied to the splice and
melted on it with a good hot iron.. Excessive flux
should not be used, and none should be allowed to
remain in the splice, as resin and some of the other
fluxes act as insulators if they are not well melted
out or "boiled out" of the solder with plenty of heat.
28. PROPER METHOD OF APPLYING
SOLDER TO SPLICE
When the splice is "fluxed" the solder should be
evenly applied and well melted so it runs into the
crevices between the wires. It should not be
dripped on the splice by melting it above with the
iron. Instead the splice should be hot enough to
Fig. 24-B. The above three views show soldered splices of the Pigtail
melt the solder when it is rubbed on top of the type and Western Union type. Note how the solder thoroughly
ceeeee and adheres to the entire splice.
turns.
Here is a simple little trick of the trade which,
once you have tried it, you will never forget, and
you will be surprised to see how much it speeds up
any soldering job on asplice. Place the heated cop-
per under the splice with one of the flat faces of
the tip held fairly level and in contact with the turns
of the splice. Then melt or "puddle" a little drop
of solder on the copper, by pushing the solder wire
in between the copper and the splice. This drop
should melt almost instantly, and will provide a
much greater area of metal-to-metal contact be-
tween the copper and the splice, and the heat will
flow into the splice many times faster, heating it
well in avery few seconds.
Then, while still keeping the good contact of the
Fig. 24. Soldering copper should always
of the splice, as the splice can be
be applied to the under side
heated much quicker in this
soldering copper on the bottom of the splice, run
manner. A drop of solder should be placed on the tip of the iron the solder on the top, allowing it to run down
and pushed against the under side of the splice. This helps to
conduct the heat into the splice very rapidly. through the turns. Examine Fig. 24 again, and you
The proper place for the soldering copper is will note the drop or puddle of solder on the iron,
underneath the splice, as heat naturally goes up, and and the correct method of applying the solder to
this will heat the splice much quicker. See Fig. 24. the splice.
Many beginners have a great deal of difficulty Do not leave alarge bulge of solder on any splice,
heating a medium sized splice before the copper be- but melt it off so that just a good coating remains
comes cold, because they do not understand the on all turns.
principle of heat transfer from the copper to the •Pigtail splices can be quickly and easily soldered
splice. by dipping them in a small ladle of molten solder.
166 Wiring, Section One, Soldering

NEEDLE WITH
SRIFFINO•BOX.

DRIP CUP BURNER BODY

ANO NEEDLE

NIPPLE
DIP TUBE

BURNER COMPLETr_.

Fig. 25. This view shows the important parts of a blow torch on the
right, and at the left the method of using a blow torch in a
special stand for heating a lead melting pot.

Convenient small ladles or pots with long handles to loosen the valve just a little so it will not stick
are made for this use. See Fig. 34. when the metals become cold.
The left view in Fig. 25 shows a torch mounted
30. SOLDERING LARGE SPLICES in a bracket and stand for heating a lead pot.
When soldering cable splices, it is often difficult Fig. 26 shows a regular gasoline lead pot, used
to get the entire splice hot enough before the solder- for melting larger quantities of lead for large cable
ing copper gets cold. The copper of the splice, also work.
being a good conductor of heat, carries it away 32. CABLE LUGS
along the cable nearly as fast as the soldering cop- For attaching large cables to the terminals of
per can supply it. machines or switchboards, and also for connections
For soldering the larger cable splices, a blow which may need to be disconnected occasionally.
torch is used to heat them, or they are dipped in we use copper cable lugs as shown in Fig. 27.
hot solder, or have the molten solder poured over
them and the excess caught in a pan below the
spl ice.
If the insulation near the splice gets too hot, it
should be kept cool by wrapping a wet rag around
it while soldering.
In using ablow torch care should be taken not to
overheat or burn the copper strands, as it weakens
them greatly, and also makes a poorer job of
soldering.

31. BLOW TORCHES

Fig. 25 shows a common gasoline blow torch in
the center view, and its burner and valve in alarger
view at the right.
To start such a torch, asmall amount of gasoline
should be run into the drip cup and lighted with
a match. This flame heats the burner nozzle
directly above, and as soon as it is hot the valve
can be opened allowing a fine jet of gasoline to
spray into the nozzle, where it immediately
vaporizes and burns with a clean blue flame of
very high temperature.
If the flame is white and unsteady, the burner
is not yet heated enough. Fig. U. Gasoline lead melting pot for use in soldering large cables, and
cable sheaths.
These torches have a small air pump built in the
gasoline can, and the air pressure thus supplied These lugs are made in different shapes, and for
forces the liquid up to the burner in the form of single cables or anumber of cables as shown. They
a spray. have a hollow cup on one end for attaching to the
The valve is of the needle type and should not be cable, and the other end is flattened and has a hole
closed too tightly or it will damage the needle and through it, so it can be securely bolted to aterminal
valve seat. After extinguishing the torch it is well or another lug.
 Wiring, Section One, Cable Lugs and Connectors 167

33. ATTACHING AND SOLDERING LUGS but are not allowed for permanent connections in
TO CABLE some places.
To attach a lug to a cable, first strip just enough
of the insulation from the end of the cable to allow
the bare end to go fully down into the cup. Do not
remove too much insulation, as it should cover the
cable close to the end of the lug when it is attached. Type .1 1 o- '\iy C0111101.1'

Insulated Two-Way Connector Stud Connecter Style 1

,`

Fig. 79. Several other types of solderless connectors, showing a sectional

view of the upper one which illustrates the method in which it grips
the cable.

Solderless connectors can also be obtained in

several very good forms for smaller wires, and are
great time savers on jobs where they can be used.
Another method of splicing solid wires is by the
use of the tubes shown in Fig. 30. The wires are
Fig. 27. Several types of soldering lugs used for connecting cable ends
together or to the terminal of electrical equipment. slipped into these tubes and then the whole thing
twisted into a splice

e
Clean the bared end well, and also make sure the
lug cup is clean. Then flux and tin the cable tip and
inside of the cup, and melt enough solder in the cup
to half fill it. The lug can be held in the flame of a
torch until hot and then melt the solder in it. Be
careful not to burn your pliers when heating lugs,
as it destroys the temper of the steel if the pliers
are held in the edge of the flame. The lug can easily
Fig. 30. Twin metal tubes of the above type are often used for splicing
be held in the flame with a wire hook, and then large solid conductors.
taken in the pliers when heated and ready to melt
the solder in it. 35. LEAD COVERED CABLE SPLICING
When the cup is heated and half full of molten When splicing large lead sheath cables, the lead
solder, push the cable tip down in it, and hold it is split back from 10 to 36 inches according to the
there while the lug is cooled. A wet rag may be used cable size, and a large lead sleeve slipped over one
to cause the solder to harden quickly. Do not move of the cable ends for use in covering the splice when
the cable while the solder is hardening. it is finished. The one or more conductors in the
cable are then spliced and taped.
34. SOLDERLESS CONNECTORS If paper insulation is used on the conductors the
Solderless connectors such as shown in Figs. 28 moisture is boiled out of them by pouring hot
and 29 are sometimes used for connecting cables. molten paraffin over them. See Fig. 31.
These devices have a sort of sleeve or clamp that is When the splice in the conductors is finished the
squeezed by the threaded nuts causing them to grip lead sleeve is slid over it, and its ends are joined
the cable very securely. These are much quicker to the cable sheath by pouring hot lead over them
to use and very good for temporary connections, and "wiping" it on with a pad as it cools. This

Fig. 28. Several styles of solderless connectors usde for splicing cables.
These connectors grip the cable very securely when their nuts are
tightened with a wrench.
168 Wiring, Section One, Cable Splices

dielectric strength, and equal to the rubber which

was removed. The friction tape is then wrapped
over the rubber tape to provide mechanical protec-
tion similar to that of the braid which was removed.
In applying rubber tape, cut from 2 to 4 inches
from the roll and peel off the cloth or paper strip
which separates it in the roll. Then start the end
of this strip at one end of the splice, tight to, or
slightly overlapping, the rubber on the wires.
Stretch it slightly while winding it on spirally.
Press or pinch the end down tightly onto the last
turn to make it stick in place. See Fig. 33.
A short time after this tape is applied, it becomes
very tightly stuck together in almost a continuous
mass, so it cannot be unwound, but would need to
be cut or torn off. This is ideal for proper insulation.
The friction tape is "peeled" from the roll and
applied in a spiral winding of two or more layers.

Fig. 31. This view shows several of the important steps in splicing
lead covered cables.

is a very critical job and one that requires a lot of

practice to get the lead on smoothly and obtain a
tight junction, without melting the sheath. The
whole joint is then poured full of hot paraffin or
insulating compound, through a small drilled hole
in the sleeve. Then this hole is plugged tight to
exclude all air and moisture.
Fig. 32 shows some of the steps in making such
a splice.

36. TAPING OF SPLICES

All splices on wires with ordinary rubber and
braid insulation should be taped carefully to pro-
vide the same quality of insulation over the splice
as over the rest of the wires.
Two kinds of tape are used for this, one a soft
gum Rubber Tape, and the other known as Friction
Tape, which consists of cloth filled with sticky in-
Fig. 32. "A" shows method of "wiping" the joint between the sleeve
sulating compound. and sheath of a lead covered cable. "B", Pouring the finished splice
The rubber tape is applied to the splice first to full of hot insulating compound. "C", Finished splice with sleeve
in place. "D" and "E", Small inner sleeves of insulating material
provide air and moisture tight insulation of high are often used to separately insulate the several conductors.
 Wiring, Section One, Types of Wiring Systems 169

Each turn should lap well over the preceding one.

Sometimes where one has working room to allow
it, the friction tape can be started on the splice
without tearing it from the roll, and the roll then
passed around the wire, allowing the tape Leeded to
unwind as it is wrapped on the splice.
Friction tape can be torn off the roll, or it can be
split in narrower strips by simply tearing it.

Fig. 33. The upper view shows a "tap" splice covered with rubber tape.
The center and lower views show "tap" and "pigtail" splices com- Fig. 34. Pigtail splices can be quickly and conveniently soldered by
pletely taped with both rubber and friction tape. dipping in molten solder as shown.

TYPES OF WIRING SYSTEMS

While we have found that the conductors for warehouses, and old buildings, where appearance
light and power wiring have good insulation on is not important, and where it may often be desir-
them, we can also see that this insulation is not able to make changes in the wiring. One of its ad-
sufficient to protect the wires from the mechanical vantages is that it is always easy to inspect or
injury and damage they would receive if they were repair.
just run loosely and carelessly about the buildings. Concealed wiring is generally used in all new
For this reason and also for the sake of appear- buildings for homes, offices, stores, etc.; and also
ance, all wiring must be run on proper supports, for many modern factories. It is much to be pre-
and with proper additional protection to its insula- ferred where good appearance is important.
tion where necessary. It should be located where it Another way of classifying wiring systems is
cannot be bumped with moving objects, and out of based on whether or not the wires are run in metal.
the way as much as possible.
NON-METAL SYSTEMS
In addition to the several general classes of
wiring systems we have already mentioned, this 1. Knob and Tube Work, where the wires are
supported by porcelain knobs and tubes. This
work is also divided into several types of systems
according to the method of installation, and kind of system may be either open or concealed, and is a
materials used. very low cost system.

Two general divisions are: Open or Exposed 2. Cleat Work, where wires are supported by
Wiring, and Concealed Wiring. cleats and knobs. This system is also very low in
In open wiring systems the wires are run on the cost but cannot be concealed.
surfaces of the walls, ceilings, columns and parti- 3. Non-Metallic Sheathed Cable. This is one of
tions, where they are in view and readily accessible. the newer systems to be permitted by the Code, is
Concealed wiring systems have all wires run in- reasonable in cost, very convenient to install, and
side of walls and partitions, and within the ceilings can be run concealed or open.
and floors, where they are out of view and not 4. Wood Moulding, where wires are run in
easily reached. grooves in wood strips. This is a very old system
Open wiring is often used in mills, faenies, and is now considered obsolete.
170 Wiring, Section One, Types of Wiring Systems, Knob and Tube Wiring

METAL SYSTEMS
5. Rigid Conduit. Wires are run in iron pipes.
This system is somewhat higher in cost, but is con-
sidered the best of all systems, and can be either
open or concealed.
6. Flexible Conduit. \V ires are run in flexible
steel tubes. A very reliable system and very con-
venient to install in certain places. Can be either
concealed or open work.
Both of the above are considered as one system
by the National Code.
7. Electrical Metallic Tubing. Wires run in
steel tubes, lighter in weight than regular conduit,
and equipped with special threadless fittings. A
very good system, and very convenient to install,
but has certain code restrictions. Can be used for
open or concealed work.
8. Armored Cable (B. X.). Wires are encased
permanently in aflexible steel casing at the factory,
and bought this way. A very reliable system and
very convenient to install. May be run either open
or concealed.
9. Surface Metal Raceways. (Often called metal
moulding.) \Vires are run in thin flat or oval metal
tubes, or split casings. Low in cost, but can only
be used for open work.
10. Underfloor Raceways. Wires run in metal
casings or ducts under floors. Used in factories
and offices, but under certain Code restrictions.
This list of the various types of wiring systems
will also give you a good general idea of their ap-
plications and the materials used. We will now Fig. 35. The upper view shows a common type of split knob with the
nail and leather washers which are used with them. Below is •
cover each system in detail, with its materials, ad- porcelain tube of the type used in Knob and Tube wiring.

vantages, and methods of installation.

prevent plitting the knob caps when driving it
37. KNOB AND TUBE WIRING tight. Cdre should be used, however, as it is pos-
The Knob and Tube system is one of the oldest sible to split the knob cap if it is tightened too
and simplest forms of wiring, and while not as re- much.
liable as conduit, it is allowed by the National Code, Knobs should be placed along the wire not
and is still used to some extent in small towns and farther than 4Y-, feet apart, and in some cases should
rural homes. If carefully installed it will give very be more frequent to provide proper support.
good service and at very low cost of installation. Before tightening the knobs, the wires should
The principal materials required for a wiring be drawn up tight so they will not sag and touch
job of this type, are the Porcelain Knobs, Porcelain the wood, or present abad apearance.
Tubes, and flexible non-metallic tubing known as \Vires of opposite polarity supported on knobs,
"Loom". must be spaced three inches or more apart.
The knobs are used to support the wires along Knobs can be used to support either horizontal
surfaces or joists of the building. The tubes are to or vertical wires, as long as the wires are drawn
protect the wires where they run through holes in up tight.
joists or walls, and the loom to protect the wires Fig. 36 shows several styles and sizes of knobs,
through holes, or where they enter outlet boxes or and also some porcelain cleats, and both a solid and
run close together. a split porcelain tube.
38. KNOBS The one piece knobs with the grooves around
Fig. 35 shows an excellent view of a split knob them must have the wires tied to them with a short
of the type commonly used, and also a porcelain piece of wire of the same size and insulation as the
tube in the lower view. running wire.
You will note that the knob has grooves on each Knobs must hold the wires at least an inch away
side, with ridges in them to grip the insulation on from the surface wired over.
the wire. The wire can be run in either groove, but Sometimes knobs are fastened with screws in-
do not run two wires of opposite polarity on one stead of nails, and the ordinary split knob, such
knob. as shown in Fig. 35, would require 2" or 3"
The nail has a leather washer under its head to No. 10 flat head wood screws.
 Wiring, Section One, Knob and Tube Wiring 171

39. TUBES 40. LOOM

Wherever the wires are to run through holes in Fig. 37 shows a piece of the flexible "loom", and
joists or walls, the porcelain tubes must be used to Fig. 38 shows a larger view of a small piece, in
prevent damage to the insulation by rubbing or which you can see the inside construction of this
vibration. • woven insulation.
The standard tube is 3" in length and about
in diameter, and has a bulge or head on one end.
Where the tube must run at aslant, the head should
always be placed upwards to prevent the tube from
dropping out of the hole. An exception to this is
where wires enter an outlet box and the tube is Fig. 37. A piece of "loom" or flexible insulation used to protect wires
held in place by the wire being bent back toward in certain places in Knob and Tube wiring.

the nearest knob. The head should then be on the

end which will prevent the angle of the wire from Wherever wires enter an outlet box for a switch
pushing it out of the hole. or lamp, a piece of loom must cover the wires from
Either a Y8 " or 11/16" wood bit can be used for within the outlet box to the nearest knob outside
boring the holes for standard porcelain tubes, and the box. Fig. 39 shows a metal clamp used for
it is well to bore them with alittle slant so the tubes fastening the end of the loom into the box. This
will not tend to work out of the holes. clamp grips the loom with small teeth and wedges
Other tubes can be obtained, both longer and it tightly in the hole to prevent it from ever slipping
larger than the common 3" size. out.
'Where wires must be closer than 5 inches apart
or where they must be run inside a wall, ceiling, or
floor, for more than four and a half feet without
knobs, they must be completely covered with loom.
By protecting the wires in this manner they can be
fished through difficult places in old house wiring,
No .5't No 22
where knobs cannot be placed.
No4i

No 1

u: mn„ No 26
Fig. 38. Enlarged view showing the fabric and construction of a piece
of "loom".

Some electricians occasionally try to cheat the

ri 036
No 92 Code and the customer by placing short pieces of
loom only at each end of such a wire run, and not
clear through. But when caught by acareful inspec-
tor, or when it causes a fire, such work as this costs
the electrician far more than the extra loom for a
111.3 good job would have cost.
In some places even in new house wiring it may
iFo NAIL-KNOB be desired to run five or six wires or more between
the same two joists. This cannot be done with
knobs and still keep them all five inches apart. It
can be done, however, by covering the wires with
e igr
loom and running them all between two joists, or
by grouping them all on one joist under loom
straps.
No 922 No 1924 FE 0(0 5Iy4R
Where one wire crosses another, or crosses apipe
Round
Scioare of any kind, if it cannot be supported well away by
a knob, a porcelain tube or piece of loom five or six
inches long can be slid on the wire and taped in

mL•
11111111111111111111111111 gr.
) place at its ends, to hold it directly over the wire
or pipe to be crossed.
raimezi
„Standard Tube

Wherever wires are attached to switches or enter

outlet boxes, or where a tap is taken from a wire, a
„..5„tp!
dacd gmw
"51,1e R knob should be located close to this point to take
Spilt Standard Tube,
N. 506
all possible strain off from the splice or switch, or
Fig. 36. Several different types of solid and split knobs, cleats and tubes. edge of the outlet box. See Fig. 40-A, which shows
 Norman Eeder Wiring, Section One, Knob and Tube Wiring
172 4iGeorgia Ave.
E,-ooklyn7, N. Y.
how aknob can be used both to support the running
wire and to secure the tap wire and keep any strain
off the splice.
Fig. 40-B shows how an extra knob should be
placed near the point where a splice is made to a
running wire which is not supported by a nearby
knob.
Fig. 41 shows a section of aknob and tube wiring
system in which you can observe a number of the
parts and methods which we have mentioned for
this type of work.
Examine this photo closely and note the impor-
tant points shown.

The Clip Placing Clip in Box

Fig. 39. "Loom" can be fastened securely in the outlet box with clips
as shown above.

41. RUNNING THE WIRES

When wiring a new building with a knob and Fig. 41. This photo shows several of the most important features in a
Knob and Tube wiring system. Note particularly the manner in
tube system, it is quite easy to install the wiring which the "loom" extends from the outlet box, the use of the
between the joists in walls and ceilings before the porcelain tube where the wires cross, and position of tubes in the
joists when they are near to knobs as shown.
lath and plaster are put on.
The wires should be run for the mains and branch them, or by running the wires through the joists
circuits, and the outlet boxes for switches and lights in tubes.
should be installed. The boxes should be set so Where the wires are run through walls to switch
their edges will be about flush with the plaster sur- boxes or wall light outlets, they can usually be
face, or a little beneath it. They should not be "re- pushed up or dropped down between the vertical
cessed" or set in, more than Y4 inch at the most. joists and pulled out through the outlet opening.
These outlet boxes will be explained later. A "mouse" and string, as formerly described in
When running wires in old buildings, advantage the section on signal wiring, can be used to good
can usually be taken of unused attics or basement advantage to pull the wires through vertical walls.
ceilings, making it quite simple to run the wires Where they must be run horizontally through hol-
in these places. Where the wires are likely to be low floors or ceilings, asteel fish tape can be pushed
disturbed or injured, if run on protruding knobs, it through first, and used to pull in the wires. These
is well to protect them by running a board along fish tapes are long, thin, flat pieces of springy steel
and obtainable in different sizes and lengths. They
can be pushed and wiggled quite a distance through
spaces between joists, and even around corners and
obstructions to quite an extent. They are also used
for pulling wires in conduit, as will be explained
later.
Fig. 42 shows a piece of fish tape rolled in a coil
for convenient carrying.
An ordinary jointed steel fishing rod, or a long
thin stick with an eye in the end, can often be used
very well to push wires into difficult places, or to
push a string through and then use the string to
pull in the wires.
42. OUTLET BOXES
Where wires are attached to switches or fixtures,
proper outlet boxes should be used. Fig. 43 shows
a common type of outlet box for use with switches
Fig. 4O-A. Sketch showing a Knob used both to support the "runnine
wire and to keep the "tap" wire from putting any strain on the or convenience outlet receptacles. This box is made
splice.
Fig. 40-B. When no Knob is near on the "running" wire an extra one of thin steel and in sections, so it can be made wider
should be placed on the "tap" wire close to the splice in the manner
here shown.
to hold several switches or receptacles if desired.
 Wiring, Section One, Knob and Tube Wiring 173

larger ones for conduit, but the boxes are standard

size to fit all push button or lever switches.
Fig. 44 shows a double outlet box for two
switches or receptacles. The screws in the small
"lips" at the center of each end are for fastening the
switches or receptacles in the box.
Fig. 45 shows a type of ceiling outlet box, used
to attach wires to lighting fixtures, and also to
support the fixture in wiring of old houses. Boxes
of this type, but at least 1Y2 inches deep are com-
monly used for ceiling outlets in new buildings.

Fig. 42. A coil of steel fish tape, such as used for pulling wires into
difficult places in a building, or through conduit.

Fig, 44. Double outlet box for mounting two switches, two receptacles.
The small detachable "ears" on each outer end or a switch and receptacle.
are to fasten the box to the lath or wall, and they
are adjustable so the box can be set out farther by Fig. 46 shows some of the various types of outlet
merely loosening the screws in the "ear". These boxes and covers available. You will note that some
boxes have "knockout" pieces or round sections cut of these have both small and large knockouts, so
nearly through the metal, so they can be punched or they can be used either with loom for knob and
knocked out with a hammer. These openings are tube wiring, or with conduit.
for the loom and wires to enter the box for con- Fig. 47 shows an outlet box with bar hanger used
necting the switch.
to support it between joists, and you can also note
Such outlet boxes provide a rigid support for the the fixture stud in the center of the box for attach-
switches or receptacles, and aprotection around the ing a lighting fixture. This box also contains two
back of the devices where the wires are connected. new style loom clamps.
The center and lower views in Fig. 43 show a
clamping plate and screw inside the box with
special shaped notches for gripping the loom or
flexible conductor sheath where it enters. Note
that the notches in this plate come directly over
two knockout slugs.
Outlet or knockout boxes of this type can be ob-
tained with the small knockouts to fit loom, or with

Fig. 45. A metal bar or hanger is used to support outlet boxes between
the joists.

Fig. 48 shows how large solid knobs are often

mounted on racks to support various numbers of
power cables.

43. CLEAT WIRING

In cleat wiring systems the wires are run in pairs
and supported in grooves in the ends of porcelain
cleats such as shown in Fig. 49. This view shows a
two-wire cleat, but they are also made for three
wires.
These cleats are fastened to the walls or ceilings
with two screws through the holes shown. They
must support the wires at least from the surface
Fig. 43. Several views of a sectional outlet box of the type used for
mounting switches and receptacles. wired over, and keep them at least VA" apart.
174 Wiring, Section One, Cleat Wiring

12Ga
Per,er•I
•

Fig. 48. Large solid knobs on special

brackets of the type shown above are
often used to support runs of several
large wires or cables. Open wiring sys-
tems in factories and industrial plants
often make use of knobs or cable racks of
this type. They are very convenient to
install, and the knobs can be removed by
withdrawing the rod which runs through
them, thus making it easy to place the
wires on the inside of the knobs if desired,
or in other cases they are tied to the
outside of the groove with a tie wire.

Fig. 46. Several types of outlet boxes and covers. Note the arrange-
ment and size of the "knock-out" openings.

Cleats should not be placed farther apart than 4Y2 nais of the receptacles. Lamp bulbs can be screwed
feet along the wires, and in many places should be into the openings shown. The two in the center
closer. row are called "rosettes" and are used to suspend
Cleat wiring may be used as part of a knob and lamps on drop cords. The two below are other
tube or other system, but must always be run types of drop cord rosettes, and the one at the left
exposed. can be used either with cleat or moulding work.
Tubes or loom must also be used where the wires
pass through walls or partitions.

44. CLEAT FITTINGS

To attach fixtures to a cleat wiring system we
can use an outlet box that fastens to the ceiling or
wall with screws and is covered by the canopy of
the fixture. Loom must be used where the wires Fig. 49. Porcelain cleats of the type used for holding two or three wires
enter the box. in cleat wiring systems.

For installing plain lamps with reflectors only,

cleat receptacles or rosettes, such as shown in Fig. Surface type snap switches are commonly used in
49-B, are used. The two in the upper row are to be cleat work, and a porcelain Switch Back is used to
mounted on the same surface the cleats are on, and hold the switch base and wires Y2 inch away from
the wires should be attached directly to the termi- the mounting surface.
'Hie same general rules are followed in cleat
work, as were given in knob and tube work, for
protecting wires where they may cross pipes or
each other. We should also use cleats near splices
or connections to devices, as we do with knobs, to
remove any possible strain from the splices.

45. NON-METALLIC SHEATHED CABLE

This system of wiring consists of wires encased
in a covering of protective fabric. Fig. 50 is a
sketch of apiece of this cable of the two-wire type,
and shows the extra insulation on the wires as well
Fig. 47. This photo shows the inside of a common outlet box with fixture as the outer covering, which is somewhat similar
stud and ''loom" clamps in place, and also the bar used for mounting
to loom.
the box.
 Wiring, Section One, Non-Metallic Sheathed Cable 175

Any bends in such cable runs should be care-

fully made so as not to injure the covering and
insulation of the cable, and the bends should have
a radius of not less than five times the diameter
of the cable.
Regular outlet boxes of the type already ex-
plained arc used where switches and fixtures are to
be installed. All cable runs must be continuous and
without splices from one outlet box to the next.
Where the cable comes through the floor, or is
run along a partition within six inches of a floor,
it should be protected by running it through rigid
conduit or pipe.

Fig. 49-B. Several types of porcelain receptacles used for attaching

lamps or drop cords to a cleat wiring system.

This material is known by several different trade

names such as "Romex," and "Loomflex," and can
be obtained in either two-wire or three-wire cables. Fig. 51. This view shows a piece of three-wire and one of two-wire
non-metallic sheathed cable, and also the method of attaching this
Fig. 51 shows a piece of each kind, and the method cable to a surface with metal straps and screws.
of fastening them to the walls or partitions with
metal straps. 47. GROUND WIRES AND FITTINGS
This type of cable is very flexible and very easy One form of this sheathed cable has a bare cop-
to install and, as before mentioned, it can be run per wire run under the outer covering, parallel to
either exposed or concealed. In concealed wiring the insulated wires. This wire is used for ground-
it can be run between joists or through holes with- ing the various outlet boxes and fixtures, and it
out any additional protection, and simply fastened should be securely grounded at the service switch,
in place by the small metal straps, such as shown or entrance to the building.
in Fig. 51. This cable is very popular for wiring Fig. 52 shows several methods of attaching the
old buildings.

46. INSTALLING ROMEX

The holding straps must not be spaced farther
apart than three feet, and the cable should always
be run along some supporting surface such as a
joist, wall, or ceiling. When run across joists or
open spaces it should be supported by a board.
When it is being run concealed in new buildings
the straps can be placed 4V2 feet apart, and in old
buildings, where it is impractical to support the
cable with straps, it can be fished from one outlet
to another, similarly to wires covered with loom.

Fig. SO. This sketch shows the construction of a piece of non-metallic

sheathed cable or "RomeX". Note the heavy layers of extra insula-
tion on the wires, and also the strong outer braid covering.

Even though the original cost of this material

is 'somewhat higher than that of the same number
of feet of wire with knobs and tubes, the ease with
Fg. 52. The four views above show methods of attaching RomeX to
which it can be installed makes the finished system outlet boxes with special clamps for this purpose. Note the ends of
the wires, which are to be stripped back to allow the splicing or
very reasonable in cost. connection.
176 Wiring, Section One, Non-Metallic Sheathed Cable

cable to common outlet boxes. The two upper

views show the use of a "squeeze" clamp, which
is attached to the outlet box with a lock-nut, and
into which the cable is inserted and then gripped
by tightening the screw of this clamp. The two
lower views show another type of clamp similar
to those used for fastening loom.
The ground wires should be stripped back six
or eight inches through the outer covering of the
cable to allow the wires to be stripped for connec-
tions in the box, and then this ground wire is
attached to the cable clamp, as in Fig. 53, thus
effectively grounding the outlet box. The ground
wire must not in any case be left inside the box.

Fig. 53. This sketch shows the method of stripping back the extra
ground wire in non-metallic sheathed cable, and also the manner in
which it is attached to the outlet box clamp.

Fig. 54 shows a method of installing non-metallic Fig. 55. RorneX is a very convenient type of wiring to install in the
attics and walls of finished buildings.
cable in the joists of a new house, and Fig. 55
shows how it can be installed in the attic of either
a new or old building. In general, the installation of non-metallic cable
is very similar to that of armored cable, or B.X.,
which is covered in a later section.

48. WOOD MOULDING

As previously mentioned, this system of wiring
is not used much any more, but you may possibly
still find some installations of it, where an exten-
sion in the same type of wiring might be desired.
Even then, it would probably be better to install
metal moulding or raceway, unless the other sys-
tem liad to be matched exactly.
Fig. 56 shows a sketch of a piece of this mould-
ing, and the manner in which the wires are run
in the grooves, and the wood cap placed over them.

et.

Fig. 56. A piece of wood moulding of the type sometimes used in making
additions to old systems of this type.

When installing switches or fixtures with this

type of system, the moulding is either cut to allow
the mounting of a special porcelain block or fitting
to which the wires are attached, or in some cases
connection may be made direct to the switches,
which can be mounted flush with the surface of
the moulding. A special fitting is also required
Fig. 54. A section of an installation of RomeX, showing how it is run
through and along joists of a building.
where tap splices are made to running wires.
 Wiring, Section One, Rigid Conduit 177

We would not advise using this type of wiring wiring installed. Practically all modern apartment
in any case, except where absolutely necessary to buildings, offices, hotels, and department stores use
match some existing system. In many old systems conduit wiring exclusively, and industrial plants
of this type the wiring can be made a great deal and buildings of fire-proof construction use it very
safer and more dependable if it is entirely removed generally. Many towns require the use of conduit
and replaced with a more modern system. for the entrance of service wires to the buildings,
even though the building itself may use some other
RIGID CONDUIT WIRING form of wiring.
Conduit pipe is very much like ordinary gas or
While this system is a little more expensive to
water pipe in general appearance, except that it is
install, it is usually by far the safest and most
somewhat softer, so it can be more easily bent for
satisfactory type of wiring. In this system the
making turns and offsets in the runs.
wiring is enclosed throughout in rigid steel pipe,
Fig. 57 shows a piece of rigid conduit, and a
which can be run either exposed or concealed in
sectional view of the end, as well as the threads
wood building partitions, or even embedded in the
on the right hand end.
concrete or masonry of modern fire-proof buildings.
Concealed conduit must, of course, be installed
in either frame or masonry buildings while they
are being erected, although additional runs of ex-
posed conduit are sometimes added or installed in
finished buildings. Fig. 57. Piece of rigid conduit or pipe, in which wires are run in conduit
systems.

e. ADVANTAGES OF CONDUIT WIRING. Conduit is made in standard sizes from -inch to

With the conduit system grounded as required 6-inch inside diameter. These standard sizes are 72-
by Code rules, there is practically no chance of fire inch, el-inch, 1-inch, 174-inch, 172-inch, 2-inch, 272-
or personal injury, due to any defects in the wire inch, 3-inch, 4-inch, 472-inch, 5-inch, and 6-inch.
or insulation, because in such cases the wire be- These dimensions are approximately the actual in-
comes grounded to the pipe, and will immediately side diameter, usually being a little larger in each
blow the fuse and open the circuit as soon as the case. The 72-inch size is the one most commonly
fault occurs. In case of any momentary grounds used for ordinary house wiring, and 4-inch is used
or short circuits in such systems, the fact that the on some of the main runs.
wires are enclosed in metal pipe makes it almost The inside surface of conduit piping is smoothed
impossible to start any fires. by the manufacturers, so it will have no rough
Some of the general advantages of conduit wiring spots that might cut or damage the insulation on
are as follows: the wires. It is also enameled to prevent rusting.
1. The wiring is much more compact, and takes The outside surface is usually coated with water-
up less space than when strung out on knobs. proof enamel, or galvanized. One process for treat-
2. The grounded metal conduit shields the con- ing both inside and outside is called "Sherardizing",
ductors magnetically, and prevents them from set- and is a process whereby zinc is applied to the
ting up external magnetic and electro-static fields surface while hot, in such a manner that it actually
that would otherwise interfere with telephones or alloys with the pipe.
radio equipment.
50. CONDUIT FITTINGS AND METHODS
3. Conduit forms an absolutely rigid support for OF INSTALLING
the wires without placing any strain on them, and
Conduit is made in ten-foot lengths for conve-
also affords excellent protection from any mechan-
nient handling and installation. Where longer runs
ical damage or injury to the conductors.
are required between outlets, it is necessary to cou-
4. It provides a very convenient method of ple the ends of the pipe together by threading
grounding the circuit at any desired point. them with a die, and using a pipe coupling. Such
5. It is suitable for both low voltage and high joints should be thoroughly tightened to make
voltage wiring, depending upon the insulation of them as water-tight as possible and to provide a
the wires or cable used; while the other systems good electrical circuit, as the Code requires that
mentioned can be used only for voltages under the entire conduit system be continuous, for the
600, and several of them under 300. purpose of having a complete ground circuit.
In addition to the above advantages, rigid conduit Fig. 58 shows the method of using adie to thread
can be made absolutely water-proof, and is, there- the end of a piece of conduit, and the proper posi-
fore, suitable for wiring in damp locations. tion to hold the die stock handles.
In wiring new homes the slight extra cost is Fig. 59 shows a sketch of a pipe coupling at the
well worth while, because a conduit system will left as it would be used to attach two straight
certainly be the most dependable and permanently lengths of conduit together. The view at the right
satisfactory one obtainable. Many of the larger shows a coupling used with a nipple to attach runs
cities require that all nçw wines have conduit of conduit to an outlet box.
178 Wiring, Section One, Rigid Conduit

with a hack-saw, as shown in Fig. 62. Considerable

care should be tz.ken in measuring the length of
conduit runs, so that the piece will be cut the proper
length to fit the location of the outlet box, and avoid
mistakes that will waste time and conduit.
Where a conduit run must turn a corner or go
arouhd some obstruction, the smaller sizes can be
easily bent with a tool called a "hickey."
Fig. 63 shows the method of bending a piece of
-inch conduit with one of these hickeys. The
conduit can either be laid on the floor, as shown
in this view, or fastened in a pipe vise securely
mounted on a bench or truck. Special stands with
Fig. 58. Threading the ends of rigid conduit. Note the method of
pipe legs for attaching to floor are also obtainable
holding and operating the die. for conduit bending and cutting. Fig. 63-B shows
two types of hickeys or grips without the pipe
Standard outlet boxes of the type already shown
handles in them.
and described, with knockouts of the proper size,
are used with conduit systems.
The common method of attaching the conduit to
the outlet box is to thread the pipe end and screw
a lock-nut well back on the threads. Then insert
the threaded end in the box and screw on the end
Fig. IN. A bushing and lock nut of the type most commonly used in
bushing. By tightening the lock-nut on the out- attaching conduit to outlet boxes.
side, the conduit is then securely fastened to the
box. The box also becomes a part of the complete 52. SIZES AND TYPES OF BENDS, AND
grounded circuit, and for this reason the lock-nuts NUMBER ALLOWED
should be well tightened with a wrench, to insure In making conduit bends care should be used
good connections. not to bend them too sharply and cause the pipe to
Fig. 60 shows a conduit bushing on the left, and flatten, as this will reduce the inside opening, and
a lock-nut in the center view. make it difficult or impossible to draw the wires
The bushing not only helps to secure the pipe through it. The inside radius of any bend should
to the box, but also has a smooth rounded end to not be less than six times the rated diameter of the
protect the wires from damage against the edges conduit. This means that the bend would form part
of the conduit. of a circle with a radius six times the conduit
Never attach a small conduit to a hole that is diameter. (Radius is distance from center to out-
too large in the outlet box, without using proper side of a circle).
reducers or washers to get a secure connection. Thus, if we were bending -inch conduit, the
inner radius of any bend should not be less than
three inches, which would mean that the curve of
the pipe should conform to, or fit the outer edge
of a circle six inches in diameter.
Fig. 64 shows several of the more commbn bends
made in conduit, and the names by which they are
called. Not more than four right angle bends are
allowed in any single run of conduit between outlet
cig. 59. Threaded couplings are used to connect lengths of conduit boxes. This is because the greater the number of
together, and in some cases to connect them to outlet boxes with a
special nipple.

51. REAMING, CUTTING AND BENDING

OF CONDUIT
The ends of all lengths of conduit are reamed at
the factory to eliminate slue corners that might
otherwise damage the insulation on the wires.
When you cut shorter lengths they should be
reamed, as shown in Fig. 61. before coupling them
together, or attaching them to outlet boxes. This
removes any possible sharp edges on the inner cor-
ners, and protects the insulation of the wires from
damage when drawing them in.
When a piece of conduit shorter than ten feet is
Fig. 61. Reaming the end of a piece of conduit after cutting to remove
required, it can easily be cut to the desired length sharp edges, which might damage the insulation on the wire.
 Wiring, Section One, Rigid Conduit 179

bends the harder it is to pull the wires through thc L denotes an elbow or fitting used to make a right
pipe. angle turn. An L.R. fitting is one that is used to
make a turn to the right, while an L.L. fitting is
one used to make a turn to the left.
These directions are determined by holding the
condulets up with the opening toward you, and
the short L. on the lower end. Then, if this short
extension points to the right, it is an L.R., or if it
points to the left it is an L.L. fitting.
An L.B. is one with a pipe opening in the back.
An L.F., one with a pipe opening in the front.
There are also Tee fittings with a tap opening on
the back or either side desired, and cross fittings
with openings on both sides, as well as the ends.
The fittings here mentioned are the ones more
commonly used and, along with the special fittings
made, will fill almost every need that can arise.

Fig. 62. Cutting a piece of rigid conduit with a hack saw. It should
always be cut squarely as otherwise it is difficult to properly ream
and thread it.

53. CONDUIT FITTINGS

While the sizes from Winch to ;finch can be
quite easily bent, on the larger sizes it is quite
customary to buy manufactured elbows. However,
the larger conduits can be bent on the job with
power bending equipment, or by use of block and
tackle, and some secure anchorage for the pipe.
Sharp turns in conduit can be made by the use of
Fig. 63-B. These views show two types of grips or "hickeys" used with
fittings commonly known as condulets and unilets. a pipe handle for bending conduit.
These fittings are also made for attaching one
length of conduit to another, and for crossing 54. PULL BOXES AND JUNCTION BOXES.
conduits, and for practically every need that can En addition to these fittings, and the regular out-
arise in a conduit installation. let boxes used for mounting switches and fixtures,
there are also pull boxes, which are used at various
points in long runs of conduit to make it easier tt,
pull in the wires in shorter sections at a time.
Sometimes the run of conduit is so long, or han
so great a number of bends, that it is impossible to
pull the wires through the whole distance at once
without running the risk of breaking them or
damaging the insulation. In such cases the wires
can be pulled through as far as the first pull box
along the run, and then looped back, and pulled
through the following section.
In other cases boxes are used where there are
junctions in the wiring system and a number of
splices must be made. These are called "Junction"

Fig. 63. Smaller sizes of conduit can be easily bent into the required
curves and shapes with a bending "hickey", in the manner shown here.

Fig. 65 slrows a number of these fittings with

thèir proper letters, by which they are marked and
Fig. 64. This photo shows several of the more common bends frequently
specified when buying. Examine these fittings and made in conduit. Note the names given to each. The saddle bend
can, of course, be made much deeper in the form of a "U" when
note their various applications carefully. The letter required.
180 Wiring, Section One, Rigid Conduit

bolt, and when the expansion shell is inserted, and

the bolt screwed into it, it causes the shell to spread
and tightly grip the sides of the hole.
For fastening conduit or wiring materials to tile,
a toggle bolt such as shown in Fig. 68 is used.
These bolts have a hinge bar or cross-piece, which
can be folded against the side of the bolt so they
can be pushed into a small hole in the tile. Then,
by turning the bar crosswise, the ends of this bar
catch on the inner side of the hole, making a very
secure anchorage.

u
In buildings of concrete or masonry construction
the pipe is embedded in the cement, brick, or tile
and requires no supports, except to hold it in place
temporarily while the concrete is being poured, or
eale the masonry erected around it.

.I<

4111P
Fig. 65. This photo shows a number of the more common types of
conduit fittings and outlet boxes, also porcelain covers for the fit-
tings, conduit straps, fixture stud and lock nuts.

boxes. Several of the more common types of out-

let boxes are shown in Fig. 65. There are many
types of special boxes for almost every possible
requirement, but those shown and mentioned here
will fill the need in 95 per cent or more of the cases
in ordinary wiring jobs. Fig. 65-13 shows a number
of the covers used on these boxes. Some are blank
for merely closing the boxes, and others have open-
ings and screws for attaching switches or recep- Fig. 65-B. Various types of covers can be obtained for outlet boxes and
tacles, or for leading out wires to other terminals for mounting switches, lamp receptacles, etc.

or systems.
The Code requires that in all conduit installations
55. SUPPORTS FOR CONDUIT the pipe and fittings must be installed complete be-
fore any wiring is put in, and the wires should not
Conduit is supported and fastened with pipe
be run until all mechanical construction work
straps, which may have either two holes for nails
around the building is finished. This rule is made
or screws, or a single hole. Fig. 65 shows several
different types and sizes of straps. to avoid the possibility of the wires being damaged.
Ordinary rubber covered wire, with either single
When these straps must be attached to brick or
masonry it is necessary to first drill holes in the or double braid, can be used in conduit systems; but
masonry with a star drill, such as shown in Fig. 66. double braid must be used on wires larger than No.
These drills can be obtained in different sizes, and 8. In special locations where it is particularly dry
are used to make holes of any desired depth by and hot, wire with slowburning insulation can be
simply tapping them with a hammer and gradually used.
rotating them in the hole. Those of the larger size For use in conduit, wires No. 6 and larger must
can be used to make openings clear through a wall be stranded for better flexibility and ease in pulling
for the conduit to pass through. them in.
When holes are made for conduit fasteners a
special plug can be driven tightly into these holes
to receive wood screws or nails; or amore desirable SEBC0 5/
a

method is to use expansion bolts, similar to those

shown in Fig. 67. For expansion bolts the star Flg 66. This view shows the cutting nose of a star drill, such as used
for drilling holes in masonry for attaching or running conduit in
drill holes must be made the proper size to fit the buildings of masonry construction.
 Wiring, Section One, Rigid Conduit 181

56. PULLING WIRES INTO CONDUIT NUMBER OF CONDUCTORS IN CONDUIT

OR TUBING
To pull wires in to a conduit system we first push
a steel "fish tape" through the pipe. This can be One to Nine Conductors Rubber-Covered—
forced through the allowed number of bends quite Types R, RW, RH, and **RHT-600 V.
easily, as arule. The wires are then attached to the
end of the fish tape and pulled in the conduit. All Number of Conductors in One Conduit or Tubing
Conductor
the wires in any one run should be pulled in at one 1 2 3 4 5 Ô 7 8 9

time. It is very difficult and impractical to draw No. 18 35 35 35 35 35 59 39 % g

wires into pipe that already has several in it, be- 16 g g g g g % ,4 3i ,i
14 34 34 h 34. % % 5i
cause of the friction of the sticky insulation of the 12 34 34 34 % g 1 1 1 13.
1 1

moving wires rubbing against the stationary ones. 10 g g g g 1 1 1g 1g 1%

8 A % •1 1 i% 1% 1% 1% 1A
This same rule applies when repairing or replac- 13 Yi 1 '1.34 13i 1% 1% 2 2 2

ing wires in conduit. You may wish to replace only

5 g 13 1
g 13 134 2 2 2 2

4 ei 1Vi 'I !,4. 134 2 2 2 2 235

one or two wires, but it will often be better to re- 3 g mi i!.i ni 2 2 2 2% 2%
2 % 1X •1,t,¡
move the entire group, and then pull the new ones 1 % 1;,i 1Y¡
134
2
2
2
2
234
2%
2%
2%
3
2%
3
in with the old wires. 0 1 1% 2 2 2% 214 3 3 3
00 1 2 2 2% 234 3 3 3 3%
000 1 2 2 2% '3 3 3 3% 3%
0000 134. . 2 2% 2% 3 3 3% 3% 4

250000 1% 234 2% 3 3 334

300000 Ilt: 2% 3 3 3% 3%
350000 114 2% 3 3% 334 4
400000 134' 3 3 3% 4 4

450000 1% 3 3 334 4 4%
500000 1% 3 3 3% 4 4%
550000 114 3 3% 4 4% 5
600000 2 3 334 4 4% 5

650000 2 3% 3% 4
700000 2 334 3% 4%
Fig. 67. Several types of expansion bolts and shells used for fastening 750300 2 3% 334 414
conduit strips to holes and masonry. 800000 2 3% 4 4%

850000 2 334 4 4%
900000 2 3% 4 4%
950000 2 4 4 5
No splices are allowed in wires in the conduit, or 1000000 2 4 4 5
at any place except in the proper fittings or outlet 1250000 214 434 434 6
2% 4% 5 6
boxes. 1500000
1750000 3 5 5 6
2000000 3 5 8
If we were to attempt to pull wires with splices
into a run of conduit, the taping might be pulled
Fig. 69. This table givts the proper number of wires of different sises
off at some bend or corner, leaving the bare splice which can be allowed in various conduits. It is very convenient to
use in selecting the proper size of conduit for certain number of
to cause a ground or short circuit. wires of any desired size.
As each section of the wiring is pulled into the
runs of conduit, the ends can be cut off at the out- started and don't come through easily, it is well to
let box, always allowing enough to make the neces- withdraw them and blow some powdered soap
sary splices and connections. It is much better to stone, or even powdered soap, into the conduit.
This lubricates the wires, and eliminates a great
deal of the friction, without doing any damage to
their insulation. This is particularly useful when
pulling in large cables.
Never use oil or grease of any kind on the wires,
as it is very injurious to the insulation.
While pulling on the wires from one end, it is a
very good idea to have someone feed them care-
fully in to the point where they are drawn in. Keep-
Fig. U. Toggle bolts of the type used to attach conduit to tile walls or ing the wires straight and free from kinks and
ceilings.
twists will help considerably to make them pull in
with the least possible friction.
allow a couple of inches extra and cut these off
Sometimes in vertical runs of conduit, instead of
when installing the switches and fixtures, than to
using a steel fish tape, a "mouse" consisting of a
have the wires too short, and have to replace them
or draw them up in a manner that places a strain small steel ball or piece of steel chain, is dropped
through the pipe with a string attached, and this
on them.
cord can then be used to pull in the wires; or a
Sometimes considerable difficulty is experienced
large rope which in turn can be attached to the
in pulling wires into long runs with a number of
wires.
bends, but a great deal of this can be eliminated by
the proper care. If a large number of wires are to Wires in long vertical runs of conduit in high
be pulled into any conduit, or if they have been buildings should be supported at various intervals,
182 Wiring, Section One, Rigid Conduit

either by driving wood wedges into the pipes at Examine this table carefully and become familiar
outlet boxes, or by looping the wires around strain with its use because it will prove very convenient.
insulators in special boxes. This is done to remove For wire groups and combinations not shown in
from the wires near the top the strain of the weight the table, it is recommended that the sum of the
of a long vertical run. cross sectional areas of the wires to be run in any
conduit should not be more than 40 per cent of the
57. NUMBER OF CIRCUITS AND WIRES
area of the opening or bore in the conduit.
ALLOWED IN ONE CONDUIT
Under such conditions, however, it is usually yell
Wires of different voltages, such as bell wires to consult the Inspection Department before going
and wires for light or power, must never be run in ahead with the work.
the dame conduits.
When running wires for alternating current sys- Dimensions of Rubber-Covered Wire.
tems, the two wires of asingle phase, or three wires
of the three phase system, must all be run in the Wire Area ! Wire Area Wire Area

same conduit; otherwise, they will set up magneti- 14 .031 I 225,000 C.M. .55 1,000,00 E.M. 1.74
cally induced currents in the iron pipe, which will 12
10
.038
.045
1 250,000 C.M. .58 1,100,000 C.M. 2.04
300,000 C.M. .67 1,200,000 C.M. 2.16
cause it to overheat. 8 .071 350,000 C.M. .75 1,250,000 C.M. 2.22
6 .13 400,000 C.M. .83 1,300,000 C.M. 2.27
Running all the wires of the same circuit through .15 450,000 C.M. .91 1,400,000 C.M. 2.40
4 .16 500,000 C.M. .99 1,500,000 C.M. 2.52
the one pipe causes their magnetic flux to be neu- 3 .19 550,000 C.M. 1.08 1,600,000 C.M. 2.63
2 .21 600,000 C.M. 1.16 1,700,000 C.M. 2.78
tralized, because the currents flow in different 1 .27 650,000 C.M. 1.23 1,750,000 C.M. 2.85
directions through the different wires. o .31 700,000 C.M. 1.30 1,800,000 C.M. 2.89
00 .35 750,000 C.M. 1.38 1,900,000 C.M. 3.05
Fig. 69 shows a table which gives the proper 000
0000
.41
.48
800,000 C.M.
850,000 C.M.
1.45
1.52
2,000,000 C.M. 3.14

number of wires that can be allowed in conduit of 900,000 C.M. 1.60

950,000 C.M. 1.68
any given size; or, in other words, this table can
be used to determine the sizes of conduit required Fig. 71. Table of areas of various wires and cables in square inches.
These figures are very convenient when calculating the area of a
for any number of wires of a certain size. number of conductors to go in conduit. Areas given include insula-
For example, from 1 to 4 No. 14 wires will tion.

require 72-inch conduit, while 5 to 7 can be run in

The table in Fig. 70 gives the diameter and area
34-inch conduit, and from 7 to 9 in 1-inch conduit.
To run 5 number 10 wires requires 1-inch conduit, in fractions of an inch for the different sized wires
with insulation, while table 71 gives the area in
or to run 3 number 6 wires requires 1g-inch con-
fractions of a sq. inch of the more common sized
duit.
wires. These tables will make it easy to determine
These figures are for double braid insulation.
the total area of a number of wires of any size
that you might desire to run in conduit. Then it
DIMENSIONS OF RUBBER-COVERED will be easy to tell whether this is more than 40
CONDUCTORS per cent of the size of the conduit, by referring to
Types R, RW, RP, and RH table 72, which gives the area in sq. inches of the
different standard sizes of conduit.
Approx. Approx. Approx. APProx.
lillso Dlam. Area 81xe Db,m. Area
AWCI-C1.1 Inches 80. ins. Ca.1 Inches 241. 19a. DIMENSIONS OF CONDUIT
18 .14 .0154 450.000 1.08 .91
16 .15 .018 500.000 1.12 .99
14 .20 .031 550.000 1.17 1.08 '
12 .22 .038 600,000 1.22 1.16 40% of 40% of
10 .24 .045 Conduit Area Area Conduit Area Area
8 .30 .021 650.000 1 28 1.23
6 .41 .13
700.000
750,000
1.29
1.33
1.30
1.38
.806 .122 a 7.84 2.93
.616 .206 31
/
2
9.94 8.97
" 4 .45 .16 800.000 1.36 1.45
2 .52 .21 .848 .339 4 12.7 5.08
1 .59 • .27 850.000 1.39 1.52 1.49 .696 4% 16.9 8.86
900.000 1.43 1.60 2.03 .812 6 19.9 7.96
0 .63 .31 950.000 1.46 1.68 1.328
00 .67 .35 1.000.000 1.49 1.75 3.82 6 28.8 11.62
000 .72 41 2% 4.75 1.9
0000 .78 .48 1.250.000 1 68 2.22
1,500.000 1.79 2 52
250.000 .86 .58 1,750.000 1.90 2 85
300.000 .92 .67 2.000.000 2.00 3.14 Fig. 72. This table gives both the total area of the inside opening In
350.000 .98 .75 conduit, and 40% of the area of the different sizes, which is the
400,000 1.03 .83 amount that can be occupied by the conductors.

No. 18 to No. 8, solid conductor, No. 6 and larger, stranded.

This latter table also shows in two of the col-
Fig. 71. This table gives the diameter of various sized wires in inches umns, 40 per cent of the area of each size conduit.
and fractions. These diameters are given both for bare and insulated
wires. which makes it a very handy table. As an example
of its use, if we were required to run six number 6
This table is very easy to read and use, by sim- wires and four number 2 wires all rubber covered.
ply noting the sizes of the wire in the left-hand we would multiply the area of a number 6 wire.
column and the number of wires desired in the row which is .13, by 6; or .13 X 6 = .78. Then also mul-
across the top, and then reading down under this tiply the area of anumber 2wire which is .21, by 4;
number to the line for that size of wire, where the or .21 X 4 = .84. Then .78 plus .84 equals 1.62
proper size of conduit will be found. square inches, total area for all the wires.
 Wiring, Section One, Rigid Conduit 183

Now in the column headed "40 per cent of the eight feet deep to make sure that it is always in
area" it will be found that a 2V2-inch conduit will contact with moist earth, or a large plate of metal
be required, as it is the next larger, and 40 per cent can be buried several feet in the earth, and covered
of its area will be 1.90 square inches. with charcoal and salt as well as earth.
Ordinarily the Code doesn't permit more than All conduit systems are required to be grounded,
nine wires of any size in one conduit. Sometimes it whether any part of the wiring within them is
is not advisable to allow even this many, not only grounded or not. These ground connections from
because of the difficulty in pulling them in but also the conduit to the waterpipe or ground rod should
because if one wire breaks down or develops ashort be as short as possible, and always accessible for
or ground, the arc is likely to damage the insulation inspection, as they must be maintained in good,
of all the others and cause trouble in other circuits unbroken condition at all times.
as well. Where the wiring system is not polarized and
Where lead covered conductors are to be run in none of its wires are required to be grounded, the
conduit, the table in Fig. 73 will be very con- conduit can be grounded by use of copper ground
venient for determining the proper size of conduit strips, as shown in Fig. 74, or by extending a piece
for any number of lead covered wires of a given of conduit from the regular conduit system to the
size. waterpipe and attaching it securely at both ends
with special clamps.
SIZE OF CONDUIT FOR THE INSTALLATION OF WIRES AND
CABLES
Lead Covered Wires (0-500 Volts)

Size of Conduit to Contain Not More than Four Cables

Single Conductor 2-Conductor 3-Conductor

Cable Cable Cable
Size of

1. 1
Conductor
2 4 11121314
1 12 13 14 1 1

Cables In One I Cables In One Cables In One

Conduit Conduit Conduit

Fig. 74. Copper grounding strip of the type shown above is often used to
ground conduit systems to the waterpipes or earth grounds.
14 14 14 1 154 13,6
12 15 14 1 134 134
10 14 14 I34
154
1% 2
Where wires are used for grounding, the wire
114 134 154 2 2 2 should not be smaller than a No. 8, and should be
Si 114 1:4 136 2 214 2%
IS¡ 134 Iso 1h' 2 2% 214 3 3 attached to the waterpipe with a special grounding
2 13.¡ 2 234 3 3 3
334 clamp, two styles of which are shown in Fig. 75.
2 114 1% 2 2 2% 3 3
114 2 2 iy¡ 234 3 334 2 3% 4 Fig. 76 shows three styles of grounding clamps,
O a 2 2% 2 256 3 3% 2 4 4%
oo 2 235 2 314 4 234 4 434 the upper one of which is equipped with a cable
000
0000
2
214
2% 2%
3
2
254
3
3
3%
3%
4
411
214
3
4%
5
4%
lug, into which the heavy ground wire or cable
254
250,000 234 3 ..• 3 6 6 should be securely soldered. The lower view shows
300.000 3 3 334 •. 3% 6
350,000 3 3 3% •.• 354
two clamps that are used to attach both the ground
400,000 3 3 334 .•. 3% 6 wire and a piece of conduit to the waterpipe.
450,000 3 3 ••• 4 6
500,000 3 314 4 •• • 4 6
600.000 314 4 434
-•
700.000 4 5
750.000 4 4 6
800.000 4 414 5
900.000 4 434
1,000,000
1,250.000 3
4% 4%
5 6
•.-
1,500,000 3 5 6 O
1,750,000 3 O 6 ••
•
2.000.000 314 6
The above sizes apply to straight runs or with nominal offsets
equivalent o not more than two quarter-bends.
It is recommended that bends have a minimum radius of curv-
ature at the inner edge of the bend of not less than 10 times the
internal diameter of the conduit.

FIg. 73. This table gives the number of lead covered wires of different
sizes that can be contained in various sized conduits.

58. GROUNDING CONDUIT SYSTEMS

When the entire conduit system is installed com- Fig. 75. Two types of grounding clamps used to securely attach ground
wires to waterpipes.
plete from the service switch and meter throughout
the entire building, it must be thoroughly grounded These are used for polarized wiring systems, which
as near to the source of current supply as possible. will be explained later, and in which it is required
This ground connection should be made at a water- to ground the neutral wire of the system with a
pipe whenever available. If no piping systems are ground wire, which is run through a short piece of
in the building which can be depended upon for a conduit that is also connected to the waterpipe.
good ground connection, then a good ground rod This conduit not only acts as a ground for the con-
or piece of pipe can be driven into the ground duit system, but also as protection for the ground
184 Wiring, Section One, Conduit and Metallic Tubing

lets on both the above floors, as well as a light in

the attic.
59. ELECTRICAL METALLIC TUBING
This is a lightweight pipe, much like rigid con-
duit, which has recently been approved by the Fire
Underwriters. It is made with very thin walls, so
thin in fact that we are not permitted to thread it.
This means that threadless fittings are used, which
Q .,_IIIMIiii
saves considerable labor.
Fig. 78 shows one of the fittings in a sectional
view which shows the manner in which the tapered
split sleeves are drawn in by the threads to grip
the pipe.

Fig. 76. Several approved type ground clamps used to attach both the
conduit and ground wire to waterpipes.

wire of the electrical system. Always scrape all

paint or rust from any pipe before attaching the
ground clamp.
This thorough grounding, as previously men-
tioned, is an essential requirement for maximum
safety from fire and shock hazard in a wiring sys-
tem, and should be done with the greatest of care
by the electrician when installing such systems.
Fig. 77 shows what is called an isometric view or Fig. 78. Sectional view of a fitting for threadless conduit, showing the
special gripping sleeves inside its ends.
phantom view of a house in which a conduit sys-
tem has been installed. This view shows the service Fig. 79 shows how easily the fittings can be
and meter box in the basement, and the various placed on or removed from the pipe, by slipping
runs of conduit to baseboard, convenience outlets the lock-nuts on the pipe and the grip-nuts inside
and wall switches, wall and ceiling light fixture out- the fitting. This tubing is lighter and easier to han-

001111[1M. tiamr
elparnerl. ccamin Lux,
SWitCitÉb

MCONVIEN.FINet TLIk

Fig. 77. Isometric or phantom view of a house in which conduit is

installed. Note the arrangement of conduit in walls and ceilings,
and the locations of verioue outlets.
 Wiring, Section One, Metallic Tubing and Flexible Conduit 185

60. FLEXIBLE CONDUIT

Flexible conduit is used very much the sanie as
rigid conduit, except that its flexibility permits it
to be fished into walls and partitions in old build-
ings, where rigid conduit cannot be conveniently
installed.
As mentioned before, flexible conduit consists of
tubing made of spirally wound steel strips, the
Fig. 79. This view shows the convenient manner in which threadless turns of which are securely locked together to form
fittings can be installed with conduit.
a continuous metal casing in which the wires are
die than regular conduit and is lower in price. It run. Figs. 82 and 83 show pieces of flexible conduit
can be bent with less effort, and the cost of installa- of different types, which will give you a general
tion, due to the saving of time, is also less. Special idea of its construction.
couplings and fittings of all types are supplied for
this tubing, similar to conduit fittings but with the
grips for threadless pipe. Fig. 80 shows a coupling
used for threadless tubing.
Split bushings are also made for use of standard
conduit fittings with metallic tubing.

Fig. 88. Special coupling used for connecting together lengths of thread-
less conduit or electric metallic tubing.

In most cases, the same rules apply to this metal-

lic tubing as to the standard conduit, except that
Fig. 82 & Fig. 83. Pieces of several types of flexible conduit, showing
it cannot be threaded. This tubing and its spe- how it is constructed of narrow steel strips wound spirally.
cial fittings must be so finished that it will never
be mistaken for rigid conduit. It may be finished Like rigid conduit, flexible conduit must be run
in either enamel or zinc and in standard sizes is continuously from one outlet to the next, and the
approved in sizes from Y2" or 2". Its use is re- entire system grounded.
stricted to voltages of 600 volts or less, to No. 0 Fig. 84 shows several types of couplings used in
wire or smaller, and no circuit therein shall be connecting lengths of flexible conduit together, and
fused for over 30 amperes. It can be used either also to attach it to outlet boxes. The upper left
concealed or exposed in dry places where it can- view shows an ordinary straight coupling and the
not be subjeCted to mechanical injury or corrosive grooves which enable it to grip the turns of the
vapors. conduit when it is bolted on. The lower left view
Even with all these restrictions, its advantages, shows a fitting for making sharp turns with flexible
as noted above, make it a desirable system when conduit, where it attaches to an outlet box. The
put to its intended use. Fig. 81 shows a section of upper right hand view shows a coupling that can
an installation of threadless tubing. be used for attaching flexible to rigid conduit, or
for attaching flexible conduit to an outlet box, with
an added nipple. The lower right view shows a
very common connector used for attaching either
flexible conduit or armored cable to outlet boxes.
Flexible conduit is not as waterproof as rigid
conduit is, and should not be used in very damp
places, unless rubber covered wires with lead
sheaths are used, and it should not be imbeddee
in concrete.
Its particular advantages are ease of install,
tion, getting through difficult places with a number
of bends, and for running flexible leads from rigid
conduit to motors or other electrical machines.
Fig. 85 shows .a photograph of amotor connected
up with flexible conduit. This is one of its very
definite advantages as it allows a motor to be
Fig. 81. Section of an installation of electric metallic tubing with thread-
less fittings. moved slightly to tighten belts, etc.
186 Wiring, Section One, Armored Cable

The same type of outlet boxes, conduit straps,

and many of the same general rules for rigid con-
duit are also used for flexible conduit.
The more important points of conduit wiring sys-
tems have been carefully covered in this section,
and it will be well for you to get a good general
understanding of this system, as it is one of the
most important of all and is in very extensive use.

Fig. 85. Flexible conduit is very convenient for motor connections, as it

allows some movement of the motor for belt tightening, etc.

work. It makes a good job on all new work, and is

absolutely the best system for old house wiring.
It is very convenient and economical to install be-
cause its flexibility makes it easy to run in difficult
places and because, when BX is installed, the wires
are in also and do not have to be pulled in later.
The same outlet and switch boxes are used for
Fig. U. Several types of couplings used for connecting flexible conduit
together or to outlet boxes. BX as for conduit, and are installed with BX fit-
tings made for the purpose and clamped securely
61. ARMORED CABLE to the BX armor, and then fastened to the boxes
On the outside, armored cable looks much like with a lock-nut. Fittings are also made so that BX
flexible conduit. But there is this difference; while can be used in conjunction with the other systems
the latter has the wire pulled in after it has been of wiring. Several of these fittings are shown in
installed, armored cable has the wires already in Fig. 87.
when purchased. It is made in two types and is
frequently known as BX or BXL. The former con-
sists of one, two, three or four conductors with rub-
ber insulation and heavy waxed braid, and then an
addition of an armor of steel ribbon.
Fig. 86 shows a piece of 3-wire BX and one with
two wires. Note the color markings of the wires Fig. 84. Pieces of two different types of two-wire and three-wire
armored cable. This material is supplied with the wires already in
and the extra twin braid over each group. the armor.
BXL is made in a similar way but has the addi-
tion of a lead sheath just under the steel armor.
This makes it waterproof and permits it to be used
where there is moisture, or where it is exposed to
the weather. BX may be obtained with wires from
No. 4 to No. 14.
Fig. 87. Several types of fittings used for attaching armored cable to
62. ADVANTAGES OF ARMORED CABLE outlet boxes or rigid conduit
WIRING
Armored cable wiring is a very convenient sys- Where possible BX should be fastened to the sur-
tem for use in old wood construction buildings. face wired over with the proper size pipe straps.
While rigid conduit is usually used for concrete BX must be continuous from outlet to outlet. A
work, and sometimes used for other types of build- violation of this would mean that you would have
ings, it is occasionally found too expensive for cer- splices outside the outlet boxes, which is against
tain jobs. The use of armored cable or BX gives us the rule for metal systems, and then besides, you
a first class job at low cost, can be installed almost would increase the chance of not having a perfect
as cheaply, and is much better than Knob and Tube ground throughout the system. The braids over
 Wiring, Section One, Armored Cable 187

the insulation of the different wires have different to hold the hack saw, and it will become very easy
colors so the wireman can trace the "hot" or to make a neat cut. See Fig. 88-B.
grounded wires, as will be explained later. When the armor strip is cut through, bend the
BX can be bought in rolls of 250 ft. or less, and BX to open the cut and the armor will separate,
then cut into the desired lengths with a hack saw. and then the wires can be cut through squarely and
Fig. 88 shows acoil of BX as it would be bought. easily with the hack saw.
To attach BX to an outlet box make the.cut as
described about 6 inches from the end, but only
through the metal. Then bend the BX at the cut
and separate the armor, and the short length can
be easily pulled off from the ends of the wires. This
leaves them ready to split the outer braid and strip
the insulation for splicing. Fig 89 shows a piece
prepared in this manner. A special fibre bushing
should be used to protect wire insulation from the
sharp end of the armor.

Fig. 88. A coil of armored cable or "BX" showing its convenient flexi-
bility, which is one of the decided advantages of this material for Fig. 89. This sketch shows how the ends of conductors in armored cable
wiring systems. can be stripped for connections and splicing.

63. CUTTING AND STRIPPING BX 64. USE OF BXL

To cut BX, simply hold it firmly in a vise or BXL or lead sheath BX is a very good system to
against your knee or apiece of wood, and cut across use in underground work, running from one build-
one turn of the spiral steel wrapping, being sure to ing to another, such as from a residence to agarage
cut clear through one turn or strip of this steel, in the back end of the house-lot. A ditch of the
but do not cut into the insulation of the wire under- proper depth, say 2 ft., can be dug. As the cable
neath. is flexible, this ditch does not necessarily have to be
To cut clear through the one turn it is necessary absolutely straight, but may be around any ob-
to cut partly thru aneighboring turn. Practice this stacle that might be in the way. \Vhere galvanized
cutting and you will soon find just the proper angle rigid conduit is used more care has to be taken,
and the joints where the lengths of conduit are
coupled together must be leaded to keep out mois-
ture. Great care should be taken in handling BXL,
so as not to crack the lead. This precaution, of
course, should be taken with all lead covered cables,
but it is very necessary with BXL, as damage to
the lead cannot be detected by inspection, and will
only show up possibly weeks afterwards when
moisture has time to leak through and cause a
short.
65. METAL RACEWAYS OR MOLDING
Metal Raceways or metal molding is one of the
exposed wiring systems that is quite extensively
used. Although it does not afford such rugged and
safe protection for the wires as conduit and armored
cable do, it is a very economical and quite depend-
able system, and is very convenient to install in
finished buildings where new wiring or extensions
to the old are to be installed. One of the advan-
tages of metal molding is its neat appearance
where wiring must be run on the surface of walls
or ceilings in offices, stores, etc.
Fig. 84-B. The top view shows the proper method of cutting BX armor It must never be run concealed or in damp places.
with a hack saw. The center view shows how it can then be broken
apart without damaging the conductors or insulation inside. A Two of the leading manufacturers of metal race-
short section of the armor can then be pulled off the end of the
cable as shown in the lower view. way materials call their products respectively, wire
 Norman Beder
41 Georgia Ave.
188 Brooklyn 7, N. Y Wiring, Section One, Metal Raceways

tion box and for splices, or for an outlet box when

a cover is used with an opening as shown.
Fig. 95 shows several sizes of boxes to be used
- . NATIONAL
with metal raceways, for mounting switches and
•

leincreom nter'''
e
3elti en:13-2500 waTts
METAL MOLDI NG
receptacles. Note the wall plates which are to be
attached to the surface wired over, and llave slots
in their edges for the molding to be slipped under
—1110011
‘..—
NATIONAL
METAL MOLDING 16 "
11 O WIREMOLO Conourr
o

No. 700
Re. 570i WIRE/40LO CONDUIT
MASS COUPLING Fogg Ware Sue

Fig. 98. Two pieces of metal molding of a very neat appearing type
for exposed wiring systems.
13"
ib
mold and metal molding, and they are quite com- If e 570/
No. 704
ONE OR TWO
SUPPORT/1G CUP HOLE STRAP
monly known by these names.
Fig. 90 shows two pieces of one style of molding >. "e".. ate

called "Ovalduct", and in which the wires are a" --);

drawn after it is installed, similarly to conduit.
o

«AVM.
Na. 5707 No.11
Fig. 91 shows another style that comes in two MULTIPLY STRAP 90° I'll:LI:10W

strips. The back strip is installed and then the wires 6" —9;

are laid in it and the cap snapped in place over them.

lgRalgen, :e A

NATIONAL e"1""ejieeellê
»MRS tiiaoastoal
ree rratotte,„ ¡METAL MOLDING 1.fflileifieSM8

Irr era( T r

•
441.1
(Afturote,-. Na. NTIS
CORNER sos

Fig. 92. A number of various ty: es of fittings are provided for use with
meat molding in making turns in the corners of walls and ceilings.
Fie 91. Another type of metal molding with a removable cap or cover
strip, which can be placed on after the wires are insulated.

Various types of fittings for couplings, corner

turns, elbows, outlets, etc., are provided to fit these

11=
moldings. Fig. 92 shows a number of these fit-
tings, and Fig. 93 shows a closer view of a common
elbow fitting.
Fig. 93. A common form of elbow used with metal raceways or moldings.
. Many of the rules for BX systems apply also to
metal raceways, such as: it must be continuous
from outlet to outlet, must be grounded, and all
wires of an A.C. circuit must be in one raceway,
etc.
You will note from the Figures 90 and 91 that
metal raceways are made in two sizes for either
two or four wires. Another size is available now for
10 wires, but is to be used only in certain places as
allowed by the Code or local authorities. Wires
sizes No. 14 to No. 8 can be used with these mold-
ings, and the wire must be rubber and braid cov-
ered, and installed with no splices except at proper Fig. 94. This view illustrates the use of a junction box in which splices
boxes or fittings. can be made, and various runs of metal raceway attached together.
We can also attach lights or receptacles to the smaller opening in
Fig. 94 shows a fitting that can be used as a junc- the cover of this box.
 Wiring, Section One, Metal Raceways 189

-
j.
if*--' . 4
TO CONNEOT
00501.117 WITH '
WIREMOLO
,OPEN
CORD ROSETTE
WORK ..

• •
••

USE 2-2 OR 4 HOLE 00N- USE OONOULET CORO

OULET COVER AS
ROSETTE COVER WITH
REQUIRED
NO. 0729

COEIrlalelq10Z
FIXTURE ROSETTE LAMP RECEPTACLE

-*" -2
."..4C- ,'
s. r e

USE CONOULET FIXTURE USE OONDULET LAMP

ROSETTE COVER WITH R Ea E PTADLE COVER
NO. 0729 WITH No. 0729

PLUG RECEPTACLE PASSING TH D

RU
BASEBOAR

.PP
--.
PLUM SIIIITCE No
LED 1121:2FraD3 BOX - _

. -
• ••••• ..
Fig. 95. Several styles and sizes of outlet box for use with metal mold- .. . ,
'J;
."
ing and in which switches or receptacles can be installed.
-..:--.--
._..-

USE CONDULET PLUG WITH PIPE OR BX

RECEPTACLE COVER
FOR PLUG RECEPTACLE
WITH NO. 1572e
OUTLET

iir
Fig. 97. Above are shown a number of fittings used with metal molding
and an explanation of the use of each.

Back plate and Box mounted. Toggle Switch n Installati n Com-

Molding Installed
on Surface. stalled in Box pleted with Flush
Device Plate No.
491.

Fig. M. These views show the various steps in installing a switch in

the outlet box of a metal raceway system.

to anchor it to them. Fig. 96 shows how these

boxes are installed and the switches mounted in
them.
Fig. 97 shows a number of other fittings for vari-
ous uses as their descriptions indicate. Fg. 98. This view shows a bending tool, and the method in which
methl molding can be bent into different shapes for turns and corners.
Metal molding can also be bent to fit or go
around various corners or obstructions. For this
purpose a bending tool, such as shown in Fig. 98,
is used. This device has a rounded fitting on its
handle, to make the molding bend in a neat curve
of the proper size and without flattening. Mold-
ing is easy to bend because of its thin walls.

66. NEAT APPEARANCE

Fig. 99 shows the neat appearance of a run of
metal molding to two ceiling light fixtures. This
view shows that it is one of the best appearing of Fig. 99. Section of a metal raceway wiring system with two light
fixtures attached. Note the neat appearance of this type of wiring
all exposed systems of wiring. for exposed work.
190 Wiring, Section One, Metal Raceways

The Method of attaching a fixture canopy to the Note the porcelain connector block used to attach
ceiling plate and fixture stud, is shown in Fig. 100, the fixture wires to the running wires by terminal
and Fig. 101 shows how connections are made to screws instead of splices.
the running wires, for drop cords and light fixtures. Fig. 102 shows the installation of a convenience
outlet and the method of attaching a piece of BX
to the same box, to run to a wall light fixture.

Fig. 102. Convenience receptacle and box on a metal molding system,

Fig. 100. This sketch shows the ceiling plate and fixture stud to which
showing BX attached for a branch circuit to a light.
the light fixture and canopy are attached, and also the slots for
attaching the molding to this plate.

26. DUCT SYSTEMS

Another modern type of wiring which is becom-
ing quite common in large industrial plants and
office buildings is known as duct wiring. Instead of
using iron pipe or conduit, the wires are run in
round or oval fibre ducts or tubes, as shown in
Fig. 103.
Advantages of this type of wiring system are the
ease and economy of installation and the large num-
ber of wires that can be installed in the ducts.
These ducts, with their joints properly sealed with
waterproof cement, can be imbedded in concrete of
new buildings. They can also be interconnected
with conduit systems by means of proper fittings.

Fig. 101. The above views show a number of styles of fittings used with
metal molding and the method of making connections for fixtures.
Note the connector blocks used for attaching fixture wires to the Fig. 103. This picture shows an installation of oval duct just before
running wires. the concrete is poured.
 Wiring, Section One, Metal Raceways 191

27. TROUGH WIRING

Square metal troughs such as shown in Figs. 104
and 105 are very convenient in industrial plants Tama. Itaa Iv«. tea, MI le mama
me. al but. ta etia

where flexibility is desired for frequent wiring .1tt «11.11111.1emi am. be

earn aawar pa. at ••• «area .neer

changes when machines are moved from one loca-

Yee Oar*. me te •Mee
Ma.

tion to another. Another advantage is that these iggrerrrz

ducts are permitted to carry up to a maximum of
C.. 20•43
Cat. No. N•tlf
CM. No. 20•••
Cat. Pia. 204.

30 wires per duct. However, not more than 20%

Cat. Na. Ma/
Cat. No. HON

of the duct area should be filled with wires. «Wm title Map lerachoete
10•10bebeibe•••••••••mea•mne.
dn...
Illuazateg Il• ee el *we Mil
emel meaty lereskle. et cm...Ma, peed
tit • tialea el attn. we* we*, bem •••

CM No. !MU

bro..
artat boa., Oa nectar, te• awl ea..« •
Itttrag trough tat,• te. the roan. paw: ay aelt.
%wee a te• kW« • tatt.,,, .1 the eutete a the treat, att.(

Te en et ...r ••••••••••.•.•
.ajtmettae W..... to
''••••••
•
'anal attatatottv pt... • ma.
mt. diatat altatal
e
Cat. Net

r. .t.

awn nee ••••••••••••• Yews Want ma an* mot- tt

erne. cm* T• tot at me of tam ',map mat.* ta dn. la • Iona
letta *item •••1•.• rm. taaava• vs.. rum v. err. be de •••••••• W nor
et *Yoe.

Fig. 10$. The above drawings show several different arrangements for
using square duct.

Removable cover strips and frequently spaced

knockouts permit convenient accessibility of wires
and changes of outlets. Suitable fittings are ob-
tainable for turns, junctions, tees, and for coupling
to extension circuits in conduit or B.X. Metallic
trough systems must be continuous throughout
their length, and must be grounded the same as
conduit systems. They can be run through walls,
Fig. 104. Square duct as shown above comes under the classification
of "wireways and busways." but must not be concealed or imbedded in concrete.
 193

C YN
6lectrical School
CHICAGO - -ILLINOIS
ESTABLISHED 1899 COPYRIGHT 1942

ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION
AND

WIRING FOR LIGHT AND POWER

Section Two

Fuses and Switches

Three-Wire Systems, Polarized Wiring
Wire Calculations, Installation Methods
Business Methods and Estimating
Trouble Shooting
194

FUSES AND SWITCHES

68. FUSES Fig. 103 shows two types of cartridge fuses and
Every wiring system, no matter what type it the renewable fuse link used with them. This type
may be, must be properly fused. This is a strict of fuse consists of a hard fibre cylinder in which
requirement of the National Code, and an absolute the fuse strip of soft metal is contained. This strip
necessity, both to protect the wiring and equipment is gripped tightly by the brass screw caps on the
on the circuits as well as persons who might handle end of the fuse chamber, so the entire cartridge
them. can be conveniently mounted in a Fuse Block.
Fuses in electrical circuits are similar in purpose Several types of fuse blocks are shown in Fig. 104.
to safety valves on steam boilers. \Vith a boiler,
whenever the steam pressure rises so high that it
is unsafe and more than the strength of the boiler
should stand, the safety valve opens and relieves
this pressure. In electrical circuits, whenever the
current load becomes more than the wires can
stand without overheating and burning their in-
sulations, the fuse blows and opens the circuit.
So we can readily see the great importance of hav-
111111111HMIER
ing in every electrical system fuses of the proper
size and type.
Fuses are macle in many different styles and sizes
for different voltages and current loads, but they
@MIMING
all operate on the same general principle, that is,
Fig. 103 The above view shows two types of cartridge fuses and one
opening the circuit by melting a piece of soft metal of the fusible lead links which are used inside these cartridges.
which becomes overheated when excessive current
flows through it. The fuses are held in the blocks by spring clips
The temperature rise which melts a fuse depends which grip the metal ferrule at the end of the cart-
upon the amount of excess current, the duration of ridge. This makes them very easy and quick to re-
excess current, and the ease with which heat es- new when one blows out. The cartridge fuse is
capes from the fuse. much more reliable and accurate because the fuse
link is enclosed in the cartridge, and its temperature
69. LEAD LINK FUSES is not affected by air currents as is the open fuse
Early types of fuses were simply a piece of lead link.
wire connected in the circuit, through which cur- With a cartridge fuse, when the link blows out
rent flowed to the lines and devices to be protected. the arc or flame and molten metal are all confined
This lead wire, being soft and easy to melt, would within the cartridge, except in very rare cases when
blow out as soon as the current load in amperes a heavy short circuit may cause the cartridge to
went above a certain amount. These pieces of wire explode.
were kept short and fastened securely under termi- Most cartridge fuses are of the renewable type
nal screws, so that their resistance would not be in which the burned out link can be quickly re-
high enough to cause much voltage drop in the cir- placed by unscrewing the ferrules or caps at the
cuit. By selecting the proper size of lead wire they ends. The burned piece can then be removed and
could be made to open the circuit at almost any a new link inserted, the ends being folded over and
desired current load. This type of Link or lead securely gripped by the caps when they are screwed
wire fuse is not very safe or dependable. Such fuses back on, or held under bolts on the knife blade
have atendency to oxidize and corrode, and become type. The cost of this renewal link is very small,
quite inaccurate after being in service a while. In and as the cartridge very seldom needs to be re-
addition to this, when they do blow out, the molten placed, the proper fusing of circuits is of very small
metal spatters over equipment, and is likely to expense compared with its protection value.
injure persons if they are nearby.

70. CARTRIDGE FUSES

You will still find lead link fuses in use in some
places, but in general they have been replaced by
the modern Cartridge Fuses on all circuits of over
30 amperes capacity, and some of less; and by the
Fig. let These porcelain fuse blocks are equipped with spring clips in
Plug Fuse on circuits with under 30 amperes load. which the cartridge fuses are held.
 Wiring, Section Two, Fuses I95

71. "CUT-OUT" BLOCKS AND KNIFE

BLADE FUSES
The porcelain blocks for holding the fuses are
often called Cut-Out Blocks. The smaller fuses are
used in circuits up to 60 amperes and are made in
the ferrule type, or with the round end caps. Large
sizes for from 65 to 600 amperes are made in the
knife-blade type, with short flat blades attached to
the end caps. These blades fit into clips on the fuse
block, which are similar to regular knife switch
clips. '1 his type of construction is used on the
heavier sizes because it gives a greater area of con-
tact surface at the clips for heavy currents to flow
through. Fig. 105 shows two knife-blade type cart-
ridge fuses

MIND Fig. 105-13. These sectional views show the construction and arrange-
ment of cartridge fuses and the manner in which the fuse strips are
fastened in them. Note the difference in the mounting of this strip
in the upper and lower cartridges.

circuit becomes severely overloaded or a short cir-

cuit occurs, the fuse blows instantly, and sometimes
with considerable flash. This is as it should be be-
cause, if fuses didn't blow at once, a short circuit
allemommall would very quickly ruin the insulation of the wires
with the intense heat of the great rush of current.
Fig. lis. For the heavier loads of current, knife blade type cartridge 73. NATIONAL CODE RULES ON FUSES
fuses of the above tin» are used.
In general, every electrical circuit and system
Ferrule type fuses for voltages from 250 to 600 should be protected by fuses of the proper size con-
are commonly made in the following ampere nected in series with its lines, and care should be
ratings: 3, 5, 6, 10, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, and 60. used never to allow fuses to be replaced with others
Knife-blade type fuses for the same voltages are that are too large. The National Code is very strict
made with current ratings of 65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100, in the matter of fusing circuits and afew of the most
125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, important rules are as follows:
550, and 600.

se
72. PLUG FUSES
Plug fuses are made with ampere ratings as
follows: 3, 6, 1
•0, 12, 15, 20, 25, 30. These plug fuses
are the type most commonly used for fusing branch
circuits in house wiring systems. They are made
with a threaded base to screw into a socket in the
cut-out block, similar to lamp sockets. Several types
of plug fuses are shown in Fig. 106. Those in the
top row are ordinary fuses with small mica win-
dows, so it is easy to see when they have been
blown. The fuse shown below with an extra ele-
ment is of the renewable plug type. These fuses
when blown can be taken apart and the small link
replaced similarly to the renewal of the cartridge
fuses.
Fig. 107 shows several types of cut-out blocks for
plug fuses.
When any circuit is overloaded a small amount
beyond the capacity of its wires and fuses, the
Fg. 106. The three fuses in the upper row are of the ordinary plug
fuses gradually become warmer and warmer, until type with fusible windows to show when the link is blown out.
The lower view shows a refillable plug fuse and one of its refill
the link melts out and opens the circuit. When a elements.
 Norrnen
196 41 Georg,,-% Ave.
Wiring, Section Two, Cut-out Blocks and Panels
Crookie 7t N: Y.
I. Fuses must be provided at every point where ally placed at the place where the supply wires enter
the wires of a system change in size, except when the house and near the service switch and meter.
fuses closer to the service are small enough to pro- In some small homes there may be only one circuit
tect these wires. and one pair of fuses, and in larger homes or those
2. Fuses on fused switches must be placed on better equipped with complete electric wiring there
the dead side of the switch when it is open. may be from 2 to 6 or more branch circuits and
3. Every ungrounded service conductor should fuses. Fig. 108 shows two types of fuse blocks and
be provided with a fuse, except the neutral wire of safety switches in metal boxes. This is the modern
a porarized system, which must never be fused at and approved way to install them.
any point.
4. All ungrounded wires of branch circuits
should be protected by fuses.
5. Two-wire branch circuits on ungrounded sys-
tems must have both wires protected by a fuse in
each wire.
6. Ordinary branch circuits using No. 14 wire
must be protected by fuses not larger than 15 am-
peres at 125 volts, or 10 amperes at 250 volts.
Sometimes, when a fuse blows, some person who
doesn't understand the function and safety value
of a fuse may replace it with a piece of copper wire Fig. lg. Fuse blocks of either the cartridge or plug fuse type are
commonly mounted with a safety switch in metal boxes.
or in some cases even put pennies behind plug
fuses. This is exceedingly dangerous practice and In larger buildings—such as apartment houses,
should never be used under any circumstances, as stores, and offices—there may be from a dozen to
it is practically treating the wires of an electrical a hundred or more branch circuits, all requiring
system, as if the safety valve of aboiler were locked. separate fusing.
In such cases it is common practice to install in
one central cabinet all the fuses for a large group
of circuits. Fig. 109 shows two such cabinets, one
for atwo-wire system and one for three wires. Both
have main service switches which disconnect the
entire cabinet and all circuits from the supply wires,
and also separate switches and fuses for each circuit.
The branch circuit switches in these cabinets are
enclosed under safety panels through which only
the handles protrude.

1
Fig. M. Several types of "cut-out" blocks or fuse blocks for plug
fuses are shown above.

When the size of fuses for any certain circuit is

not specified by the Code, it can easily be deter-
mined by the use of the Watts law formula. If we
know the voltage of any circuit and the load rating
.
nellI111111•11•91
- 111111"-
in watts of the equipment on any circuit, we can
easily find the current in amperes by dividing the LIM 1-.0 CO cii UtLi7l UseD ucc,
watts by the volts. This will indicate the proper
size of fuses, providing we are also sure that the CS) {ill? (iii) CYR WS
11 KC; .g4
size of the wires is large enough to carry this load.
The table previously given, showing the current
C11:.721 «CO I. 2.1. CD(' 11 ) eL-1 1: CY
6é.
-

capacity of rubber covered wires, will also be acon-

FirP
venient guide to the selection of proper fuses. More
about fuse troubles and maintenance will be covered Fig. 159. On the left is shown a two-wire "cut-out" panel, and on the
in a later section on trouble shooting, and in the right one for three-wire circuits. Note the arrangement of the
safety switch, plug fuses, and branch circuit switches..
advanced sections on motors and power machinery,
additional information will be given on the proper
Fig. 110 shows a modern fuse cabinet and meter
sizes of fuses for machines of differeet horse-power
panel of the type used in many large apartment
ratings.
buildings and offices, and Fig 111 shows a connec-
74. PANEL BOARDS AND FUSE CABINETS tion diagram for an entire cabinet of this type, in-
In small house-wiring systems, the fuses are iisii- cluding the meters.
 Wiring, Section Two, Switches 197

the other, and proper terminals for connecting the

wires to them. Fig. 112 shows three common types
of knife switches. One is called a Single Pole, one
a Double Pole, and one a Three Pole switch. The
number of poles indicates the number of blades, or
the number of wires the switch can open. They are
also made with 4 poles or more, and Single or
Double Throw. Those shown in the figure are all
single throw. Double throw switches have two sets
of clips, one at each end, so the blades can be thrown
either way into either set of clips, thus shifting
from one circuit to another.
Knife switches are made with or without fuse
clips as desired. The three pole switch in Fig. 112
is of the fusible type, while the other two switches
are not.
\Vhen installing knife switches, they should be
mounted so that the blades when opened cannot
Fig. 110. This is a modern fuse and meter panel for large buildings fall closed by gravity, and they should be connected
which have a great number of branch circuits. so that when opened the blades as well as any fuse
75. SWITCHES. that may be on them will be dead. The blades of
There are numerous types of switches used in knife switches should always be enclosed, except
electrical wiring. It is very important to select the 'when the switches are mounted on approved switch
proper types for various applications and to proper- boards or panel boards.
ly understand their use, operation and care.
The purpose of any switch is to conveniently and
safely make and break an electrical circuit and start
or stop the flow of current, thereby controlling the
operation of the devices on that circuit.
76. KNIFE SWITCHES
Knife Switches are one of the most common types
and are used for opening and closing the heavier
circuits, such as main service wires in light and
power wiring systems, and also branch circuits to
motors and equipment using large amounts of cur-
rent.
Knife switches consist simply of one or more
copper blades hinged at one end and with clips at

Fig. 112. Three common types of knife switches. The lower one is
equipped for knife blade type fuses. Note the lugs which are used
for attaching large wires or cables to these switch terminals.

Knife switches that are enclosed in a safety box

and used for service switches in wiring systems
should have a handle on the outside of the box, so
the switches can be opened or closed without open-
ing the door, and some indication or marks should
be on the box to show when the handle is in the
open or closed position.
Switches used for motor circuits should have a
o- current capacity or continuous duty rating of 125%
of the motor current rating.
It is very important that the clips of knife
switches be kept properly fitted to the blades, so as
to secure proper contact and prevent overheating
of the switch due to high resistance.
77. SNAP SWITCHES
For the control of lights and branch circuits the
•
Snap Switch is commonly used. There are several
Fig. 111. Wiring diagram for modern fuse and meter cabinet. types of snap switches made, and their name comes
 .
á.
198 Wiring, Section Two, Snap Switches

from the quick snapping action with which they

o
break the circuit. This action is obtained by asmall
spring and is avery important feature of such small
switches, as the speed and suddenness with which it
opens the circuit extinguishes the arc much more
rapidly and effectively, thus to agreat extent elimi-
nating fire hazard and preventing burning of the
switch contact.
Fig. lid. Toggle and tumbler switches of the above type are very
Snap switches are made in Single Pole, Double commonly used for surface mounting.
Pole, Three Way, Four Way, and Electrolier types.
Each of these types will be explained. 79. FLUSH TYPE SWITCHES
The snap switches mentioned so far are called
78. SURFACE TYPE SNAP SWITCHES "surface" type, because they are made to mount
One of the very common and simple types of right on the surface of the wall. This is often not
these switches is the Surface Type Snap Switch. as desirable in appearance as the Flush Type
Fig. 113 shows two switches of this type; one of switch, which mounts in an opening cut in the wall,
them having the cover removed to show the work- has a neat flush cover plate, and is a very popular
ing parts. type. Fig. 116 shows two views of a Push Button
type switch. The left view shows an open side
view and the manner in which the two buttons are
used to rock asmall blade back and forth. The right
view shows the top of a switch of this type.

Fig. 113. Above is shown an ordinary surface type snap switch. The
view on the right shows the cover removed.

These switches have asmall rotating blade that is

snapped in or out of stationary clips set on the por- Fig. 116. These two views show the construction and mechanism of
celain base. When the button is turned it first push button type snap switches.

winds a small coil spring on its shaft, and as it is

Fig. 117 shows another type of push button
tinned farther this spring snaps the rotating blade
switch on the left, and a toggle switch on the right.
i4 or out of the stationary clips.
The metal extensions or "lips" on these switches
For convenient connection of the wires, terminal are used to fasten them in the switch box, which
siirews are provided. These screws are of soft brass. is mounted in a hole cut in the lath and plaster.
‘Yhile they should be tightened enough to hold the Then the switch plates, or covers, are placed over
wires securely, they should not be forced too tight them and fastened in place with small screws, pres-
or their threads are likely to be stripped. enting a finished appearance as in Fig. 118.
Fig. 114 shows several types of surface type snap- Where it is desired to control a separate light
switches. by means of a switch on the ceiling near that light,
a ceiling pull-cord switch, such as shown in the
Surface type Toggle or Tumbler switches are be-
left view in Fig. 119, is used. The one on the left
ing installed in preference to rotary button snap
switches in many places today. Fig. 115 shows a
surface type toggle switch on the left and two of
the tumbler type on the right. These switches are
more convenient to operate, as it is only necessary
to push their levers up or down, instead of twisting
a button as on the rotary snap switch.

Fig. 117. Above are shown a push button switch on the left and a toggle
Fig. 114. Several types of snap switches. Note the "off" and "on" switch on the right. Both are for flush mounting in switch outlet
markings used on indicating switches. boxes.
 Wiring, Section Two, Snap Switches 199

is made to mount right on the surface of the ceiling,

while the one on the right is made to mount in
the side of the outlet box or fixture canopy and is
called a Levolier switch.
There are also small snap switches which are en-
closed in lamp sockets called Key Sockets or Pull
Chain Sockets. Fig. 120 shows a key socket on the
left and a pull chain socket in the center.
Fig. 120. On the left is a key socket or switch for controlling lights on
drop cords. The center view shows a pull-chain socket, and on the
right is a push button switch that can be mounted on the end of
a suspended pair of wires.

Fig. 121 shows some of the symbols used for com-

mon surface-type snap switches, so you will be able
to recognize them in the following connection dia-
grams.
Fig. 122 shows the connections of a single pole
switch and a double pole switch for controlling the
lamps, "L" and "L".
82. THREE-WAY SWITCHES
Three-Way Switches are used to control a light
or group of lights from two different places, so they
Toggle can be turned on or off at either switch. This is a
connection very commonly used in all modern
Fig. 118. This shows the finished appearance of properly mounted flush homes for lights in halls, on stairways, and other
type switches with the covers placed over the outlet boxes.
places. It is also very convenient for controWng
80. SINGLE POLE SWITCHES
garage, barn, or yard lights, as the lights outside
Single Pole Switches are used to break only
can be turned on at the house and off again at the
one wire of a circuit, and must always be connected
garage or barn. Or the lights can be turned on at
in the ungrounded wire. They are used to con-
the outer buildings and turned off at the house.
trol a light from one place only, and are the most
commonly used of all switches in residence lighting
systems. Single pole switches can always be easily
distinguished from the others because they have
only two terminals for the wires, and only one
blade.
S. R 5. I?
CLOSED OPEN

4.
D. P. D. P.
CLOSED OPEN

.3 WAY 3 WAY
ONE POSITION OTHER RostrioN

4 WAY 4 WAY
ONE POSITION OTHER POSITION
Fig. 1111. Two types of pull cord switches for ceiling mounting and
used to control individual lights.

81. DOUBLE POLE SWITCHES

Double Pole Switches are used to open both ELECTROLIER ELECTROLIER
OHS CIRCUIT CLOSED TWO CIRCUITS CLOSED
wires to alight or device, and thus break all connec-
tions from it to the line. Opening both sides of the
circuit at once also more quickly extinguishes the
arcs at the switch points. A double-pole surface- Fig. 121. The above symbols will be used to represent various types of
switches in the following connection diagrams. Close examination if
type switch always has four terminals and two these symbols will also help you obtain a better understanding if
each of these switches.
blades. These blades are mounted one above the
other on the shaft, and are insulated from each Three-way surface-type switches have four ter-
other. On this type of switch, never connect the minals and usually one blade. Sometimes there are
line wires to opposite terminals, but always to ter- two blades in one line. Two of the terminals are
minals on the same side of the switch. permanently connected together in the switch with
200 Wiring, Section Two, Switch Connections

garage or barn to operate other devices there in

addition to the light.
The first system should always be followed in
interior wiring in houses with 110 volt circuits.
83. FOUR-WAY SWITCHES
Four-way switches are used where it is desired to
control a light or group of lights from more than
two places. By their use in combination with three-
way switches, we can control a light from as many
places as desired.

Fig. 122. The top diagram shows a simple single-pole twitch connected
to control one light. The lower diagram shows a double-pole switch
connected to break both sides of the circuit to a light.

ashunt wire. Usually these terminals can be located Fig. 124. This sketch shows the Cartweis system of connecting three
way switches. This method should not be used on 110-volt circuits
by astrip of sealing wax in a groove between them in interior wiring.
on the base of the switch. This wax covers the shunt
wire. This construction is one means of telling a The four-way surface-type switch has four ter-
three-way switch from other types of surface snap minals and two blades, and can be quite easily dis-
switches. On flush type switches, the three-way is tinguished from the other switches because its
the only one which has just three terminals. blades always connect to adjacent terminals on the
Fig. 123 shows the connection diagram for two sides of the switch. No matter which position the
three-way switches used to control alight from two switch is in, the blades always connect together
different points. Note that the line always connects one or the other set of adjacent terminals.
to the shunt terminal of one switch and the lamp Fig. 125 shows amethod of connecting two three-
to the shunt of the other switch. The other two way switches and two four-ways to control a light
terminals of each switch are connected together as from four different places.
shown. This is agood rule to remember in connect- The important points to note in this connection
ing up three-way switches. Trace this diagram care- are as follows: The two three-way switches are
fully and you will find the circuit to the lamp is always connected at the ends of the control group,
closed. Shifting either switch blade will open it, with their shunts to the line and lamp, as before
and again shifting either one will close it once more. mentioned. Any number of four-way switches can
then be connected in between them as shown. With
surface-type snap switches, the one wire connect-
ing the three-way and four-way switches together
should always be crossed at each switch as shown,
but the other one just connected straight through
from terminal to terminal on the same side of the
switches as shown. With some flush-type switches
it is not necessary to cross the wires on one side of
the four-ways, as they are already crossed inside
the switches.

Fig. 123. Two three-way switches used for controlling a light &an
two different places. Note carefully the manner of connection.

Fig. 124 shows another method of connecting

three-was' switches, known as the Cartweis system.
This method is not approved by the Code as it
places line wires of opposite polarity on adjacent
terminals of the switch. This is in contradiction to
the rule given for the common approved connection
and is not considered as safe.
However, this method is sometimes used on 32
volt systems and saves one wire where both Fig. 125. This diagram shows two three-way and two four-way switches
connected to control a light from four different places. Note care-
switches are to be located near the line wires, as in a fully the connection and arrangement of the three-way switches at
the ends, and the manner in which the wires to one side of the
case where a live line is run from a house to the four-way switches are crossed.
 Wiring, Section Two, Switch Connections 201

Trace the diagram in Fig. 125 very carefully and , Some of these switches will cost more than the
you will find that, with the switch blades in their proper ones for which they are substituted—for
present position, the circuit to the lamp is closed. example, three-way and four-way switches cost
Moving any one of the switch blades into its other much more than single pole switches—so these sub-
position will open the circuit, and moving any other stitutions should only be made in emergencies.
one will close it again. 85. ELECTROLIER SWITCHES
This type of connection is a very valuable one to Electrolier Switches are used to control one or
know, and you will find it much easier to under- more circuits, such as several lights on achandelier,
stand and remember the rules for its connection if or the several sections of a heater element in an
you try drawing several combinations with different electric range, etc. These switches are obtainable
numbers of switches and tracing them out to see if with two or three circuits. Fig. 127 shows a method
they give the desired results. of connecting a three-circuit electrolier switch to
A very important rule to remember in installing turn on one, two, or all three of the lamps; or turn
three-way and four-way switches is that they must them all off if desired. In the upper view all lamps
all be connected in the ungrounded wire of the are out, in the center view only one lamp is on, and
line, and never to the grounded wire. This is aCode in the lower view two lamps are on. If the rotating
rule, as it is with single pole switches, to make sure element of the switch were turned one more point
that the "hot" or ungrounded wire to the light to the right all three lamps would be on.
is always open when the switch is turned off.
84. SUBSTITUTING VARIOUS SWITCHES
Sometimes in emergencies you may not have the
proper switches on hand and certain others can be
substituted temporarily , if desired. For example,
you can use either a three-way or four-way switch
in place of a single pole switch. To use a three-way
in place of a single pole, connect the line wire to
the shunt terminal and the lamp wire to either of
the separate terminals, as in the upper view in Fig.
126.

Fig. 127. These three diagrams show the manner in which an eles-
troller switch can be used to turn on one or more lights at a time.

These switches are very commonly used on elec-

tric ranges and heaters, to get low, medium, or high
heat.
Fig. 128 shows several of the connections for push
button and toggle-type flush switches. The sketch
at "A" shows the terminal location and connections
Fig. ill. The above three diagrams show methods of substituting vari-
of a single-pole push button switch connected to
ous switches when the proper ones are not available. The top and control one lamp. "B" shows the terminals and
center connections show the use of three-way and four-way switches
in place of single-pole switches. The lower connection shows four- connections of another type of flush single-pole
way switches used in place of three-way switches at the ends of
the group. switch. "C" shows a double-pole switch connected
to control one lamp. "D" shows two flush-type,
To use afour-way switch in place of asingle pole, three-way switches connected so that either one can
connect the line and lamp wires to any two adjacent turn the light on or off. "E" shows two three-way
terminals, as in the center view in Fig. 126. switches and one four-way switch connected to con-
To use four-way switches in place of the usual trol alight from three places. The wires are crossed
three-ways at the ends of a group for controlling at the four-way switch, as is necessary with some
a light from several places, connect them as shown types of flush four-ways. "F" shows the connec-
in the lower view in Fig. 126. tion of two three-ways and one igur.way, using the
202 Wiring, Section Two, Switch Connections, Convenience Outlets

type of four-way switch that has its terminal con- ply proper lights and convenient control for them,
nections crossed inside, so the wires are run straight but should also include in all rooms a sufficient
through. "G" shows a flush-type two-circuit elec- number of convenience outlets for the attachment
trolier switch with connections made to its marked of portable household electrical devices, such as
terminals for turning on first one light, then both fans, heaters, curling irons, toasters, sewing ma-
lights, then both off. "H" shows a two-circuit elec- chines. vacuum cleaner, and the many other elec-
trolier switch connected to first turn on one light, trical devices used in the home today. These con-
then turn it off; next turn on the second light, and venience outlets may be installed in the baseboard,
then turn it off. "I" shows a three-circuit electro- or mounted higher up in the walls, or even in the
lier switch connected to first turn on one light, next box with the switches.
turn on two lights, next all three lights on; then The same outlet boxes as are used for flush-type
all off. switches can be used for convenience receptables,
and either a single or double plug receptacle can
be installed. Fig. 129 shows both a single and a
double receptacle of this type, with the cover plates
which fit over the outlet boxes.

Single Receptacle Duplex Receptacle

Fig. 129. Every home that Is wired for electricity should have a suffi-
cient number of convenience outlets or receptacles of the tlima
shown above.
Fig. 128. The above sketches show methods of connecting flush type
switches as represented by manufacturers' symbols. Check each
connection with its explanation in the accompanying paragraphs.
Fig. 130 shows the receptacles without covers and
A great many types of special switches are made ready to be installed in the outlet boxes. The metal
for different applications. However, with a good "lips" on the ends of each one are for attaching
understanding of these more common types, and them to the outlet boxes with screws. These re-
a careful examination of the blades, terminals, and ceptables are generally connected to wires that are
always alive and are not controlled by switches.
parts of any switches you may encounter, you
should be able to understand them quite easily. All that is necessary to obtain from them current
for portable devices is to push the prongs of the
Sometimes the small copper blades and clips of
plug, which is on the end of the cord, into the slots
snap switches become badly burned from the arcing
in the receptable, where they are gripped by spring
when the circuit is interrupted or because they
don't fit properly and make good contact with each contacts inside the receptacle.
other.
Snap switches are made in different current rat-
ings according to the load they are supposed to con-
trol, and they should never be placed in circuits
where they have to carry more current than they
are rated for, because this will overheat them, burn-
ing and softening the blades and clips until they
are useless. When a snap switch arcs badly or
sticks frequently it is usullly an indication of a
defect in the switch or an overload on it.

86. CONVENIENCE OUTLETS AND

RECEPTACLES
In the preceding pages we have occasionally men-
Fig. 130. These receptacle units are mounted in ordinary outlet boxes
tioned outlet boxes for convenience receptacles. A similar to those used for flush type switches. Note the terminal
screws for connection of the wires to the receptacle, and also the
modern house-wiring system is not merely to sup- Mite "ears" for attaching the receptacle to the outlet box.
 Wiring. Section Two. Two and Three-Wire Systems 203

86-A. ATTACHMENT PLUGS portable tool to the conduit system for safety to
Small receptacle plugs can be obtained for screw- the operator.
ing into threaded lamp sockets, and receive the
prongs of the regular cord plug. These are com-
monly known as attachment plugs. Fig. 131 shows
both sections of an attachment plug; close to-
gether in the left view, and separated at the
right. The upper or male cap section in the right-
hand view has two connection screws on its prongs,
and can be quickly and easily attached to the cord
of a portable device.

For certain portable tools requiring three and

Fig. 131. Two views of an attachment plug of the type which can be
more wires, special plugs can be obtained. Some screwed into a socket. The male element with the two brass prongs
is attached to the cords of portable devices, and can then be plugged
of them also have an extra wire for grounding the into any receptacle of this type.

THREE-WIRE SYSTEMS

86-B. TWO-WIRE AND THREE-WIRE The Edison three-wire system gets its name from
SYSTEMS the fact that it was originally used by Thomas
We have already mentioned that wiring systems Edison, who connected two 110 volt D. C. generat-
can be either two-wire or three-wire systems. ors in series to obtain 220 volts between two out-
The two-wire system does not need very much side wires, and 110 volts between each outside wire
and the center or neutral wire. See Fig. 132.
explanation as its connections and principles are
very simple. This is the system commonly used You will recall that when any two generators or
in small homes, and consists of two main wires sources of current supply are connected in series,
brought into the building from the power com- it adds their voltages; so it is easy to see how the
pany's lines, and properly equipped with service two different voltages are obtained in this system.
switch, fuses, and meter.
From this point several branch circuits with two
wires each can be run to the various groups of lights
or outlets about the house. Two-wire lighting cir-
cuits are usually of 110 to 125 volts, and two-
wire D. C. or A. C. power circuits are commonly
of 220 or 440 volts.
It is a very simple matter to connect lights or
motors to these circuits, with the proper switches
and fuses where needed: The load devices are all
connected in parallel, and while usually we need
pay no attention to positive or negative polarity, Fig. 132. This diagram shows the arrangement of two generators in
series to supply an Edison three-wire system. Note that this
we do need to know which wire is the grounded arrangement provides both 110 volts for lamp circuits and 220 volts
one and which the ungrounded. This will be ex- for motor circuits.

plained a little later.

The advantages of the three-wire system are that
87. EDISON THREE-WIRE SYSTEM it provides 110 volts for lights and 220 volts for
The three-wire system is used extensively by motors, with only three wires, and it effects a great
power companies on their lines to the customers' saving in the size of conductors and copper costs
buildings, and in most all of the larger homes and even when used for lighting alone. This is because
modern office buildings, hotels, stores, and factories. when there is an equal number of lights on each
This system is often thought to be somewhat side of the system, they all really operate on 220
complicated but in reality it is very simple to un- volts, with two groups of lamps in series across
derstand for anyone with a knowledge of the prin- the outside wires.
ciples of electric circuits, such as you have already The current tends to flow through both gen-
obtained. erators in series and through both groups of lamps
204 Wiring, Section Two, Three-Wire Systems

in series, and no current will flow in the neutral 89. UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
wire, as long as the number and size of lamps is So far we llave considered only a balanced load
equal on each side of the system. condition where no current flows in the neutral wire.
Now let's see what will happen if the load is un-
88. SAVING IN COPPER BY USE OF THREE- balanced or if one of the lamps is turned out on
WIRE SYSTEM the upper side of the system in Fig. 133-B. \Ve will
\V ith the lamps operating at 220 volts and two illustrate this separately in Fig. 134. In this case
in series, they require only one-half as much current the lower side will require 6amperes and the upper
in amperes to supply their rated wattage, as they side only 4 amperes. Two amperes will now flow
would if they were operated on 110 volts. Therefore, out along the neutral wire from the lower generator,
smaller wires can be used and we find that this to make up this shortage. The upper generator sup-
system saves over 50 per cent of the wire cost, ex- plies 4 amperes which flow through both groups of
cept on certain small circuits where the Code re- lamps and through the lower generator as well ;and
quires a certain minimum size of wire. the lower generator supplies 6 amperes, four of
The simple sketch and problem in Fig. 133 will which still flow through the outer wires and both
illustrate how this reduction of current is obtained. groups of lamps, and two of which flow through the
We will use even figures of 100 volts and 200 volts neutral and lower wires and lower groups of lamps
to make them easy to follow. In "A" we have six only. The generators automatically assume their
100 volt lamps of 200 watts each. The total wattage proper share of load whenever the load balance
of the six lamps will be 6 x 200 or 1200 watts. The changes. Note the size of the current arrows which
current required for this wattage will be W E show this division of current. This is due to the fact
or 1200 ÷ 100 = 12 amperes, which will be the load that the resistance and the voltage drop of each
on the wires. In "B" the lamps are connected two group of lamps vary with their number.
in series and each of these pairs connected across For example, if the lamps in Fig. 134 are all 100
the 200 volt wires. volt, 200 watt lamps their resistance will be 50
Ohms each. Then, according to our rule for finding
The total wattage of the lamps remains the same,
the total resistance of a parallel group, that of the
or 1200 watts, and now the current will be W ÷ E
two upper lamps will be 50 ÷ 2 = 25 Ohms resist-
again or 1200 ÷ 200 = 6 amperes. So with this
ance between wires "A" and "B". The total resist-
connection the wires only need to carry one-half as
ance of the three lower lamps in parallel will be
much current.
50 ÷ 3 or 163/3 Ohms between wires "B" and "C".
This can also be checked in another way as fol-
lows: We know that the current required by each
100 volt, 200 watt lamp will be 200 ± 100 or 2
amperes. So when they are all connected in parallel
it will require 12 amperes to operate them. But
when they are connected as at "B", the same two
amperes which lights the upper lamps must pass
on through the lower one as well, so it now requires
only 3 X 2 or 6 amperes, at 200 volts.

Fig. 134. This sketch shows an unbalanced three-wire system. Note

carefully the division of current between the two generators and
circuits and the direction of current flow in the neutral wire.

Each generator delivers 100 volts, so that is the

voltage applied to each group of lamps. The cur-
rent through the upper group will be E ÷ R or
100 25 = 4 amperes. The current through the
lower group will be 100 ÷ 16Y3 = 6 amperes. So
we find that a simple application of Ohms law ex-
Fig. 133. By the use of Watts law determine the current required for
plains why the generators will each automatically
the six lamps on 100 volts in the upper circuit; then determine the supply their proper share of the current load.
current required on the three-wire system below with the lamps
operating on 200 volts in groups of two in series. This will show The amount of current flowing in the neutral
the reason for considerable saving in the size of the wires on three-
wire systems. wire will always be in proportion to the amount of
 Wiring, Section Two, Three-Wire Systems 205

unbalanced load, and it may be in either direction same current flowing through a resistance of 25
according to which side of the system is the more Ohms, we will have 2%3 X 25, or 66%3 volts drop
heavily loaded. across the lamps, which accounts for their burning
very dim.
90. "SOLID NEUTRAL" FOR THREE-WIRE This over voltage applied to the upper group will
SYSTEMS cause their filaments to be severely overheated, and
The ideal condition for a three-wire system is to possibly burned out if they are left long in this con-
have no current flowing through the neutral, so we dition.
should always try to keep the load as evenly bal-
anced as possible when connecting up the two-wire
branch circuits to the three-wire mains.
Of course, it is impossible to keep such a system
perfectly balanced at all times, because of lights
and devices on the different circuits being turned
on and off. This is the reason we need the neutral
wire, and also one of the reasons the Code requires
that on the modern polarized system the neutral
must not be fused. This is the reason it is often
termed a Solid Neutral. Many of the older non-
polarized systems, however, have fuses and switches
in the neutral.

91. EFFECTS OF OPEN NEUTRAL AND Fig. 13.5.. This diagram ghat:rates what would happen if the »titre/
wire was to become opened on an unbalanced flume-wire system.
UNBALANCED LOAD The upper two lamps would then burn excessively bright, and the
lower four would burn very dimly.
Now let's see what will happen in such asystem if
the neutral were fused and this fuse blew out while
From this we see what a common indication of a
the load was unbalanced. In Fig. 135 we normally
blown neutral fuse or a non-polarized three-wire
have a balanced load of eight lamps when all are
system would be when part of the lamps burn ex-
turned on, but at present two in the upper group
cessively bright and others burn very dim.
are turned off and the fuse in the neutral is blown.
This cannot happen on the modern polarized sys-
Assume that the lamps are each of 100 Ohms re-
tem where the neutral has no fuse and is always
sistance, and let's find out how much current will
closed, allowing the generators to balance up the
be flowing through the six lamps with 200 volts
applied by the two generators in series, and their load by applying 100 volts at all times to each side
neutral open. of the circuit. If this had been the case in Fig. 135,
The resistance of the upper and lower groups of the lamps would have remained at normal bril-
lamps being unequal, we must first figure that of liancy, as 100 E ÷ 50 R of the upper group
each group separately and then, as the two groups would cause just two amperes, or one ampere for
are in series, we will add them to obtain the total each lamp. to flow through them; while 100 E
resistance of all the operating lamps. 25 R of the lower group would cause four amperes,
The resistance of the upper two lamps in parallel or one ampere for each lamp, to flow through them.
will be 100 2or 50 Ohms. That of the lower four The neutral wire would carry the difference.
in parallel will be 100 -i
- 4 or 25 Ohms. Then 50 -I - While it is not likely that the neutral will often
25 = 75 Ohms, total resistance. have to carry as much current as the outer wires,
Now, according to Ohms law, we find that with on a properly balanced three-wire system, it is pos-
200 volts applied the current will be 200 ÷ 75 or sible for it to happen occasionally, so the Code re-
2%3 amperes. This current will all flow through quires that the neutral wire be the same size as
the upper two lamps, and then divide out through the others, except on loads over 200 amperes, where
the lower four, so the upper lamps will burn much we can reduce the size of the neutral 30%. This
brighter than the lower ones. reduction is allowed either from the maximum con-
The reason for this can also be checked by our nected load, or by applying what is known as a
knowledge of Ohms law and voltage drop principles. Maximum Demand Factor, which will be explained
We know that the voltage drop across any device later.
or group of devices in parallel is proportional to the We have illustrated the principles of the three-
resistance of the devices and the current flowing wire system with two D. C. generators as the source
through them, or Ed=I X R. Then, with a cur- of the two different voltages, because it is easy to
rent of 2%3 amperes flowing through the upper understand and was the first method of obtaining
two lamps, which have a combined resistance of 50 this system. In a number of places this method is
Ohms, we find we have 2%3 x 50, or 13373 volts still in use, where 110 and 220 volts D. C. are used.
drop across them, which accounts for their burning In other cases aspecial three-wire generator is used,
much too bright. On the lower group with the having a connection to a center point in its arma-
 I•lor manrea ¡we.
eecier
206 4,1 Geo ly Wiring, Section Two, Polarized Wiring
1 '
turc winding to obtain the neutral or half voltage or devices to which it is attached. Or, in other
wire. words, it must be what is called a Solid Neutral.
This system can also be used just as readily on
A. C., by using two transformers connected in 93. SAFETY FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES
series, or merely a center tap from the 220 volt sec- OF POLARIZED WIRING
ondary winding of one transformer, as shown in Another advantage of maintaining this un-
Fig. 136. This is by far the most common type of broken grounded wire, and having it plainly marked,
three-wire system in use today, and is applied to is so that it can always be connected to the threaded
power systems at 220 or 440 volts A. C., as well as or outer element of lamp sockets and receptacles;
to house wiring systems of 110 and 220 volts. while the "hot" or ungrounded wire must always
be connected to the inner or center terminal of such
sockets. This eliminates practically all danger of
anyone getting a shock by touching the socket,
even if the insulation of the outer element failed,
allowing it to touch the shell or casing.
You will find the terminal screws of the latter
type sockets, receptacles, and switches are also
identified by one screw having a yellow or brass
color, and the other a white or silvery color.
The grounded wire should, of course, attach to
the lighter colored screw, and the "hot" wire to the
brass colored screw.
When using BX as switch leads, we must make
an exception to the rule. In this case we sometimes
connect the black and white wires together.
This is because we must have one black wire
and one white one coming out of the outlet for
Fig. 131. Three-wire A.C. systems can be conveniently obtained by the connection to the light fixture, as in Fig. 136-B. In
use of a center connection to transformer windings as shown above.
order to do this, we must connect the white wire
of the BX, which runs to the switch, to the black
92. POLARIZED WIRING SYSTEMS wire in the ceiling outlet.
This system has been mentioned several times so
far, particularly with reference to the grounding of
various circuits and devices. The term polarized
in this case refers to the grounding and marking or
identification of the neutral wire.
The modern polarized wiring system is one that
has the neutral wire thoroughly grounded at the
service switch, and this grounded wire distinguished
throughout the entire system by a different color
from the "hot" or ungrounded wire.
Generally, we use a wire with black or red in-
sulation for the ungrounded wire, and one with
white or light gray insulating braid for the ground-
ed wire. This applies to wires from 14 to 6 in size.
On larger wires and cables, other methods of
Fig. 138-B. This sketch shows the manner in which the white and
marking the grounded wire are used. Its ends can black wires in a polarized system are connected at the outlet boxes
be coated with white paint or tagged, or at the for ceiling lights and wall switches.

service entrance the ends left for the power com-

pany's man to connect his wires to, can have the We should then remember that the white wire
insulation stripped off the grounded wire for ashort at the switch is the "hot" one, and the black wire
distance. The identification of the grounded wire at the ceiling outlet is the return wire from the
should be carried on through every branch circuit, switch, and it should be connected as usual to the
fixture wire, etc., right up to the device using the yellow screw on the fixture.
current. In order to make' this protection positive and
The other very important rule for apolarized sys- dependable, you can readily see that the grounded
tem, as previously mentioned, is that the neutral wire must always be complete clear back to the
or grounded wire must not be fused at any point, transformer, and we should never place any switch
but must always be complete and unbroken from in this side of the circuit, unless it also opens the
the service box to the very tip of light sockets ungrounded wire at the same time it opens the
 Wiring, Section Two, Grounds, Service Wires 207

grounded one. Double pole snap switches, for ex- the house in a manner to keep all strain off from
ample, open both wires at the same time. Single the drip loop and weather cap.
pole switches when used must always be placed See Fig. 137, which shows how these wires would
in the ungrounded wire. be attached to the building, and also a method of
Having this neutral wire grounded, as well as the bracing a porch, or part of a building, to stand the
conduit, gives us added protection against fire or strain that long heavy service wires might place
shock hazard from the conduit system. upon it.
In case the insulation of the "hot" wire becomes The Drip Loop, or slack loops of wire from the
defective, and allows it to touch the conduit, this insulators to the weather cap, are used to prevent
causes a short circuit and immediately blows the water from running down the wires into the con-
fuse, indicating a defect on the circuit, which can duit.
be repaired at once. Using this system with a solid
neutral also eliminates the possibility of having an
open neutral and burned out lamps when the loe.d
is unbalanced.
94. GROUNDING NEUTRAL WIRE OF
POLARIZED SYSTEMS
At the transformers you will always find three
wires coming from the secondary winding. The cen-
ter one of these is the neutral, and is grounded by
the power company. The ground inside the building
at the service switch should be heavy copper wire
not smaller than No. 8, as previously mentioned, and
this wire should be protected from possible break-
age by being run inside the piece of conduit to the
waterpipe, where it is attached by use of a ground
3CC1.0.4 as
clamp, previously described.
The end of this ground wire at the service box
is usually connected to the "neutral strap" in the
switch box, and also to a brass grounding screw
that will be found in the modern steel switch
cabinet.
We do not ground the service switch or any part
of an interior D. C. wiring system, but one wire
of the D. C. line is grounded at the power plant.
On all alternating current systems, however, this,
additional grounding of the neutral wire as well as
the conduit, and the identification of this wire
throughout the system are great safety features and
advantages, and make the polarized system a very
desirable one to use.
5C111011 CO
95. PARTS OF WIRING SYSTEMS
Fig. 137. The above two sketches show the method of arranging the
Every wiring job consists of at least two, and connections of service wires to a building with strain insulators,
drip loops, and weather heads. Also note the method of bracing a
sometimes three, important parts. They are the porch or corner of a building to stand the strain of a long run of
service wires.
Service, Feeders, and Branch Circuits. All jobs must
have the service and branch circuits, and on the
The electrician wiring the house can use either
larger installations the main circuits feeding from
conduit or knob and tube work for running the serv-
the service to the branch circuit panels are called
ice on in to the service switch. The Code recom-
feeders.
mends the use of conduit, and it is much the best.
The service can be divided into two parts also.
The service wires must be at least No. 8 and rub-
One part is the running of the wires from the trans-
ber covered. This requires 34" conduit, which can
former or line to the building service entrance,
be run from a point near the outside insulators,
which would be the Drip Loops or weather cap on
either up or down the outside wall, or along hori-
the building. The other part is the running of the
zontally, to a convenient place for entrance to the
wires from the drip loop into the service switch.
service switch inside. The wires and conduit should
96. SERVICE WIRES be larger if the load requires.
The service wires from the pole are usually run This conduit should always be equipped with a
by the power company from whom the power is Weather Cap, such as one of the types shown in
to he purchased. These wires should have weather- Fig. 138, so the wires enter from the under side
•proof insulation, and be attached to insulators at and no water can enter the conduit.
208 Wiring, Section Two, Feeders, Branch Circuits

In some cases a "B" condulet fitting can be used, lighting and power outlets with limits as previously
or the upper end of the conduit bent in an inverted mentioned.
"U", and an "A" condulet used to form the weather Appliance Branch Circuits, which supply energy
protection. The strain insulators and weather cap to permanently wired appliances or to attachment
should be located 15 to 18 feet from the ground if plug receptacles.
possible. Appliance Branch circuits are further sub-divided
If knob and tube work is used for the service, the into:
wires should also enter the building high up, to be Ordinary Appliance Branch Circuits, using as a
out of reach from the ground outside. They should rule receptacles and plugs rated at not over 15 am-
also pass through properly sloped tubes where they peres at 125 volts, using at least No. 14 wire and
enter the wall. fused not to exceed 15 amperes. On these cir-
Service wires should enter the building at a point cuits we may use appliances rated at not over
as near as possible to the service switch, and this 1320 watts.
switch should be located near a door or window if Medium Duty Appliance Branch Circuits, wired
possible. This location of the switch is to make it with No. 10 wire, and fused for 25 amperes, where
more easily accessible in case of fire. we may use appliances rated not to exceed 15 am-
peres or 1650 watts each.
Heavy-Duty Appliance Branch Circuits, wired
and fused as above, for appliances between 15 and
20 amperes.
Appliances using over 20 amperes should be sup-
plied by individual circuits.
Fig. 138. Weather head fittings of the types shown above are used
on the end of conduit at the service entrance to prevent water from
entering the conduit.
roo. LOADS ON WIRING SYSTEMS, AND
SIZE OF SERVICE WIRES
97. FEEDERS The total connected load on any wiring system
On larger jobs, such as apartment buildings, can easily be calculated by adding up the rating in
stores, and offices, cut-out blocks, or fuse cabinets watts of all the lamps and devices connected to the
are often located on the various floors or in various system.
sections or apartments. The feeders are run from Then, by dividing this wattage by the voltage of
the service switch to these branch circuit panels, the system, we can determine the current in
and the wires must be of the proper size according amperes which would flow if all the devices were
to the load in amperes which they are to carry. ever operated at once. This would be called the
Sometimes several buildings are connected to- maximum load.
gether by feeders, in which case there must be a In the ordinary building there is almost never a
suitable Feeder Control switch at one end or the time when all lights or devices are turned on at
other, to separate the systems in each building when once. However, careful tests and measurements on
necessary. various classes of buildings show certain average
Service or feeder wires when passing over any loads which represent the usual case. In various
buildings must clear the roofs 8 ft. at their nearest types of buildings these loads vary from 25 per
point. cent to 85 per cent of the connected load.
Until 1928 the National Code required the instal-
98. BRANCH CIRCUITS lation of service wires and feeders large enough to
Practically all wiring systems have Branch Cir- take care of the Maximum Connected Load. If
cuits, which may be referred to as the wires beyond there was a total connected load of 500 amperes in
the last set of fuses. the building, the service wires had to be large
Most branch circuits are two-wire circuits, al- enough for this load, even though there was prac-
though some are three-wire. On all ordinary two- tically no chance of 500 amperes ever being used
wire branch circuits of under 125 volts, we must at any one time.
use at least No. 14 wire, and generally fuses of not
101. DEMAND FACTOR
over 15 ampere size.
In addition to lamps, we may connect appliances The Code now permits us, under certain con-
of not over 660 watts or 6 amperes each to these ditions, to consider the Maximum Demand instead
branch circuits. of the Maximum Connected Load, when figuring
the size of service and feeder wires. To do this we
99. TYPES OF BRANCH CIRCUITS use what is called the Demand Factor. This figure
Branch circuits are sub-divided into: is obtained from the ratio of the maximum demand
Lighting Branch Circuits, which are intended to to the connected load of the type of system we are
supply energy to lighting outlets only, and are gov- considering. It is based on the area, as determined
erned by the rules just given. • by the outside dimensions of the building and the
Combination Lighting and Appliance Branch Cir- number of floors; and it may be applied to interior
cuit, which as its name implies is a combination of wiring systems supplying both lights and ap-
 Wiring, Section Two, Wire Calculations 209

pliances. This demand factor also varies with the In residence buildings of the apartment type, for
use to which the building is put. from two to ten families, we use .70 as the demand
Let us consider an example for an ordinary sin- factor, and add 1000 watts for each apartment for
gle-family dwelling. If the house is 30' X 45' and appliances. The demand factor can also be applied
two stories high (not counting unoccupied base- to the total allowance for appliances.
ments or unfinished attics or porches) then its area In stores, including department stores, we allow
will be 30' X 45' X 2 = 2700 sq. ft. two watts per sq. ft., except for display cases and
For the first 2000 sq. ft. of such buildings, we show windows. For counter display cases, allow 25
allow one watt per sq. ft. or 2000 watts; and for the watts per linear ft. (per ft. of length) ;for wall
balance .60 watts per sq. ft. The balance in this and standing cases, 50 watts per linear foot; and
case is 2700 — 2000, or 700 sq. ft. for show windows, 200 watts per linear ft. In such
With this balance we can use the demand factor, buildings 1.00 is used as a demand factor.
which is .60 for this type of building. Then .60 ><
In garages, allow AI watt per sq. ft., and use 1.00
700 — 420. We must always add an extra 1000
as the demand factor.
watts for appliances.
The total load, or maximum demand, will then In industrial plants and commercial buildings,
be 2000 ± 420 4- 1000 or 3420 watts. If this is to be the service wires are calculated for the specified
on a balanced three-wire system we can divide the load of the equipment. This takes into consideration
watts by 220 volts, or 3420 220 = 15.5 + amperes, the average load factor, which will be covered in a
later section on motors.
to allow for on the service wires. If it is to be a
110 volts system then 3420+110=31.94-amperes. Other kinds of installations are covered in the
(Note—Wherever the + sign is used after an Code and can easily be referred to when required.
answer figure, it indicates this figure is approximate Keep in mind that the demand factor applies only
and not carried out to long decimal fractions.) to services and feeders, and not to branch circuits.

WIRE CALCULATIONS

102. WIRE CALCULATIONS 103. VOLTAGE DROP

A great deal of valuable information on the size Whether or not the wires heat noticeably, the
of copper wires, their resistance, and current carry- resistance and voltage drop on long runs may be
ing capacity can be obtained from convenient great enough to seriously interfere with the efficient
tables; and they should be used whenever possible operation of the connected equipment. Incandes-
as they are great time savers. cent lamps are particularly critical in this respect
There are certain cases, however, when tables are and a drop of just a very few volts below the volt-
not available or do not give just the needed infor- age for which they are rated, greatly reduces their
mation, and a knowledge of simple wire calcula- light and efficiency. In the case of lighting circuits,
tions is then very important. the current reduces when the voltage at the lamps
For example, the table in the National Code is below normal.
which gives the allowable current carrying capaci- Motors are not affected by small voltage varia-
ties is based on the heating of the wires and does tions quite as much as lamps are, but they will not
not consider voltage drop due to resistance of long give their rated horsepower if the voltage is below
runs or lines. Both of these considerations are very that at which they are rated. When loaded motors
important and should always be kept in mind when are operated at reduced voltage, the current flow
planning any electrical wiring system. actually increases, as it requires more amperes to
The wires must not be allowed to heat enough produce a given wattage and horsepower at low
to damage their insulation, or to a point where voltage than at the normal voltage. This current
there will be any chance of igniting nearby ma- increase is also caused by the fact that the opposi-
terials. If wires are allowed to heat excessively, it tion of the motor windings to current flow reduces
may cause the solder at joints to soften and destroy as their speed reduces. The reason for this will be
the quality of the splices; and in other cases it may explained later.
result in expansion of the wires and resulting dam- From the foregoing we can see that it is very
age. Heat is also objectionable because it increases important to have all wires of the proper size, to
the resistance of the wires, thereby increasing the avoid excessive heating and voltage drop; and that,
voltage drop for any given load, in the case of long runs, it is necessary to determine
210 Wiring, Section Two, Wire Calculations

the wire size by consideration of resistance and 1/1000 of an inch, so it is small enough to measure
voltage drop, rather than by the heating effect or and express these sizes very accurately. It is much
tables alone. more convenient to use the mil than thousandths
To solve the ordinary problems requires only a or decimal fractions of an inch. For example, in-
knowledge of a few simple facts about the areas stead of saying a wire has a diameter of .055", or
and resistance of copper conductors and the appli- fifty-five thousandths of an inch, we can simply say
cation of the simplest of arithmetic. or write 55 Mils. So a wire of 250 Mils diameter is
also .250", or 54 inch, in diameter.
104. GAUGE NUMBERS BASED ON As the resistance and current-carrying capacity
RESISTANCE of conductors both depend on their cross-sectional
You have already learned that wire sizes are area, we must also have convenient small units for
commonly specified in B. & S. gauge numbers. This expressing this area. For square conductors such
system was originated by the Brown & Sharpe as bus bars we use the Square Mil, which is simply
Company, well known manufacturers of machine a square 1/1000 of an inch on each side. For round
tools. The B. & S. gauge is commonly called the conductors we use the Circular Mil, which is the
American \Vire Gauge, and is standard in the area of acircle with adiameter of 1/1000 of an inch.
United States for all round solid electrical wires. The abbreviation commonly used for circular mil
These gauge numbers are arranged according to is C.M.
the resistance of the wires, the larger numbers These units simplify our calculations consider-
being for the wires of greatest resistance and ably, as all we need to do to get the area of asquare
smallest area. This is a great convenience, and a conductor in Square Mils, is to multiply one side
very handy rule to remember is that increasing the by the other, measuring them in mils or thousandths
gauge by three numbers gives a wire of approxi- of an inch.
mately twice the area and half the resistance. As To get the area of a round conductor in Circular
an example—if we increase the gauge from No. 3, Mils, we only need to square its diameter in mils
which has .1931 Ohms per 1000 ft., to No. 6, we find or thousandths of an inch. (To square a number
it has .3872 Ohms per 1000 ft., or almost double. merely multiply it by itself).
Brown & Sharpe gauge numbers range from
0000 (four ought), down in size to.number 60. The 106. CONVERSION OF SQUARE MILS TO
0000 wire is nearly inch in diameter and the CIRCULAR MILS
number 60 is as fine as a small hair.
In comparing round and square conductors, how-
The most common sizes used for light and power
ever, we must remember that the square mil and
wiring are from the 0000 down to No. 14; and also,
circular mil are not quite the same size units of
of course, the Nos. 16 and 18, which are used only
area. For a comparison see Fig. 139. At "B" we
for fixture wiring.
have shown a circle within a square. While the
105. CIRCULAR MIL, circle has the same diameter as the square, the cor-
UNIT OF CONDUCTOR AREA ners of the square make it the larger in area. So
In addition to the gauge numbers, we have avery just remember this little illustration, and it will be
convenient unit called the Mil, for measuring the easy to recall that the area of one Circular Mil is
diameter and area of the wires. The mil is equal to less than that of one Square Mil. The actual ratio

A D

Fig. 139. Electrical conductors are commonly made in the several shapes shown above. Note particularly the comparative areas of
round and square conductors as shown at "B", and refer to these illustrations when making the calculations explained in the accom-
panying paragraphs.
 Wiring, Section Two, Wire Calculations 211

between them is .7854, or the circle has only .7854 WIRE TABLE. (Bare Solid Copper)
of the area of a square of the same diameter. B & S Gauge
(Ohms) per
Size Area in Lbs. per 1000 feet at
Then if we wish to find the Circular Mil Area B&S Diameter Circular 1000 feet 60' F.
from the number of Square Mils, we divide the Gauge in Mils Mils Bare Wire azusui!zeu

Square Mils by .7854. 1fwe wish to find the Square Solid Wire
Mil Area from Circular Mils, multiply the Circular 26 15.94 254.1 .77 40.75
Mils by .7854. 25 17.90 320.4 .97 32.21
24 20.10 404.01 1.22 25.60
For example, if the conductor at "A" in Fig. 139 23 22.57 509.5 1.54 20.30
is a No. 0000 and has a diameter of 460 mils, what 22 25.35 642.4 1.95 16.12
21 28.46 810.1 2.45 12.78
is its area both in circular mils and in square mils? 20 31.96 1022. 3.10 10.14
The C.M. area is 460 X 460 = 211,600 C.M. Then 19 35.89 1288. 3.90 8.04
the sq. mil area is 211,600 X .7854 = 166,190.64 .Solid Strand
sq. mils.
18 40.30 1624. 4.917 6.374
If the bus bar at "C", in Fig. 139, is inches 16 50.82 2583. 7.818 3.936
high and g inch thick, what is its area in square 14 64.08 4107. 12.43 2.475
12 80.81 6530. 19.77 1.557
mils, and what size of round conductor would be 10 101.9 10380. 31.43 .9792
necessary to carry the same current that this bus 9 114.4 13090. 39.63 .7765
bar would? First, the dimensions of a X" x 1W' 8 128.5 16510. 49.98 .6158
7 144.3 20820. 63.02 .4883
bus bar, stated in mils, are 250 mils X 1500 mils. 6 162. 26250. 79.46 .3872
Then the area in sq. mils is 250 >< 1500 = 375,000 5 181.9 33100. 100.2 .3071
sq. mils. 4 204.3 41740. 126.4 .2436
3 229.4 52630. 159.3 .1931
To find what this area would be in circular mils •2 257.6 66370. 200.9 .1532
we divide 375,000 by .7854, and find it would be 1 289.3 83690. 253.3 .1215
0 324.9 105500. 319.5 .09633
477,463.7 C.M. The nearest size to this in a round 00 364.8 133100. 402.8 .07639
conductor is the 500,000 C.M. size, which we would 000 409.6 167800. 508. .06058
use in this case. 0000 460. 211600. 640.5 .04804

Bus bars of the shape shown at "C" in Fig. 139 Stranded Cable-Circular Mil Sizes
are commonly used in wiring power plant or large 500. 250000. 756.8 .04147
distribution switchboards. These bars ordinarily 547.7 300000. 908.1 .03457
591.6 350000. 1059. .02963
range in thickness from .250" to .375"; and in 632.5 400000. 1211. .02592
height, from 1" to 12". On voltages under 600 they 707.1 500000. 1514. .02074
774.6 600000. 1816. .01729
can be used bare, when properly mounted on
el 836.7 700000. 2119. .01481
switchboard panels. On higher voltages they are 866. 750000. 2270. .01382
usually taped to avoid shock hazard. 894.4 800000. 2422. .01296
948.7 900000. 2724. .01153
It is quite common practice to allow about 1000 1000. 1000000. 3027. .01036
amperes per sq. inch on such busses when they are 1118. 1250000. 3784. .00839
a 1225. 1500000. 4540. .00692
located in well ventilated places. This is avery con- 1323. 1750000. 5297. .00593
venient figure and should be remembered. 1414. 2000000. 6054. .00518
When heavier currents than one of the thin bars The above table of diameters, areas, weights, and resistance of copper
wires will be very convenient whenever you have a problem of wire
can carry, are to be handled on a switchboard, sizes or calculations.
several bars are usually mounted in parallel with
small spaces between them for air circulation and 107. RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTORS
cooling.
As previously mentioned, it is often necessary to
Stranded conductors, such as shown in Fig. determine the exact resistance of a conductor of a
139-D, are used on all sizes larger than 0000. As certain length, in order to calculate the voltage
stranded conductors are not solid throughout, we drop it will have at a certain current load.
cannot determine their area accurately by squaring The resistance per 1000 ft. of various wires can
their diameter. This diameter also varies some- be obtained from the accompanying wire table, and
what with the twist or "lay" of the strands. from these figures it is easy to calculate the resis-
To determine the cross-sectional area of such tance of smaller or greater lengths.
conductors, we get the area of each strand, either Suppose you wish to find the total resistance of
from a wire table or by calculation from its dia- a two-wire run of No. 10 conductors 150 ft. long.
meter, and then multiply this by the number of First multiply by 2, to get the entire length of both
strands, to get the total area of the cable in C.M. wires; or 2 X 150 = 300 ft. Then, from the table,
The following wire table gives some very con- we find that the resistance of No. 10 wire is .9792
venient data and information on the common sizes Ohms per 1000 ft. Our circuit is less than 1000 ft.;
of conductors, and will be very convenient for or 300/1000 X .9742 = .29226 Ohms; or approxi-
uture reference as well as during your study of mately .29, which would be accurate enough for the
this section. ordinary job.
212 Wiring, Section Two, Wire Calculations

In another case, we wish to run a short outdoor Checking this with the table, we find the table
line between two buildings, a distance of 1650 ft., gives for No. 20 wire a resistance of 10.14 Ohms
and using No. 1 wire. What would its total resis- per 1000 ft. Then for 3000 ft. we get 3 X 10.14
tance be? The total length of both wires will be = 30.42 Ohms. The small difference in this figure
2 x 1650 = 3300 ft. From the table, we find the re- and the one obtained by the first calculation, is
sistance of No. 1 wire is .1215 Ohms per 1000 ft. caused by using approximate figures instead of
Then as 3300 ft. is 3.3 times 1000, we multiply lengthy complete fractions.
3.3 X .1215 = .40095 or approximately .4 Ohms.
We can use the mil ft. unit and its resistance of
The National Code table for carrying capacities 10.8 to calculate the resistance of square bus bars,
uf wires, allows 100 amperes for No. 1 R.C. wire. by simply using the figure .7854 to change from
We find, however, that if we have this much current sq. mils to C.M.
flowing through our line, the voltage drop (Ed) will
Suppose we wish to find the resistance of a
be I X R or 100 x .4 = 40 volts. This is too much
square bus bar X" x 2", and 100 ft. long. The di-
tu be practical, because even if we applied 120 volts
mensions in mils will be 250 x 2000, or 500,000
to one end of the line, the lamps or devices at the
sq. mils area. Then, to find the circular mil area,
other end would receive only 120 — 40, or 80 volts.
we divide 500,000 by .7854 and get 636,618+ C.M.
The watts loss in the line would be I X Ed, or
area. Then, 100 ft. X 10.8 = 1080 Ohms, or the
100 x 40 = 4000 watts, or 4 KW.
resistance of 100 ft. of copper 1mil in area. As the
So we find that the practical load for such a line area of this bar is 636,618 C.M., we divide: 1080 +
would be about 25 amperes, which would give a 636,618 = .001,696+ Ohm, total resistance. Ac-
voltage drop of 25 X .4 or 10 volts. If we now cording to the allowance of 1000 amperes per sq.
apply 120 volts to the line, the equipment at the inch, such a bus bar could carry 500 amperes, as it
far end will receive 110 volts, and the loss will only is %" x 2" = AI sq. inch area. With a 500 ampere
be 25 X 10 or 250 watts. load, the voltage drop would be I X R, or 500 X
.001696 = .848, or approximately .85 volts drop.
108. RESISTANCE OF COPPER PER MIL
The following table gives the allowable current
FOOT
carrying capacities of wires with rubber insulation;
In many cases we may need to calculate the re- also those with varnished cloth and other insula-
sistance of a certain length of wire or bus bar of a
tions, such as slow burning, etc. This table gives
given size. the current allowed by the National Code.
This can be done very easily if we know the unit
resistance of copper. For this we use the very ALLOWABLE CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY
convenient unit called the Mil Foot: This repre- OF WIRES
sents a piece of round wire 1 mil in diameter and
B. & S. Area in Allowable Current in Amperes
Ift. in length, and is asmall enough unit to be very Gauge Circular Rubber Varo. Cloth Asbestos
Number Mils Insulation Insulation Insulation
accurate for all practical calculations. A round wire
(ef 1mil diameter has an area of just 1circular mil, I't 1,621 3 5
16 2,583 6 10
as the diameter multiplied by itself or "squared", 14 4,107 15 23 32
is 1 x 1 = 1circular mil area. 12 6,53(1 20 29 42
10 10,380 25 38 54
The resistance of ordinary copper is 10.79 Ohms 8 16,510 33 50 71
6 2( 50 45 68 95
per Mil Foot, but we generally use the figure 10.8 as
5 33.100 52 78 110
sufficiently accurate. This figure or "constant" is 4 41,740 60 88 122
important and should be remembered. 3 52,630 69 104 145
2 66,370 80 118 163
Suppose we wish to determine the resistance of 1 83,690 91 138 188
a piece of No. 12 wire, 50 ft. long. We know that 0 105,500 105 157 223
00 133,100 120 181 249
the resistance ot any conductor increases as its 000 167,800 138 209 284
length increases, and decreases as its area increases. 0000 211,600 160 237 340
250,000 177 272 372
So, for a wire 50 ft. long, we first multiply, and get 300,000 198 299 415
50 x 10.8 = 540. which would be the resistance of 350,000 216 325 462
a wire 1C.M. in area and 50 ft. long. Then we find 400,000 233 361 488
500,000 265 401 554
in the table that the area of a No. 12 wire is 6530 600,000 293 453 612
C.M., which will reduce the resistance in propor- 800,000 340 514 720
tion. So we now divide: 540 + 6530 = .0826+ 1,000,000 377 583 811
1,500,000 434 698
Ohms.
The capacities abo‘c are babt.d on copper having 98
In another case we wish to find the resistance of
per cent of the conductivity of pure copper wire. For
3000 ft. of No. 20 wire, for a coil winding perhaps. insulated aluminum wire the capacity will be taken as 84
Then, 3000 x 10.8 = 32,400; and, as the area of per cent of the values given in the table. Wires can be
connected in parallel for greater capacity only by the
No. 20 wire is 1022 C.M., we divide: 32,400 + 1022 consent of the inspection department of the National
= 31.7+ Ohms. Board of Fire Underwriters.
 Wiring, Section Two, Wire Calculations 213

109. ALLOWABLE VOLTAGE DROP flow over the two outside feeder wires at 220 volts.
So to find the current we use the formula W + E
We must remember, however, that this table
= I, or 11,020 + 220 = 50+ amperes.
does not take into consideration the length of the
wires or voltage drop. For this reason we may often We will allow 6 volts drop on the feeders, and,
wish to use larger wires than the table requires. using the wire size formula, we will substitute the
values we have found, as follows:
In lighting installations, we should never use
wires so small that there will be over 2per cent drop 10.8X 200x 2 x 50
on branch circuits, or 3 per cent drop on feeder C.M .=
circuits. Generally the voltage drop should not be 6
more than 1 to 2 per cent. On power wiring in- Working this out, we find we get 36,000 C.M. area
stallations, there should usually not be over 5 per for the wire. Looking this up in the table we find
cent drop. This means that on a 110 volt branch that the next size larger is No. 4 wire, which has
circuit we should not have over .02 X 110 or about 41,740 C.M. area. As the Code table allows 70
2.2 volts drop; on 220 volt feeder circuits, not over amperes for this wire with rubber insulation, we
.03 X 220 or 6.6 volts drop; and on 440 volt power find we are quite safe in using it from this stand-
circuits, not over .05 X 440 or 22 volts drop, etc. point.
Try out the foregoing formula on some imaginary
110. SIMPLE FORMULA FOR CONDUCTOR
problems of your own, until you can use it easily
AREA because it is very commonly used in electrical lay-
For selecting the proper size of conductor for outs and estimating.
any known load in amperes, and to keep the volt-
age drop within the desired practical limit, we have 111.. VOLTAGE DROP FORMULA
a very simple formula that will tell us the circular If we wish to determine what the voltage drop
mil area of the conductor to use. will be on a certain installation already made, or
This formula must, of course, consider the resis- on the wires proposed for a job, we can simply
tance of copper, the total length of the line, and transpose the formula we have just used, inter-
the current load in amperes. It is as follows: changing voltage drop for C.M. area, as follows:

10.8 X L X2X I E — 10.8XLx 2 xI

C.M. — d
Ed C.M.
In which: Suppose we have a two-wire, 110 volt installation
C.M. =
Circular mil area of conductor. where the load is 25 amperes and the feeder is 120
10.8 =
Resistance of copper per mil ft. feet long, and only supplied with 110 volts.
L =
Length of line in feet. The Code allows us to use a No. 10 wire for 25
2 =
Is to multiply by to obtain total length amperes, and the area of No. 10 wire is 10,380 C.M.
of both wires. Then, substituting these values in the formula, we
I = Load in amperes. have
Ed = Allowable voltage drop in volts. (Not 10.8 X 120 x 2 x 25,
in per cent.) Ed — 10 380 or 6.24 volts,
,
(Note: The figure 2 is also used for Edison
three-wire systems, as the current never has to whereas we should not have more than 3% of 110,
flow through more than the resistance of two or about 3.3 volts drop.
wires.)
In another case, suppose an electrician used No.
Now let's see how we would use this handy 14 wire for a 110 volt branch circuit in afactory and
formula for choosing the size of wire on a certain this circuit had twelve 100 watt lamps and two 60
job. Suppose we wish to run a feeder 200 ft. long watt lamps connected to it, and was 90 ft. long. The
to a branch panel on which the load consists of: total watts in this case would be 1320 and at 110
Twenty-six 60 watt, 110 volt lamps; ten 200 watt, volts, this would be a load of 12 amperes. It would
110 volt lamps; and one 10 h.p., 220 volt motor. be quite natural to use No. 14 wire, as the Code
First, we will find the total load in watts. allows 15 amperes for this size, and it is the size
Twenty-six 60 watt lamps will use 26 x 60, or so commonly used. But checking it with our
1560 watts. Ten 200 watt lamps will use 10 x 200, formula we find that No. 14 wire has an area of
or 2000 watts. As there are 746 watts in 1h. p., the 4107 C.M., and that
10 h. p. motor will use 10 X 746 or 7460 watts.
10.8 X 90 X 2 X 12,
(Assuming 100% efficiency.) Ed = or 5.6+ volts drop,
4.107
Then 1560 + 2000 + 7460 = 11,020 watts. As-
suming this load to be balanced, the current will all which would certainly not be satisfactory.
214 Wiring, Section Two, Wire Calculation*

Using the other formula again, we can easily de- TABLE OF VOLTAGE DROP
termine the size of wire that should have been used Volts drop Volts drop
SizeB.&S. per 1000 feet Size B. & S. per 1000 feet
on this job to keep within the normal 2 volts drop. Gauge per ampere Gauge per ampere

C.M. = 10 .
8 X 9° X 2 x 12 'or 11,664 C.M. Area 18
16 6.374
3.936 250,000.
300,000. .04147
.03457
2 14 2.475 350,000. .02963
As the next larger wire is No. 8, this should have 10
12 1.
557 400,000. 0
02
: 5972
20 4

been used; or as a No. 10 wire has 10,380 C.M. area, 9 .7765

.9792 500,000.
600,000. .01729
it could be used, with slightly over 2 volts drop. 8 .6158 700,000. .01481
7 .4883 750,000.
So we find that it is very important to be able to 6 800,000. .01382
.01296
do these simple wire calculations on certain jobs, 5 .3872 900,000. .01153
and you will find this material of great value, both 4
.2436
.3071 1,000,000. .01036
3 .1931 1,250,000.
1,500,000.
in learning how to use the formulas, and in using 2 .1532
.1215 .00829
them and the tables for future reference. 1
0 .09633
1,750,000.
2,000,000.
.00593
.00692
The following table of voltage drop per 1000 ft., 00 .07639 .00518
per ampere, with various sized conductors is also 000 .06058
very convenient, and the wire table on the next page 0000 .04804
gives a lot of very valuable data on copper conduc-
tors. that will often prove very useful.Ampere. Volts Lost Per 1000 Feet per
 Wiring, Section Two, Wire Calculations 215

Gauge Equivalents with Weights and Resistances of

Standard Annealed Copper Wire

B. & S. Ohms at 68 deg. Fah.

Amen. Feet Pounds B. & S.
Area
can Amei
Diameter
Circular can
Wire In
Gauge Inches Mils Wir
Per 1,000 Ft. Per Mile Per Pound Per Pound Per Ohm Per 1,000 Ft. Per Olun
No. Per Mile Gau e
No.
--

0000 0.460 211600. 0.04906 0.25903 0.000077 1.56122 20497.7 640.51 12987. 3380. 0000
000 0.40964 167805. 0.06186 0.32664 0.00012 1.9687 16255.27 507.95 8333. 2680. 000
00 0.3648 133079. 0.07801 0.41187 0.00019 2.4824 12891.37 402.83 5263. 2130. 00

0 0.32486 105534. 0.09831 0.51909 0.00031 3.1303 10223.08 319.45 3225. 1680. 0
I 0.2893 83694. 0.12404 0.65490 0.00049 3.94714 8107.49 253.34 2041. 1340. 1
y 0.25763 66373. 0.1563 0.8258 0.00078 4.97722 6429.58 200.91 1282. 1060. 2

3 0.22942 52634. 0.19723 1.0414 0.00125 6.2765 5098.61 159.32 800. • 840. 3
4 0.20431 41743. 0.24869 1.313 0.00198 7.9141 4043.6 126.35 505. 665. 4
5 0.18194 33102. 0.31361 1.655 0.00314 9.97983 3206.61 100.20 528.
310. 5

6 0.16202 26251. 0.39546 2.088 0.00499 12.5847 2542.89 79.462 200. 420. 6
7 0.14428 20817. 0.49871 2.633 0.00797 15.8696 2015.51 63.013 126. 333. 7
8 0.12849 16510. 0.6529 3.3 0.0125 20.0097 1599.3 49.976 80. 264. 8

9 0.11443 13094. 0.7892 4.1 0.0197 25.229 1268.44 39.636 50. 209. 9
to 0.10189 10382. 0.8441 4.4 0.0270 31.8212 1055.66 31.426 37. 166. 10
ii 0.090742 8234. 1.254 6.4 0.0501 40.1202 797.649 24.924 20. 132. 11

12 0.080808 6530. 1.580 8.3 0.079 50.5906 632.555 19.766 12.65 105. 12
13 0.071961 5178. 1.993 10.4 0.127 63.7948 501.63 15.674 7.87 82.9 13
14 0.064084 4107. 2.504 13.2 0.200 80.4415 397.822 12.435 5.00 65.5 14

is 0.057068 3257. 3.172 16.7 0.320 101.4365 315.482 9.859 3.12 52.1 15
16 0.05082 2583. 4.001 23. 0.512 127.12 250.184 7.819 1.95 41.3 16
17 0.045257 2048. 5.04 26. 0.811 161.22 198.409 6.199 1.23 32.7 17

18 0.040303 1624. 6.36 33. 1.29 203.374 157.35 4.916 0.775 26.0 18
19 0.03589 1288. 8.25 43. 2.11 256.468 124.777 3.899 0.473 20.6 19
yo 0.031961 1021. 10.12 53. 3.27 323.399 98.9533 3.094 0.305 16.3 20

21 0.028462 810. 12.76 68. 5.20 407.815 78.473 2.452 0.192 12.9 21
22 0.025347 642. 16.25 85. 8.35 514.193 62.236 1.945 0.119 10.24 22
23 0.022571 509. 20.30 108. 13.3 648.452 49.3504 1.542 0.075 8.13 23

elt 24 0.0201 404. 25.60 135. 20.9 817.688 39.1365 1.223 0.047 6.44 24
si 25 0.0179 326. 32.2 170. 33.2 1031.038 31.0381 0.9699 0.030 5.12 25
26 0.01594 254. 40.7 214. 52.9 1300.180 24.6131 0.7692 0.0187 4.06 26

27 0.014195 201. 51.3 270. 84.2 1639.49 19.5191 0.6099 0.0118 3.22 27
ye 0.012641 159.8 64.8 343. 134. 2067.364 15.4793 0.4837 0.0074 2.56 28
29 0.011257 126.7 81.6 432. 213. 2606.959 12.2854 0.3835 0.0047 2.03 29

30 0.010025 100.5 103. 538. 338. 3287.084 9.7355 0.3002 0.0029 1.61 30
31 0.008928 79.7 130. 685. 539. 4414.49 7.72143 0.2413 0.0018 1.27 31
32 0.00795 63. 164. 865. 856. 5226.915 6.12243 0.1913 0.0011 1.01 32

33' 0.00708 50.1 206. 1033. 1357. 6590.41 4.85575 0.1517 0.00076 0.803 33
34 0.006304 39.74 260. 1389. 2166. 8312.8 3.84966 0.1204 0.00046 0.634 34
35 0.005614 31.5 328. 1820. 3521. 10481.77 3.05305 0.0956 0.00028 0.504 35

36 0.005 25. 414. ' 2200. 5469. 13214.16 2.4217 0.0757 0.00018 0.400 36
37 0.004453 19.8 523. 2765. 8742. 16659.97 1.92086 0.06003 0.00011 0.317 37
38 0.003965 15.72 660. 3486. 13772. 21013.25 1.52292 0.04758 0.00007 0.251 38

39 0.003531 12.47 832. 4395. 21896. 26496.237 1.20777 0.03755 0.00004 0.199 39
40 0.003144 9.88 1049. 5542. 34823. 33420.63 0.97984 0.02992 0.000029 0.158 40
---

No. 140. This very complete table of data for copper conductors will often save you a great amount of time if you become familiar with its use.
and refer to it for the information it contains. It will be a good plan to compare the sizes, areas and resistance of a number of the more
common sized wires given in this table. This will help you to understand the gauge numbers and in making selections of proper conductors
for various jobs in the future.
216

INSTALLATION METHODS

112. LAYOUTS AND PLANS new building, the holes for the porcelain tubes can
In starting any wiring job, whether you are work- be drilled through the center of the joists, as these
ing for acontractor or in business for yourself, there holes are not large enough to materially weaken
are certain general steps to be followed. Regarding the woodwork. Knobs can be placed along the
oimple knob and tube installations, it is not neces- joists for circuits to be run in the walls, and also
sary to say much more about the details of this along the joists in unfinished attics and basements.
work than has been previously covered. However, Before determining the location of the meter and
remember that before running any wires, one service switch, we should locate the probable point
should have the location of all outlets well in mind, at which the power company will bring the wires
and preferably sketched on aplan; and then marked from their pole line into the building, and the ser-
on the frame work of the new building, if it is such; vice switch and meter should be located near this
or upon the walls and ceilings of an old building in point if possible.
which the wiring is being installed after the house In knob and tube installation in new buildings,
has been built. the wiring should, of course, all be installed before
the lath and plaster are put on the walls. The
113. LOCATION OF LIGHT AND SWITCH thickness of lath and plaster that are to be used
OUTLETS should be carefully considered, so that the edges
Ceiling outlets for lighting fixtures should be of the outlet boxes will be about flush with or about
carefully located and centered to give a balanced an eighth of an inch under this surface.
appearance in the room, and to afford the best
distribution of light. 115. MAKING CONNECTIONS TO
Wall light outlets should be placed about the SWITCHES AND FIXTURES
walls with proper regard for locations of doors,
When the wires are attached, and the ends
windows, and large permanent pieces of furniture.
brought out in the box, it is well to plug the outlet
Outlets for wall bracket lights should be approxi-
box with a wad of newspaper to keep the wire
mately 66 inches from the floor, if the fixture turns
ends from becoming damaged or the box clogged
upward from the outlet. If it is of the type that
with plaster. After the plaster is on and has hard-
hangs downward, the outlet should be about 72 to ened, the fixtures can be hung and connections
74 inches from the floor. These heights, of course, made to them and the switches.
will depend somewhat upon the ceiling height in In making all such connections, be sure to strip
various rooms, and the scheme of decoration used. enough of the end of the wires to make a good
Outlets for wall switches should be about 52 inches hook, or one complete turn under the terminal
from the floor to the bottom of the outlet box, and screws, but don't strip an excessive amount so there
their locations should be carefully chosen to give
would be more bare wire than necessary around
the greatest convenience in control of the lights. the switch terminals or fixture connections. See
For example—it is common practice to have the that these wires are bright and clean before placing
control switches for one or more lights near the them under the screws, and always bend the hook
front door or entrance to the house, so they can in the end of the wire to the right, that is, clock-
be turned on as soon as the person comes inside at wise or in the same direction the screw head turns.
night. In other rooms of the house, switches can This causes the screw to wrap the wire hook tight
be placed either near doors, or in the most con- around it; while if the hook is made in the opposite
venient locations, to save as many steps as possible. direction it often opens up and works out from
The owner of the building should of course be con- under the screw head when it is tightened. Don't
sulted on such matters, in order to give the best twist these screws too tight, because they are usu-
possible satisfaction in the finished job. ally of soft brass and the threads can be easily
After the outlets have all been located, the short- stripped.
est and most direct runs should be chosen for the
various wires to fixtures and switches. Then if 116. BX AND NON-METALLIC CABLE
there is no blue print already provided for the INSTALLATION
fob, acomplete wiring diagram of each floor should
The same general rules apply to wiring a new
be laid out on paper to be sure to get the proper
building with BX or non-metallic sheathed cable.
circuits and control of lights and equipment with Either of these materials can be run along the
the fewest possible wires. joists and through holes in the framework as re-
114. KNOB AND TUBE INSTALLATION quired. Before cutting the various lengths of wire,
If knob and tube wiring is being installed in a BX, or cable for any run, be sure to measure them
 Wiring, Section Two, Installation Methods 217

accurately and allow a few inches extra for strip- you will be able to solve almost any problem of this
ping the ends and making splices and connections. kind that you may encounter.
It is always much better to allow a few inches over In pulling wires into spaces between the joists
and trim this off when making the final connec- in walls, a flashlight placed in the outlet box hole
tions, rather than to find the wires or cable too is often a great help in feeding the wires in, or in
short and then have to replace them. Always catching them with a hook to draw them out of the
tighten BX and cable clamps securely in the outlet outlet opening.
box openings to effect a good ground. Where it is necessary to remove floor boards,
When wiring old buildings, great care should be it should be done with the greatest of care, so as
used not to damage the plaster or decorations, and not to split the edges and make a bad appearing
not to make any unnecessary dirt or mess around job when the boards are replaced. A special saw
the building. When cutting holes in the plaster can be obtained for cutting into floors without drill-
on walls or ceilings to locate outlet boxes, a cloth ing holes to start the saw. Then, if the beading
or paper should be spread underneath to catch all or tongue is split off with athin sharp chisel driven
plaster dust. Sometimes an old umbrella can be down in the crack between the boards, the board
opened and hung or held up side down under the from which the tongue has been removed can be
place in the ceiling where the hole is being made, pried up carefully without damaging the rest of
so it will catch all of this dirt and keep it off from the floor.
rugs and furniture.

117. LOCATING AND CUTTING OUTLET

BOX OPENINGS
Be careful not to cut any of these holes so large
that the fixture canopies or switch plates will not
cover them neatly. In case the plaster cracks or
a mistake is made so that the hole cannot be com-
pletely covered, it should be filled with plaster of
paris, or regular patching plaster, to make a neat
appearance.
Outlet box holes can be cut through the plaster Fig. 141. The view at "A" shows the wrong method of cutting lath
to install an outlet box for switches. Note that the metal "ears"
with a chisel. The size of the holes should be care- do not reach over the lath to provide any anchorage for the screws.
fully marked by drawing a pencil around the out- At "B" is shown the correct method of cutting the lath to make a
secure mounting for boxes of this type.
let box, held against the plaster. In locating the
exact spot to cut these openings in the plaster, it If it is necessary to run wires or BX crosswise
is well to first cut a very small hole in the center through a number of floor or ceiling joists, it can
of the spot where the larger one is to be made, usually be done by boring the holes through them
using this to locate the cracks between the lath. at a slight angle, and then working the wires or
Then it is possible to shift the mark for the larger cable through. Where tubes are used, be sure to
hole up or down a little so the lath can be cut place the heads up in these slanting holes, so the
properly, to leave aplace in the wood for the screws tubes cannot work out.
which fasten the box to the wall. If this method Sometimes it is necessary to remove baseboards
is not followed, sometimes two complete laths are and cut holes behind these, to aid in fishing the
cut away, and the metal ears on the box, which wires or cable up or down through floors and into
have the screw holes in them, will not reach from the walls at this point. In other cases, a channel
one remaining lath to the other. can be cut in the plaster behind the baseboard,
On wall outlet openings we should always try and BX or non-metallic sheathed cable run in this
to cut clear through one lath and a short distance channel, and the baseboard replaced to cover it.
into two adjacent ones. Fig. 141-A shows the wrong Whenever removing baseboards in this manner,
way that laths are sometimes cut, and "B" shows be very careful not to split the "quarter-round"
the proper way in which they should be cut. wood strips or trimming that is often fastened
For cutting round holes a regular plaster cutter along the edges of the baseboard. A broad putty
can be obtained, which fits into an ordinary brace knife is a very good tool to use in removing these
and can be rotated the same as a drill. strips.
For ceiling outlets never cut the lath any more A key-hole saw is very useful in cutting through
than necessary to bring the wires or EX through. laths to make outlet openings. Let us emphasize
once again that in installing old house wiring,
118. RUNNING WIRES AND BX INTO
thoughtfulness, care, and neatness are the greatest
DIFFICULT PLACES
essentials in leaving the customer satisfied.
A number of methods have already been de-
scribed for pulling and fishing wires, cable, and 119. CONDUIT INSTALLATION
BX into walls and openings in finished buildings; When installing conduit wiring systems in new
so that, with a little ingenuity and careful thought, buildings, the entire plan should be carefully gone
218 Wiring, Section Two, Installation Methods

over first, to make sure that proper number of straight, so the fixtures will present a neat appear-
wires for each circuit and the proper sizes of con- ance when they are installed. If these boxes are
duit have been selected. A great deal of time and carelessly located, it is almost impossible, and cer-
money can be saved by planning these things in tainly a mighty costly job, to correct them after
advance and thereby avoiding costly mistakes. the concrete is poured.
After the outlets have been located and the boxes After the locations for the outlets have been
carefully installed on their proper supports and carefully marked on the boards, the conduit can
hangers, the lengths of conduit can be cut, bent, be cut to the proper lengths, reamed, threaded,
and fitted in place. and fitted to the outlet boxes.
In running conduit in wood frame buildings, care Before the boxes are nailed in place, the ends
must be taken not to damage or weaken the build- of all conduits should be tightly plugged, either
ing structure. In some cases a conduit run cannot with wood plugs or with special disks which are
be made in the shortest and most direct line, be- held in place by the bushings. These plugs are
cause it would necessitate the notching of joists to keep soft concrete from running into the pipes.
at some distance from any support. This should Then the outlet boxes should be packed tightly
not be done, as it is likely to weaken them too with newspaper, so that there is no possibility of
much. Instead, it Is better to run the conduit along their filling up with wet concrete. Then the boxes
between the joists for some distance and then make should be nailed securely in place so that there
the cross run near a wall or partition support, so is no chance of their being moved before or dur-
the notches in the joists can be near their ends ing the time the concrete is being poured. If these
where the strain is not so great. precautions of plugging conduit and outlet boxes
Fig. 142 is a view looking down on a group of are not observed, you will often encounter a very
ceiling joists, and which illustrates the proper difficult and expensive job of drilling hard concrete
method of running conduit in such cases. out of the boxes or pipes.
In certain types of frame-building construction, The installation of the complete conduit system
finished floors are laid on strips an inch or more is what we term "roughing in." None of the wires
thick over the soft-wood floors. In such cases, should be pulled in until all mechanical work on
with the permission of the contractor or architect, the building is completed. Sometimes on big
the conduit can often be run between these floors, buildings this requires weeks or months after the
thus saving considerable labor and materials. conduit has been installed, so you can see how
All lengths of conduit should be screwed into important it is to have complete and accurate
their couplings as tightly as possible, to make the sketches and plans of the whole electrical system.
conduit ground circuit complete and the entire sys-
tem secure and tight. \ \ .>
In attaching the conduit to outlet boxes, screw hi
>1 L\
the lock-nut well back on the threads, insert the ,
threaded end of the pipe in the knock-out opening,
P o
itN
and screw the bushing on this end as far as it will
,
1
1 1
L

go. Then tighten the lock-nut securely with a i i i 11

i i 1
1
wrench.
120. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS FOR Ys 'k
CONDUIT IN CONCRETE BUILDINGS i I
1 I \
When installing conduit in concrete buildings, 1
there are sometimes fewer problems than with 1 i \
+e 1
wood construction, but there are a number of dif-
— ....
ferent details which must be observed. In this
type of building, conduit generally runs directly by Fig. 142. Ceiling joists should not be notched in their centers In order
the shortest path from one box to the next; and to run conduit by the shortest path to outlets. Instead the joists
should be notched near walls or supports, and the conduit bent to
when the concrete is poured around it, the conduit, run through these notches, and then back between the joists to the
outlets as shown in this diagram.
instead of weakening the structure, has a tendency
to strengthen it.
121. PULLING IN THE WIRES
Just as soon as the wood forms for a certain
section of the building are set up, the electrician When we are ready to pull the wires into the
must be on the job to install the conduit and outlet conduit, the outlet boxes should be cleaned out
boxes. In most cases he must be on hand practi- and all plugs removed from the ends of the pipe.
cally all the time these forms are going up, as On very short runs, the ends of the wires can
there are certain places where it is necessary to sometimes be twisted together and the group sim-
install the boxes or conduit as the carpenters are ply pushed through from one outlet to the next.
placing the wood forms. More often, however, we will need to push the
The locations of outlet boxes, particularly those steel fish tape through first, and then pull the wires
for ceiling lights, should he lined up carefully and through with it, as previously described. This is
 Wiring, Section Two, Business Methods and Estimating 219

usually a job for two men, one to feed the wires make another thorough test before they are sol-
into the conduit straight and even, without allow- dered, to see that all connections are proper and
ing them to cross or kink, and the other man to that no faults have developed.
pull on the fish tape. The soldering should then be done immediately,
We should not forget to use powdered mica or before the bare copper has time to oxidize or cor-
soap stone to lubricate the wires when necessary rode. Then all splices should be thoroughly and
on long runs. carefully taped, both with rubber and friction tape.
On short runs where the wires pull in rather Never slight this part of the job because, if you
easily, it may only be necessary to hook them do, shorts or grounds are likely to develop when
through the loop in the fish tape and twist them the poorly taped splices are pressed back into the
together a few times. On more difficult runs, it outlet boxes.
is sometimes necessary to solder these twisted loops In hanging fixtures care should be taken to make
so there will be no chance of their pulling loose a neat job of it, and not to dirty the light-colored
from the fish tape. ceiling by rubbing hands or black materials against
it. In some cases the fixture splices are sol-
122. FINAL TESTS dered, while in others solderless connectors can be
When the wires are all pulled in and the ends used. These connectors are especially desirable in
cut off at the outlet box, allowing the extra length buildings where no smoke or soot from the solder-
for splices and connections, these ends can then ing operation can be allowed.
be stripped and cleaned. Before any connections After all wiring is complete and all devices con-
are made, all wires should be thoroughly tested nected up, make a final test at the fuse box to be
with a dry cell and buzzer or magneto and bell, sure there are no shorts or grounds on the "hot"
to make sure there are no shorts or grounds which wire. If the system tests clear, then insert the
might have occurred through damaging the insu- fuses if the service has been connected to the power
lation when the wires were pulled in. line, close the switch and test all switches and lights
After the splices are made, it is a good idea to for satisfactory operation.

BUSINESS METHODS AND ESTIMATING

123. SALESMANSHIP come to you. It requires active salesmanship and

For the man who may plan to enter a business some advertising to get established and build up
of his own sooner or later, the following common a business of this nature.
sense principles of salesmanship and business meth- A great many men have the ability and qualifi-
ods, as well as the simple practical tips on esti- cations necessary, and with training of the kind
mating, should be very useful. covered in the course, should be able to make a
In most towns, whether they are small villages real success, and certainly should not overlook
these opportunities.
or medium-sized or larger cities, there are oppor-
tunities for a wide-awake electrical contractor who 124. NOT MUCH CAPITAL REQUIRED TO
knows his business and gives first-class, up-to-date START
service.
As mentioned in an earlier section, a great num-
Even in the small towns or localities, where there ber of our graduates have started splendid busi-
seems to be considerable competition already exist- nesses of their own with a few small jobs to begin
ing, an aggressive man can often build up asplendid with, doing the work in their own basements or
business with certain classes of work that are over- homes, on such repair jobs as were taken in. Of
looked by the present organizations; and in some course, the smaller wiring jobs for various cus-
cases, where the existing prices charged for this tomers are done on their premises, and do not
work are high, the man starting in on a small scale require at the beginning an elaborate outlay of
with low overhead expense can often do first-class tools and materials. As the business grows, one
work at a more reasonable price, and thereby build can acquire more tools and materials, some of which
up a good business and reputation for himself.
should be kept on hand. Later he may rent a
This, of course, cannot be done by merely locat- shop or building for a store and place to repair
ing in a place, and waiting for the business to electrical equipment.
 Norman Eder
220 41 Georgia Ave, Wiring, Section Two, Business Methods and Estimating

The Brooklyn
very fact that
7, r\t,
you have had training at an voltage at the outlets and lamp sockets, will tend
institution of this kind often makes a prospective to leave the impression that you are up-to-date and
customer more inclined to try your work and abil- well qualified to do good work whenever they may
ity, and if you uphold your reputation from the need you.
start by putting your knowledge into practice and A tree inspection of the wiring and electrical
doing first-class work on every job, your success appliances in a home is often a very good method
will be quite certain. of approach. If conditions are found in the wiring
125. PERSONAL CONTACT WITH which are likely to be hazardous from the fire or
CUSTOMERS VERY IMPORTANT shock standpoint, this can be called to the attention
Very often the easiest way to secure the first of the owner in a diplomatic and pleasant manner,
and a recommendation made that they be fixed or
jobs is by personal contact and salesmanship.
Wherever new buildings are being erected there changed at the first opportunity.
are possible customers for wiring jobs, whether Minor repairs on plugs or cords of appliances,
defective light switches or sockets, and things of
these buildings are small private garages, complete
homes, stores, factories, or office buildings. this kind can often be made in a few minutes time,
Even where there is very little construction tak- and with almost no cost to the electrician. They
ing place, there are usually homes or buildings with will, however, usually create a great amount of
old style and very incomplete wiring systems. good will, and be the cause of securing future busi-
ness.
Their owners can often be easily convinced that the
addition of convenience outlets, more lights, and A few weeks of "missionary work" of this nature
better lighting fixtures would be a convenience or will usually be required to get things started and
actual saving of time in the home that would well begin to bring in the jobs, but remember that any
business organization or experienced business-man
repay the small cost of installation.
expects to do these things when starting out in
In approaching a customer with a suggestion of
this kind, it is often a great help in interesting any locality.
It is well to keep in mind that one's personal
them, to carry along a few good-looking pictures
of homes properly wired, illustrating the great im- appearance is important in making calls on home
provement in appearance and the many conveni- owners or prospective customers. A neat, busi-
ences thus obtained. A Foot Candle Meter to test ness-like appearance tends to create confidence and
the light and fixtures in a home will often interest respect.
a customer a great deal from the very moment 127. ESTIMATING—TIME AND MATERIAL
you call. Their interest at first may be almost BASIS
entirely in the instrument, but if you can get them When it comes to giving a price on a job, there
to go about the house with you, and see the actual are several ways in which this can be handled. The
readings, and the evidence which the meter gives time and material basis is ideal for the electrician,
of poor lighting, then they can usually be interested and can usually be made satisfactory to the cus-
in the greater comfort and reduced eye-strain, as tomer. When a job is done in this manner, the
well as the much better appearance of the home customer pays you by the hour for the work of
where proper lighting is installed. installing the system, and also pays you for the
It may be necessary to make even twenty or material, which you may buy wholesale and sell
thirty calls of this kind to secure one job, but this to him at retail prices, thus making a reasonable
should not be allowed to discourage one, because profit in addition to your wages.
it doesn't take so much time to make these calls, If you merely make fair wages on the first several
and even if a great number are made without re- jobs this should be quite satisfactory, for you will
sults at that particular time, many of them will be obtaining experience, not only in doing the
result in business in the near future. actual work and gaining confidence in your knowl-
If you can succeed in leaving a good impression edge and ability, but also in the time required for
of yourself, your knowledge of the subject. and each type of work, and the costs of various items.
your sincerity and desire to be of service, many of You should keep a very careful record of these
these persons will call you back later, perhaps to things, as they will be of great assistance in mak-
do some small job; or will recommend you to their ing accurate estimates on future jobs.
friends who may have wiring or repairs to do. Of 128. COST PER OUTLET
course, you should always leave some small card Totaling the entire expense of any job of a cer-
or folder with your name, address, and telephone tain class of wiring and then dividing this by the
number, so they can conveniently get in touch with number of outlets, will give you a basis on which
you later. to estimate jobs of this type in the future. After
126. MODERN METHODS AND INSTRU- experience on several installations, you can quote
MENTS TO SECURE INTEREST AND prices at so much per outlet on jobs of any type,
CONFIDENCE OF CUSTOMER such as knob and tube, BX, or conduit wiring.
Some instrument, such as the Foot Candle Meter These different classes of wiring are, of course, to
mentioned, or perhaps a volt meter for testing the be done at different prices per outlet.
 Wiring, Section Two, Business Methods and Estimating 221

Before giving such an estimate, however, you Experience has shown that on a small business
should always look over the building or plans very of under $20,000.00 gross per year, the overhead
carefully, to make sure that you are not running will frequently run as high as 30 to 35 per cent.
into certain difficulties in the installation that will The larger the volume of business, the less the
run the expense considerably higher than you ex- percentage of overhead should be; and with agross
pected. In certain types of construction, or where business of $60,000.00 per year we would usually
certain special requirements have to be met to figure about 20 to 25 per cent. Your profit should
please the customer or to satisfy the local inspector, certainly be at least 10 per cent above all expenses,
it will be necessary in making your estimate to and this should be in addition to a fair salary for
add a certain amount to the usual price per outlet. your time.
It is well to emphasize here that you should not If you do a total of $40,000.00 worth of business
discuss with your customers the basis or method in a year, at the end of the year, your income tax
by which these figures are obtained, because in report should show that, after paying all bills and
some cases they may use this as a wedge to force your salary and considering all debits and credits,
a competitor to cut his prices below yours. there remains a clear profit of 10 per cent, or
$4,000.00.
129. OVERHEAD EXPENSE AND PROFIT By adding all your overhead items together you
After you obtain a start and are doing larger should get about 25 per cent, or $10,000.00. If
jobs, a certain percentage should be added to the your overhead is more than that amount it shows
cost of materials and labor for overhead expense that there is something wrong in your methods,
and profit. These things may sometimes need to and you should try to reduce it during the next
be explained to customers, so they do not get the year, by looking over each item to see where econ-
impression that you are overcharging them for omy can be effected.
certain items.
There is always certain to be some overhead 130. METHOD OF FIGURING OVERHEAD
expense or cost of doing business, regardless of AND PROFIT IN AN ESTIMATE
whether you have a shop or merely operate your When figuring on any certain job we don't know,
business from your home. This overhead consists of course, what the gross price is going to be, and,
of certain small items of expense which you cannot therefore, have to make allowances for these extra
charge directly to the customer, but should prop- items. For example, suppose we consider a job
erly proportion over the charges for each job. where we find the material will cost $32.00. The
Some of these items are as follows: next item to consider will be the labor. While
Telephone Bills this varies a great deal in different sections of the
Electric Light and Water Bills country, we might estimate it to be about equal
Rent; or Taxes, if you own a building to the cost of the material, or slightly more, and
Insurance, both Fire and Liability we will say it is $33.00. This makes a net cost,
Non-Productive Labor so far, of $65.00 for material and labor. If we are
Advertising going to allow 25% for overhead and 10% for profit
Truck and hauling expenses to make the total cost, or 100%, this leaves 65%
Depreciation of stock and materials you may for the net cost. If $65.00 is 65% of the cost, then
carry on hand 100%, or the total cost, would be $100.00, which
Bad or uncollectable bills should be the price quoted for this job. If you
Bookkeeper, or any office help multiply the net cost for labor and materials by
General office and shop expense .54 it will give the approximate total cost, including
the extra 35% for profit and overhead.
The item of profit on medium and large sized
In some cases, of course, a job can be quoted at
jobs is one that you are justly entitled to. If you
a figure which doesn't cover these extras. For
buy your supplies and materials from alarge dealer
example, where you have a chance to sell equip-
at wholesale prices and charge the customer the
ment which you buy direct from a dealer for a
regular retail price, this is one source of profit,
certain job and do not have to carry in stock your-
and a certain reasonable percentage can be added
self, this reduces your overhead. In fact the more
to your wage allowance on any job to complete
of this class of business you can do and the less
your per cent of profit.
idle stock you carry, the greater your profit will
In other words, there is no use of operating a always be. However, in an active business of any
business if you cannot show at the end of each
size some standard items must always be kept on
year a substantial profit or gain. The cost of any
hand.
job, then, should be divided into at least four items:
1. Net Cost of Material 131. ALWAYS DO FIRST-CLASS WORK
2. Net Cost of Labor Never make a practice of trying to get a job by
3. Overhead Expense cutting your price so low that you have to install
4. Profit poor materials, or do a poor job of the installation.
222 Wiring, Section Two, Business Methods and Estimating

Always do first-class work at a fair price, and 4 Fixture studs

explain to your customers that you are certain they 2 Type L y2-inch condulets
will remain better satisfied with this kind of work 1 1) pe LBt< ¡2-inch condulets
than if you cut the price and give them a poor job. 3 72-inch blank condulet covers
132. GETTING NEW CONTRACTS 2 Flush switch condulets
Very often a number of new jobs can he secured 2 Flush switch condulet covers
by keeping in close touch and on friendly terms 2 Single-pole flush switches
with building contractors and architects, and those 9 Y2-inch conduit bushings
in your community who are in a position to know 9 y2-inch lock-nuts
first of new buildings being erected and who may 20 Y2-inch pipe straps
perhaps recommend you for the electrical work. 225 feet of No. 14 R.C. wire
Also the necessary solder, tape, and screws.
133. PRACTICAL ESTIMATING PROBLEMS
As an example of laying out a job and materials After making up an estimate from the above, it
for the estimate, let's consider the installation is generally a good plan to add 5% to cover small
shown in Fig. 143. items that cannot be foreseen in advance.
In another case, suppose we consider a house- ,
wiring job where our records show that we can
figure by the outlet. Assume this to be a knob
and tube installation in a new building under con-
struction, and that there are to be 50 outlets, half
500 500 W
of which are lighting outlets and half are flush
switches or flush receptacles. If our records show
I I,c; that on this sized job we should get $2.75 per
D
lighting outlet and $3.25 per switch or convenience
outlet, then the estimate should be $150.00, plus
the service price, which the records may show will
H C. go'
average $15.00; thus we make the total estimated
500 W
price $165.00. In such cases as this your records
IS of previous jobs of similar type will be of great
IE
assistance in making an accurate and intelligent
M BRANCH CIRCUIT Pant,
bid.
N s'
?""
133-A. WIRING PLANS AND LAYOUTS
Fig. 143. Layout of a wiring system for four large lights, showing the Figures 144 and 145 show the basement and first
measurements to be taken in preparing a list of the materials for
such a job. Note the explanation and list given in the accompanying floor plans of a one-story bungalow, with a layout
paragraphs.
of the wiring system. This is avery simple system
This diagram shows a room in a finished build- with just the ordinary number of lights and con-
ing, such as a store or shop, where the customer venience outlets, and could quite easily be installed
desires an installation of exposed conduit. As this in an old house, using BX or non-metallic sheathed
is not a new building and there are no blue prints, cable. (Before checking these layouts examine the
you should make a rough sketch of the proposed symbols shown in Fig. 148).
wiring system; and, after locating the outlets and The heavy dotted lines show the circuits feeding
switches, measure the room carefully for the neces- to the lights and outlets, while the light dotted
sary lengths of material. \Ve have four outlets, lines show the wires from the lamps to the switches
each for a 500-watt lamp, which means we will which control them. The wiring does not need
need two branch circuits. We will assume that to run exactly as the lines are shown here, but
the layout is such that outlets "H" and "I" can could, of course, be altered somewhat to suit the
be on one circuit, and "J" and "K" on the other. building.
With the distance shown No. 14 wire and -inch In the basement, which in this case is wired with
conduit can be used. The wires for both circuits conduit, the equipment is as follows:
from the cut-out box to the outlet "H" can be run "A" is the service switch and branch circuit fuse
in one conduit. At the point mnrked "L" one cir- box.
cuit will have a wire looped down for a switch "B" and "C" are lights controlled by a switch
connection to control lights "H" and "I". Where at the head of the stairs.
the conduit changes direction to run down the "D" is the laundry light, controlled by a switch
walls to the cut-out boxes and switches, condulets at the door to the laundry room.
can be used. "E" is aconvenience outlet for washing machine,
From this lay-out we find the approximate list flat iron, etc.
of materials will consist of the following (not in- "F" and "G" are lights on drop cords, controlled
cluding the cut-out box or fuses) : by switches on the light sockets.
85 feet p2-inch conduit "H" is a bell transformer which is connected to
4 4-inch Octagon outlet boxes the junction box "J".
 Wiring, Section Two, Estimating 223

each controlled from two different places, by three-

way switches. This provides the convenience of
being able to turn them on or off at either door
at which one might enter these rooms.
Coal ta.u.nory
The six double convenience-outlets shown repre-
D sent just aminimum for an installation of this type;
we'
•••••
so it might be desirable to install several more of
these while wiring the house. The convenience-
outlets are located near each other on opposite
sides of the walls in the different rooms. This
To SW greatly simplifies the wiring as one run can be
made to take care of each pair of these outlets.
The dotted lines in this view show only the runs
from the lights to the switches which control them.
The branch circuits to the lights are not shown;
as their position would be a matter of choice and
convenience, according to the construction of the
house and the points at which they could be best
carried through partitions, floors, and ceilings.
Fig. 146 shows a sample form for listing the
G outlets used on a job, such as shown in Figures
144 and 145. The lighting, switch, and conveni-
Va9 eta Ma Collor
ence-outlets for this particular job are shown listed
on this form. Forms of this type are a great help
in getting an accurate list of all the parts and
fittings needed for the various rooms of any house-
Fig. 144. This diagram shows the basement wiring plan for a one-story
building. Check carefully each of the circuits and outlets shown wiring job.
with the explanations given.
In wiring a new home we would undoubtedly
put in a greater number of lights and convenience
"J-1" is a junction box from which BX will be outlets, as well as three-way switches for selective
run up through the partition to feed the branch
circuits on the floors above.
The number of wires which we will have in each
of these runs will be as follows:
"A" to "B"—six wires, three black and three
white.
(One two-wire circuit for the basement, and
two circuits for upstairs)
"B" to "J-1"—seven wires, four black and three
white.
"J" to "F"—two wires, one black and one white.
"C" to "G"—two wires, one black and one white.
"B" to "D"—two wires, one black and one white.
"D" to "E"—two wires, one black and one white.
"J-1" to "C"—three wires, two black and one
white.
"D" to switch outlet—two black wires.
"C" to switch outlet—two black wires.
Here again, we can see one of the advantages
of polarized wiring, as white wires can be con-
nected to white, and black to black, leaving much
less chance for mistakes and wrong connections
than if we use all black wires.
In the floor above we have one ceiling light in
the center of each room except the living room,
which has two; and one in the hall near the bath-
room. There is also a light at the head of the
Fig. 145. Wiring diagram for a bungalow residence. Note the location
stairway. The living room and kitchen lights are of lights, switches, convenience outlets. etc.
 Norman Etc:1er
41 Georgia Ave.
Brooklyn 7, N. Y:
224 Wiring, Section Two, Estimating

ROOMS
CEILING WALL CONVCNIUSE SWITCH
REMARKS
control. Fig. 147 shows a cut-away view of the
OUTLETS BRACKETS OUTLETS OUTLETS

BASEMENT 2 I AT HEAD OF STAIRS

first floor in a modern home, which gives some
LAUNDRY l I I
idea of the arrangement of wall bracket lights, con-
VEO CELLAR I
venience outlets, and switches. In addition to those
,

WORK BENCH t shown, there would probably also be a ceiling light

BELL TRAN5F 1
in the living room, dining room, and kitchen.

134. WIRING SYMBOLS

LIVING RM. 2 2 2 3 WAYS

DINING RM. 1 1 I Fig. 148 shows a number of the more common

KITCHEN 1 t 2 SWAYS symbols used in marking various electrical outlets
BATH 1 1
on the building plans. Examine each of these care-
BED RM.n 1 1 1 1 fully and become familiar with them, as they will
BED RM. * a 1 1 1 be a great help to you in reading any blue prints
HALL 1 1 supplied either by contractors or architects where
CLOSET 1 1 the electrical wiring of any building is laid out
in advance. A knowledge of their use will also
ALL CONVENIENCE OUTLETS ARE DOUBLE
be very handy to you in drawing up a sketch or
Fig 146. Simple forms of this type are a great help in Waling the plan for a building in which you may be laying
number 01 nitlets for any job. Other forms are used for listing the
material. 'or each roo II and the total wiring job. out the wiring system yourself.

Fig. 147. Sectional view of ground floor of a house, showing the location and arrangement of lights, switches, and convenience outlets.
 Wiring, Section Two, Wiring Symbols 225

STANDARD SYMBOLS FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF BUILDINGS

Ceiling Outlet Automatic Door Switch 50 Feeder Run Exposed da, MMIII•

Feeder, Run concealed

Ceiling Fan Outlet Key Push button Switch
5 1( andar Floor

Floor Outlet Electro her Switch SE Pole Line -0-

Drop Cord. Push Button Switch and Pilot

SP Push Button
•
Remote Control Push
Wall Bracket Annunciator
Button

Wall Fan Outlet Motor Interior Telephone

Single Convenience Outlet

eft Motor Controller Pu,blic Telephone

Dou.ble Conve -nience Outlet Lightms Panel Local Fire Alarm Gong
e rk

Junction Box Power Panel V Local Fire Alarm Stat

Special Purpose Outlet-Lighting,

Heating and Power as Described in 0 Heating Panel 111011"-- Fire Alarm Central Station
Specification
Special Purpose Outlet-Lighting,
Heating and Power as Described Pull Box >>>:«•:•: Speaking Tube
rn Specifica.tion
Special Purpose Outlet- ight-
Heat‘ng and Power 8.s Cable Supportimj Box Nurses Sisnal Plus N
Described in Specification

0-k
Ex it I
ig ht Meter C:7 Maid's Plug

Pull Switch Transformer Horn Outlet

Local Switch- Single Pole

5'
Branch Circuit, Run concea.led
under Floor Above
Clock (Secondary
e31
Local Switch- Double Pole
sz Branch Circuit, Rum Exposed Electric Door Opener
Eli
5
Branch Ctrcuit, Run concealed
Local Switch-3Way Watchman Station
3 under Floor

Local Switch-4 Way 54 Feeder, Run concealed

under Floor Above
4 No 14 Conductors in/4 in.
Conduit Unless Marked Vz ru. II II
11 11

This Character Marked onTap

311014 Condu.ctors rn I
Circuits Indicates No 14
Conductors in Vz-in.Conduit. II Conduit

Fig. lei. The above wiring symbols with their explanations should be very carefully studied so you will be able to recognize the more
common of these symbols readily and easily when working with wiring diagrams or plans. Make a practice of referring to these
symbols every time you find one you cannot recognize in a diagram.
226 Wiring, Section Two, Wiring Plans

135. NEW HOUSE WIRING PLAN outlets in this wiring plan. Check each of them care-
Figures 149 and 150 show the wiring plans for fully until you have a thorough understanding of
the first and second floors of amodern home. These the location of each outlet and what they are for.
plans show a more complete system of lights, con-
The dotted lines in these diagrams only show
venience outlets, three-way switches, etc., such as
which outlets are connected together, and the runs
we would be most likely to install' in a new build-
from the switches to the lamps which they control.
ing. Some home-owners might not care to go to
The plans do not show where the conduit or BX
the expense of quite as complete an installation as
runs come up from the basement or from one floor
these plans show, but whenever possible the cus-
to the other.
tomer should be sold on the idea of wiring the
house complete for every possible need when it Several different organizations, such as the Gen-
is erected, as it is so much cheaper to install these eral Electric Company and the National Contrac-
things when the house is being built than to put tors' Association, have some very valuable printed
them in afterward. With the ever-increasing use forms, which can be obtained to aid you in listing
of electrical appliances and light in the home, the materials for an estimate; and also sample forms
owner is likely to regret it later if the home is not for contracts with the customer. The Society for
quite completely wired. However, it is very easy Electrical Development furnishes valuable material
to leave out a few of the items in a suggested plan and information, such as the Franklin Specifica-
of this type, if desired. tions and Red Seal Plan for good lighting, which
By referring to the chart of wiring symbols in should be of great value to anyone in business for
Fig. 148, you will be able to recognize each of the himself.

to slat garage
to light outside of garage

-e}r 53
4'-efrorn floor

CUP BD. LUP

REF 5
D KITCHEN

CLO. a
PORCH
SINK
RANGE
e 15'

.0
-(;)- (lb 53

E
•
•
•
•
-1 - •
LNING ROOM \\

1
b
\, s3

1 DINING ROOM
5133

0 1
VEST ,/
I

-« 1:11

5 5 Tota.I Outlets -8Z.

First Floor Type of Outlets tstfloor Cellar Garage

Outlet Dia.cfram Wall Switch Outlets

Wall Light Outlets
ao
I
6
6 3

Ceiling Light Outlets 7 6 6

Convenience Outlets 16 3 3
Range Outlets

Fig. 140. This wiring diagram gives a. more complete layout of the proper lights, switches and convenience outlets for a modern wiring
job in a new building. Compare each of the different outlet symbols with those in Fig. 148.
 Wiring, Section Two, Wiring Plans, Tools 227

Fig. 159. Second-floor plan and wiring diagram. Note the location of
the switches to control the various lights, and particularly the three-
way switches for controlling lights from more than one place. Com-
pare this diagram to the one in Fig. 149, to get a complete under-
standing of the arrangement of switches at the stairway.

136. TOOLS Hand saw. Six-foot rule.

Perhaps you will wonder how many and what Key-hole saw. Blow torch and solder-
type of tools will be required to start in electrical ing iron.
Corner brace and wood
wiring. It is not necessary to have such a complete bits. Two or three putty
or elaborate layout on tools to start your first jobs knives, for prying off
Hand drill or push drill. wood strips.
with. A list of the more common and necessary
ones for this type of work are as follows: Stillson pipe wrench. 100 ft. steel fish tape.

Several screw drivers 8-inch gas pliers. In addition to this list, an electrician who owns
of various sizes Claw hammer. his own shop should acquire as soon as possible a
Side-cutting pliers. Ballpein hammer. boring machine, step ladders, conduit bender, vise,
7 or 8-inch diagonal Wood chisels, one nar- pipe cutter, pipe reamer, stock and dies for thread-
cutting pliers. row and one wide. ing pipe, and set of star drills. A number of other
Long-nosed pliers. Cold chisel. items will be found convenient as the shop or busi-
6-inch combination Hack-saw frame and ness grows, and these can be purchased as the profits
pliers. blades. of the business will pay for them.
228

TROUBLE SHOOTING

137. TROUBLE SHOOTING When clips or springs are found in this condition
Whether you are employed as an electrical wire- they should be renewed.
man or maintenance man, or in the business for Fig. 151 shows several conditions that will often
yourself, a great deal of your work may often be be found with cartridge fuse clips. When fuses of
what is commonly known as "Trouble Shooting." the cartridge type are found to be blown, it is well
This covers a wide range, from such small jobs to examine them a little before replacing. If the
as finding a short circuit in a domestic flat iron to fuse link is found to be blown in the manner shown
tracing out troubles in apower circuit of some large at "A" in Fig. 152, it is probably caused by a light
shop of factory. In any case, it usually requires overload, which gradually heated the fuse to apoint
merely a thoughtful application of your knowledge where one end melted out. Occasionally you may
of circuit tracing and testing. We have previously find the fuse burned in two at the middle and not
recommended and will emphasize here again the at the narrow points where it is supposed to blow.
necessity of keeping cool when emergencies of this This condition is shown at "B", and is sometimes
sort arises, and going about the location of the caused by the slow heating of the fuse, and from the
trouble in a systematic and methodical manner, heat being conducted away from the ends by the
testing one part of the circuit or system at a time, fuse clips, thus causing the center to melt first.
until the trouble is cornered. When a fuse has been blown from a severe over-
Keep in mind that every trouble shooting prob- load or short circuit, it will often be found melted
lem can be solved, and someone is certainly going in two at both of the narrow spots, allowing awhole
to solve it. If you succeed in locating and remedy- center section to drop out, as in Fig. 152-C. In such
ing the trbuble, it will always be to your credit, cases there will be atremendous rush of current that
and it may be the source of new business for you may melt the first point open in a fraction of a
or a promotion on the job. second, but the extremely heavy current flow may
In general, the same methods can be followed for maintain an arc across this gap, long enough to
trouble shooting and testing in light and power cir- melt out the other weak point also.
cuits as have previously been explained in the sec-
tion on signal wiring. A dry cell and buzzer, taped
together and equipped with a pair of flexible leads
five or six feet long, is always a handy device for
this work.
Where part of the system is still "alive", or sup-
plied with current, a pair of test lamps are very
handy. These can be connected together in series
for 220-volt tests or one can be used separately for
testing 110-volt circuits. They are particularly
handy when testing for blown fuses, and this test
Fig. 151. Fuse clips that are bent out of shape in the manner shown
will often locate the source of trouble. A test lamp above very often cause heating of the ferrules which results in
blown fuses, and other fuse troubles. Burned or weakened fuse clips
will light when connected across a burned out fuse should be replaced and new ones adjusted to fit the ferrule of the
if there is a load on the line. fuse outlet.

With plug fuses, we can also very often tell some-

138. FUSE TROUBLES
thing of the nature of the trouble by the appearance
In testing wiring circuits we should first start at of the window in the blown fuses. If the window is
the service switch or fuse box. Test to see if the clear and shows the strip melted in two, it was
line is alive from the outside service wires, and if probably a light overload which blew the fuse. But
it is, then test the fuses. The fuses may be checked if the window is badly blackened by aviolent blow-
by testing across diagonally from the service end ing out of the fuse, it is usually an indication of a
to the house end. This test will show which fuse is severe overload or short circuit.
blown. If the contact springs or clips which hold
cartridge fuses are blackened or burned, this is 139. COMMON CAUSES OF SHORT
likely to be the cause of the trouble. Sometimes CIRCUITS
these springs become bent and do not make a good Wherever blown fuses are encountered it is well
contact to the ferrule on the fuse. This results in to check up on possible causes and conditions in the
a high-resistance connection and heating, which circuits before replacing the fuses. Sometimes we
softens and destroys the spring tension of the clips. may find that someone had just connected up and
 Wiring, Section Two, Trouble Shooting 229

tried out some new electrical appliance which may cates that one of these devices is at fault. By hav-
have been defective or of too great a load for the ing someone watch the test lamp in the fuse socket
circuit and fuses. Frequently these devices will be as these devices are plugged in one at a time and
found connected up wrong. Sometimes by inquir- switched on again, the one causing the trouble can
ing of the people on the premises we can find the be found by watching for the lamp to light up to
probable cause of the trouble. full brilliancy. The lamps will burn dimly if there
For example, the lady of the house may have is any load connected to the line. A great majority
been ironing when suddenly there was aflash at the of fuse troubles in homes can be traced to defective
iron, the lights went out, and the iron cooled off. cords of portable devices.
This would probably indicate a defective cord on If removing these devices from the circuit doesn't
the iron or a short circuit on the plug or element. clear the trouble, then it must be in the wiring.
In another case one of the children may have Then we should go along the circuit and open up
stumbled over a cord to afloor lamp causing all the the outlet boxes, pulling out the splices and even
lights to go out, which would indicate that wires disconnecting them, if necessary, to locate the trou-
were probably jerked loose and shorted at the lamp ble within one section. In agreat majority of cases
or plug; or that the insulation of the cord may have shorts in the wiring system will be found at poorly
been broken through, causing the wires to short taped splices in the outlet boxes. It is very seldom
within the cord. that any defects occur in the wires themselves,
especially if they are installed in BX or conduit.
Sometimes, however, if repair or construction work
has been going on around the building, the trouble
may be caused by someone having driven a nail
into a piece of non-metallic sheathed cable, metal
molding, or even through the light-walled electric
metallic tubing, or they may have cut the wires in
two with a saw or drill.
Here is another place where inquiry as to what
has been happening just before the trouble occurred
may help you to locate it.
In shops or factories, blown fuses may be caused
by installing additional equipment on certain cir-
cuits until they are overloaded, or by the addition
of a motor that is too large for the circuit on which
it is installed. In other cases abelt may be tightened
too much, or the bearings of some machine not
properly lubricated, causing a rather severe over-
load on the driving motor. If the voltage at the
service box is too low this will cause motors to
Fig. 152. The above views show several ways In which fuse links may draw more than the normal load of current and will
blow. Note particularly the lower view which is the manner in blow the fuse.
which fuses are often blown by short circuits or severe overloads.
Whenever some of the lights on any system are
If fuses are blown frequently, it is usually an found to be burning excessively bright and some
indication of an overloaded circuit, and in such of the others very dimly, remember that the cause
cases another circuit and set of fuses should be in- is likely to be a blown-out neutral fuse on one of
stalled. If the circuits are already fused for 15 the older installations of non-polarized wiring.
amperes and are ordinary ones with No. 14 wire, The troubles which have been mentioned are
they should certainly not be equipped with larger some of the most common and are the most fre-
fuses, as it is in violation of the Code, and the wires quently encountered. A number of others will come
might be overheated. up in your experience, but if you always follow the
A very handy test for "shorts" is to remove the general methods given in this material and apply
fuse from the socket and screw a lamp bulb in its your knowledge of circuits and principles of elec-
place. Then, if the lamp still burns when all the tricity you should have no trouble in locating
equipment on this circuit is turned off, it indicates them. Every time you find and correct some source
a short circuit on the wires. of trouble which you have not met before, it should
be a source of pleasure and satisfaction to you, be-
140. LOCATING SHORT CIRCUITS AND cause of the added experience it gives and the
GROUNDS greater ease with which you will probably be able
In locating a short circuit, it is well to see that to locate a similar trouble the next time. So, let us
each light on the circuit is turned off, and each plug once more recommend that you always welcome
removed from any convenience outlets which may any trouble shooting problem as a test of your
be on the circuit. If this clears the trouble it indi- ability and a chance to get good experience.
 231

CoYfl
Oectrical School
CHICAGO ILLINOIS
ESTABLISHED 18 9 9 COPYRIGHT 1942

ILLUMINATION

Incandescent Lamps, Nature of Light

Illumination Principles, Light Measurement
Reflectors, Light Distribution
Factory Lighting, Office Lighting
Store Lighting
Show Windows, Electric Signs
Flood Lighting, Street Lighting
Aviation Lighting
Mercury Vapor Lamps
Home Lighting
232

ILLUMINATION

The history of artificial light is avery interesting years ago, there were no very powerful or steady
one, and is romantic in many ways sources of artificial light.
In a practical Reference Set of this kind we have Electric arcs or flames drawn between two carbon
not much time or space for detailed history, but a electrodes were one of the first types of electric
few of the high spots in the development of artifi- light, and while they were not entirely steady or
cial lighting will probably make the study of our free from smoke, they were able to produce great
present lighting equipment much more interesting, amounts of very bright light.
and enable us to more fully appreciate the equip- The first arc lamp to be used commercially was
ment itself. one installed in the Dungeness light house in Eng-
Mankind has been trying to create better forms land in 1862, and from this time on arc lights
of artificial light for many hundreds of years. Not came into quite general use for lighting interiors
being satisfied with the daylight hours given them of large buildings and for street lighting.
by the sun, men have tried by a number of means Powerful arc lights of a highly improved type
to create light, in order to be able to see during the are used today for search lights, flood lights, and in
hours of darkness and to make better use of some motion picture work; while some of the older type
of this time. are still in use in street-lighting systems.
Probably the first artificial lights were burning 142. EDISON'S INCANDESCENT LAMP
wood fagots carried about in the hands. Then came
From 1840 on a number of experiments were
the first oil lamps for burning vegetable oils and
made with incandescent lamps, or the heating of
whale oil from a vessel; and later the lamps with
high resistance metal or carbon strips to a glowing
cloth wicks for burning kerosene.
temperature by passing electric current through
These kerosene lamps are still used by the thou-
them. But none of these were successful or practi-
sands where electricity is not yet available. But
cal until Thomas A. Edison invented the carbon
even on farms and in small villages kerosene lamps
filament incandescent lamp in 1879.
are rapidly giving way to electric lighting.
Edison's first lamps consisted of very thin fila-
Wax and tallow candles were also apopular form
ments of carbonized thread, then paper, and later
of light for many years. Chandeliers, or candle
bamboo; all sealed in glass bulbs from which the
holders, with large numbers of candles in them
air was removed by vacuum pumps, to eliminate
were used to get a greater source of light for large
oxygen and prevent the filament from burning up.
rooms and auditoriums.
Later lamps of this type were developed with
However, all of these sources of light were in-
thin metal wire filaments, and the modern incan-
clined to flicker and give off smoke and fumes, and
descent lamp has a tungsten filament, which can be
were very inconvenient.
heated to temperatures of 2800 to 3000 degrees cen-
141. EARLY ELECTRIC LIGHTS tigrade before it will melt. This enables it to oper-
Up to the time of the development of electric ate at glowing white or incandescent heat and give
batteries and generators, and less than one hundred off great amounts of clean steady light.

Fig. 152-6 This night photograph of the business section of one of our large cities is a good illustration of the extensive use of electric light
A single one of these large buildings will use many thousands of electric lamps.
 Illumination. Nature of Light 233

Edison also developed the first efficient electric up by disturbance or motion of air and transmitted
generators to supply current for his lamps, and in by vibration through air, water, and some solids.
1882 built in New York City the first central sta- \Ve also know that electro magnetic waves are set
tion generating plant for supplying electricity for up around conductors carrying electricity. In the
light and power. From that time on the develop- case of radio energy, these waves are of very high
ment of electric lighting has been rapid, and today frequency and short wave length. Light waves are
modern electric illumination is one of the greatest considered to be of an electro-magnetic nature, and
advantages of our civilization, and one of the great- are known to be of extremely high frequency and
est fields for the trained electrical man to enter. much shorter wave length than the shortest radio
waves.
143. USES AND ADVANTAGES OF ELEC- Light is generally the result of intense heat, and
TRIC LIGHT the sun is, of course, our greatest source of light.
Electric light in the home greatly improves the
24
appearance, increases comfort, speeds the work of s t.
the houswife, and reduces eye strain and makes it 22 . .

a pleasure for members of the family to read or P t .. .

2.0
study during evening hours. And the cost of electric •k•
.
..
.. .
light is low enough to be within the means of almost IS .... .,.
.
.
. .
every family today. It is cleaner, safer and more .
16 .
convenient than any other form of artificial light .. ' .
s
we have. 14
. .
.. , ,,
In shops and factories, electric light speeds up -:> //,,,r,CLOUDI NESS /
8 12 ,''',''''' ,
production and reduces errors, increases safety and
'"/'
generally improves the morale of employees. 10

In stores, hotels, and office buildings electric illu- 7 /

mination is used on a vast scale and makes the - 1, /'

/
rooms as bright at night as at noonday, whether 6
2,
4
/ '
..2
i
they have outside windows or not. , SUNSHINE
4
The exteriors of buildings in cities are beautifully
flood lighted and streets are lighted brightly with 2
electric lamps; and now great airplane landing fields
llave their special lighting equipment which makes Zas. Pcb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec. Average

them nearly as bright at night as during the day. This chart shou ,
shou ,little actual daylight we
have over a considerable period of the year
Practically every new building erected in any
Fig. I52-C. Examine this chart carefully and note the number of hours
town or city is wired for electric lights, and many per day that daylight is available, and you will see how necessary
some form of efficient illumination becomes, in order to make
older buildings which have not had lights are rapidly good use of the hours of darkness.
being wired for them today.
Thousands of homes, offices, and industrial plants 145. LIGHT COLORS, WAVE FREQUENCIES
with the older wiring systems are being rewired for The different colors of light are due to the differ-
modern and efficient electric illumination. ent wave frequencies. Ordinary sunlight, while it
Almost everyone today realizes the value of bet- appears white, is really made up of a number of
ter lighting; and its advantages and economy are colors. In fact, it is composed of all the colors of
so apparent, when properly presented, that this is the rainbow, and a rainbow is caused by the break-
one of the greatest fields of opportunity for the ing up or separation of the various frequency waves
trained electrical man who knows the principles of of sunlight by the mist or drops of water in the air
modern illumination. at such times.
This field also provides some of the most fascinat- White light or daylight is generally the most
ing and enjoyable work of any branch of the elec- desirable form for illumination purposes, but it
trical profession. must contain certain of the colors which compose
sunlight, as it is the reflection to our eyes of these
144. NATURE OF LIGHT various colors from the things they strike that en-
ables us to see objects and get impressions of their
In commencing our study of practical illumina-
color. Certain surfaces and materials absorb light
tion, it will be well to get a general understanding
of one color and frequency, and reflect that of an-
of the nature of light.
other color; and this gives us our color distinction
Light is energy in wave form, and can be trans- in seeing different things.
mitted through space and through certain trans- White and light colored surfaces reflect more
parent objects. When these waves strike our eyes, light than dark surfaces do.
they register through our eye nerves and upon our The ordinary incandescent lamp supplies a good
brain cells an impression which we call light. We form of nearly white light that is excellent for
are familiar with sound waves and how they are set most classes of work, but for color matching and
234 Illumination. Principles of Good Lighting. Types of Lamps

certain other jobs requiring close separation of col- ered with diffusing globes to soften and spread out
ors, a light of more nearly daylight color is needed. their light over a greater area.
For this work lamps are made with blue glass bulbs Reflectors, shades, and diffusing globes for the
to supply more of the blue and white light rays, and various classes of lighting installations will be cov-
less of the yellow and red rays of the ordinary ered a little later.
electric light bulb. More on the units and measure-
ment of light will be covered later.

146. PRINCIPLES OF GOOD LIGHTING

To secure good lighting, or effective illumination,
we must not only have sufficient light of the proper
color, but must also avoid glare and shadows.
No matter how much light we may have, if there
are sources of bright glare in range of the eyes,
or definite black shadows from standing or moving
objects, it is still not good illumination.
Glare is very tiring to the human eye and we
all know that if we look directly at the sun or a
bright unshaded light bulb, it is painful to the eyes.
The pupils of our eyes must change their open-
ings or adjust themselves to different intensities of
light, and as they do not do this instantly, we can-
Fig. 154. This view shows various types and sizes of Mazda lamps,
not see things well when we first look away from ranging from 50 to 1000 watts each.
a bright light to objects or spaces less brightly
lighted. 148. TYPES OF INCANDESCENT LAMPS
The same thing applies with shadows which cause
dark areas intermixed with the light ones. The eyes Now that we know something of the nature of
cannot change rapidly enough to see well or be light and the most important fundamentals of good
comfortable when they must be continually moving illumination, let us return to our common source
of electric light, the incandescent lamp.
from light to shadow, etc.
Glare and shadow are both caused by very bright These lamps are now made in sizes from a frac-
sources of light concentrated in small spots, or a tion of awatt to 50,000 watts each, and will fit prac-
"point source" of light, as we say. tically every conceivable lighting need.
The more the light from a source is concentrated Extremely small lamps are made for surgical in-
at one point, the brighter will be the glare if we struments, telephone switchboards, flashlights, etc.
look at this point, and the more distinct will be Carbon filament lamps are not used much any
the shadows of objects illuminated by this source. more, although they can still be obtained for certain
uses where they are desired.
The tungsten filament lamp, which is commonly
known as the Mazda Lamp, is the one most gen-
erally used.
Two of these lamps are shown in Fig. 153. The
one on the right is one of the smaller size, which are
still used and have the same shaped bulb as the
carbon lamps, and are known as type "B". The one
on the left is one of the larger sized lamps with the
newer shaped bulb, called the type "C".
Fig. 154 shows a number of bulbs of different
Fig. 153. Two common types of incandescent lamps of which there shapes and sizes, such as are commonly used in
are many millions in use today.
general lighting today.
One of the newest styles of lamps is the type
147. REFLECTORS "A", which are made in sizes from 10 to 200 watts
While the incandescent lamp is a wonderful, and are frosted on the inside of the bulb. This is
clean, efficient, and convenient source of light, those a very great improvement as it softens the light
of the larger sizes are bad sources of glare if they and reduces glare without materially reducing their
are within the normal range of vision. This can efficiency. These new bulbs have stronger filaments,
be avoided by the use of proper shades and re- and present a beautiful pearl-colored appearance.
flectors. They are ideal for use where reflectors or bowls are
Because these lamps have their light produced at not used over them. Fig. 155 shows four of these
one small source, the filament, they are also produc- type "A" lamps of the more common sizes for home
ers of very definite shadows, unless they are cov- and general lighting use.
 Illumination. Types of Lamps. Lamp Voltages 235

The larger Mazda lamps of 150 watts and over are Fig. 157 shows several types of special bulbs for
usually made with clear glass bulbs and known as decorative lights in homes, hotels, theatres, etc.
the type "C". As these larger lamps are generally The bulb on the left is an ordinary type "A" in
enclosed in diffusing bowls or mounted high up shape, but can be obtained with orange or other
and out of range of ordinary vision, their clear glass colored glass, to give a soft colored light. The
bulbs are not so objectionable. Fig. 156 shows two others are known as "flame tip" bulbs for candle
of these type "C" lamps, and you will note that they type fixtures.
have long necks to keep the heat of the filament The blue glass lamps for producing the "daylight
farther away from the base and sockets. Some of color" for color matching etc., are called the "C-2"
the larger ones even have a mica heat barrier in type. While this color is very desirable in depart-
the neck, as shown in the right-hand lamp in Fig. ment stores, art studios, dye plants, etc., the yel-
156. lower light of a clear bulb would be more desirable
in foundries or forging shops, as rays of this color
will penetrate a dusty, smoky atmosphere better.
Lamps of 500 watts, 1000 watts, and up are gen-
erally used for street lights, flood-lights, motion
picture photography, lighting airplane landing fields,
etc.

Decorative Lamps

L5 Watt 5. 40 Watts 50 Watts 60 Watt e

Fig. 155. These four lamps are the sizes most commonly used in
general home lighting, and show the shape of the newer type bulbs.

The smaller sized lamps have the air withdrawn

from the bulbs before they are sealed, so the fila-
ments operate in a vacuum to prevent their burn-
ing up, as before mentioned. The larger sizes are
filled with an inert gas, such as nitrogen, to keep
the filaments from burning up and also to keep the A-Bulb D- Bulb F -Bulb

intense heat away from the glass bulb and permit Fig. 157. Lamps of the above type are used for decorative lighting
in homes, offices, theaters, etc. The type "A" lamp on the left
the lamps to be operated at higher temperatures. has the ordinary shaped bulb but can be obtained in various colors.

General Lighting Service 149. LAMP LIFE AND RATED VOLTAGES

The life of the average Mazda lamp is about 1000
110, 115 and120 Volts
hours of burning time. Many of them will last
much longer, as shown by the test data in Fig.
158, but others burn less time and, therefore, make
about 1000 hours the average. After lamps have been
operated a long time, their light output becomes
less until in some cases it is better to discard them
than to wait for them to burn out.

Hours Burned 200 16laijo 1000 1200 14100

618
Number lamps rem...fling. I 100 97 94 89 .77 ,60 39 17 3 0

Fig. 158. These figures, taken from an actual test on 100 lamps.
show the life in hours, or the number of hours which the various
lamps burned.

These lamps are commonly made for voltages

of 110, 115, and 120; and some are made for 220,
240, and various other voltages. The 110 volt lamp
is, however, the most common type. These various
voltage ratings are obtained by slight changes in
the filament resistance of the lamps.

150. EFFECT OF VOLTAGE ON LIFE AND

150-Wa.tts EFFICIENCY OF LAMPS
300 -Watts
Incandescent lamps should always be operated
Fig. 150. Two of the larger Mazda lamps, such as used for office
and factory lighting. Note the shape of the filament wires and at their rated voltage. If they are operated on lower
the manner in which they are attached to the heavy "lead-in"
wires, and supported by small brace wires. voltages they will not give nearly as much light
 Norman Beder
41 Georgia Ave.
236Brooklyn 7, N. Y. Illumination. Measurement of Light

or be as efficient in the amoupt of light produced

per watt of energy consumed. If they are operated
at voltages above their rating, they will burn very The beet
Mee
bright and operate at higher efficiency, but the life 100% VOLTS 100% LIGHT
balanced
condition
of the filament will be materially shortened. So the
best balance between efficiency and lamp life is ob-
tained by operating lamps at their rated voltages. 95% VOLTS as/. LIGHT
A small change in voltage will make a considerable
change in the lamp's efficiency and life, as shown by
the table in Fig. 159 for lamps operated 5% below 90% VOLTS C. LIGHT
rated voltage. The term "Lumen" is the name of
the unit used to measure light delivered by the
Represents an expendttare
lamp, and will be explained later. of wattage for wnbch no
85% VOLTS 560Y0 LIGHT bet is obtained m "'derv.

For tamps operated at 5% below normal voltale

Lumens will be 17% below normal

Fig. 160. This chart shows the actual amount of light lost and energy
wasted when lamps are operated at less than their rated voltage.
Watts
let us find out a little more about actual quantities
Ef
ficiency - " 10% " .. of light, units of measurement, etc. An understand-
ing of these units and principles is just as important
Lamp Life " " Double in illumination as Ohms Law is in general electrical
work; and you will find them very interesting, as
Fig. 156. This little table shows how important it is to have incan- they show us still more about the nature of light.
descent lamps operated at their proper rated voltage.
\Ve have been speaking of incandescent lamp
sizes and their rating in watts, which is avery con-
Fig. 160 shows another illustration of the changes
venient term for general use and for buying lamps,
that take place in the watts used and the light pro-
etc. While the rating in watts will give us ageneral
duced at different voltages below normal. This
idea of the sizes of the lamps, it does not tell us
test data also shows the amount of electric energy
just how much light a certain lamp can be expected
in watts which is wasted when the lamp is operated
to produce.
at lower voltage and lower efficiency.
152. CANDLE POWER AND LIGHT
151. UNITS OF LIGHT MEASUREMENT MEASURING DEVICES
Now, before we undertake to plan illumination Lamps were formerly rated in Candle Power,
layouts or select equipment for certain applications, using a standard candle as a basis of comparison.

Fig. 161. Two types of photometers, such as used for measuring the light from any source by comparing it with that from a standard
source. The readings are obtained from the scales at the point where the light from each source is balanced on the mirror or
waxed paper, whichever may be used in the sliding element.
 Illumination. Light Units, Candle Power and Lumens 23 7

For measuring the candle power of a certain lamp 153. MEAN SPHERICAL CANDLE POWER
or comparing it with the standard candle, we use a
This method of measuring or comparing sources
device called aPhotometer. In principle this device
of light which we have just described, only takes
works as follows: A piece of white paper, having
into consideration the light coming from the source
in its center aspot which is oiled or greased to make
in one direction, or striking an object in one certain
it more transparent than the rest, is held up between
spot. For example in Fig. 162 we have a photo-
the standard candle and the light source to be
meter at "P" to measure the light from a candle.
measured. Let us assume that we first place it
exactly half way between them. We will now
examine the oiled spot from the side on which our
lamp under test is located. If the spot appears dark
it shows that there is less light striking it from
the candle on the opposite side than from the lamp
under test. Then we can move the paper screen
closer to the candle until the spot appears to be
the same color as the rest of the paper, which will 8
indicate an equal amount of light is striking it on Fig. 163. The "lumen" or unit of light quantity is the measurement of
a definite amount of light, such as that which escapes from the
both sides. Then by comparing the distance that opening in the above illustration.
the two light sources are from the screen we can find
out how much brighter the tested lamp is, or how In view "A" the candle is entirely exposed and the
many candle power to rate it at. photometer gets its reading only from the very
Fig. 161 shows two types of photometers which small cone of light that comes in its direction.
operate on this principle. The upper one carries a In "B" we llave the candle partly enclosed in a
mirror in a sliding dark box, which has small open- sphere, the inside of which is dead black, so that it
ings in each end for the light to enter from each absorbs all the light which strikes it and reflects
source. The standard candle and the light to be none. The photometer will still read the same, how-
tested are placed at opposite ends of the marked ever.
scale or bar. Then, by moving the mirror box back Again at "C" we llave the opening closed still
and forth along the slide until the light on both more, but the photometer will still read the same as
sides of the oil spot is equal, we locate the balance long as the direct beam to it is not interfered with.
point, and the candle power of the new source can So these devices measure only the light coming
then be read on the scale at this point. This in- from a source in one direction, and take no account
strument should be used in a dark room. of that escaping in all other directions.

The lower device in Fig. 161 has a "grease spot" The light around a lamp may not be quite as
bright in all directions, because of the shape of the
screen arranged to slide along a scale in a "dark
flame or filament as the case may be. If we measure
box", and between the two sources of light, until
the candle power in anumber of places at equal dis-
a balance point is found by the appearance of the
tances all around a lamp and average these read-
grease spot as previously explained.
ings, the result is known as the "Mean Spherical
Candle Power". This comes somewhat closer to
• giving the total light emitted from the source.

154. LUMENS, UNIT OF LIGHT QUANTITY

For stating the total amount of light actually
given off by a source we use the unit Lumen.
Let us enclose a light which gives off 1 candle
power in all directions, in a hollow sphere which
has a radius of 1foot, or diameter of two feet, and
the inside of which is dead black so it will reflect
8
no light. See Fig. 163. Now, if we cut a hole in
the sphere 1 foot square as shown at OR, the
amount of light that will escape through this hole
will be 1lumen. If the area of the opening was %
sq. ft., then the light emitted would be % lumen;
or if the opening was % sq. ft., the escaping light
would be % lumen; etc. A sphere with a 1-foot
radius has a total area of 12.57 sq. ft., so if we were
to remove the sphere the total light emitted would
Fig. 182. If we have a photometer or light measuring device at
be 12.57 lumens from a 1candle power source.
"P," it shows that the amount of light coming in one direction
from the candle to the instrument, will remain the same in all
A Lumen may be defined as the quantity of
three of the above tests. light which will strike a surface of 1 sq. ft., all
238 Illumination. Illumination Intensity. Foot Candle Meter

points of which are 1foot distant from a source of relation that has been established between these
1candle power. units, in their original selection by lighting engi-
From this we find that we can determine the neers. This relation can be expressed as follows:
number of lumens of any lamp by multiplying its When one Lumen of Light is evenly distributed
mean or average candle power by 12.57. over asurface of 1sq. ft., that area is illuminated to
\Ve can now rate or measure in lumens the total an intensity of 1foot candle.
light of any lamp, and also compare the number of This is a very convenient rule to remember. It
lumens obtained with the number of watts used by shows that, if we know the area in square feet that
a lamp. All Mazda lamps of a certain size and type is to be lighted and the intensity in foot candles of
will give about the same number of lumens each, desired illumination, we can then multiply these
but the lumen output per watt, and their efficiency, and find the number of lumens that will be required
varies with their size. The larger the lamp the to light the area. For example, if we desire to
higher the efficiency, and it ranges from about 10 illuminate a surface of 50 sq. ft. to an average in-
lumens per watt for small lamps to 20 or more tensity of 5 foot candles. 250 lumens must be
lumens per watt on lamps of 1000 watts and larger. supplied at a distance of one foot from the surface.
The table in Fig. 164 gives the lumen output of More light will be required as the distance is in-
common Mazda lamps and their wattages. These creased. See Art. 157.
values vary a little from time to time, with the im-
provement made in lamps, but this table will serve
as aconvenient guide in selecting the proper size of
lamps to get a certain desired amount of light.

LUMEN OUTPUT OF MULTIPLE MAZDA LAMPS

110-115-120 Volt \Standard Lighting Service :20-230-240-250 Volt Fig. 165. The unit foot candle refers to the intensity of illumination
Service on a surface one foot distant from the standard source of one
Standard Lighting Service 110-115-120 Volt
Clear Lamps M AZDA Day ight LampF Clear Lamps candlepower, as shown above.
Size of , Size of Size of
Lamp in Lumen Lamp in Lumen Lamp in Lumen 156. FOOT CANDLE METER
Watts Output Watts Output Watts Output
100 1530 100 990 IOU 1100 There are a number of large and elaborate de-
150 2535 150 1650 vices used in laboratories for making exact tests
200 3400 200 2210 200 2920 and measurements on light and lighting equip-
300 5520 300 3590 300 4560
500 9800 500 6370 500 8350 ment; but for practical convenient use right on the
750 14550 750 13125 job, the Foot-Candle Meter is extensively used.
1000 20700 1000 19000 Fig. 166 shows a view of the back of one of these
1500 33000 1500 27300 _
meters opened up. They consist of a flashlight bat-
Fig. 164. This table shows the number of lumens of light delivered by
various sizes and types of Mazda lamps, and will be very con- tery, small standard lamp bulb, rheostat for ad-
venient for future reference on any lighting problems.
justing the lamp voltage to proper value, and avolt-
meter to check this voltage and make sure the lamp
155. FOOT CANDLES. UNIT OF
is being operated at proper voltage and brilliancy.
ILLUMINATION INTENSITY
Electric ramps are asource of light, and the result
of this light striking surfaces we wish to see is
illumination. .REFL ECTOR BATTERY
While the lumen will serve as a very good unit
Wig Box
to measure the total light we can get from any
BLUE GLASS
source, we must also have aunit to measure the in- SCREEN

tensity of light or the illumination on a given sur-

face, such as the top of a desk or work bench, or at
the level of work being done on amachine, etc. The
unit we use for this is the Foot Candle.
A foot candle represents the intensity of illumi-
nation that will be produced on asurface that is one
foot distant from a source of one candle power, and
Fig. 166. This view shows the important parts of a foot-candle meter.
at right angles to the light rays from the candle. Note the arrangement of the standard lamp behind the paper screen,
See Fig. 165. The foot candle, then, is the unit we and also the rheostat and voltmeter used in making proper
adjustments.
use in every day illumination problems to deter-
mine the proper lighting intensity on any working In front of the lamp is a long square chamber,
over the side of which is placed a piece of tough
surface.
Referring again to Fig. 163, we find that the sur- white paper. Along the center of this strip of paper
face OP QR is illuminated at every point with an is a row of uniform grease or oil spots which allow
intensity of 1 foot candle, and we also know that more light to show through them than the rest of
the total amount of light striking this surface is 1 the paper.
lumen. This shows the very simple and convenient We all know that the farther any object is from
 Illumination. Inverse Square Law for Light 239

a certain source of light, the less light will strike On a normal summer day with the sun shining,
it. So the oil spots appear quite bright near the intensity of illumination outdoors may be 500
the lamp, and are gradually dimmer as they get foot candles even in the shade, and 5000 to 8000 in
farther away from the lamp. Those still farther the direct rays of the sun.
away appear darker than the paper, because, with 157. INVERSE SQUARE LAW FOR LIGHT
normal light striking the paper from outside the We have already mentioned that the farther any
instrument, there is less light behind these spots object is from a source of light, the less light it
than on the observer's side, so they appear dark. receives from that source.
This, we find, is the same general principle of the A very important rule to rem• ember is that the
photometer explained earlier. Between the bright illumination on a surface varies directly with the
appearing spots and the dark appearing ones, there candle power of the source of light, and inversely
will be one or two that appear the same color as with the square of the distance from the source.
the rest of the paper around them. This is the point So we find that a small change in distance from
at which the light within the instrument is exactly alight will make agreat change in the illumination
equal or balanced with that striking it from the out- on an object. The reason for this is illustrated in
side, and at this point we can read the intensity of Fig. 168. Here we have a standard candle, and if
the outside light in foot candles, on a scale printed the surface at "A" is 1 foot from the candle, its
along the paper strip. illumination intensity will be 1 foot candle. If we
move the surface or plane to "B", which is two
feet from the source, the same number of light rays
will have to spread over four times the area, as that
area increases in both directions. Then the illumi-
nation intensity at double the distance is only y s
what it was before, as the distance or 2 squared is
4, and this is the number of times the illumination
is reduced.
If we move the surface to "C", which is 3 feet
away from the light source, the rays now are spread
over 9 times the original areas, and the intensity of
illumination on the surface will now be only 1/9
of its former value, or 32 equals 9. So we call
this the Inverse Square Law for Light
158. LIGHT REFLECTION
Photo Courtesy Western Electrical Instrument Co. We all know that light can be reflected from cer-
Fig. 167. Newer type of convenient light meter, using a photo-electric tain light-colored or highly-polished surfaces. This
cell to give a direct reading in foot candles on a meter.
fact is made good use of in controlling and direct-
To use a foot-candle meter, the rheostat switch ing light in modern illumination.
should be turned on and the knob rotated until the
voltmeter needle comes up to a mark on its scale,
which indicates that the lamp is operating at proper
voltage and brilliancy. Then the meter is held face
up toward the light source, and at the level of the
working surface where the illumination is required.
The shadow of your body should not be allowed to
fall on the face of the meter during tests. A number
Fig. 168. Note how the illumination intensity becomes less on any
of such tests at various places in a room will give surface as its distance from the light source increases. The farther
the surface is from the source, the greater the area a given number
the average foot candle intensity and show us of light rays must be distributed over.
whether the illumination is sufficient for the class
of work being done. Some surfaces and materials are much better
Tables of proper illumination standards for vari- reflectors than others. Generally the lighter the
ous classes of work will be given later. color, or higher the polish of a surface, the more
The standard foot-candle meter is made to read light it reflects, and the less it absorbs.
intensities from 1 to 50 foot candles. It is possible The percentages of light that will be reflected
to test intensities lower and greater than this by from some of the more common materials are as
operating the lamp in the meter at less or more than follows:
its rated voltage, by setting the rheostat to hold the Highly polished silver 92%
voltmeter needle at the extra marks which are pro- Good silvered-glass mirrors 70% to 80%
vided for this purpose on the scale. White blotting paper 82%
Ordinary daylight is far too bright to measure Yellow paper 62%
with these meters and is of a color that does not Pink paper 36%
match the meter lamp accurately. Dark brown paper 13%
240 Illumination. Controlling Light with Reflectors

The better classes of reflectors are used in direct- shadows which impair vision and are likely to cause
ing the light of sources where we want it. The accidents in industrial lighting.
colors of walls and ceilings and their reflecting A bare lamp also wastes a great deal of its light
ability should also be considered in lighting interi- which goes upwards and sidewise and not down as
ors of buildings. we usually want it to. So, to direct the light as
desired, we use reflectors with the proper shapes
and curves. These reflectors turn back the light that
would otherwise go up and sidewise, and send it
down either in a broad or narrow beam as desired.

Fig. 169. Note the angle of light reflection from a smooth surface as
shown at "A." The illumination at "B" shows how light is re-
flected from both surfaces of a piece of silvered glass.

Fig. 170. This illustration shows how a curved reflector can be made
to send all the light rays from a source in one direction. The
shape of such a reflector is called a "parabola."

159. CONTROLLING AND DIRECTING

LIGHT WITH REFLECTORS
Bare incandescent lamps are wonderful sources
of light, when we consider their efficiency and the
quantity and quality of light they produce, but
they may also be rather wasteful of light unless
proper reflectors are used to direct their light
where we want it. Fig. 172. The two top reflectors and the one at the lower left show
Bare Mazda lamps are a source of bad glare how light can he controlled in any direction desired, by using
the proper shape of reflector. The unit at the lower right shows
which is very tiring to the eye, and they create had a reflector which also has a glass diffusing bowl.

160. TYPES OF REFLECTORS

Fig. 171 shows several types of metal reflectors
of different shapes, and beneath each one is shown
the characteristic curve of light distribution for that
type of reflector. From these curves it will be seen
that the curvature of a reflector can be made to
spread or concentrate the light more or less, as
desired.

Fig. 173. This larger view of the diffusing unit shows the position
of the bulb and glass bowl in the reflector. This is a very efficient
and popular type unit for factory lighting and other similar work.
(Illustration Courtesy of Benjamin Electric Co.)

Fig. 172 shows several other types of reflectors.

The upper two are used for throwing the light to
one side and downward, and the lower left one for
spreading the light in two narrow horizontal beams.
Fig. 171. Above are shown several types of porcelain enameled,
metal reflectors. Note how their various shapes give different
The lower right hand unit is a combined reflector
distribution of the light, as shown by the curves under each
and glass diffusing bowl.
reflector.
 Illumination. Types of Reflectors 241

The ordinary reflectors direct the light down- 161. ENAMELED METAL REFLECTORS
ward and shield the eyes from side glare of the The inside surfaces of metal reflectors of the types
lamps. This is often sufficient when the lamps are here shown are covered with heavy white porcelain
mounted high enough to be above the ordinary line enamel, to give them a high reflecting efficiency.
of vision. While polished metal can be used as a reflector it
usually tarnishes in a short time and is then not
much good. So porcelain enamel or glass is better.
Fig. 174 shows a curve of light distribution, and
also the manner in which the various candle-power
measurements are plotted on the chart to indicate
the illumination intensities at different points along
the curve.

Fig. 174. This shows the manner in which the light distribution rom
a lamp or reflector can be plotted on a chart, to give a charac-
teristic curve for that light or reflector.
_J

The reflector unit with the glass bowl reflects the Fig. 176. Corrugated glass reflectors of this type break up or diffuse
the side rays from a lamp and also reflect a greater portion of
light downward, and the bowl enclosing the bulb the light downwards, as shown in the curve at the right.

has a milky white color and spreads or softens the

light from the bulb so there is no glare even when 162. MIRRORED GLASS REFLECTORS
looking up at the unit from underneath. Broaden- Glass shades and reflectors are also used exten-
ing the source of light in this manner also softens sively where there is not too great danger of break-
the shadows a great deal, making this type of light- age. Some glass reflectors have the outside silvered
ing unit a very popular one for commercial and and then covered with dark paint. The silvered
industrial buildings. surface makes the inside of the unit of higher re-
Fig. 173 shows alarger view of this unit and also flecting efficiency, and the dark paint stops all side
a sketch which shows the shape of the glass bowl light and glare.
and the location of the lamp. These units have Fig. 175 shows several types of glass reflectors of
ring-shaped slots in the top of the reflector to allow this kind. You will note that the glass is corrugated
a small amount of light to reach the ceilings, and to break up the light rays, diffusing them enough to
eliminate the dark spots that would otherwise be prevent reflection of the sharp outlines of lamp fila-
above a metal reflector and cause quite a contrast ments. If this is not done the light from such a
to the lighter areas around them. reflector might cause spots of glare on glossy paper
or bright metal surfaces if they were worked upon
under these lights.
Another type of glass reflector in quite common
use is the sharply corrugated type shown in Fig.
176. These reflectors break up the light from the
bulb enough to reduce the side glare considerably.
While they don't soften the light source as much
as some of the other types, they are very good for
certain applications. Note the curve of light dis-
tribution for the reflector in Fig. 176 which shows
that this type of unit directs a greater part of the
light downward.
Fig. 177 shows one of these glass reflectors with
a special type of holder which allows them to be
easily removed for cleaning. This reflector has a
different shape from the one in Fig. 176, which you
will note changes its light distribution curve con-
siderably.

163. PRISMATIC REFLECTORS

Fig. 175. Corrugated, mirrored glass reflectors of the above type are This type of glass reflector is made with grooves
very efficient in preventing side glare and directing light down-
wards to the surface where it is desired. running in both directions, so that its outer surface
242 Illumination. Enclosing Bowl Fixtures

if these effects which are so tiring to the eye are

not present.
Fig. 179 shows two types of glass bowls of a
very popular style. These are fastened in the metal
canopy with thumb screws, which can be seen in
this illustration. This enables the globes to be
easily removed for cleaning and replacing the bulbs.
When attaching the globes to a fixture of this type,
the thumb screws should be tightened firmly and
evenly; but not too tight, as it is possible to crack
the glass globe in this manner.

Fig. 177. These glass reflectors mounted in convenient hangers, as

shown above, are very commonly used in factory lighting and
in some classes of general office lighting.

in reality consists of a number of little prisms,

which very effectively break up or diffuse the light.
These reflectors present avery good appearance and
are quite frequently used in office and store lighting.
Fig. 178 shows three units of this type. You will
note that the bulbs are entirely enclosed with these
fixtures, so there is no chance of any direct glare
from the lamp.
164. OPAL GLASS REFLECTORS AND
DIFFUSING BOWLS
Glass lighting fixtures using white or opal-col-
ored glass are made iti agreat variety of shapes and
sizes for general lighting and offices and stores.
Opal-colored glass diffuses the light very effectively,
and thus softens the source so there is very little
glare or shadow if the fixtures are propèrly in-
stalled.

Fig. 178. Enclosing glass bowls with milky white or opal colored
glass, make very efficient units for office lighting.

Fig. 180 shows two styles of glass fixtures which

are made for mounting closer to the ceilings.
Glassware or fixtures of the types here described
can be plain opal-colored, or made more ornamental
with decorative painting on the outside. These
decorations, of course, reduce the efficiency of the
fixture somewhat by absorbing a certain amount
of light. Fig. 181 shows another popular type of
glass fixture in which the lower part of the bowl
is opal-colored and the upper part is clear glass.
Then, above the bowl, is suspended a broad opal
reflector. The clear glass in the top of the bowl
allows considerable light to go upward and strike
the under side of the opal reflector, from which it
is again deflected downward to the working surface.
Fig. 178. Several styles of prismatic glass lighting units. Note that Glass lighting fixtures of these types allow a cer-
these units completely enclose the lamp so that all light is
diffused or softened before reaching the eye.
tain amount of light to go upward, lighting the
ceilings more or less uniformly, and present a very
There are two different grades of opal glass,
cheerful appearance as well as softening the light
known as light opal and dense opal, either of which
generally and reducing shadows.
will, of course, absorb or stop a certain amount of
light from the bulb. But this small loss is more 165. GENERAL CLASSES OF LIGHTING
than made up by the greater efficiency of light- UNITS
ing which is free from glare and shadows. Persons Lighting fixtures are often classed in three gen-
can actually see much better with a little less light eral divisions called :—Direct, Indirect, and Semi-
 Illumination. Indirect and Semi-Indirect Fixtures 243

Indirect. The direct lighting fixture is one from of the very best classes of installations where exact-
which the greater part of the light comes directly ing work is to be done.
from the bulb down to the working plane. The metal Semi-indirect fixtures are those from which part
and glass reflectors of the first types described of the light is directed downward through a diffus-
come in this class. The indirect lighting fixture ing globe, and the balance is thrown upward, and
is one in which no light comes directly down from then reflected back by the ceiling. Some fixtures are
the bulb to the working plane, but instead is all also classed as Direct Diffusing, because while prac-
first thrown upward to the ceiling or to a broad re- tically all of their light is thrown directly down to
flector above and then directed downward. Lights the working plane, it must pass through a diffusing
of this type are used where it is very essential to bowl as with some of those previously described.
avoid even the slightest glare and to eliminate
shadows almost entirely. With such fixtures we
might say that the ceiling is our secondary source
of light; and as we know that shadows are more
pronounced when the light comes from small
"point" sources, we can readily see that light com-
ing from the broad area of a ceiling would produce
almost no shadows.

Fig. 182. This drafting room is lighted with indirect fixtures which
throw their light to the ceiling first. The ceiling then reflects
it downward to the working` surface.

166. DEPRECIATION FACTOR

Almost all lighting fixtures are subject to a very
definite reduction in efficiency from the collection
of dust and dirt on their light transmitting or re-
Fig. 188. Short fixtures of the tyre shown »hey. 'en be used for
mounting close to the ceiling in low rooms. flecting surfaces. Few people realize what an effec-
Fig. 182 shows a view in a drafting room which tive absorber of light a thin film of dust actually is.
is lighted with indirect fixtures of this type. You In some installations where a beautiful selection
will note that the light is all directed first to the of fixtures has been made and the lighting is of very
ceiling and produces a very uniform light through- sufficient intensity when the installation is new,
out the entire room. While this type of light is a after a few months the dirt that is allowed to ac-
little more expensive and requires more lamps and cumulate on the fixtures absorbs from AI. to 3A. of
current than a direct lighting installation, it is one

Fig. 183. This is an actual photo showing how much of the light
can be lost if the reflectors are not kept cleaned.

the light. This is particularly true in certain in-

dustrial plants where smoky, oily, and dusty atmos-
pheres exist. Fig. 183 shows an actual view of a
fixture of which one side has been cleaned and the
other side left with the remaining accumulation of
oil and dirt. This is undoubtedly aworse case than
is ordinarily encountered, but it serves as a good
Fig. 181. This fixture has a bowl, the lower part of which is white
to diffuse the light, and the upper pert Is clear to allow the light illustration of the necessity of keeping fixtures
to go upward and strike the reflector, from which it is directed
back to the working surface in a well diffused manner.
clean. Regardless of the amount of money spent
 Norman Seder
244 41 Georgia Ave.
Brooklyn 7, 1\1_ Y_ Illumination. Depreciation Factor

in purchasing fixtures that will eliminate glare and emitted by any lamp reaches the working plane,
shadow, a great deal of the electricity used will be as a certain amount will be absorbed by the re-
wasted and the lighting will be unsatisfactory if flector or enclosing glassware of the fixture, and
the fixtures are not kept clean. An occasional wash- some will be absorbed by the walls, ceilings and
ing with soap and water will remove ordinary other objects. In some cases part of the light that
dust and dirt from lighting fixtures, and where nec- is directed upwards and sidewise from the fixture
essary special cleaners can be employed. is again reflected to the working surface.
Of course, it is impossible to prevent some dust The coefficient of utilization therefore refers to
and dirt from accumulating, even if the fixtures the percentage of light used at the working plane.
are cleaned frequently; so when we are selecting So we find that the coefficient of utilization de-
fixtures we generally allow a certain amount for pends on the type of fixtures; and on the color of
this Depreciation Factor. This will vary from 1.2 walls and ceilings to quite an extent, as the darker
to 1.6, and a good, safe average value to use is 1.4. colors absorb and waste much of the light from the
This means that in planning a lighting installation, source, while light colors reflect back to the work-
after determining the foot candles of lighting inten- ing surface more of the light which strikes them.
sity that would be required to produce the de- Under average 'conditions a unit of the type
sired illumination, we should then multiply this shown in Fig. 173 has a coefficient of utilization of
by the figure 1.4, to have enough light reserve to about .70.
keep the lighting satisfactory in spite of ordinary Fig. 184 shows atable of coefficients of utilization
depreciation. for various types of reflectors. You will note that
the figures given vary for light or dark walls and
ceilings.

COEFFICIENTS OF UTILIZATION
This table applies to installations in !gum rooms ha ing sufficient lighting units s mmet.
rically arranged to produce reasonably uniform Ilurnin non. To obra; the coefficient for any
rectangular room, find the value for asquare room of th narrow dimen ion and add one-third
of the difference between this value and the coefficient for asquare room of the long dimension.
Ceiling We% km wk, ht as
Reflection Factor.
(Walk
54.1. e'er
' 2
Det Mit'•1- 2
De 4'
'sZ
Reflector Ratio.
Light Output effieli
Type itng mg t
km... Glen 90. to 1110.-22
I .42 J8 -15 -36 .34 33
IX .50 .46 .43 .44 .42 .41
2 36 32 .49 30 .47 .45
21 3 .63 .59 .55 .56 33 51
lteel.imgel 1.m. r fa 110 .-65,1. S .70 .66 .63 .63 .60 37
Ltglet 0.1 le le iir -is% 1 .31 27 24 24 21 18
IX 37 -13 _30 .30 .27 .24
2 .43 .39 .35 .34 .31 27
3 .49 .45 Al .39
a... fretted Las. 0' t• W-0% 5 56 .52 .48 .45 .42 36
Deg.. 011.1 Pi, Mr -10.
1 .41 .37 .34 .35 -13 -32
133 .49 .45 .42 .43 .41 -39
2 54 .50 .47 .48 .46 .4t"i
3 .60 .56 33 S3
Fig. 183-B. Special hangers of the above type are often used with
kid r....i.... n' » wi -. 5 .67 .61 59 59
31
.57
.49
.54
),••1 4.1 10,140 .- .%
lamps which are mounted very high in shops or factories. They
1
11 38 .36 34 _35 33 .33
...G.,
IX .45 .43 .41 .42 .40 AO
allow the lamps to be lowered with a chain for convenient cleaning
. 2 49 .47 45 46 .44 .44
and repairing. 3 34 32 50 31 49 .49
Poe*. tumele4 a. or -és% 5 39 37 .55 56 -54 54
Some fixtures, of course, collect more dust than 'tee ea 10. r.
snr- n,
I .43 .40 -38 .39 37 37
IX 32 .49 .47 .48 .46 .46
others in the vital places where it interferes with 2 .57 .54 32 • 53 31 Si
3" .63 .60 58 .59 .57 57
their light distribution. In some cases when buying Fortelm Camelaa
I..»
ru ur-u%
iisi q• •-40%
5 .69 .66 .64 .65 .63 .63
22 .19 .17 .14 .12 07
fixtures, the depreciation factor for that particular
I
IX .27 24 22 .17 .15 .09
2 .31 28 .26 .20 ..I8 .11
type will be given by the manufacturer or dealer, 3 36 .13 -31 24 22 .13
torr...eGu» ri. to - a 5 42 .39 -37 28 26 .16
but when this value is not known, the average ..•INdruct 1.11 . t• 114 .-40%
I 27 24 21 .20 .17 .14
IX .34 JO 27 .25 22 .18
factor of 1.4 can be generally used. /2.......>
\....
.., 2 .39 35 .32 .29 .26 21
3 45 Al 38 34 .31 .25
167. COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION '
,C.O.t

Se.....<1
ru m'-air.
Or. lel -70%
5

é
31
24
.47
21
.44
.19
.40
.16
.37
.14
.29
.10
Another very important item to consider in plan- <2......1
)
IX
2
30
30
27
31
.24
28
20
.23
.18
21
.13
.15
ning a lighting installation is what is called the oftei ow Y .• tr-lo%
3
5
39
AS
36
.42
-33
.39
27
.32
.25
-10
.18
21
Coefficient of Utilization. You will recall that 6.1././ .0. le 1110 .-13%.
I
134
23
JO 26 23 24 21 .19
earlier in this section we mentioned that, if we 2 as 31 28 28 25 22
3 .41 37 39 -13 JO .26
knew the number of square feet that had to he illu- 1....t 0.1
s....G.i.....
r. w -me.
se» 1
sei-kiti
5 A8
32
44
.28
.41 39 J6 .31
1 .26 .27 .25 23
minated and the foot-candle intensity to which it IX
2
40
.45
.36
Al
33
38
.34
-39
.12
.37
.30
35
was desired to illuminate the area, the product of op., a... e• te ,11.-4.1. •
3
5
.52
59
47
54
.94
51
.45
31
A2
.48
.40
.46
these values would give the lumens that would
have to be utilized to produce the desired illumina- Fig. 184. This table shows the percentage of light which we can expect
to obtain at the working surface, from lamps used in different
tion. types of reflectors, and in rooms of different shapes. Note that the
color of walls and ceilings also influences this percentage.
When we say these lumens must be utilized we
mean that the_ç, must be effectively used and not The ratio of the room width to its ceiling height
absorbed or wasted in other places besides the is also considered, because in narrow high rooms
working surfaces. Only a part of the total light more of the light strikes the walls. In wide rooms
 Illumination. Working Plane and Mounting Height 245

indirect lighting the source is considered to be at

the ceiling. Fig. 187 illustrates this.

170. NUMBER AND LOCATION OF LIGHTS

In general, we should never try to skimp on the
number of lights or lighting circuits when plan-
ning a lighting installation. If good lighting is
economy, then it is certainly false economy to try to
Fig. 8$. This sketch shows how the walls of narrow rooms absorb save on wiring materials or fixture costs by cutting
a certain amount of the light. If the wall in this case was removed
and the room was twice as wide, note how the light beams from
down on the number of lighting outlets or trying to
the two lamps would overlap and produce more light on the spread them as far apart as possible.
benches.
At the rate standards of lighting are improving
which are not obstructed by partitions, the light today in all classes of up-to-date buildings, it is far
from the several lamps overlaps and not as much better to plan for the future and to put in adequate
of it is absorbed by walls; thus the utilization factor lighting while it is being installed.
is raised somewhat. Fig. 185 shows a sketch of a Best results can be obtained by having sufficient
room and what the effect on the light would be, outlets close enough together to give even distribu-
both with and without the center partition. tion and uniform lighting.
Fig. 186 shows the amount of light absorption and
reflection obtained from painted walls and ceilings
of different colors, and from this we can see that LIGHT ABSORBED LIGHT 'REFLECTED

in many cases it would pay to coat them with white

or light colored paint, to reduce light waste by
absorption. The white or lighter colored paints
greatly improve the utilization factor by increasing
reflection.
168. WORKING PLANE
Now that we have considered some of the more
common types of lighting units for industrial and
commercial lighting and some of the important
points governing their efficiency, let us find out
something about the proper location and arrange- Fig. 184. The above chart shows the percentages of light that will
be absorbed and also the percentage that will be reflected, by
ment of lights to obtain best results and efficiency. walls and ceilings painted with different colors.
In mounting fixtures for industrial or commercial
171. SPACING DISTANCE
lighting we must consider the distance the light will
In small rooms that are enclosed by permanent
have to travel from them to reach the Working
partitions and where one lamp is sufficient, it is, of
Plane. This term refers to the level at which the
course, a simple matter to locate this unit in the
light is used. In an office, it may be the top of the
center of the ceiling. In large rooms where a num-
desk; or in a drafting room, the top of the tables;
ber of lamps are necessary, we need some rule or
in a store, the counter top; and in a machine shop,
standard by which to determine the number and
the height of the machine or bench at which the
spacing of the lights.
operator works.
The distance between lights or lighting outlets
As it is very seldom that the maximum light is
is known as the Spacing Distance. This distance
wanted at the floor, we must plan to obtain the
will vary somewhat with the shape and height of
proper intensities at the working plane.
the room, but it can easily be determined by the
Examination of the equipment or work in a room
following simple rule: For best efficiency the spac-
or building, will readily show at what height from
the floor the working plane is; but if no measure-
ments can be made, it is usually assumed to be
about 2 feet from the floor.
169. MOUNTING HEIGHT
The next important point to consider in the loca-
tion of the fixtures is the proper Mounting Height.
This is the perpendicular distance from the working
plane to the source of light; and it is, of course, Direct Direct Dif fusing Indirect
this distance that affects the coefficient of utiliza- Mounting Mounting
Height Hight
tion and the light intensity obtained at the work-
ing plane.
The distance from the floor to the ceiling in any Floor.
room is called the Ceiling Height.
With direct lighting the source of light is the
Fig. 187. This sketch shows how the mounting height is obtained
lamp itself and is reflector. In indirect and semi- with different types of fixtures.
246 Illumination. Practical Lighting Problem

ing distance should be the same as the mounting floor, and that the lighting units will hang down
height. 22 ft. from the ceiling. In this case our mounting
In some cases this may seem unnecessarily close, height will be 13' — 5', or 8'. Then, for maximum
but if good illumination is desired, lights should efficiency, the spacing distance should be about 8ft.,
seldom be spaced more than 172 times the mounting and not over 12 ft., if good lighting is desired. As
height. There may be certain cases where a build- the building is 30 ft. by 40 ft., a spacing distance
ing when it is first erected will not need that much of 10 ft. will give us 10-foot light bays, which will
general lighting, but if it is later changed to some fit this space evenly. So we will adopt the 10-foot
other use, the standard amount of illumination may spacing distance, and bays 10'x10', as shown by the
become very necessary. dotted lines. This layout will require 12 lights.
172. LIGHTING BAYS Spacing the rows of lights 10 ft. apart leaves
In large rooms where a number of lights are to 5ft. between the outside rows and the walls; which
be installed they should be lined up as neatly as
possible for good appearance. In some buildings
the larger rooms have posts or supports at uniform
distances throughout them, which sort of divide aal-- S. D
3:1
them into Bays. If possible, the lights should be
arranged uniformly in these bays. -- - - -- -- - T
In planning an illumination layout, however, we 5. D.

should divide the room or space into imaginary

bays or squares, as soon as the mounting height n
and spacing distance have been determined. The
width of each bay should be made the same as the
spacing distance, and each bay should have a light
in the center of it. See Fig. 188.
173. PRACTICAL ILLUMINATION
PROBLEM
a
Let us assume that the size of the room shown
in this Figure is 30x40 ft., and 13 ft. high. We will Fig. 188. Dividing the area which is to be illuminated into 'light
bays," as shown by the dotted lines, greatly simplifies an illumina-
assume that the working plane is 22 ft. from the tion problem.

Fig. 188-B. This photo shows a view in a well liehted machine shop. It is easy to understand why production can be increased and greater
safety obtained in a shop which Is lighted in this manner. (Photo Courtesy Light Magazine).
 Illumination. Recommended Intensities 247

should be all right, unless some special bench work 174. STANDARD ILLUMINATION INTENSI-
is to be done along the walls. TIES IN FOOT-CANDLES
Now that we know the number of lights to use For your convenience in determining the proper
and that the area of the bays to be supplied by each illumination intensity to use for various classes of
light is 10x10, or 100 sq. ft., our next step is to work and different buildings, a list of the standard
choose the desired illumination intensity. foot-candle intensities for the most common classes
The required intensity in foot candles will vary of lighting is given here:
considerably for various classes of work. For ex-
ample, a shop doing nothing but coarse assembly RECOMMENDED FOOT-CANDLE
work may only require 8 to 10 foot-candles (F.C.) INTENSITIES
while another shop doing very fine machine work
may require 20 to 50 F.C. A store or office may COMMERCIAL INTERIORS
need 10 to 20 F.C., while a drafting room or sew- Auditoriums 3 to 5
ing room requires 20 to 40 F.C.) Automobile showrooms 10 to 20
Let us assume that our problem is for an office Banks 10 to 20
building where the owner desires 15 F.C. intensity. Barbershops 10 to 20
Now, in order to determine the required lumens Bowling alleys (general) 8 to 10
to produce this intensity, we recall that we must On pins 20 to 30
consider the utilization factor, according to the Pool and billiards (general) 8 to 10
type of fixture and the color of the room walls and On tables 20 to 30
ceiling. We will use for this job a light opal-glass OFFICES (private and general) 10 to 30
unit of the semi-enclosed type, and assume our Close work 20 to 30
walls and ceilings are both light colored. No close work 10 to 20
Looking up this fixture in the table of utilization File rooms 8 to 10
coefficients in Fig. 184, and in the column for light Vaults 8 to 10
walls, light ceilings, and a room with a ratio of Reception rooms 8 to 10
width to height of about 2, we find the coefficient RESTAURANTS 8 to 10
is .45.
SCHOOLS 8 to 30
If we wish to assure the proper lighting intensity
after the fixtures are installed awhile, we must also Auditoriums. 8 to 10
Drawing rooms 20 to 30
consider the depreciation factor of, say 1.4.
Now we are ready to lay out all this data in a Laboratories 10 to 20
simple formula to make our final calculation of re- Manual training rooms 10 to 20
Study rooms and desks 10 to 20
quired lumens as follows:
F.C. X B. A. X D.F. STORES
General 10 to 20
C.U.
Automobile 10 to 20
In which:
Bakery 10 to 20
L = Lumens required per bay
Confectionery 10 to 20
F.C. = Foot-candles desired intensity
Dry goods 10 to 20
B.A. = Bay area (one bay)
Grocery 10 to 20
D.F. = Depreciation factor
Hardware 10 to 20
C.U. = Coefficient of utilization
Meat 10 to 20
So, substituting our values, we have:
Clothing 10 to 20
15 X 100 x 1.4 Drugs 10 to 20
L— ,or 4666 ± Lumens per bay.
.45 Electrical 10 to 20
Jewelry 10 to 20
Now, from our table of lumen output of Madza
Shoe 10 to 20
lamps in Fig. 164, we find that a300-watt lamp gives
5520 lumens, so that would do very well for this SHOW WINDOWS
job. Large cities
It will be well to review this problem until you Downtown '100 to 200
thoroughly understand each step of it and the rea- Outer districts 50 to 100
sons for using each of the factors we applied in Neighborhood stores 30 to 50
calculating the spacing distance, size of bays, num- Medium-sized cities
ber of outlets, size of lamps; as these are the im- Downtown 50 to 100
portant factors in any commercial illumination Outer districts 30 to 50
problem. Once you have obtained an understanding Small towns ................ 30 to 50
of these fundamentals and a little practice in using THEATRES
them in the simple formula given here, you should Auditoriums 3 to 5
be able to lay out a practical illumination job very Foyer 8 to 10
easily. Lobbies 10 to 20
248' illumination. Factory Lighting

CHURCHES operations, inspection, etc. Generally used only

Auditorium 8 to 10 at local spots where needed, and along with gen-
Sunday-school rooms 10 to 20 eral lighting of lower intensities.
Pulpit or rostrum 10 to 20 Another good general rule to remember is that,
Art-glass windows 30 to 50 for ordinary factory lighting, 200-watt lamps in
INDUSTRIAL INTERIORS standard R.L.M. reflectors and spaced 10 ft. apart
ASSEMBLING will usually give very satisfactory lighting. The
Rough 8 to 10 R.L.M. dome is a common type of unit which is
Medium 10 to 20 approved by the Reflector and Lamp Manufacturers
Fine 20 to 30 Association, and is very commonly used in indus-
Extra fine 50 to 100 trial lighting.
MANUFACTURING If there are certain sections which require more
Screw machines 10 to 20 light, larger bulbs can be used in the units at these
Tool making 20 to 30 points, provided the outlets are wired to stand the
Inspecting 50 to 100 increased load. For this reason it is usually better
Drafting r000ms 20 to 40 to install wires plenty large enough to carry a cer-
ELECTRICAL MANUFACTURING tain increase of load in case of future improvement
Battery rooms 8 to 10 in the lighting.
Armature winding 12 to 20 Observing the lighting needs and selecting and
Assembly 10 to 20 recommending the proper illumination intensities
FOUNDRIES 10 to 20 for various buildings and classes of work is a very
MACHINE SHOPS interesting and profitable field, and should prove
Rough work 8 to 10 very easy and enjoyable work for the man with a
Grinding and polishing 10 to 20 good understanding of the fundamental principles
Fine machine work and grinding 20 to 50 of illumination covered in this section. Practice
TEXTILE MILLS 10 to 30 using the tables and simple formulas, until you can
ENGRAVING 25 to 100 use them easily in planning any ordinary illumina-
JEWELRY MANUFACTURING 50 to 100 tion system. Fig. 188-B shows a splendid example
This list of recommended illumination intensities of good illumination in a machine shop.
will give the proper values for most any kind of
ordinary illumination. While it does not, of course, 175. FACTORY LIGHTING PROBLEM
mention every possible class of work, a general Suppose we have ajob of lighting afactory room
study of the intensities required for the various 55 ft. wide. 100 ft. long, and 17 ft. high. The work
types of work covered will enable you to determine to be handled is not very fine, the material is light-
the proper intensities to use on almost any problem colored, and the owner desires good illumination,
you may encounter. which in this case should be obtained with an in-
The lower values given in the list are the mini- tensity of about 12 foot-candles.
mum values for efficiency in the class of work for Let us say the average working plane is about
which they are given. The higher values are recom- 30 inches, or 2Y2 feet, from the floor; and that the
mended as the best practice where maximum effici- lighting reflectors chosen will hang down feet
ency is desired. from the ceiling. Then if the room is 17 ft. high, the
When we sum up the recommendations given in mounting height will be 17 — 5 = 12 ft.
the foregoing list, we find that a good general \V e decide to use the maximum efficient spacing
division of proper intensities to keep in mind is distance, which we have learned is 15.4 times the
as follows: mounting height. Then 15/2 X 12 = 18 ft. spacing
5to 10 FOOT-CANDLES distance.
Suitable for coarse work, such as rough assem- Each light bay will then be 18' >< 18' or 324 sq. ft.
bly and packing. Sufficient for warehouses, This figure will be approximate and may need to
stockrooms, aisles, etc. This is enough light to be corrected to suit the shape of the room, for even
prevent a gloomy appearance. rows of lights. Then, to find the number of outlets,
10 to 15 FOOT-CANDLES we can divide the total floor area by the square feet
Considered good lighting for most kinds of per bay. The floor area will be 55' >< 100' = 5500
work on light-colored surfaces, but is not suffi- sq. feet. Then 5500 + 324 = 16.9+; or, we will say,
cient for fine details on dark-colored surfaces. 17 outlets.
15 to 25 FOOT-CANDLES Now, as our room is nearly twice as long as it is
Excellent lighting. Permits quick and accurate wide, agood uniform arrangement will be the three
work, and stimulates workmen and speeds up rows of 6 outlets in each, or 18 outlets. This will
production enough to more than pay for the be one more than our figures call for, but when bal-
small extra cost of the light. ancing up the rows for appearance, it is always bet-
50 to 100 FOOT-CANDLES ter to add a light or two than to remove any. See
Needed only for extremely fine and accurate the layout for this problem in Fig. 139. This ar-
 Illumination. Office Lighting 249

rangement will give a spacing of 1873 ft. between 176. OFFICE LIGHTING PROBLEM
the rows of lamps, and 16%3 ft. between the lamps In another problem, suppose we have a room
in the rows. It also leaves a space of 9% ft. be- 92 ft. square and 13 ft. high which we wish to
tween the rows and the walls on the sides, and 873 illuminate to an intensity of 10 foot-candles, with
ft. at the ends. indirect lighting fixtures. Assume the working
Now that we have decided upon the number of plane to be 3 ft. from floor.
outlets, our next step is to determine the exact When using indirect fixtures, we will remember,
number of sq. ft. per bay. So we will divide the our source of light is considered to be at the ceiling,
total floor area by the number of outlets, or 5500 so in this case we do not subtract the length of the
÷ 18 = 305.5+ sq. ft. per bay. fixture from the ceiling height to obtain the mount-
Before we can complete our problem and deter- ing height. Instead, we subtract just the height of
mine the number of lamp lumens required per bay the working plane; so 13 — 3 = 10 ft., which will be
to maintain 12 foot-candles of illumination, we must the mounting height.
consider our utilization and depreciation factors. In this case we will use the proper spacing dis-
tance for maximum efficiency, which is the same as
the mounting height, or 10 ft. Then the first esti-
.014
mate for the bays will be 10' x 10' or 100 sq. ft.
The total floor area is 92' x 92' = 8464 sq. ft. Then
the estimated number of outlets will be 8464 ± 100
= 84.6+.
As the room is square, we can use 9 rows of
9 lights each, or a total of 81 outlets; which is
close enough, because we are using close spacing
anyway.
Ci
Now to get the accurate number of sq. ft. per
bay, we divide the total floor area by the chosen
Fig. 109. This sketch shows the arrangement and spacing of lights number of outlets, or 84-64 ± 81 = approximately
for a practical factory lighting job.
104 1
/ sq. ft. per bay.
2

We will assume that we are going to use steel We will assume the walls and ceilings to be light-
dome, porcelain-enameled reflectors, and that the colored, as the ceilings should certainly be to get
walls and ceilings of the room are both light-col- reasonable efficiency from indirect fixtures, with
ored. which the light must be reflected from the ceiling.
By referring to the table in Fig. 184, we find that
for this fixture used with light walls and ceilings,
and in a room whose ratio of width to height is
about 2, the utilization factor is .57. Then, using
1.4 as our average depreciation factor, our problem
can be completed by the formula for lumens, which
we have previously used.
12 F.C. X 305 B.A. X 1.4 D.F.
L
.57 C.U.
In which we will recall—
F.C. = Desired foot-candles
B.A. = Bay area in sq. ft.
D.F. = Depreciation factor
C.U. = Coefficient of utilization
Working out this formula with our figures for
this job, we find it gives 8989.4+ lumens required.
Then, from the table in Fig. 164, we find that a Fig. 190. Note in the upper view the very undesirable effect of uneven
illumination, which results from spacing lighting units too far apart.
500-watt lamp gives 9800 lumens, so it will be Below is shown the much more efficient lighting obtained with
plenty large enough for this job. proper spacing distance.

If the glare from bare bulbs in these units should Referring to Fig. 184 again, we find the coefficient
be objectionable to any of the operators, we can of utilization for indirect fixtures and light-ceilings
install bowl frosted lamps. and walls is .42. This is for a room of 5 to 1 ratio
The upper view in Fig. 190 shows what happens of width to ceiling height; as the one in our problem
when lighting units are spaced too far apart. This has a ratio of about 7 to 1, or 92 ÷ 13. But the
produces contrasting spots of bright light with table only gives these ratios up to 5, and we will
shadows in between, and is very poor practice. The recall that on ratios above 5 the difference is very
lower view shows the more uniform illumination little anyway.
obtained by proper spacing of the units at distances With indirect fixtures, the depreciation factor is
not to exceed PA times their mounting height. likely to be rather high unless both the fixtures
250 Illumination. Office and Store Lighting

for but it is a good general rule always to select a

lamp with the next larger rating in lumens, rather
than to use one smaller.
Of course, if we find that for a certain layout
the next larger lamp has a considerably greater
lumen output than is actually required, we can, if
desired, rearrange the layout to slightly increase
the spacing distance and size of bays. But, in gen-
eral, it is a good plan to have a little extra light,
to keep it up to standard after the bulbs and fixtures
start to depreciate.
Another thought to always keep in mind, is that,
while a certain illumination system may be con-
Fig. 191. This photo shows a view in a well lighted store. Plenty sidered excellent today, in a year or two it may be
of good light always pays in such places as this. (Photo Courtesy
Light Magazine). desired to increase the intensity considerably with
and ceiling are kept very clean; so we will use improving standards.
1.6, or the maximum' average depreciation factor. Fig. 191 shows a well-lighted store in a medium-
Then our final problem can be stated in the for- sized town, using 500-watt lamps on 10-ft. centers.
mula: For store and office lighting, it is general prac-
L = 10 x 1043 x 1.
6 ,or 3981-lamp lumens tice to use direct-diffusing, indirect, or semi-indirect
.42 required. fixtures. Both the opal glass bowls and prismatic
From the table in Fig. 164, we find that the next glass are quite popular.
size larger than this is a 300-watt lamp, which gives In office lighting jobs, one should always inquire
5520 lumens. This is more than our estimate calls whether the present layout of desk, equipment, and

Fig. 192. A well lighted office, such as shown above, permits much faster and more efficient work with less eye strain for employees.
It also provides a more cheerful atmosphere which improves the morale of those working in such places. (Photo Courtesy Light
Magazine).
 Illumination. Show Window Lighting 251

small private offices is permanent or not. Many

offices change these things around quite frequently,
and in such cases good general lighting which is
sufficient for almost any work or condition in the
office will save a lot of trouble and remodeling of
the lighting system. Short Drapery
ohide Hints
Fig. 192 shows avery good office lighting system
Window
using enclosed glass bowls, which diffuse the light
nicely over the desks and equipment.
Fig. 193 is an installation of indirect lighting
units, which shows the soft even light distribution
obtainable with such fixtures and the absolute free-
dom from glare or noticeable shadows.

Side walk

Fig. 195. This illustration shows how the light should be directed on
the objects displayed, and not toward the window or observers.

be directed toward the window glass or passers by,

as it would then have a tendency to cause glare in
people's eyes and defeat its entire purpose. Fig. 195
shows how a lighting unit can be concealed in the
front top corner of the window, and the manner in
Fig. 193. This office is lighted with indirect units which are ideal for which it should distribute its light rays over the
avoiding all glare and shadow effects. (Photo Courtesy Light
Magazine). depths of the window.
177. SHOW-WINDOW LIGHTING
Show-window lighting is a branch of store light-
ing which has proven to be one of the best sales
stimulants that the modern store has. On busy
streets where large numbers of people pass by, a
well lighted show window with goods interestingly
displayed will attract agreat amount of attention to
a store that many people might otherwise pass by.
A number of tests made on stores with various
show-window lighting intensities showed the inter-
esting average results listed in Fig. 194. Fig. 196. A common type corrugated glass show-window reflector. Note
how the light distribution curve compares with the desired angle of
In show-window lighting the light sources should light shown in Fig. 195.
be concealed, as we must remember it is not the
178. SHOW-WINDOW REFLECTORS
lights the store owner wants to sell but rather the
goods the light is to shine on. Fig. 196 shows a typical show-window reflector
of the corrugated glass type, and also its curve of
Effect of lighting intensities on show window results
light distribution and the manner in which its shape
Foot canes
dl
increase g n
ro of people
Est roosted
hourly profit
Hourly
Ilehting
Merchants
net hourly
directs the light to fit show-window needs.
rntenst ty
stopprne on sales cost gal,
Fig. 197 shows two of the corrugated glass show-
7.50 3.5 cents
window reflectors with silvered and painted outer
15

40 33% 10.00 7.5 .. 2.46. surfaces. The one on the left is shaped to throw
100 75% 13.00 Ul the light down and slightly back into ashallow win-
Fig. 194. The above table shows the results obtained with different
dow, while the one on the right is curved to direct
lighting intensities in show-windows. Such tests as this certainly the light farther back into deep show-windows.
prove that good show-window lighting pays.
Fig. 198 shows agroup of show-window reflectors
The reflectors should be set so their light shines mounted behind the concealing curtain, as men-
downward and back into the window, in order to tioned before. A row of 150-watt lamps in such
put proper light on the side of the objects which reflectors as these, spaced on 12-inch centers, will
faces toward the customer. The light should never give excellent show-window lighting. If the same
 Norman Beder
41 Georgia Ave.
252 !Brooklyn 7, N. Y. Illumination. Show Window Lighting

Fig. 197. Mirrored glass show-window reflectors with different shapes, Fig. 200. On the left is shown a spotlight for concentrating bright
to properly direct the light in windows of different depths. light on certain objects in show-windows. The small reflector on the
right is of the type commonly used in glass counters and display
sized lamps and reflectors are spaced on 18-inch cases.

centers, it will give good lighting, and on 24-inch 180. COUNTER LIGHTING
centers fair lighting.
For lighting display cases and interiors of glass
Foot-candle intensities for show windows were
counters we can also use compact tubular reflectors
given in the list in Article 174.
with special long slender bulbs made for the pur-
pose. These reflectors fit neatly under the wood or
metal corner frames of the counters, so they do not
obstruct the view or create a bad appearance in the
case. Fig. 201 shows the method of installing this
material in aglass show-case. Fig. 202 shows several
different lengths of these trough-like reflectors and
a number of the fittings used with them. The wires
can be run in special small tubing, some of which is
also shown.
Fig. 203 shows what remarkable effects can be
obtained with properly concealed show-window
Fig. 198 This photo shows the manner in which show-window reflec-
tors should be mounted and concealed for best results.

179. SPOT AND COLOR FLOOD LIGHTS

Proper use of special show-window flood lights
and colored spot lights on certain objects will give
very beautiful and attractive effects that in prac-
tically every case will pay well for the cost of in-
stalling and operating. Fig. 199 shows an adjust-
able show-window flood light with a detachable
color screen which can be fitted over it. A number
of different color screens can be obtained at very
low cost, to make changes in color effects, and to
keep up interest in a window display. Fig. 200
shows a spot light on the left, and on the right is a
small reflector used for lighting display cases in
store interiors.

Fig. 201. Long trough-shaped reflectors with special tubular lamps are
Fig. 199. Adjustable flood lights with colored screens can be used obtainable for convenient installation in glass counters as shown
to produce beautiful and decorative effects. above.
 Illumination. Electric Signs 253

lights, and properly distributed illumination in the ments of electrical circuits, they are really not hard
window. to understand for one who knows the principles of
electric circuits and the general principles of sign
construction and operation.

s1
182. BILLBOARD LIGHTING
7 One of the simplest forms of illuminated signs is

Il the billboard type which consists simply of large

! Ij

t ill,119111"- 111111t
.
flat panels on which are painted the pictures and
words of the advertisement. Many of the illustra-
tions for such signs are made up on large paper sec-
tions and pasted on the boards. This makes it eco-
nomical to change or renew them as desired.
Billboards of this type are quite commonly equip-
ped with electric lights, because, in many cases, they
Fig. 2.2. Show case and counter lighting units are made in convenient
sections which can be easily plugged together for lighting cases actually attract the attention of more people when
of different lengths. lighted at night than they do during daylight hours.
181. ELECTRIC SIGNS AND BILLBOARDS Fig. 204 shows the common method of mounting
Electric signs today are made in such a great va- the reflectors on conduit extensions out over the top
riety of styles and types and to produce such beauti- edge of the board. With the reflectors in this posi-
ful and life-like effects in some cases, that one might tion they do not obstruct the view of observers, and
think them very complicated devices. While some they direct their light toward the sign and away
of the larger ones are marvelous pieces of mechan- from the observers' eyes, so that the lights them-
ical construction and use very ingenious arrange- selves are hardly noticeable.

Fig. 203. This exhibit of Mazda lamps in a show-window of an electric store, shows the very beautiful and decoratively effects whic.h cao
be produced by proper show-window lighting. (Photo Courtesy of Light Magazine)
 Norman Seder
254 41 Georgia Ave. Illumination. Electric Signs
Brooklyn 7, N. Y.
This is ideal, because it is the sign we want peo-
ple to see and not the lights. This principle is avery
good one to keep in mind in illuminating problems,
as the best results are often obtained by having the
light sources practically concealed, or at least very
inconspicuous; leaving the illuminated object to be
the principal attraction to the eye.
Billboard lights should be mounted several feet
out in front of the boards as shown in Fig. 204,
because if they are placed close to the top edge,
the light strikes the board at a sharp angle and
causes glare and shadows. Mounting them out the
proper distance from the board allows their light
to diffuse evenly over the board.

Fig. 205. If objectionable glare is produced by mounting the units

above the board as in "A," they can be reversed and mounted
below as shown at "B."

Other signs have lamp receptacles screwed into

small round holes in the sheet metal, and bulbs
screwed in these receptacles and projecting out from
the face of the sign. These bulbs can be obtained in
various colors, and arranged in rows to form letters
or patterns of almost any desired shape.
Beautiful action effects can then be obtained by
connecting the bulbs to motor-driven flashers. By
causing groups in sign borders to light up and go
out progressively or in numerical order, they can
be made to appear as though they are actually mov-
ing, thus giving the "chaser" and "fountain" border
effects, and other action displays so commonly used
Fig. VW This view shows the manner of mounting reflectors on conduit
extensions for billboard lighting. Note bow the reflectors are curved
on large signs.
to direct the light on the board, but away from the observers.

In some cases where reflected glare from the

lamps above the board comes at just the exact angle
to strike the eyes of observers who are slightly
below the board, the lights can be arranged out in
front of the bottom edge of the board and pointed
upward, as shown in Fig. 205-B. This method of
mounting can also be used where billboards are
viewed from above and we desire to keep the re-
flectors out of the direct range of vision.
The mounting as shown in Fig. 205-A is to be
preferred whenever it is possible to use it, because
the position of the reflectors keeps their inside sur-
faces and the bulbs more free from dirt and rain.
Billboard reflectors mounted on conduit exten-
sions should usually be braced with steel wires
running to the top of the board, to prevent the
wind from blowing the reflectors sidewise.

183. ELECTRIC SIGNS, CONSTRUCTION

AND OPERATION Fig. N. Thu diagram shows connections for • sign flasher to be
used to light the lamps 1, Z. 3. 4, etc., in rotation.
Many electric signs are made of steel framework
covered over with sheet metal. These can be made 184. FLASHER CIRCUITS
in square, round, high narrow, or long horizontal Fig. 206 shows how a flasher can be connected to
shapes; as well as ornamental designs. Some signs light a row of lamps in order, and then extinguish
of this type merely have letter shapes cut in the them in the same order. A motor-driven drum has
sheet metal on both sides and covered with opal or a number of circular metal segments attached to it,
colored glass. Light bulbs inside them cause the and arranged with their ends staggered, or one be-
glass letters to show up brightly at night. hind the other in a slanting row. A number of
 Illumination. Sign Flashers 255

spring-brass or copper brush contacts slide on these

segments as the drum is rotated. The metal strip
on the left end of the drum may be continuous, or
nearly so, in the form of a ring around the drum. _•
te
Y
S11 121e !Ile°
This ring is connected by a "jumper" to all other .

segments, so with one line wire connected to the

left brush contact, all segments are kept alive or in
contact with the lower live wire throughout the ro-
tation of the drum.
If the drum rotates in the direction shown by the Fig. 207. Motor-driven sign flasher mounted in weather-proof box.
Flashers of this type are made with different numbers of drum units
arrow, the segments will strike the stationary con- and contacts, to produce a great variety of effects.
tacts in order, from left to right, closing the circuits
proper length so that one lamp of the four is out
to the lamps in order-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. All lamps
all the time, and as the drum rotates, the dark
are connected by a common wire back to the top
lamp is first No. 1, then 2, 3, 4, and repeat. This
line wire.
matches up with the next group, as all groups are
operated from the same flasher; so it produces an
appearance of continuous motion around the sign

o
o
- border.
A large sign may have several thousand lamps
on it, connected in groups to several branch circuits
01 or return wires, and one wire from each lamp con-
o 01 nected to its proper flasher wire.
01 You can see, however, from Fig. 206-A, that the
o manner of grouping the connections simplifies them.
0-0
- 0 and makes it only an easy matter of circuit testing
to connect each wire to its proper flasher brush.
ÓrÓ
Fig. 207 shows a photo of a sign flasher such as
commonly used with signs of the type just describ-
ed. Note that this flasher has two separate sections,
and rotating segments made of strips of brass or
copper bent to shape and attached to the shaft-like
separate wheels. Fig. 208 shows a large sign which
uses this type of flasher.

Fig. 2116-A. Wiring diagram for two flashers used to obtain combination
effects on an electric sign. The flasher at the left controls the
border lamps only, while the one on the right controls the letters
of the sign.

Flashers of this type can be obtained with many

dozens of contacts, to be used to gradually spell out
whole words composed of lamps on the sign.
Several flashers of this type with different num-
bers of contacts and operated at different speeds
may be used together on one large sign to get the
various combination effects desired. Fig. 206-A
Fig. 208. Large signs of the above type often use several flashers, and
shows how two flashers are used, one to provide a a combination of lamps and Neon tubes to produce very beautiful
effects.
"chaser" border effect, and the other to flash the
letters of the word "Eat" on in rotation, and then Sign lamps are often mounted in sheet metal
all off. channels or troughs which have the inner sides and
You will note that to produce the motion effect in back painted white. This gives a more sharply
the border, it is not necessary to use a flasher with defined shape to letters and figures, as it prevents
as many contacts as there are lamps. Instead, these the light from spreading so much. Very striking
lamps are connected in parallel groups, so that ev- effects can also be produced by using lamps under
ery fourth one is connected to the same flasher con- black inverted trough-shaped letters, mounted so
tact. This makes the lamps come on in the order they btand out slightly from a white background
1, 2, 3, 4, and also 5, 6, 7, 8, coming on at the same as shown in Fig. 209.
time; or lamps 1and 5 together, 2 and 6 together, Many large flasher signs also have lighted bill-
etc. The segments on the drum are usually of the board areas combined with the motion effects. Some
 Norman Beder
41 Gecrgia Ave.
Brooklyn 7, N. Y.
256 Illumination. Electric Signs

ground or frame, or in some cases in sheet metal

1111 11 1... ..111 1 o.X.111 .11•
t IC I
channels or trough letters.
Neon is a rare gas which is extracted from the
air where it exists in very small quantities. When
high voltage electricity is passed through it, it glows
with the peculiar reddish hue already mentioned.
'4111 I
Id ,.
Neon tubes are olierated at voltages ranging from
5000 to 20,000, according to the size and length of
the tubes.
• These high voltages are usually obtained by use
ef5t of small step-up transformers right at the sign, and
the high voltage wires must be very carefully in-
sulated along the sign framework.
One special neon sign transformer delivering 30
milliamperes at 15000 volts will operate about 60
feet of ordinary neon tubing, or 30 feet of blue tub-
Fig 209. Very attractive signs can be made with inverted trough units. ing using argon and helium.
to produce outstanding black letters on white background as shown
above. Some of the smaller signs of this type are oper-
of the largest flasher signs which have special "mov- ated with ordinary spark coils, but their light is not
ing letters", or continuous reading effects, use a as steady as that of signs operated with transform-
paper roll with holes punched in it, similarly to a ers.
player piano roll. This paper is in the form of an One of the particular advantages of neon signs
endless belt, and is drawn slowly along between a is that the tubing can be heated and bent to form
large metal plate and a "bank" of small contact letters written out in complete words, and also
the most intricate curves and designs for decorative
"fingers". The holes in the paper are arranged in
the form of letters or shapes which are to travel figures.
across the sign. The sign face has a bank of lamps
arranged in rows both ways, the same as the con-
tacts are; so as groups of contacts drop through O OCIÓ
the holes in the moving paper and strike the metal
plate completing their circuits, corresponding lamps
light up on the sign.
Fig. 210 shows the arrangement of the contacts
and lamps, and the method of connecting them. The
wires are grouped or cabled together but can be
easily traced from the contacts to the lamps and
you can see that any contact that is allowed to
touch the metal plate will close a circuit to a cor-
responding lamp.
The sketch in this figure shows only a compara-
999
tively few lamps, but on asign of this type they are
so numerous and close together that almost any let-
ter or figure can be made to light up by having the
groups of holes punched in the paper in the desired
shape. Then as the paper moves and the holes slide
from one set of contacts to another, the lighted let-
ter on the sign shifts from one set of lamps to the
next and moves across the sign.

MI
Fig. 211 shows a splendid example of the adver-
tising value and beautiful effects of combined elec-
Metal Plate
tric sign and decorative lights on the front of a Line I
theatre building.
Fig. 210. The above diagram illustrates the principle of signs with
185. NEON TUBE SIGNS traveling reading matter. Note how each contact on the paper
belt is wired to a lamp in a corresponding position on the sign
Neon gas signs are very attractive and the pecu- above.
liar reddish color is one that attracts the eye and
penetrates foggy or smoky atmospheres very effect- In addition to neon gas, some signs use tubes with
ively. mercury vapor, which give a beautiful blue color
These signs are made of long glass tubes which when high voltage is applied to them. Green color
are bent into the shapes of letters or figures de- is obtained with mercury vapor in amber colored
sired, and then filled with neon gas. They are then glass tubes. By using helium gas and amber colored
sealed air and gas tight and mounted on a back- glass. gold, pink and other colors can be obtained.
 Illumination. Sign Construction. Flood Lighting 257

Various letters and sections of tube signs can be cut 1" round holes in rows along the letter shapes.
operated with flashers, and some large signs use Two-piece threaded sign receptacles can be screwed
a combination of neon and mercury vapor tubes tightly into these openings. Then wire up the re-
with various colored incandescent lamps, to create ceptacles, either in parallel or with one common
some very beautiful and striking effects. wire and separate wires to a flasher if desired. All
The glass tubes of neon signs must be very care- connections, including the binding screws on re
fully handled, as they are easily broken; and the ceptacles, should be soldered to prevent corrosion.
least crack in a tube will allow the gas to leak out. Then the connections, backs of receptacles, and
all exposed metal edges should be covered with a
good coat of weather-proof paint or sealing corn-
pound. If the sign is large its circuits should be
divided so that none carries over 15 amperes, and
each circuit should be fused separately.
In small towns one can often have the local tin-
smith or metal shop build the sign bodies, and a
sign painter decorate them. In this case the elec-
trician can wire and hang them, and share the
profits.
In hanging signs over sidewalks, they should be
fastened very securely so there will be no chance of
their ever falling and injuring anyone. They should
be bolted to a substantial part of the building and
braced with chains from above and both sides.
The local authorities should also be consulted on
their rulings before any signs are hung over public
walk-ways.

187. FLOOD LIGHTING

Flood lighting of building exteriors is another in-
teresting branch of advertising illumination. It is
a particularly attractive form of display on build-
ings having light-colored walls and good appearing
architecture.
Flood lights on buildings are usually concealed
on a ledge or balcony of the building so their rays
are directed upward and at the proper angle against
the sides of the structure.
They should never be placed in a position where
they can shine into the eyes of passers-by.
Fig. 212 shows several styles and sizes of flood
light Projectors. Note their weather-proof housings
Fig. 211. This photo of the front of a large theatre shows what
beautiful effects can be obtained by the use of flasher signs and and adjustment feature, to allow them to be "aim-
lights on the building itself. ed" or pointed at the area to be lighted.
186. SIGN WIRING, AND CONSTRUCTING Fig. 213 shows the shape of the concentrated
SMALL SIGNS beams thrown by shallow-type reflectors and also
Electric signs are one of the most profitable forms those from deeper reflectors which spread the beams
of advertising illumination, and in many localities over a greater area.
offer a very good field for the trained man to install In many cases where it is not convenient or pos-
or service them. sible to locate flood light projectors on the same
Sign manufacturers will make almost any type or building they are to light, they are located on some
design of metal sign to the specifications of the other building nearby, and perhaps across a street.
customer or electrician. You can also build the For best efficiency, the beams must be able to
smaller ones very easily in your own shop if you come from a short distance out from the vertical
desire. walls, rather than be directed too nearly parallel
The frame should be of angle iron, and covered with the walls they are to light. Certain effects,
with substantial sheet metal to form a box of the however, can be produced by units quite close to
desired shape and size. The letters and figures can the walls or columns to be lighted.
be painted on, after the sign has had a coat of Fig. 214 shows a row of powerful flood lights on
weather-resisting paint. the parapet of a skyscraper, and used to light the
A color combination that serves well both for day narrower portion of the building which projects
and night visibility is a dark blue background with on up from this level.
white letters. If the sign is to be lighted with bulbs, Beautiful effects can be obtained by properly
258 Illumination. Flood Lighting

Fig. 215 shows the effect of flood lighting on the

top of a large office building.
Flood lights are also very extensively used for
lighting railway yards, race tracks, bathing beaches,
and places where construction work is being done
at night. In public parks flood lights are often used
to illuminate fountains and monuments, with very
beautiful results. Fig. 216 shows an illuminated
fountain which uses water-proof projectors mounted
right in the water. In the background is abeautiful
example of flood lighting on a tower.

Fig. 214. This photo shows a row of flood light projectors in use on
the top of a skyscraper office building. (Photo Courtesy Light
Magazine).

Fig. 212. Several types of flood light projectors. Note the weather-
proof construction and adjustment features of these units.

using mixed colors on buildings of striking architec-

ture, and also by use of "dimmer rheostats" auto-
matically operated by small motors in connection
with automatic tilting mechanisms, to cause chang-
ing and moving colors to play over the building.
The deeper-colored lights such as red and blue
are, of course, not as efficient as the white or amber
ones, because the color lenses absorb some of the
light. The effects obtained with colors, however,
are well worth the extra cost.

Fig. 215. This building is a very good example of the beautiful effects
obtainable with modern flood lighting. (Photo Courtesy Light
Magazine).

188. STREET LIGHTING

Street lighting is becoming so common that many
of us fail to notice or appreciate it any more. But
when we think of the benefits derived, in the reduc-
tion of accidents and increased business on well
lighted streets, and that in many of the larger cities
great lamps of 1000 to 3000 watts each light the
streets nearly as bright at night as in the daytime,
we find it is really a wonderful branch of electric
illumination. The installation and maintenance of
Fig. 213. This diagram shows how reflectors with shallow or deeper street lighting systems furnish profitable employ-
curves can be made to concentrate or spread the beams of light as
desired.
ment to great numbers of trained electrical men,
 Illumination. Street Lighting 259

for the purpose of attaching the wires of the lamp

circuit.
On the right in Fig. 217 is shown astreet lighting
unit of the medium-priced, enclosed type which is
also for overhead suspension. These units soften
and diffuse the light and produce more even illumi-
nation, with less glare and shadows.

Fig. 217. Above are shown two types of street lighting units and
also a swivel cross arm or hanger used in their mounting.

Fig. 218 shows two types of "cutout" or "discon-

nect" pulleys for use with overhead street lights.
These pulleys allow the lamp to be lowered for
Fig. 216. The fountain in the foreground is illuminated by flood lights cleaning, inspection, and repairs. When the lamp
placed within its bowl, and in weather-proof projectors. In the
background is shown a well flood-lighted tower. is lowered by releasing its supporting chain or rope,
it is disconnected from the line by the prongs of the
and in the small and medium-sized towns often pro- cutout pulley dropping out of their sockets. This
vide a worthwhile contract for some alert graduate makes the lamp safe to work on, and when it is
who can convince the officials of his home town that pulled back in place, a guiding device causes the
better street lighting pays. connecting prongs to slip back in their clips as the
Arc lamps, which were formerly extensively used, lamp is drawn up tight in the cutout head.
are being rapidly replaced by Mazda lamps, because
of their greater simplicity and reliability.
'Where arc lamps are still in use, it is a simple
matter for the trained man to make any necessary
adjustments on their coils and mechanisms which
feed the carbons as they burn away, or to locate
any trouble on the system.
Incandescent lamps of from 200 to 2500 watts or
more are commonly used for new street lighting
installations.

189. SUSPENSION TYPE UNITS

For overhead lighting systems in small and me-
dium-sized towns, clear lamps of 200 to 500 watts
or larger are often placed in simple reflectors of the
type shown in the lower left view in Fig. 217. These
Fig. 218. Cut-out pulleys used for disconnecting and lowering street
units are then suspended from overhanging arms lights for cleaning and inspection.
on poles, or hung from steel wires stretched across
the street between poles or buildings. Reflectors 190. POST TYPE UNITS AND STREET
of this type are low in cost, and when mounted at LIGHT CIRCUITS.
the proper height, provide quite effective lighting. Where more elaborate street lighting is desired,
These bare lamps, however, are the cause of a cer- enclosed glass units on top of posts at the side of
tain amount of undesirable glare and shadows. the streets are commonly used. Fig. 219 shows
Directly above the reflector in Fig. 217 is shown several styles of these units both for single and
a swivel cross-arm used for hanging such reflectors. double lamps.
The porcelain insulators on the ends of the arm are Street lights are commonly connected in series
 Norman Eeder
41 Georgia Ave.
260 Brooklyn 7, N__ y_ Illumination. Street Lighting

on high-voltage circuits, to make possible the use of ing film in parallel with the lamp. However, if a
smaller wires, as the distances between them are lamp burns out and opens the circuit, all current
considerable. You will remember that when devices momentarily stops flowing. With no current flow-
are connected in series the current is the same in ing there is no voltage drop at any of the lamps,
all parts of the circuit, and that which flows through and the full 2300 volts will be applied for an instant
one device flows through all the others as well. across the springs of the lamp which has opened
These circuits are often operated on 2300 volts and the circuit. This voltage is high enough to puncture
higher, so the wires must be well insulated, and the insulating film and burn it out, thus shorting
considerable care should be used in working around the defective lamp out of the circuit, and allowing
such circuits. We can now see the advantage of the others to operate once more.
using cut-out pulleys when working on these lamps. Special transformers at the sub-station compen-
sate for the reduced resistance and voltage drop
due to the loss of the one lamp. These will be
explained later in the section on transformers.
Instead of applying the high voltage of the line
circuit directly to the lamps and sockets, many
modern series street lighting systems use small
transformers at each lamp to reduce the voltage for
the filament. All of these transformer primaries are
connected in series, as in Fig. 221. This increases
the safety and reduces lamp socket insulation costs.
It also permits the use of lamps with filaments of
larger diameter and lower resistance. They are,
therefore, stronger and more rugged and also of
higher efficiency.
The current through these low-voltage lamps
may be from 6 amperes to 20 amperes, or more
on the different sizes; and they are made for volt-
ages from 6.6 to 60.
Wiring for street lights can be run on the poles
where suspension type units are used, and under-
ground for better appearance with post type units.
Underground wiring can consist of lead covered
cable buried in a trench and run up through the
hollow poles to the lamps, or of rubber covered
wires or lead covered wires in underground ducts
of tile or fibre conduit.

Fig. 219. Hollow concrete or metal posts with large globes, as shown
above, are used in many of th. better appearing street lighting
Installations.

191. SERIES LAMP "CUTOUTS"

On the older series street-lighting circuits, if one
lamp burned out, all lamps on that circuit went out,
because they were all in series. Nowadays there
are in use special sockets which have short-circuit-
ing springs that cut out the lamp if it opens the
circuit. Fig. 220 shows a sectional view of a socket
of this type from which the operation of prongs
can be easily understood. A thin film or strip of
insulating material is placed between the tips of
these spring contacts and remains there as long as
the lamp is in good condition.
If we have, for example, a circuit of 100 lamps
in series and 2300 volts is applied to this circuit,
the voltage drop across each lamp when operating
will be about 23 volts. This voltage drop we know
is proportional to the current flow and to the lamp Fig. 220. This sketch shows a sectional view of a socket and "film
cut-out" used with series street lamps. Note how these cut-out
resistance. This low voltage will send current springs on contact clips short circuit the shell and center terminals
of the lamp socket. The insulating film is not shown between the
through the lamp, but will not puncture the insulat- contact clips in this illustration.
 Illumination. Street Lighting 261

and still are to some extent, as the color of their

light rays is particularly good for exposing the
older types of film. However, there has been devel-
oped a new type of film that is sensitive to the

[gl yellow and white rays of incandescent lamps, and,

therefore, these lamps because of their quieter and
cleaner operation are rapidly replacing many of the
arc units. Mazda lamps require much less atten-
tion and adjustment than arc lights, and provide a
steadier light. Their quieter operation is a great
advantage in their favor for the filming of talking
pictures.
The constantly changing lighting requirements
on various movie "sets" and the care and main-
Fig. 221. This diagram shows the manner of connecting series street
lighting transformers which are used to reduce the voltage at each tenance of the lighting units provide a great field
light. of fascinating work for trained electrical men who
know practical illumination.
192. MOTION PICTURE LIGHTING Single lamps of 10,000 watts each and larger are
Electric light is used on a tremendous scale in the commonly used in motion picture photography, and
motion picture industry, both in the photography "banks", or portable units, consisting of 4 to 12 or
and in the operation of projector machines in thea- more lamps are used.
tres; and the lighting of the theatres themselves. An interesting problem, and one which will help
In the taking of motion pictures there are used you to realize the size of this equipment, will be
some of the highest foot-candle intensities that are to calculate the current that will be required by two
encountered in any branch of illumination. While banks of six 10,000 watt lights each, and two single
it was formerly thought that such pictures had to 20.000 watt lights if they are operated on a 110-220
be taken in sunlight, powerful electric lights now volt, three-wire circuit. Also determine the size
reproduce effects of sunlight or daylight in almost of cable necessary to carry this current to the lights
any required intensity. in a temporary location 150 feet from their gen-
Arc lamps were formerly used very extensively erator, with not over 5 volts drop.

AVIATION LIGHTING

The aviation industry is fast becoming one of 193. AIRPORT LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
the heavy users of modern and efficient electric A well-lighted airport requires the following
equipment:
A great deal of night flying as well as daylight Landing field beacon light
flying must be done to maintain fast air-mail and Landing field flood lights
passenger schedules, and the safety of night flying Boundary lights
depends on electric illumination in many ways. Obstruction lights
Aviation lighting can be divided into the follow- Approach lights
ing classes: Illuminated wind-direction indicator
Airport lighting "Ceiling" projector
Route beacons Hangar lights
Lights on planes Shop lights.
Many millions of dollars have already been spent Many of these lights are rated by government
in airport lighting, and it is undoubtedly safe to say standards, and the airports are given ratings by the
that within a very few years every town of any government according to the type and completeness
size in this country will have a lighted airport. of lighting equipment used.
262 Illumination. Airport Lighting

194. AIRPORT BEACONS 195. LANDING FIELD FLOOD LIGHTS

The purpose of the airport beacon is to direct Landing field flood lights are used to illuminate
pilots to the airport. These beacons are rotating the surface of the landing field, in order to enable
or flashing searchlights of 15,000 to 100,000 candle- pilots to land their planes safely. In landing a
power, and are usually mounted on a tower or on plane it is very important for the pilot to be able
the top of one of the hangers, so their beams will to see the ground and judge his distance from it,
be unobstructed in all directions. If a flashing also to see the length of the field or runways on
light is used, the flashes should not be less than which he has to bring the plane to a stop.
1/10 of a second in duration, and should be fre-
quent enough to make the light show 10 per cent
of the time. Beacon lights for airports or route
beacons usually have two bulbs mounted on a
hinged socket base, so if one bulb burns out the
other is immediately swung into place by amagnet.
This is necessary to make these units dependable
at all times.

Fig. 224. A landing field lighting unit which has a number of powerful
lamps mounted behind the glass front, in a manner to spread their
light over a wide area.

Flood lights should also illuminate the field well

enough to show up any uneven surfaces. Some
fields are lighted by several different flood lights
located on opposite sides of the field, while others
use a bank or group of lights located near the
hangars. Sometimes a large portable light is used,
so it can be moved about by hand on a light weight
wheeled truck. Fig. 223 shows a unit of this last
mentioned type.
Fig. 224 shows a large unit in which a number
of lamps are mounted, and you will note that its
Fig. 222. On the left is shown a typical rotating beacon, such as used shape allows the beams from the several lamps to
at airports and along air routes. On the right is a view of the double
lamp mechanism, which swings a new lamp in place if the one In spread over a wide angle in order to cover the
use burns out.
entire field from this one light source.
Fig. 222 shows on the left a beacon light unit
mounted on the case which contains the revolving
motor and mechanism. On the right is shown the
double lamp unit which can also be seen inside the
light at the left. This light has a24 inch diameter,
and uses a 1000 watt, 115 volt bulb, and develops
2,000,000 beam candlepower. Such a light can be
seen by the pilot from a distance of 10 to 35 miles
in fair weather, and is a great help in guiding him
to the airport.

Fig. 225. A number of smaller projectors, arranged as shown, provide

very effective distribution of hght over the field.

Fig. 225 shows a number of smaller flood lights

arranged to throw their separate beams over the
field in a wide spread fan shape. Whatever type
of flood lights are used, they should light the field
Fig. 223. This large landing field light has a lens similar to those uniformly and without harsh shadows, and their
used in lighthouses, and is mounted on a light truck for portable
use at airports.
color should be such that they do not distort normal
 Illumination. Airport Lighting 263

lamps, and the peculiar shaped bulb of the middle

one, which keeps the glass farther from the heat
of the filament.
Planes should always be landed against the wind,
so as the wind changes the pilot must change his
direction of approach and landing run. For this
reason it is best to llave either portable lights, or
lights located on two or more sides of the field,
so the direction of the light beams can be changed
with the wind and avoid making it necessary for
the pilot to ever face the beams.

Fig. 226. This photo shows a well-lighted airport at night, and illus-
trates the great advantage and safety feature of such lighting for
night flying.
i.
ï
colors or appearance of objects. They should keep
all light in an upward direction at an absolute mini-
mum, to avoid glare in the pilots' eyes. For this
reason flood light units are equipped with reflectors
and lenses which spread their beams in awide angle
horizontally, but very narrow in the vertical plane.
The vertical beam spread is usually not over 5 10.000
Watts
5000
Watts
3000
Watts
1500
Watts
1000
Watts
or 10 degrees, and the units should be so adjusted
Fig. 228. Here are shown a number of powerful lamps of the type which
that the top edge of this beam does not point above are used in airport flood lights and beacons.
a horizontal line. Flood light units should be kept
down close to the ground, preferably within 10 feet. Fig. 229 shows an excellent layout for permanent
If the top of their beams is higher than this it often flood lights located around the field and remotely
makes the ground surface appear closer to the pilot controlled by switches in a control room at the
than it really is, when he views it from above the hangar. The devices marked "remote controllers"
beam. are magnetically operated switches which close the
Fig. 226 shows a well lighted landing field which circuits to these large lights, as their current would
is illuminated by a 24 KW floodlight. Fig. 227 be too heavy to handle with the push buttons.
shows a bank of smaller 3000-watt flood lights in Note that parkway cable is used to supply high
action at night. voltage to step-down transformers at each light.
This circuit is shown in a "one line" diagram until
it reaches the remote control switches, where the
two conductors are shown separated.
Parkway cable of this type can be buried under
the ground surface 10" or more, and makes a very
good system of wiring for airports, where of course
no overhead wires should be used.

11 .......1<‘
›

1 1'
11 ' &1.•••••, ....
.. 'f....

I 1:
1 i

_J
.7 -
nzEE
Fig. 227. This landing field is lighted with a group of small flood
lights such as shown in Fig. 225.
-
0.67) o In 0f1 Í1 El
The four lamps on the left in Fig. 228 are some
'frre7-2;;--• ,I
I1-:!iiief
• - "-e ,\?, ,
of the types and sizes commonly used in airport
•

— -- - •
,• i
flood lights, while the one on the right is of the
type used in beacon lights. Note the special con- Fig. 226. Wiring diagram for a very practical and efficient airport
flood lighting system. The lights are fed by individual transformers,
struction of the filaments and sockets of the larger and all remotely controlled from one central point.
 Norman Seder
41 Georgia Ave.
264 Brooklyn 7, N. Y. Illumination. Airport Lighting

196. BOUNDARY LIGHTS Obstruction lights are red and should be placed
Boundary marker lights are used to indicate to on tops of all trees, chimneys, water tanks, power
the pilot, the location of the edges of the landing or telephone poles or radio towers which are near
field, and are very essential in order to enable him to the landing fields. They should also have 50
to judge the length of the field and the proper watt parallel or 1000 lumen series lamps, and 100
place to approach the ground. These lights are watt lamps are recommended in some cases.
white in color and should be either 25 watt lamps \Ve have mentioned several times the possible
if connected in parallel, or 600 lumen series lamps. use of either parallel connected lamps or series
They should be spaced from 75 to 125 feet apart lamps for airport lights. Both systems are in use.
for best efficiency, and never more than 300 feet The series system has the advantages of lower
apart. Boundary lights are to be mounted 30 cost of copper wire and less voltage drop, par-
inches above the ground, and the circuits must not ticulai ly in the longer circuits such as those to
have over 5 per cent voltage drop at the farthest boundary lights or flood lights located on far edges
points. of the field.
Fig. 230 shows three common types of boundary The parallel system has the advantages of being
lights. The one in the center is simply a lamp of somewhat safer due to its lower voltage, using
the proper size enclosed in a weather proof glass lower cost lamps, and being a somewhat simpler
globe, and mounted on a special pipe fitting on a system, as it doesn't require sockets with film cut-
30-inch pipe. outs or constant current transformers.
These units on the pipe stems are not very visible The selection or choice of one system or the
in the day time, so it is well to have a circle of other would depend to some extent upon the size
whitewashed gravel or crushed rock about 3 ft. in or area of the field, the number of lights to be op-
diameter around their bases. erated, and the distance from the source of current
supply.
198. ILLUMINATED WIND DIRECTION
INDICATORS
It has already been mentioned that planes should
be landed against the wind in order to reduce their
landing speed. Wind direction indicators are,
therefore, used at airports to show an approaching
pilot the direction of the wind. These are very
necessary, as his own air speed may make it diffi-
cult for him to tell the wind direction accurately
unless he can see moving clouds or smoke.
A "wind cone" or tapered cloth sack with an
Fig. 2311. Several types of boundary lights used for indicating the opening in the small end is commonly used for
outline and extent of the landing field at night. a wind direction indicator. In other cases a large
wind vane shaped like an arrow or sometimes like
The unit shown at the left in Fig. 230 has a a small plane may be used.
white metal cone base, which makes it very visible. These devices should be mounted on a pole or
This unit uses a prismatic glass globe which is tower, or on the top of hangars in some conspicuous
more efficient than the clear glass, as it directs a place. To be effective at night as well as during
stronger beam of the light upward. the day, they should be illuminated from above
Units such as this and also the one on the right by one large reflector and light, or better still by
in the figure can be merely set on the ground and four reflectors mounted on 2 ft. brackets as shown
connected to the circuit by detachable plugs. This in the left view in Fig. 231. These reflectors should
makes an added safety feature in case they are have 150 watt lamps in them, and a 60 watt red
struck by a plane, as they will tip over easily with- lamp above the unit to serve as an obstruction
out doing so much damage to the plane. light.
In some cases wind cones are lighted from the
197. APPROACH AND OBSTRUCTION
inside by a 200 watt lamp and reflector pointed in
LIGHTS
their mouth, and free to revolve with the cone as
Approach lights are simply certain boundary
the wind direction changes.
lights that are equipped with green globes to indi-
The right hand view in Fig. 231 shows a "wind
cate good points of approach to the runways of a tee" shaped like a plane, and lighted by. rows of
field. They can also be used to indicate wind
bulbs on its wings and body.
direction by turning on only those which are on
the proper side of the field to bring a plane in 199. "CEILING" PROJECTORS
against the wind. The "ceiling" projector light is used to determine
Approach lights should have 50 watt parallel the "ceiling" height. This term applies to the
lamps or 1000 lumen series lamps, because their height of clouds or fog above the landing field.
green globes absorb more of the light. It is quite important to know this "ceiling" height
 Illumination. Airport Lighting. Airway Lighting 26 5

the projector; we can by sighting along the pointer

toward the point where the beam strikes the clouds,
obtain a direct reading of the "ceiling" height.

200. HANGAR AND SHOP LIGHTING

The interior lighting of airport hangars and re-
pair shops is another very important use for electric
illumination. In the handling of planes in and out
of the hangars, and in making repairs on them,
good lighting is a great time saver and promoter
of safety.
Fig. 231. On the left is shown a wind-cone, with four lights mounted In the shops where some of the very critical
above it, for illuminating the cone at night. On the right is a wind
tee made in the shape of a small airplane. This can also be illuminated
repair and adjustment of engine or plane parts
by rows of lamps on its wings and body. must be made, it is equally important to have effi-
cient illumination. Fig. 233 shows an exterior
and be able to report it by radio to aviators ap-
proaching from a distance. This gives them an view of a well-lighted hangar in the upper part of
the figure, and an inside view below. Industrial
idea of how close they will have to approach the
ground in order to see the landing field or its lighting fixtures and principles can be applied to
these buildings.
lights.
This information regarding "ceiling" heights can
also be transmitted to various other airports along
the route, either by telephone or radio, thus keeping
the pilot informed of weather conditions at various
airports which he may have to use.
For a "ceiling" light a 500-watt, narrow beam
projector can be used. If this unit is tilted upward
at an angle of 45 degrees with the horizon, then
the spot where its beam strikes the under side of
clouds or fog will be directly above a spot on the
ground, which is the same distance from the light
unit as the bright spot on the cloud is above the
earth. This can be proven by the fact that the
diagonal of a square is at an angle of 45 degrees
with either its base or vertical side, and, of course, the
base of a square is the same length as its vertical
side. See Fig. 232.

Fig. 233. The top view shows the outside appearance of a well lighted
hangar, and below is shown the inside of the hangar and the
arrangement of the lighting units.

201. AIRWAY LIGHTING OR ROUTE

BEACONS
The Federal Government requires airway bea-
cons approximately every ten miles along principal
flying routes. These •beacons should consist of
projectors at least 24 inches in diameter, using
1000-watt lamps and producing 2,000,000 beam can-
dlepower. These units are kept continually re-
volving at a speed of six revolutions per minute
by a small motor and gear mechanism.
In addition to the revolving beacon there should
be two "On Course" lights with 18-inch, 500-watt
projectors to indicate to the pilot the direction of
the next airport. These course lights can be
equipped with a mechanism to keep them contin-
uously flashing the number of that particular bea-
Fig. 232. This diagram illustrates the method of calculating the heigh con in the Morse Code. This also indicates to the
of clouds or fog with a ceiling projector.
pilot the distance he has progressed along the
Other angles can be used, and then with a simple course. These lights can be fitted with amber or
quadrant and pointer set in the same plane as the red cover glasses, while the rotating beacon uses
projected beam, and a definite distance away from a white beam.
266 Illumination. Airway and Airplane Lights

Fig. 234 shows a typical airway beacon on a lights for use in landing on unlighted fields. These
tower which is also equipped with a "wind-cone". units use alamp with aconcentrated filament which
This particular beacon is located at an interme- requires about 35 amperes. They are, therefore,
diate landing field. Where beacons of this type kept switched off when the plane is flying, and
are near to power lines they can obtain the energy turned on only when needed for use in making a
for their lights from these .lines. In other cases they landing. Otherwise they would place a very heavy
must be equipped with an independent lighting drain on the battery.
plant similar to farm lighting plant installations.
Lands Lamps
These beacons and plants have to be maintained 35 Amperes
and inspected by trained men, as their condition and 260,000 G.R
dependable operation are very important. Imagine
yourself in the place of a pilot, and the great
comfort you would receive from being able to see
at least one beacon ahead at all times along your
route. These airway beacons are a great safety
factor in night flying.

Fig. 735. Simple wiring diagram for lights on an airplane. Trace this
circuit and note which lights each of the switches control.

Ordinary flying lights and landing lights can be

supplied from a light-weight battery carried aboard
the plane. Fig. 235 shows a wiring diagram for
the commonly used lights on a plane, and Fig.
F g. 234. This photo shows a typical airway beacon mounted on a
steel tower, and also provided with a wind-cone for day-light 236 shows the mounting of wing tip and rudder
use only.
lights, as well as landing lights. The upper part
of this figure shows the tail-light mounted on top
202. AIRPLANE LIGHTS
of the plane rudder, in its stream-lined shell. You
It may seem rather surprising to talk of lights will note that the front end of this shell is painted
on airplanes, as probably a great many people don't black while the rear end, or more sharply tapered
even realize that planes carry lights. Government end, is clear and allows the light to escape in this
regulations require. however, that every plane direction. The lower left view shows a wing tip
which flies between sunset and sunrise must be
equipped with flying lights, to indicate its position
and direction of flight to other pilots.
These lights consist of small automobile-type
lamps of 18 or 21 candlepower, mounted in stream-
lined pyralin shells. These are mounted on the
tip of each wing, and one on the top of the tail
or rudder. The left wing light must be red and
the right one green, while the tail-light shows clear
white. .Government specifications can be obtained
governing the proper angles between these lights.
Airplanes also require lights on the control-board
in the pilot's compartment. These lights are usu-
ally equipped with a small rheostat so they can
be adjusted to just the right brilliancy to show
the instruments, and in this manner avoid glare
in the pilot's eyes and enable him to see better in
the darkness ahead.
Many of the larger planes, or planes intended for Fig. 231. The top view shows a tail-light mounted on the rudder of an
airplane. The two views below show two methods e mounting wing
night flying, are equipped with powerful landing tip lights and landing lights.
 Illumination. Airplane Lights 267

light for the right wing, and also a landing light knowledge of the principles of electric wiring and
which is built in, or stream-lined, with the forward testing, as well as the fundamentals of illumination.
edge of the wing. The lower right view shows a It will be well for every student to keep on the
different form of mounting for the wing light, and alert for opportunities in this field, and not to
also for the landing light, which in this case is overlook the possibility of being the first in his
hung underneath the wing in a stream-lined shell. home town to suggest that they provide a well-
This stream lining is exceedingly important, and lighted airport for the general good of the town;
every device of an electrical nature or otherwise, and possibly get the job of laying out and installing
that is attached to the outer surface of any air- the equipment.
plane, should be stream-lined to prevent air resist-
ance to the forward motion of the plane. The
greater part of this resistance occurs at the trailing
ends or edges of such devices where violent whirl-
ing eddy currents are set up in the air, causing
a sort of vacuum at these ends or edges; so you
will notice that all of these devices taper most
toward their rear ends. This is a very good point
to keep in mind when installing any equipment on
airplanes.
Fig. 237 shows the interior lighting of a large
cabin-type passenger plane. Many of these planes
carry lighting of this nature, which not only makes
them very attractive in appearance but makes it
possible for passengers flying at night to read, play
cards, or otherwise occupy their time.
Where large numbers of lights are used in this
manner the plane is usually equipped with a wind-
driven generator mounted on the outside of
the fuselage, or between the wings, in a stream-
lined casing and driven by a small wind propeller.
From the foregoing material on aviation lighting,
we can see that this is developing into atremendous Fig. 237. The insides of large cabin-type planes are often lighted to
give many of the &tune comforts and conveniences as a Pullman
field for trained electrical men who have a good coach.

MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS

A special type of lighting unit, which has be- a predominance of yellow and green rays and a
come very popular and generally used in industrial small percentage of violet and blue. In light of
plants and large machine-shops, is the Mercury this color small objects, such as screws, pins,
Vapor Lamp. bolts, nuts, etc., stand out very sharply. Therefore,
Its particular advantage lies in the yellow-green the use of this type of lighting unit increases pro-
color of the light it produces. This light is particu- duction speed and reduces errors in machine
larly good for certain machine-shop operations, and shops, with less eye-strain for employees. Large
the handling and assembling of small bright metal automobile manufacturing plants have installed
parts, as well as in textile mills. many thousands of these units.
Lamps of this type are not intended for com-
mercial or home lighting, but only for such special 203. MERCURY VAPOR TUBES
applications as mentioned, and where its peculiar The source of light in a Mercury Vapor lamp
color is not objectionable. Ordinary Mazda lamps is a long glass tube, approximately an inch in
produce alight which, as before mentioned, is largely diameter and 50 inches long, in which there is
white in color, but also contains a considerable sealed a small quantity of mercury. This tube
percentage of violet and red rays. These rays are is suspended at a slight angle so the mercury runs
somewhat tiring to the eyes in certain classes of down to the lower end, at which there is a bulb
work. equipped with a metal electrode sealed into the
The Mercury Vapor lamp produces light with glass and in contact with this pool of mercury.
 Norman Becler
41 Georgia Ave.
268 Brooklyn 7, N.Y.
Illumination. Mercury Vapor Lamps

Fig. 238 shows a view of a complete unit with 204. LAMP MECHANISM
the tube mounted in its trough-shaped reflector. Fig. 239 shows a top view of the lamp mechanism
The lamp mechanism, which will be explained later, and coils. This consists of apair of resistance units
is in the metal housing above the reflector. The at the left end, and next to these are the coils of an
upper end of the tube has two bulb-like horns or auto transformer which raises the line voltage, and
extensions on the glass, with a metal electrode has taps brought out to terminals to obtain the
sealed into each one. Wires from each end of the proper voltage adjustment for the operation of the
tube connect to proper coils in the lamp mechanism tube. The pair of coils at the right of the center
and from this to the supply line. Most of the air are those of an induction coil which generates the
has been exhausted from the tubes of these high voltage for the starting spark to ignite the tube
lights, leaving them to operate in avacuum. When
they are cold most of the mercury is con-
densed and run to the pool at the lower end of
the tube, so it is necessary to use aspark or impulse
of rather high voltage to vaporize a small amount
of the mercury.
We should understand that a high voltage spark
will pass through a much greater distance in an
ordinary vacuum than through open air, so by ap-
plying about 2000 volts from an induction coil in
the lamp mechanism, we can start an arc through
the tube.
Fg. 239. Above is shown the mechanism and coils of a mercury vapor
As soon as a little mercury vapor is built up it lamp. Also note the mercury shifter switch at the extreme right end.

forms of soft green arc or light throughout the full

or start the lamp. Just to the right of these coils
length of the tube. Thus the name Mercury Vapor
Arc. is a small mercury switch in a glass tube. This
switch is mounted on a pivot so when the coils are
energized and the ends of their cores become mag-
netized they attract a small iron plate on the mer-
cury switch, tilting it up and causing a "V" shaped
depression in the glass to separate the pool of mer-
cury and break the circuit.
When this circuit is broken and the flux around
the induction coils is allowed to collapse, it induces a
high voltage of about 2000 volts in these coils. There
is also an added resistance unit just above this tilt-
Fig. 238. This view shows a complete mercury vapor lamp. Note the ing or "shifter" switch in this view.
mounting of the tube under the long reflector, and the manner in
which the lamp is hung at a slight angle.
205. LAMP CIRCUIT AND OPERATION
Fig. 240 shows a simplified wiring diagram for
As long as the lamp is operated this arc continues
an A. C. mercury vapor light. Examine this dia-
to agitate the surface of the mercury pool and create gram carefully and note the connections and cir-
sufficient vapor to keep it going. After the vapor
cuits through the various coils and the tube.
forms and the arc is established, the resistance of the We know that alternating current is constantly
lamp tube is low enough so the arc can be main-
reversing in direction, but let's assume for the mo-
tained with from 70 to 100 volts, and about 3.8 ment that the current is entering at the lower line
amperes on the common sized lamp. The total wire as shown by the small arrows. We can trace
wattage rating of the lamp is about 450 watts, part this flow of current through the lower half of the
of which is used up in the resistors and coils. The auto transformer—A.T., then through both wind-
voltage from the lamp coils is about 120 to 130 ings of the induction coil—I.C., through the mer-
volts, but not all of this is applied to the tube. cury switch—M.S., and protective resistance—R3;
The source of light from these units, being spread then back to the upper line wire.
over such a long tube, distributes the light softly This flow of current energizes the induction coils
and evenly with very little glare and shadow effects, and magnetizes their cores. This magnetism
which is one of their decided advantages. attracts the metal plate or armature on the mercury
The average life of the tubes is two years or more switch, causing it to tilt and break the circuit we
if they are properly cared for, but they should be have just traced.
very carefully handled as it is easy to crack them When this current stops and the flux around the
and allow air to leak in if the tubes are strained or induction coils collapses, it induces the high voltage
bumped. For this reason they are protected by previously mentioned, and this is applied to the
long metal bars running full length of the tube and ends of the lamp tube as shown by the dotted ar-
attached to the ends of the reflector. rows.
 Illumination. Mercury Vapor Lamps 269

We also find that this high voltage is applied 206. INSTALLATION

across the two terminals at the lower end of the When installing lighting units of this type they
tube. One of these wires we know is connected to should be suspended by two pieces of chain or
the electrode in contact with the mercury, and the strong rope, and hung with the tube at the proper
other one is connected to a thin metal starting band angle; or otherwise they will not operate satisfac-
which is clamped around the stem of the tube, and torily. This angle can easily be determined by level-
also attaches to a strip of metal foil which is pasted ing the tops of the hooks provided with the unit, as
to the under side of the bulb. these hooks are made in uneven lengths to obtain
The high voltage across these two points sets the proper slope for the tube. The upper end of the
up a capacity charge through the glass to the mer- reflector should be about 8 inches higher than the
cury, exciting the surface of the mercury and emit- lower end when the mounting is finished.
ting the first mercury vapor. As soon as this vapor The next step is to insert the shifter switch in its
is started, the high voltage across the ends of the mounting and connect its terminals to the binding
tube establishes the arc. After the arc is started post provided. This shifter when mounted, should
the line current will flow alternately through re- rotate freely, and it should not be possible for it
sistance R1 and R2, and into the two horns or elec- to slip to either side far enough so that the metal
trodes at the upper end of the tube, as shown by armature can touch either of the iron cores of the
the large arrows, down through the tube and back induction coils. Next, the tube should be unpacked
through both windings of the induction coil, to the and washed clean before mounting. Remember to
center tap of the auto transformer. From here it handle these tubes very carefully to avoid cracking
returns to either line wire, according to the polarity Ihem. To test new tubes before placing them in the
of the A.C. line at that instant. lamp, or for testing old tubes that are thought to
The auto transformer A.T. serves to increase the be defective, the condition of the vacuum can be
voltage of the tube slightly above the 110 volts on determined by the sound of the mercury in the tube
the line. when it is allowed to run slowly from one end to
You will note that the current flows through the the other. Tilt the tube up so the mercury runs
tube in only one direction, so we find that this tube slowly down to the opposite end, and if it produces
also acts as a rectifier as well as a source of light. sharp-sounding metallic clicks like shot rolling in
In other words, current can flow from the metal the tube, this indicates that the vacuum is good.
electrodes at the top of the tube, into the mercury If the mercury slides to the bottom end of the tube
vapor, but it cannot flow from the vapor back into without producing these clicks it is an indication
these electrodes, because of the high resistance film that the tube has leaked air and the vacuum is
built up at their surfaces the instant the reverse destroyed.
current attempts to flow. This principle will be The end with the two horns should be at the
more fully explained in a later section. higher end of the reflector. Place the tube in the
holding clamps and tighten them securely, but not
too tight, or the glass may be cracked when heated.
It should be possible to rotate the tube with the
fingers after the clamps have been fastened. Be
sure that the single negative terminal points straight
down from the black bulb. Observe the mercury
to see that it covers the metal contact which is
sealed in the glass at this terminal. If these lamps
are operated without sufficient mercury in the bot-
tom end the tube may be ruined.
After the tube is installed, it is a very simple
matter to connect its terminals to the wires provided
on the lamp unit and reflector.

207. OPERATING VOLTAGE

The tubes are rather critical as to their operating
voltage, and if the line voltage is considerably
lower than normal because of voltage drop, the
Fig. 240. Wiring diagram of a mercury vapor lamp, showing the
lamps may not start promptly. In this case, when
various circuits traced through the tube and coils. they are turned on the mercury switch may keep
operating and clicking repeatedly, without starting
These mercury vapor lights are also made to the lamp. When this happens the voltage at the line
operate on direct current, and those for D.C. opera- terminals should be tested with a volt meter, and
tion have no transformer, but merely the pair of if it is found too low the connections can be shifted
induction coils and mercury switch in addition to to the inner taps shown on the auto transformer
the tube; so their circuit is much simpler than the coils. This will enable the transformer to raise the
one we have just traced. voltage on the tube.
270 Illumination. Mercury Vapor Lamps

These terminals are usually marked for the differ- This lamp has a very high efficiency,
ent voltages, so it is easy to tell where to connect of about 40 lumens per watt, as compared
the line wires. When these lamps are connected with 15 to 18 lumens per watt for or-
on circuits from 95 to 125 volts, wires not smaller dinary incandescent lamps. These lamps
than No. 12 should be used, and each circuit for a are made in 250 and 400 watt sizes.
single lamp should be fused for 15 amperes. The larger size is constructed with two
For each additional lamp placed on any branch bulbs, one within the other as shown in
Fig. 241. The inner bulb contains mercury
circuit, the fuse should be increased by 10 amperes
vapor, and a small amount of argon gas,
per lamp.
two main operating or arc electrodes,
A and B, and one auxiliary starting elec-
208. CARE AND MAINTENANCE
trode C.
If mercury vapor lamps are installed in cold rooms An evacuated space between the inner
they may be somewhat slow in starting and also and outer bulbs helps to retain enough
Fig. 241
give less than normal candlepower. In such cases heat for best operation of the lamp.
it may also be necessary to change the line connec- These lamps start on about 5amperes at 20 volts,
tions to apply higher voltage to the tube; or even and after heated up, they operate on about 2.9 am-
peres at 150 volts. These special voltages are sup-
to increase the line voltage somewhat.
plied by individual auto transformer or reactor
The resistance units used with these lamps occa-
units used with each lamp. This permits operation
sionally burn out but they can be very easily re-
of the lamps on regular 110 or 220 volt A. C. cir-
placed, as they are screwed into standard sockets on cuits.
the unit, the same as a lamp or plug fuse would be. When these lamps are first turned on they pro-
In maintaining a group of these lamps it is very duce a faint blue glow from a small arc started be-
important to keep the tubes clean by washing them tween electrodes A and C. After awarm up period
occasionally with soap and water, and also to keep about 10 or 12 minutes, the main arc forms between
the negative terminal and starting band free from electrodes A and B, producing very intense blue-
dust and dirt. An accumulation of dirt around the white light. The larger sized lamps of this type must
starting band will often allow the high voltage be operated in a vertical position to prevent the
starting current to flash over at this terminal and arc from bowing and melting the glass bulb.
cause the lamp to fail to start. 210. SODIUM VAPOR LAMPS
If a lamp fails to start after several operations One of the newer types of lamps which is com-
of the shifter switch it should be turned off until ing into use for highway and street lighting, uses
the trouble is located, so that this switch will not sodium vapor in which an arc is set up by means
be damaged by continuous operation. Failure to of special electrodes connected to an individual
start is usually due to one of the following causes: transformer for each lamp.
low line voltage, very cold tube, blown fuses, The sodium vapor and electrodes, as well as the
starting filaments are located within a sealed inner
burned out resistance unit, stuck or broken shifter
glass bulb. (See Fig. 242.) An outer sealed bulb main-
switch, loose connection, cracked tube, or dirt ac- tains an evacuated space or "vacuum envelope"
cumulated at the starting band on the negative around the inner bulb, to help retain the heat re-
terminal. Checking each of thees items systema- quired for these lamps to operate at best efficiency.
tically will usually locate the trouble. The filaments in each end of the bulb are used
The transformer , or induction coils can easily be to heat the vapor and throw off electrode to start
tested for open circuits, shorts, or grounds, as ex- the lamp, after which an arc is maintained between
plained in previous sections. the anodes in opposite ends of the tube. A small
Be very careful not to connect an A.C. lamp on amount of neon gas is included in these lamps to
aid in starting the arc.
a D.C. circuit, or a60 cycle A.C. lamp on a25 cycle
The lamps produce alight
circuit, or it will be burned out.
of yellow color which is
Extra tubes and resistance units can be obtained
very good for clear vision on
from the lamp manufacturers and kept on hand for highways and streets. The
convenient and prompt repairs. efficiency of these sodium
The extensive use of this type of lamp in manu- lamps is about 45 lumens
facturing plants will make this material very valu- per watt, or almost 3 times
able for any maintenance electrician to know, and as high as that of ordinary
have on hand for future reference. incandescent lamps.
They operate on from 2 to
209. HIGH INTENSITY MERCURY VAPOR 28 volts and 5to 10 amperes.
The special voltages requir-
LAMPS
ed for the filaments and
A recent developed mercury vapor lamp known electrodes are supplied by
as the high intensity mercury vapor lamp, is shown separate windings of a spe-
in Fig. 241. This lamp produces abluish white light cial small transformer for
which is excellent for machine shop or other indus- PRIM ARV
each lamp as shown in
trial operations where metal parts are to be handled. 20 Fig. 242.
 271

HOME LIGHTING

With all the vast number of homes in this coun- 212. CHOICE OF CEILING, WALL, OR
try that are wired for electricity, there are still hun- PORTABLE UNITS
dreds of thousands of old houses to be wired, as The ceiling fixture for the average sized living
well as the many thousands of new ones that are room should consist of four or more lamps of 40
built yearly. watts each or larger, and they should be equipped
Another very important fact to consider, from the with glass shades to soften the light and prevent glare.
standpoint of opportunities for the trained electrical
man, is that actually a majority of the homes that
have been wired a few years do not have efficient
or adequate lighting. This is partly because the old
style fixtures installed years ago were not made
very efficient, and partly because it used to be the
opinion that home-lighting fixtures should be chosen
for beauty and appearance, rather than for lighting
efficiency.
This idea is out-of-date, and the most important
essential in modern home-lighting is first to see that
the wiring and fixtures are planned and chosen to give
adequate light of the right quality; and second, to
give proper attention to the appearance and artistic
features.
We should keep well in mind that good fixtures are
now made to provide ample and proper lighting, as
well as pleasing appearance and decorative effects. Fig. 243. This photo shows a living room lighted only by the ceiling
fixture. There is plenty of light in the center of the room, but you
Properly designed lighting is one of the greatest com- will note the room appears very plain.
forts and conveniences that any home owner can enjoy,
and in building new homes or remodeling old ones, the The purpose of the ceiling fixture is to provide gen-
lighting should be considered equally as important as eral light throughout the room, and it should provide
many pieces of the furniture, and as one of the most sufficient light to give the room a bright and cheerful
important features of the decorations. appearance.
Home lighting does not require any elaborate cal- Ceiling fixtures should, of course, be chosen of a
culations, but the illumination for practically any room design and color to harmonize with the room furnish-
can be easily planned by application of the simple fun- ings and decorations, and they can be hung either
damentals of illumination, and the general rules on the quite close to the ceiling in low rooms, or suspended
down farther in higher rooms.
following pages. Furthermore, the great number of
homes which really require improved lighting and more Usually they will shed amore even light on the ceil-
modern fixtures, offer splendid opportunities right in
his own neighborhood, to practically every graduate
who wishes to take advantage of them.

211. LIVING ROOM LIGHTING

The living room is, of course, one of the most im-
portant rooms to have well lighted, as in the average
home this room is the one in which the members of the
family spend much of their time, and also one that we
wish to have most attractive when guests are present.
Proper lighting units for the living room are the ceil-
ing shower or cluster, wall bracket lights, and portable
floor or table lamps. The ceiling fixtures are often
called chandeliers or by the more modern name
Luminaire. No one of these types of lights is alone
sufficient for a well-lighted living room, but two or all
three of them should be combined to obtain the varied
Fig. 244. The same living room as shown above lighted only with
or complete lighting effects desirable. portable lamps, far reading directly under these lamps.
272 Illumination. Home Lighting

ing if they are down from 18 to 30 inches from it. The

bottom of the fixture should be at least 6 ft. 6 in. or
more from the floor; and preferably 7 ft. or more,
even if it is necessary to use a very short fixture
close to the ceiling.
Fig. 243 shows a living room lighted by a ceiling
fixture only, and while the room is fairly well
lighted, the general appearance is plan and drab and
the light is centered too much above and below the
fixture.
Portable floor and bridge lamps, as well as table
lamps, are very good for local spots of light and for
reading in a chair directly beneath them without
lighting the rest of the room. They also add agreat
deal to the decorative appearance, with their local
spots of light and their colored shades.
There is in many homes, however, a wrong tend-
ency, to depend on portable lamps almost entirely
for living room light. Portable lamps are not in-
tended for this, and do not give sufficient general
illumination for many occasions.
Fig. 246. These four views illustrate some of the effects obtainable
with lights placed behind decorative objects, concealed coves, and
artificial windows.

213. DINING ROOM FIXTURES

In the dining room we should have a flood of soft
white light on the table, and sufficient light on the walls
and ceiling to prevent them from appearing dark and
depressing. There should also be a reasonable amount
of light on the faces of the diners. Here we can use a
good-looking ceiling fixture with four or more shaded
lamps of about 50 watts each or larger. This fixture
should be hung low enough to center its light well
on the table, and yet not low enough to shed too
much light in the eyes of persons seated at the table.
About 30" to 36" above the table is generally agood
height.
Buffet lights add to the appearance, and provide part
Fig. 245. Here we have the same room lighted by the ceiling unit, of the extra light needed for the walls. A very well-
wall lights, and portable lamps. Compare caretully the different
effects in the three photographs on this page. lighted dining room is shown in Fig. 247.
Beautiful effects in dining room lighting can also be
Fig. 244 shows a room using only the portable
lamps, and while the effect is restful and fine for a
quiet evening alone with a book, it would not do
at all for a room full of company, with card games
or social gatherings.
Floor lamps with open tops, and in some cases extra
lamps and reflectors to direct light to the ceiling, are
very useful and beautiful in their effects.
Fig. 245 shows a rom well lighted by the ceiling
luminaire and portable lamps, and with the walls
"livened up" by wall bracket lights. A combination of
lighting units of this kind provides wonderful dec-
orative possibilities and comfort, by the use of all
or certain ones of the lights at proper times.
Novelty table lamps, concealed cove lights, and arti-
ficial electric windows, can also be added to produce
beautiful effects and increased attractiveness of the
living room. Some of these are shown in Fig. 246.
Sun parlors or porches should also be well equipped Fig. 247. The above dining room photo shows the manner in which the
with outlets for floor and table lamps; and ceiling fix- light should be principally centered on the table, and yet should
light the walls and ceiling sufficiently to prevent a dark appearance
tures of atype that give a soft light are desirable. in the room.
 Illumination. Home Lighting 273

obtained with asemi-indirect ceiling fixture and wall The clamp lights on the head of the bed will accom-
lights of the types shown in Fig. 248. plish this, or in some cases a small light is mounted
Semi-indirect ceiling luminaires of this type shed under the bed with a switch at the head of the bed.
soft white light on the table to make the dishes, food, These lights will shed sufficient light on the floor
and silverware show up to excellent advantage; and to enable one to move about the room easily, and
they also direct sufficient light on the ceiling to give a yet they do not throw light in the faces of other
cheerful and well-lighted appearance to the room. sleepers. Fig 251-A shows a well lighted bedroom.
The inverted bowl wall lights of the type shown in
Fig. 248, add the small fountains, or touches of light
on the walls, which just complete the good appear-
ance of this room.
Fig. 249 shows a number of popular fixtures
which are both efficient and beautiful in appear-
ance. These units deliver a sufficient quantity of well
diffused light, and add to the comfort, appearance,
and actual value of ahome enough to be worth many
times their cost.
The semi-indirect unit in the upper right corner of
Fig. 249 is typically a dining room fixture, and the
one in the center of the top row is particularly good
for use in low living rooms. The others are typical
living room fixtures.
Fig. 250 shows several styles of fixtures for din-
ing room lighting.

-ire?
Fig. 249. Several very efficient and popular types of dining room and
living room fixtures.

215. KITCHEN UNITS

The kitchen is one of the simplest rooms in a
house to properly illuminate, and yet it should al-
ways receive careful attention, because it is the one
in which the housewife spends a great deal of her
time.
A low hanging fixture should never be used in a
kitchen, but instead a short unit which is high up
and close to the ceiling should be used. It should
be of the enclosed type with a dense white glass
Fig. 248. A combination of a semi-indirect ceiling fixture with shaded
wail lights of the type shown, produces a very beautiful lighting
effect.

214. BEDROOM LIGHTING

Bedrooms should also be well lighted with soft light
that is not tiring to the eyes of one lying in bed. Ceil-
ing units of the types shown in Fig. 251 and
mounted close to the ceiling are very good.
It is very important to have sufficient light at dress-
ing tables and on mirrors; and wall bracket lights or
attachable brackets for clamping on each side of the
mirrors should be provided.
Portable lamps on small tables by the beds, or clamp
lights to mount on the heads of beds are ideal for read-
ing lights.
Plenty of convenience outlets should be provided
around the walls of bedrooms, for the attachment plugs
of portable lamps, curling irons, fans, etc.
A switch controlling one of the lights in the room
should be located near enough to the bed to be within
easy reach of aperson either in bed or right at its edge. Fig. 250. Units of the above type are very appropriate for dining roam
lighting.
274 Illumination. Home Lighting

bowl, and equipped with at least a' 100-watt lamp. Clothes closets should be equipped with a wall
Such a unit will provide well diffused light of bracket light over the door, and enough to one side
good intensity throughout the ordinary kitchen. In so if a pull-cord switch is used the cord will not
hang directly in the doorway. A wall switch at the
door or just inside may also be used.

Fig. 251. Several types of bed room fixtures which are mounted close
to the ceiling and produce soft, well-diffused light.

addition to this overhead unit, it is usually well to

have a wall bracket light with a white glass shade
mounted over the sink, and possibly one over the
range. Fig. 252 shows how cheerful a kitchen can
be made with proper lighting and light colored w2.11s
Fig. 253. At the left is shown the arrangement of ceiling unit and
and ceiling. wall bracket light for kitchen. On the :ugh a very emcient type
of reflector for laundry rooms and basement lighting.

216. BATH ROOM LIGHTS

Bath rooms should have two wall bracket lights
above the wash stand, one on each side of the mir-
ror. Another above the mirror is also very con-
venient for general light in the room and for comb-
ing one's hair. Bath room lights can be controlled
by key sockets or pull chain sockets on the bracket
lights at the mirror or by wall switches for lights
out of reach. If chain sockets are used on non-
polarized wiring systems, insulator links should be
put in the chains to reduce chances of persons ob-
taining shocks by touching the chain when one hand
is on a faucet.
The mirror lights should be low enough to well
Fig. 251-A. This photo shows a well lighted bedroom, using the dome illuminate one's face and the under side of the chin
light in the ceiling and portable lights on the dresser and table.
for shaving, and should use 50-watt inside frosted
The left view in Fig. 253 shows more clearly, the bulbs.
shape of the kitchen unit and wall light and on the Large dark colored bath rooms may also require
right is shown a very good unit of the porcelain a ceiling light.
enameled, metal dome type, to be used in the laun-
217. PORCHES, ATTICS, BASEMENTS, AND
dry room in basements.
GARAGES
Lighting units of this type are so low in cost
compared to their value in the home, that it is often Porches and entrances can be made safer and
very easy to sell the home owner modern kitchen much better appearing at night, by the use of ceil-
and laundry lighting equipment and get the job of ing lights of lantern design on the porch, or bracket
replacing his old ones with the new. lights of suitable weather proof type at each side
of doors.
Attics and basements should be lighted with drop-
cord lights or other low cost units, and in sufficient
number to enable one to work conveniently in any
part of them. Where basements are used for chil-
drens' play rooms ceiling fixtures similar to kitchen
units can be used, and controlled by pull-cords or
wall switches.
Garages should not be forgotten, and the light
should be controlled by three-way switches both
from the house and garage as previously explained.
One or more attachment plug receptacles should
also be provided, to permit the use of portable
trouble lights or vacuum cleaners around the car.
Fig. 254 shows a number of the various types and
sizes of Mazda lamps commonly used in home light-
Fig. 252. A well lighted kitchen, such as shown abovn, I. ene et ing.
the greatest conveniences in any home.
 Illumination. Home Lighting 275

In wiring any home for lights remember to in- of the greatest fields of opportunity for profitable
stall plenty of convenience outlets in all rooms, and and interesting work that the electrical industry
three-way or four-way switches where they will add offers to the trained man. We are certain that
to the convenience in controlling the lights. whether you choose to specialize in this line of
work, either as an employee of a contractor or fix-
ture dealer, or in business for yourself, you will
find the material covered in this section of great
value to you. No matter what line of electrical work

Fig. 254. Above are shown a number of modem Mazda lamps of the
types commonly used in home lighting.

218. QUALITY WORK PAYS

Always recommend lighting equipment that will
be a permanent satisfaction to your customer as
well as a credit to yourself. The home owner's
pride in the appearance of his home, and his concern
for the comfort, convenience and safety of his wife
and children, are points that should not be forgot-
ten in selling good lighting.
In completing this simplified practical material
Fig. MS. Sectional view of new type student or reading lamps, showing
on illumination you can readily see that it is one diffusing bowl, shade and stand.

Fig. 256A. Note the contrast in these two photos. The new I. E. S. lamp on the right provides more
adequate light with much less shadow and glare, and greatly reduces eye strain and fatigue.
276 Illumination. Home Lighting

you may follow, apractical knowledge of these prin- on which the shade rests is also an important fea-
ciples of good illumination will prove handy to you ture in the efficient operation of this lamp. This
many times in the coming years. bowl softly diffuses the downward light and blends
the bowl brilliancy nicely with the light from the
reflecting surface of the shade. The bowl also
219. I. E. S. STUDENT LAMPS
permits enough light to go up to the ceiling to
A very excellent and efficient new type of lamp provide some general illumination in the room and
for reading, student's use, or office desk work is thus avoid sharp contrasts.
called the I. E. S. (Illumination Engineering So- A very interesting feature of one model of this
ciety) student lamp. This lamp has been carefully I. E. S. lamp is that it is equipped with a special
designed to meet best lighting standards, and to 3-light bulb to permit control of the amount of
provide ample lighting intensity with aminimum of light for various purposes. These lamps are made
glare and shadow. in 50-100-150 watt, and also 100-200-300 watt size.
A view of this lamp is shown in Fig. 255. The They have two filaments controlled by an elec-
trolier switch in the lamp. On the smaller size
exact diameter of the shade and its height from the
one filament is of 50 watts and one of 100 watts.
table have been carefully determined. The color
Either of these can be operated separately. Another
and reflecting quality of the shade material are position of the switch puts both filaments in opera-
also important. The dense opal glass inverted bowl tion in parallel, using 150 watts.

FLUORESCENT LAMPS
One of the newer types of lighting units is the
to glow or to become fluorescent, and to emit
fluorescent lamp. Fluorescent lamps have recently visible light.
been installed by the thousands in industrial plants, Some of the chemicals or phosphors commonly
offices, stores and homes. They are much more
used in fluorescent lamps are Zinc Silicate, Calcium
efficient than incandescent lamps, and they also
Tungstate, Cadmium Borate, Zinc Beryllium Sili-
provide several colors of light including white, day- cate and Magnesium Tungstate.
light, blue, yellow, green, pink and red. A small amount of argon gas and mercury vapor
Other advantages of fluorescent lights are, that is enclosed in the lamp tube to facilitate starting
they have low surface brightness and create less and maintaining the arc or electron discharge be-
glare, and they only produce about half as much tween the electrodes in opposite ends of the lamp
radiant heat as produced by incandescent lamps of tube. Figure 257 (top view) shows the location
the same wattage. This makes them ideal for use
in modern air conditioned buildings where any
excess heat is undesirable. These lamps also have
a rated life of 2500 hours.
Fluorescent lamps are tubular in shape as shown
in Figure 256, and are made in sizes of 6, 8, 15, 20,
30, 40 and 100 watts; with lengths of 9, 12, 18, 24,
36, 48, and 60 inches. Figure 258 shows several types
of fluorescent fixtures for office and store lighting
at the top of figure, and a typical industrial type
fixture below. Fluorescent lights are also made in Fig. 2St. Upper view shows an open section of a fluorescent lamp tube.
Note starting electrode inside tube, at right end. Also note end
smaller sizes for homes and in desk lamp patterns. caps and terminal pins by which lamp is held in sockets. Lower
views show compact, replaceable lamp starter switches.
220. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
and arrangement of the electrodes and lamp
In fluorescent lamps the light is produced by an terminals.
electrical discharge producing ultraviolet or in- To start the operation of a fluorescent lamp, the
visible rays which impinge upon achemical coating electrodes must be momentarily connected in series
on the inside of the glass tube, causing the chemical across the line, to cause them to heat up and emit
sufficient electrons to establish the arc. After the
lamp is started the arc creates sufficient heat to
111111111111111111111111111111•111111111111111111
keep up the electron flow, and the electrodes should
be disconnected to prolong their life. This requires
some form of automatic starting switch, such as
shown at the lower left in Figure 259 and also in
the lamp circuit diagrams in this same figure.
IM111111111111.1111111•1111111111111111111113i Two common types of starting switches or units
are the thermal switch and the neon glow switch.
The operation of these will be explained later.
Fig. 256. Several different sizes of fluorescent lamps, shown without
their fixtures or auxiliary units. Fluorescent lamps also require areactor or ballast
 fluorescent Lighting. 276-A

tubes, require a higher voltage for operation than

is supplied by the normal lighting service lines.
Such lamps have an auto transformer included in
their control unit for stepping up the line voltage
to proper value for lamp operation. The auto trans-
former and ballast coil are frequently combined in
one unit.
221. OPERATION OF STARTER SWITCHES
Before starting the lamp the contacts of the
thermal switch are in closed position. When line
voltage is applied to the lamp the switch completes
a circuit through the two lamp electrodes in series
and through the ballast coil. The thermal switch
has a bi-metallic strip which becoines heated by
the current flow within one or two seconds. The
heat causes the strip to expand and open the switch
Fig. 258. At the top of the above illustration are shown 3 types of contacts, interrupting the relatively heavy starting
fluorescent light fixtures for store and office lighting. Note how
the diffusing glass cover of one side of one unit swings down for
electrode current through the ballast coil, thereby
cleaning or lamp replacement.
factory or industrial lighting.
The lower view shows a unit for
Accessory units are in the case
giving the necessary starting voltage impulse to
above the reflector. the lamp tube. See diagrams in Figure 259.
coil to limit the flow of current through the lamp The thermal switch strip is held open by the
tube after the arc is established. This is due to the continuous flow of current through a small heater
fact that as the arc temperature increases and its coil. Sometimes after fluorescent lamps are switched
resistance is thereby lowered, the current flow off it may require a short period of time for the
would continue to increase, causing a still hotter thermal switch to cool off and close so the lamp
arc of lower resistance, until the lamp would quickly can again be started.
burn out. Glow switches operate on the negative discharge
The effect of the reactor or choke coil in series principle used in neon indicator lamps. This type
with the lamp on an A. C. circuit, produces increased of switch is enclosed in a small glass bulb. See
counter voltage of self induction as the current illustration at lower left corner of Figure 259.
increases and thereby limits the current flow to One of the electrodes in this switch is made of
normal lamp operating values. It is therefore highly a bi-metalic strip. The two electrodes are separated
important that fluorescent lamps of different sizes under normal conditions and form apart of a series
be operated only with properly designed ballast circuit through the lamp electrodes and ballast coil.
coils.
These ballast coils also serve another purpose
in the operation of the lamps. Fluorescent lamps
require a much higher voltage to start the arc than
is required to keep them operating once they are
started. This momentary high starting voltage kick
is obtained from the ballast coil in the form of self
induced voltage when the starting switch interrupts
the flow of starting current through the ballast coil
and starting electrodes. This circuit and operation
can be traced in the lamp wiring diagrams shown ••••
in Figure 259.
Therefore, the complete lamp control unit con- •
sisting of the starting switch and ballast coil serves
three important functions: 1. Preheats the elec-
trodes to supply ample electrons for starting.
2. Provides a surge of relatively high voltage to
start the arc between the electrodes and through
the tube. 3. Prevents the arc current from increas-
ing beyond proper limits for each size of lamp.
Some fluorescent lamp units also have a con-
denser connected in the control circuit, across the
starter switch contacts, to increase the starting
voltage impulse and to eliminate radio interference
from the arc at the switch points when the starter
circuit is opened. Fig. 259. At lower left is shown a glow type starter switch. Other
views show common types of fluorescent lamps circuits and ballasts
Some of the larger fluorescent lamps using long or auxiliaries.
 276-B Fluorescent Lighting.

When voltage is first applied, no current flows starter switch, defective ballast coil, low voltage
except as a result of a glow discharge through the or no voltage on supply circuit. First check supply
neon gas between the two electrodes of the switch. line voltage, lamp contacts for tightness, test lamp
This causes heating and expansion of the bi-metallic in another fixture or fluorescent lighting unit, and
element and closes the contacts or electrodes to- try replacing starter switch. If none of these steps
gether, allowing the necessary current to flow for disclose or remedy the trouble a new ballast coil
heating the lamp electrodes. may be required.
When the contacts close however, the glow dis- Slow starting of lamps if often due to sluggish
charge is shorted out, and the bi-metallic strip starting switches, low line voltage, low ballast
cools and opens the contacts, interrupting the flow rating, or lamp in too cold a location.
of starting current through the ballast coil and If the ends of the lamp remain lighted it indicates
giving the necessary high voltage starting impulse a probable short circuit in the starter switch.
to the lamp. Starters which have been in service for some time
After the lamp arc is established the switch will frequently fail in this manner, and when they do
not again glow or heat up, as it is so designed that they should be replaced. On some of the newer
the remaining available voltage across its electrodes type 40 watt lamps using no-blink starters, the lamp
during lamp operation is insufficient to break down ends may remain lighted on a lamp tube that is
the neon gap between the switch electrodes. Thus worn out.
if the lamp is turned out the starter switch is im- If the lamp blinks on and off it generally indi-
mediately ready for restarting. cates aworn out lamp tube. Test the lamp in another
Many of the later type fluorescent lighting units fixture or replace the starter and if lamp still blinks
have the starter switches built in a small tubular on and off replace it with a new one. Low line
metal case which is plugged into the lamp circuit voltage, low ballast rating, low temperature or cold
through a small round opening in the lamp housing drafts may also cause blinking.
unit. This permits quick and easy replacement in If the ends of a lamp remain lighted or if lamp
case the starter switch becomes defective. See blinks on and off, the trouble should be immediately
Fig. 257. remedied or the lamp or starter should be removed
from the circuit. A blinking lamp can shortly ruin
222. FLUORESCENT LAMP TROUBLES the ballast, lamp and starter.
AND SERVICE Sometimes a new lamp will flicker slightly for
Fluorescent lamps of the better makes should a short time and then this will clear up. If it con-
give very little trouble in service if properly in- tinues to flicker the cause may be adefective starter,
stalled and if supplied with proper operating volt- defective lamp tube, or to the lack of a starting
age. However, there are a few common trouble compensator on two-ballast lamps.
possibilities with which you should be familiar if Fluorescent lamps have some stroboscopic effect
you plan to install or maintain these units. due to the dying out of the light at the zero voltage
Fluorescent lights should only be installed on period of the A. C. cycle. This is only noticeable
circuits having a voltage range within the rating of when viewing rapidly moving objects under these
the ballast coils. For example, lamps with ballast lights. If this effect is objectionable for certain
rated at 110 to 125 volts, will operate much better classes of work around revolving machinery or
on circuit voltages within that range. printing presses, it can be overcome by the use of
Fluorescent lamp tubes blacken in color rather two-lamp ballasts or by operating 3adjacent lamps
uniformly throughout the life of the lamp. The on a 3phase circuit. Combining incandescent lamps
ends of the tubes will often show dense black or with fluorescent lamps will also help to relieve this
brown rings after they are nearly worn out, but condition.
should not show much blackening during the first Fluorescent lamps, operate as a form of arc dis-
500 hours of use, if lamps are operating properly charge, and therefore may cause some radio inter-
and on correct circuit voltage. Early blackening in- ference. Well grounded fixtures, short wire leads
dicates lose contacts, defective starter, improper bal- from lamp terminals to ballast and metal mountings
last or wrong operating voltage. for lamp sockets, all help to keep down radio
Each time a fluorescent lamp is started the elec- interference. Additional condensers are sometimes
trodes lose a little of their electron emissive ma- installed in these lamps to reduce radio interference.
terial. Therefore these lamps will have longer life While fluorescent lamps have proven highly popu-
if not turned on and off too frequently. lar and efficient, it should not be assumed that they
Fluorescent lamps operate best at surrounding will entirely replace incandescent lamps for many
temperatures of 65° to 90° F but may give satis- years, as incandescent lamps have certain ad-
factory performance at temperatures of 50° F, if the vantages and suitability for certain applications,
supply voltage is in the upper half of the ballast which are not obtainable with fluorescent lamps.
rating. In fact, a combination of incandescent and fluores-
If a lamp fails to start it may be due to a burned cent lamps produces ideal lighting for certain
out lamp tube, lamp loose in sockets, worn out classes of work.

L_ _
 277

C YN
i

aectrical School
CHICAGO -ILLINOIS
ESTAtiLismto 1899 COPYRIGHT 1942

ARMATURE WINDING

AND TESTING

Section One

Direct Current Armatures

D. C. Motor and Generator Principles
Magnet Wires, Insulations, Coil Winding
Lap Windings, Wave Windings
Element Windings, Multiplex Windings
Rewinding Old Armatures
Armature Testing
Emergency Repairs
278

ARMATURE WINDING AND TESTING

Section One
D. C. ARMATURES

This section covers one of the most interesting Numerous smaller factories that do not keep a
and important branches of practical electricity. regular armature winder, much prefer to have a
There are many thousands of new motors and gen- maintenance electrician who can wind armatures
erators built each year which must be wound and when necessary. In many cases we find that the
tested by experts at the factories. There are also general electrician, who does the wiring and repair-
many millions of electric motors in use in this coun- ing around the plant, is also called upon to test and
try which have to be maintained, tested, operated, rewind armatures in emergencies. So a knowledge
and occasionally completely rewound. of this subject will often enable you to land a good
Power companies have expert armature winders job, and to advance into greater responsibility and
to repair their great generators when their wind- higher pay.
ings develop trouble. Industrial plants and facto-. Fig. 1shows alarge group of motors for overhaul-
ries, some of which have thousands of motors in ing and rewinding in a modern repair shop, and
one plant, require armature winders to repair the Fig. 2 shows a section of the winding department
motors that burn out. Then there are the small in this same shop.
companies which have only a few motors and don't \Ve have mentioned armature testing, as well as
have their own electrician, so they must send their winding, and wish to emphasize the importance of
machines to some armature shop for repairs. Many obtaining a good knowledge of testing and trouble
of our graduates operate a very profitable business shooting, to be able to locate troubles and faults in
of their own in armature winding and motor repair. the windings of motors and generators.

Fig. 1. This photo shows a view in a modern electric repair shop. Note the great number and variety of electrical motors and generators
which go through this shop by the thousands each year. They are tested, rewound, reinsulated, and generally repaired before going back
in service.
 Armature Winding. Section One. Construction of D.C. Machines 279

In many cases some small fault, such as an open The more important parts of a D.C. motor or
circuit, short circuit, or "ground", right at the leads generator are the Frame, Field Poles, Armature
or connections of an armature winding, will seri- and Commutator. In addition to these, the brushes,
ously interfere with the operation of the machine. bearings, and a number of other small parts are
Many times such faults that don't require a com- needed to complete the machine.
plete rewinding can be quickly repaired, and the Fig. 3 shows a machine with the front bearing
machine put right back in service with very little plate removed. The field poles can be seen at "B",
lost time. and are securely attached to the inside of the frame.
The armature is shown resting inside the field poles,
where it is rotated during operation. The commu-
tator can be seen on the front end of the armature.
The extra poles shown at "A" in this view will be
explained later.

2. FIELD POLES
The field poles are made of iron, either in the
form of solid cast blocks or in many cases built up
of thin strips or Laminations, pressed and bolted
tightly together. These iron cores are then wound
with a great many turns of insulated wire, forming
what are called Field Coils. These coils may con-
Fig. 2. This view shows a section of the Armature Winding Depart-
ment of the saine shop shown in Fig. 1.
sist of from a few hundred to several thousand
turns, according to the size and voltage of the ma-
There are actually thousands of electricians in chine. We find then that the completed field pole
the field today who do not know how to locate and is simply a large electro-magnet, and its purpose is
repair such faults, and instead must take motors out to supply a strong flux or field of magnetic lines of
of service and send them out to be repaired. In force for the armature conductors to rotate in.
many cases windings are pulled apart unnecessarily The field frame is not only to provide a support
to find troubles that could have been easily located for the field poles, but also provides a flux path for
by atest, without even removing the armature from the complete magnetic circuit between the outer
the machine. It is needless to say that the main- ends of the poles. The field coils are connected to-
tenance electrician who knows how to systematical- gether in such a manner that each one will produce
ly test for and locate these troubles, and can make amagnetic pole opposite to the one next to it. They
quick repairs and put a machine back in service are then supplied with direct current to maintain
with the least delay, is the man who gets the best constant polarity at the pole Shoes or Faces.
job and the best pay.
A good knowledge of armature construction and
windings not only makes it easier to understand
testing and rewinding, but is also a great help to
you in thoroughly understanding the motors and
generators covered in the later sections. So make
a careful and thorough study of this section, and
you will find it very interesting and valuable.

1. GENERATORS AND MOTORS

In order to properly understand armature wind-
ing it is necessary to first know something of the
construction and principles of motors and gener-
ators, and the function of the armature in these
machines.
An electric generator is a machine used to con-
vert mechanical energy into electric energy.
An electric motor is a machine used to convert
electric energy into mechanical energy.
In actual construction these two machines are
practically the same, the difference in them being
merely in the way they are used. In fact, in many
cases a generator can be used for a motor, or a
motor used as agenerator, with very slight changes
and adjustments. Fig. 3. This view of a D.C. generator with the front bearing bracket
removed shows the field poles, armature, and frame very clearly.
280 Armature Winding, Section One. Armature Construction.

3. ARMATURES 1
The armature is also made of iron and is always
of laminated construction, or built up of thin iron
sheets pressed tightly together. The laminated con-
struction is used to prevent the flow of induced
Eddy Currents in the armature core. The core has
a number of slots around its entire outer surface,
in which the armature coils are placed. See Fig. 5.
The iron armature core provides a magnetic path
for the flux of the field poles, and also carries the
coils which are rotated at high speed through the
field flux.
In a generator, it is the cutting of these coils
through the flux which produces the voltage. In
a motor, it is the reaction between the field flux
and the flux around the armature conductors, which
causes the Torque or turning effort.

CORE AIR DucTS te

LArltradITIOfts
cuelPing RINGS Fig. 5. Completely assembled D.C. airmature. Note the manner in which
the laminations are clamped together by the heavy end rings, and
IBOLT also note the slots around the armature core in which the coils will
be laid.
5Piotft
of a wheel, on the outside ends of short spokes, as
shown in Fig. 4-A. This wheel or center frame-
work is called the Spider, and the sections of core
laminations are dovetailed into the spider, as shown
in the figure. Heavy clamping rings at each end of
the group, and drawn tight by bolts, hold the entire
A core in a solid, rigid unit.
ENO VIEW Sloc Virv./ Fig. 4-B shows a sectional view through such a
ARMATURE CORE spider and core. Note the spaces or air ducts that
Fig. 4. The view at "A" shows the manner in which core laminations are left between the laminations, for ventilation and
are assembled on a spider to make up the large armatures. At the
right is a sectional view, showing the manner in which the lamina-
cooling of the core and windings.
tions are assembled and clamped to the spider rim, and the air ducts
which are left for ventilation and cooling.
Fig. 5 shows a completely assembled core of this
type without the shaft or the commutator.
Small armatures are often constructed of lami- Fig. 6 shows a complete armature with the wind-
nations in the form of complete disks which merely ing in place and the commutator shown at the left
have a hole through their center for the shaft, and end. Note how the coils are neatly fitted into the
possibly bolt holes for clamping them. This makes slots and held in place by wedges in the top of the
acore which is solid clear to the shaft. In the larger slots. The ends of the coils are tightly banded with
machines it is not necessary to have the entire core steel banding wire to prevent them from being
solid, so the laminations are assembled like the rim thrown outward when rotated at high speed.

Fig. 6. The view at the left is a

photo of a large D.C. armature for
a 150 KW, belt driven generator.
The commutator is at the left and
the bars or segments can be plain-
ly seen. Note how the armature
coils are held in the slots by
wedges and by the band wires
around each end of the armature.
(Photo Courtesy Crocker-Wheeler
Electric Company.)
 Armature Winding, Section One. Commutators. 281

4. ARMATURE SLOTS inder around the shaft. They are mounted near to
There are several different types or shapes of the end of the armature core, so the coil ends can
slots used for holding the coils in armature cores: be connected to each of these bars. Between each
Several of these are shown in Fig. 7. This figure bar and the next is placed a thin mica strip or seg-
shows end views of the slots and sectional views of ment, which keeps them entirely insulated from
the coils in them. The one at "A" is called an "open each other.
type slot", and is used where the coils are com- See Fig. 8-A, which is an end view of such acom-
pletely wound and formed before being placed in mutator. B— and B+ are the brushes which rest
the slots. This type of slot has the advantage of on the commutator surface F. The black lines at
being very easy to place the coils in. Bands around "M" are mica insulating strips.
the core must be used to hold the coils in slots of
At "B" is shown a sectional view cut endwise
this shape when the armature is rotated.
through a commutator, showing the shape of the
bars or segments and the notches cut in each end,
5 D
so they can be held securely together by the heavy
Clamping Rings. When the bars are all fitted in
place by the clamping ring "V" is drawn up
tightly by the clamping nut "R", this locks the
segments to the commutator core or center, in a
sort of dovetail construction. The raised part of the
segment at "L" is called the Riser or Neck. At "U"
are shown slots in the segments where the coil leads
Types or slots most ccirrtrnortly used in errnatu:re ccrres
are attached.
Fig. 7. The above diagram shows four common types of armature slots. The heavy black lines represent mica insulation
Note carefully the manner in which the coils are arranged and in-
sulated. and also the wedges which hold them in the slots. The which keeps all bars well insulated from the clamp-
wedge in the slot at "A" would be held in place by band wires
around the armature. ing rings, core, and shaft. Examine this diagram
carefully as it shows the typical construction fea-
"B" and "C" show slightly different types of tures of small and medium sized commutators.
partly closed slots, which are used with armatures On very large machines where the commutators
on which the coils are wound directly into them.. have a large diameter, they are sometimes mounted
This type of slot gives a better distribution of flux on a spider similar to those described for large
from the field poles to the armature than the open armatures. Commutators are held in place on the
ones do. This is due to the projecting lips which shaft by use of keys and slots, or special locknuts,
reduce the broad air gap over the top of the slot. in each end.
With these partly closed slots the coils are held On some of the very small armatures of fractional
Jecurely in place by wedges slipped over their top horsepower machines, the commutators are tightly
edges and under the iron lips. pressed on to the shaft, and held in place by the
"D" shows an open type slot which has a groove extremely tight fit.
in each side of its top, through which the slot wedge Fig. 9 shows a large engine-driven D.C. genera-
is driven. tor from the commutator end. This commutator is
5. COMMUTATORS mounted on a spider and you can note the brushes
Commutators are constructed of a number of seg- resting on its outer surface. Part of the field poles
ments or copper bars, mounted in the form of acyl- can also be seen around the left side of the frame.

Fig. S. At **A - snown an end view of a commutator, illustrating the manner in which the bars or segments are assembled and kept sepa-
rated by strips of insulation between them. At "B" is a sectional view showing how the commutator segments are clamped and held in
place by clamping rings which fit in their grooves.
 Norman F.,tL.
41 Georgia Ave.
Brooklyn 7, N.Y.
282 Armature Winding, Section One. Principles of D.C. Generators.

Machines of this type are made in sizes ranging erate voltage or electro motive force, and supply
from less than 100 horsepower to many thousands electric energy to the circuit or load to which it
of horsepower, and small motors are made in sizes may be connected.
down to 1/50 horsepower and less.
You will also recall from the section on elemen-
Keep in mind, however, that regardless of the size
tary electricity that a generator operates on the
of the machine the general operating principles are
principle of electroc-magnetic induction, and that
the same ;so if you obtain athorough understanding the voltage is produced by the wires or conductors
of the purpose of the important parts and the fun- cutting magnetic lines of force.
damental operating principles of one type or size,
Fig. 10 shows a diagram of a very simple form
these things will apply equally well to all others.
of D.C. generator, consisting of two field poles
6. OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF Marked "N" and "S", and one armature coil con-
GENERATORS AND MOTORS nected to two commutator segments, which are in
So far we have only discussed the mechanical contact with the positive and negative brushes.
parts and construction of generators and motors. These brushes are to collect the current from the
It is also very important that you have a good un- commutator bars as the coil and the commutator
derstanding of the electrical features and operating revolve on the armature. If we revolve the coil
principles of these machines, for two reasons. It rapidly through the magnetic flux between the north
will help you understand armature windings much and south poles, a voltage will be generated in the
easier, and also provide afoundation for your study coil: and if there is a complete external circuit
of these machines in the later sections. through the lamps or load as shown, this voltage
The operating principles of generators and will cause current to flow out through this circuit
motors are not nearly as complicated, when prop- and back through the armature coil continuously,
erly explained, as many men without training think as long as the rotation continues and the circuit
they are. remains closed. As the coil revolves, either side
7. GENERATION OF VOLTAGE of it passes first the north pole and then the south
We have learned that a generator is a machine pole, and cuts through the lines of force first in
which when driven by mechanical power will gen- one direction and then the other. Therefore, the

Fig. 9. This photo shows a large 400 KW. 22$ volt D.C. generator which is direct connected to a steam engine. This machine is designed to
run at 110 R.P.M. and, therefore, it has a larger diameter than those which operate at higher speeds. This generator has 12 field poles
and 12 sets of brushes. (Photo Courtesy Crocker-Wheeler Electric Company.)
 Armature Winding, Section One. Commutation and Generator Voltage. 283

voltage generated in the coil will be continually center line, at any point along these curves, indi-
reversing or alternating in direction. cates the value of the generated voltage at that
If this coil was provided with collector rings in- particular point of the coil revolution.
stead of commutator bars the entire circuit would The rise and fall of the curves is due to the coil
be supplied with alternating current. Always re- approaching and leaving the strong field flux
member that alternating current is generated in the directly under the poles. When the conductors of
windings of any ordinary D.C. generator. the coil are in the position shown by the dotted
8. COMMUTATOR ACTION circles at "C", and are practically out of the effective
Now we come to the purpose of the commutator, field and moving parallel to the few lines of force,
which is to rectify this alternating current or change they do not generate any voltage. This position
it to direct current, as it flows out to the external between two field poles is called the Neutral Plane.
circuit. This is accomplished in the following man- As the cdil rotates back into the stronger field of
ner. the poles, the voltage gradually builds up higher
until it reaches a maximum when the conductors
are in the strong field at the center of the poles,
as shown by the solid line curves. If we ignore the
dotted curves 2 and 4 below the line at "B", and
consider them to be placed above the line, the
curves will then represent the pulsating direct cur-
rent which exists in the external circuit due to the
action of the commutator.
Large generators are never constructed with only
one coil on the armature, but usually have a con-
siderable number of coils placed in the slots around
the armature surface, and connected to as many
commutator segments. The use of this greater
number of coils produces impulses closely follow-
ing each other, and in fact overlapping, so that the
variation or pulsation of current, as shown in Fig.
10-B, is considerably reduced.
Fig. 11-A, B, and C shows approximate voltage
curves for the individual coils of three simple gen-
erators, each with a different number of coils on
Fig. 10. The above diagram shows the principles of a simple D.C. gen- its armature. The one shown at "A" has two coils
erator. Note the manner in which the field coils are connected to
the brushes, and the rheostat used for controlling the amount of
placed 90 degrees apart. One of these coils will be
field current. passing through dense flux directly under the center
The field poles and brushes are, of course, held of the poles, while the other coil is at right angles
rigidly in one position and always keep about the to the poles and moving parallel to the flux. There-
same position with regard to each other. Thus fore, the voltage induced in one coil will be at maxi-
the positive brush will always be at the right place mum value, while that in the others is at zero
to collect current from the coil side which is pass- value. The result is shown by the curves, and we
ing by the south pole, and the negative brush will can see that due to the overlapping voltage impulses
always be at the proper position to connect with the current flow in the external circuit will be much
coil sides passing the north pole. So the current steadier. By comparing this with the number of
will always flow out at the positive brush and back coils in "B" and "C", and also observing the curves
in at the negative brush, regardless of the speed of representing their voltage, we find that the greater
the armature. number of coils we use the less pulsation there will
be in the current flowing to the external circuit, and
9. VOLTAGE CURVES. PULSATING
the closer it approaches to true direct current. The
DIRECT CURRENT
curves in this figure only show the positive halves
We learned in a previous section that the voltage
of each cycle, due to the rectifying effect of the
or current of any circuit can be conveniently repre-
commutator.
sented by curves, as shown at "B" in Fig. 10. These
curves show the variation and direction of the volt-
age that would be produced by this simple gen- 10. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE
erator. MACHINE VOLTAGE
The combined solid and dotted line curves 1, 2, We may recall that in an earlier section on mag-
3, and 4, represent the alternating impulses that are netic induction we learned that a single conductor
produced in the armature coil. Curves 1 and 3 must cut 100,000,000 lines of force per second to
above the line indicate voltage in one direction, generate one volt, and that the voltage produced by
while 2 and 4 below the line indicate voltage in the any generator depends on the speed with which
opposite direction. The vertical distance, from the lines of force are cut.
284 Armature Winding, Section One. Motor Principles.

This, in turn, depends on three principle factors The reaction between this flux and that of the field
ai follows—strength of the field or number of lines poles causes the field flux to be distorted or pushed
of force per pole, speed of armature rotation, and out of its straight path as shown.
number of turns in series between the brushes. When the magnetic lines from the north field
We can readily see that the stronger the field, the pole strike the counter-clockwise lines around the
more lines of force will be cut per revolution of the left armature conductor, they deflect downward,
coil. If we strengthen or weaken the field of any and travel with them to a certain extent. Then
generator its voltage will increase or decrease pro- as they encounter the clockwise lines around the
portionately. The voltage of generators while in right hand conductor they are deflected upwards.
operation is usually controlled by varying their These lines, of course, have a tendency to try
field strength. to straighten or shorten their path, and thereby
The faster an armature turns, in revolutions per exert considerable force against the movement of
minute, the greater will be the speed of movement the armature conductors, and in opposition to the
of its conductors and the greater the number of force applied by the prime mover which drives the
lines of force cut per second. So we find that the generator.
voltage of a generator will also vary directly with This force will, of course, depend upon the
the speed. amount of current flowing in the armature con-
If a simple generator, such as shown in Fig. 10, ductors and the strength of the flux which they
has one volt produced in each side of its coil, then set up. For this reason the greater load we have
the pressure at the brushes will be 2 volts; be- connected to the external circuit, the more power
cause the two sides of the coil are in series, and will be required from the prime mover, to drive
their voltage adds together. If we were to increase the generator.
the number of turns in this coil from one to ten, 12. MOTOR PRINCIPLES
the pressure at the brushes would be 20 volts, be- If we take this same machine which has been
cause all ten turns would be in series and their used as a generator, and send current through its
voltages would add. So we find that the number armature and field coils from a line and some other
of turns per coil in an armature winding will pro- source of electric supply, the reaction between the
portionately effect the voltage produced. lines of force of the field and those of the armature
conductors will set up Torque or twisting effort
to rotate the armature, as shown in the lower view
in Fig. 12.
You will note that, in order to obtain rotation
of the motor in the same direction the armature
formerly turned as a generator, we must reverse
the current through the armature coils. Use the
right hand rule for magnetic flux around a con-
ductor, and check carefully the direction of the
flux set up, with the direction of current flow
through these conductors. The current is flowing
in at the conductor nearest the north pole, and,
therefore, sets up a clockwise flux around this
conductor. In the other conductor the current is
flowing out and sets up a counter-clockwise flux.
The lines of force of the field coming from the
keiteekeikeik; north pole in striking those around the left con-
ductor will be deflected upwards over the top of
this conductor, and as they continue across and
strike the lines in the opposite direction on the
Fig. it. The above diagram shows the voltage curves for three simple right hand conductor, they will be deflected down-
generators with different numbers of conductors in their armatures.
Note how the greater number of conductors produces direct current ward and under it. Their tendency to shorten and
of a more constant value.
straighten their path will then cause this force or
11. ARMATURE FLUX AND ITS torque to rotate the armature counter-clockwise.
ACTION IN GENERATORS With a pulley or gear connected to the shaft of
When a generator is connected to an external such a motor we can thus derive mechanical power
circuit on which we have aload of lamps or motors, from electric energy.
the amount of connected load and the resistance of 13. COUNTER E. M. F. IN MOTORS
the external circuit will determine the current which We must remember that as the motor rotates its
flows. This current, of course, must all flow armature conductors will still be cutting lines of
through the armature winding continuously, and it force of the field. As the conductors of the motor
sets up magnetic lines of force around the armature in Fig. 10 are revolving in the same direction they
conductors, as shown in the upper view in Fig. 12. did in the generator, this voltage induced in the
 Armature Winding, Section One. Counter Voltage. Armature Coils. 285

the armature. This additional current increases

e ftIME rio fr, the motor torque and enables it to carry the in-
creased mechanical load. If the mechanical load
3 is entirely removed from a motor it will tend to
speed up, and as the speed increases the armature
A GENERATOR conductors move through the field flux faster. This
increases the counter E. M. F. which will imme-
diately reduce the current flow, by its opposition
to the applied line voltage. So we find that The
FO , Counter E. M. F. of a Motor Armature Acts Like
a Governor to Control Its Speed.
ft0TAT/Eeiv
We should also remember that if a motor is
loaded to a point where the armature slows down
N S too much, or stops entirely, the counter voltage
//•^N
will fall too low and allow the applied voltage to
% s \\\ /:••"-"-- MOTOR
send excessive current through the armature and
1 possibly burn out its windings. The counter voltage
••••
in a motor armature, of course, depends upon the
number of turns in the coils, the speed of rotation,
and the field strength, the same as the voltage in
Fig. 12. This sketch shows the manner in which motor torque is pro- a generator does.
duced by the reaction between the flux of the armature conductors
and the field flux. Examine both "A" and "B" very carefully, and Counter voltage plays a very important part in
check the direction of current in the conductors, the direction of flux
around them, and the direction of the resulting movement. the starting of motors, and will be further discussed
in the section on D.C. motors; but be sure you
coils will be in the opposite direction to the applied have a thorough understanding of its principles as
line voltage. This voltage, which is always gen- covered in this section.
erated in the coils of any motor during operation,
15. ARMATURE COILS
is therefore called Counter Electro-Motive Force,
Armature windings merely consist of a number
and usually referred to as counter E. M. F., or
of coils of wire, arranged uniformly in the slots of
counter voltage.
the armature core, and connected to the commu-
The applied voltage is equal to the counter E.M.F.
tator bars to form series or parallel circuits between
plus the voltage drop in the armature or, E =
the brushes. Many untrained electricians think
C. E.M.F. I. R.
armature windings are very complicated. This is
As the counter voltage opposes the applied line
not necessarily true. The windings are the heart
voltage it regulates the amount of current the line
of the machine, and its operation depends on them,
will send through the armature. The resistance of
but there is nothing so mysterious or complicated
the armature winding is very low, being only about
about these windings that a trained man cannot
34 of an ohm in the ordinary 5 horsepower, 110
easily understand.
volt motor. From this we can see that if it were
The Important Things to Know Are the Manner
not for the counter voltage an enormous current
of Constructing the Coils, Insulating Them, Placing
would flow through this armature.
Them in the Slots, and Making the Connections to
Applying Ohms law, or E ÷ R = I, we find
the Commutator.
that 110 ÷ = 440 amperes. Actually a motor
These things are all very easy to learn, for one
of this size would ordinarily draw only about 10
who already knows the principles of electricity and
amperes when operating without mechanical load;
series and parallel circuits.
so we can see to what a large extent the current
We are now ready to take up coil construction
must be controlled by the counter voltage.
and insulation, and the connections will be ex-
This counter voltage can be determined in the
plained a little later.
following manner. We know that I X R = E,
so 10 >< 34 = 272 volts, or the voltage required to 16. NUMBER OF TURNS AND SIZE
force 10 amperes through the armature resistance. OF WIRE
If we subtract this from the applied voltage we We have found that the number of turns in the
find the counter voltage, or 110 — 272 = 10772 coils of a generator winding has a definite effect
volts, counter E. M. F. on the voltage it will produce; and that in a motor
the number of turns regulates the counter voltage,
14. GOVERNOR EFFECT OF and thereby determines the line voltage which can
COUNTER E. M. F. be applied to the motor.
When a load is applied to a motor it tends to The size of the conductors has no effect on the
slow down a little, and as the conductors then cut voltage generated in these machines, but does de-
through the field flux at less speed, the generated termine the current their windings can carry. The
counter E. M. F. will be less, and will allow the ap- larger the conductors or the more of them which are
plied voltage to send a little more current through connected in parallel, the more current the windings
286 Armature Winding, Section One. Magnet Wires and Their Insulations.

can stand without overheating. It is this conductor for single silk; D.S. for double silk; S.C.E. for
area that determines the current capacity of gen- single cotton and enamel; etc.
erators, or the full load current ratings of motors. The plain enamel insulation is generally used
So in general, high voltage machines use more
only on the very small wires, but combined enamel
turns of smaller sized wire and more coils con-
and cotton or silk coverings are used on quite large
nected in series; while low voltage, heavier current
wires.
capacity machines, use fewer turns of larger wire.
The enamel used for insulating magnet wires is
The shape of wires used for armature coils de-
of a very good grade, being of very high dielectric
pends on the kind of machine and the shape of
strength, and flexible enough to allow the wire to
the slots. Round wires are most commonly used
be bent in a curve around a wire of its own size
for small armatures, except those for the starting
motors of automobiles and such very low voltage without damaging the enamel insulation.
machines. These are usually wound with one or Very small motors of the fractional horsepower
two turns of square or rectangular wires or bars. portable types often use windings with only enamel
Windings for large size motors and generators insulation, because of the very small space this
generally use square or rectangular conductors in insulation occupies, and the ease with which it
order to utilize all the space in the slots. conducts heat to the outside of the coils.
It is well to Use Wires With Sufficient Insulation
17. WIRE INSULATION
to Protect Them From Short Circuits in the Fin-
Armature coils of more than one turn must have ished Coils. However, we must also remember
all turns well insulated from each other. Round that the Thicker Insulations Require More Space
magnet wire, and also the smaller square wires, and, Therefore, Allow Fewer Turns in aSlot of Any
are usually supplied with the insulation already on Given Size.
them.
Round magnet wires can usually be obtained in
The more common forms of insulation used on
magnet wires are enamel, cotton, and silk cover- sizes from No. 46 to No. 6 B. & S. gauge.
ings. The silk and cotton covered wires can be The table in Fig. 13 gives the diameters of mag-
obtained with either single or double layers of this net wires from No. 14 to No. 44 B. & S. gauge.
insulation. Combinations of enamel and cotton, or These diameters are given for the bare wires and
enamel and silk are also used. also for wires with various insulations. The table
In specifying or buying magnet wire we usually also gives the areas and weights of these wires,
refer to its insulation by the first letters of the and in the right-hand section some additional data
coverings used, as follows: E. for enamel covered; which is very convenient in calculating and wind-
S.C. for single cotton; D.C. for double cotton; S.S. ing various coils.

Madly, Dat• Bated ea Actual «lading Sp...

. 0 1Mom. Metricriam.
Diem. Mani. Dian. Mon. DIam. Ohm. Area Ohms Ohm, Feet Taet
B..ts bare &ode enam.
8.C.E S.S.E. S.C.O. 0.0.0. 8.8.0. 0.8.0. Ch.. per per per Pee Low Tendon High
wire In. wire
in In. in in. In In. In in. In In. In in. MIls. 1.000 ht. pound ohm pound Coll.
In lo. M.M. lo In. Tendon
Sloe Coils M•thod of Determining
14 0641 1.625 .0661 .0711 .0681 .0691 .0741 .0661 .0681 4107 2.521 .2028 396.6 80.44
Torn. Actual Winding Space
15 .0571 1.450 .0590 .0640 .0610 .0621 .0671 .0591 .0611 5257 3.179 .3225 314.5 101.4 Wire Turn. Ohm.
Per
1 Per Per
16 .00011 1.291 .0526 .0376 .0546 .0558 .0608 .0528 .0348 2583 4.009 .5128 249.4 127.9
.9.1n.
CU. In. we In.
17 .0453 1.150 .0471 .0521 .0491 .0505 .0543 .0473 .0493 2048 5.055 .8153 197.8 161.3

_12_121403 1.025 .0419 .0469 .0439 .0453 .0493 .0423 .0443 1624 6.374 1.296 156.9 203.4
14 177 .037
.0379 Let D outeld• diem.
.0559 .9116 .0375 .0425 .0395 .0409 .0449 .0399 1258 8.038 2.061 124.4 256.5
13 325 .060 finished sell
20 .0520 .8118 ..0335 .0385 .0355 .0370 .04111 .0340 .0360 1022 0.14 3.278 98.66 323.4
d winsid• diem.
21
16 2821 .098
.0285 .7929 .0299 .0344 .0319 .0330 .0370 .0305 .0325 810.1 12.78 5.212 78.24 407.8 finished call
17 348 .146
22 .0253 .6438 .0267 .0310 .0287 .0296 .0336 .0273 .0293 642.4 16.12 8.287 62.05 512.2 1..w 11 length
IC 431 .229
finiehed eel'
23 .0226 .5733 .0239 .0282 .0259 .0269 .0309 .0246 .0266 509.5 20.32 15.18 49.21 648.4
19 520 .356 An w Aetuelwinding
24 .0201 .5106 .0213 .0256 .0233 .0244 .0284 .0221 .0241 404.0 25.63 20.95 39.02 817.6
30 647 .547 653 •pme low ten-
22 .0179 .4547 .0191 .0234 .0211 .0222 .0263 .0199 .0219 320.4 32.11 33.32 30.95 1031 'don moll with-
21 793 .845, 800
26 .0129 .0170 .0210 .0190 .0199 .0239 .0179 .0199 254.1 40.711 02.97 24.54 1300 nut cotton t•p•
.4049 « 980 1.2111 988
At •- Actual winding
27 .0142 .3606 .0152 .0192 .0172 .111/12 .0223 .0162 .0182 201.5 51.38 84.23 19.46 1639
25 1 1297 2.193, 1205 Inc {mt.
28 .0126 .3211 .0135 .0175 .0155 .0166 .0206 .0146 .0166 159.8 64.79 133.9 15.43 2067
24 I 1590 3.4« 1465 e'en «11 t•ped
29 .0113 .2859 .0122 .0162 .0142 .0155 .0193 .0153 126.7 81.70 213.0 12.24 26417 with cotton
I
25 I 1970 5.31 1810
10 .0100 .2546 .0108 .0148 .0128 .014T)T0-16-
1I .0120 .0140 100.5 103.0 338.6 9.707 5287 26 2395 8.15 2200 Ah
‘
w AePte
u.eltsinding
31 0089 I .2268 .0097 .0137 .0117 .0129 .0169 .0109 .0129 79.70 129.9 538.4 7.698 4145
27 2980 12.75 2680 high t
32 .0080 I .2019 .0087 .0127 .0107 .0120 .0160 .0100 .0120 63.21 163.l 856.2 6.105 5237
28 3990 21.50 3270 •Ien mail
33 .0071
- -198 .0077 .0117 .0097 .0111 .0151 .0091 .0111 50.13 206.6 1361 4.541 6591
29 4870 33 10 3930 Th. "

14 .0063 1 .1601 .0069 .0109 .0089 .0103 .016a .0053 .0103 39.75 260.5 2165 3.839 8311
30 5960 51.20 4730 T.._
)--0-_Fi_e_ )1

35 .0036 .1426 .0062 .0102 .0082 .0096 .0136 .0076 .0096 31.52 328.4 3441 3.045 10480 2
31 7530 79.40 6248
36 .005-170 .0055 .5095 .0075 .0090 .0130 .0070 .0090 25.00 414.2 5475 2.414 13210
32 8960 122.3 7650 ".(1,,q1:1•Orl--(44-11 1
87 .0046.1131 .0050 19.83 £22.2 8702 1.915 16660 2
The above tables chow average diametern which 33 11920 205.0 9350
38 .0040 .1007 .0044 are Subject to variation1 as follows: 15.72 658.5 13570 1.519
34 14500 315.0 11150 ,r(l2z_
DI___
___
-, 04-111

'L 3
.
$9 .0035 .0897 .0039 Bare Wire-Sixes No. 30 and larger, 1% plus 12.47 530.4 22000 1.204 56505
or minus. Sises No. 31 and Oser .0001" plus or 35 17600 482.0 13800 à
45 .0031 .0799 .0035 minus 9.098 1047 349110 .9550 32410
36 21700 750.0 16700
Enameled Wire-Varying from .0001" plus or 7.545 1335 04000 .7630 4200C
41 .0022 .0711 .0031 17 28780 1250 21300
mint., on the line sixes to .0005" plus or mino, on
45 .0025 .0633 .0028 the heavy size.. 6.250 1680 87400 .6050 52800
30 34100 1870 25308
Fabric covered Wire-Will take approximately 4.850 3130 132000 .4670 66400
43 .0022 .0566 .0025 39 43000 2980
the same variation as the bare and enameled wire. 32600
44 .0020 .0501 [ .pon 4.000 2670 2125011 .8850 82600
ThIcknen of Insulatron can be varied to meet 40 52000 4490 41700
Special .pace or dielectric requtrementa.
42 91700 12600 72500
44 130600 28300 106500

Fig. 13. The above table gives some very valuable data, which will be of great help in determining the number of turns of any given size wire
which can be placed in a slot of a certain area. Observe the thickness of the various types of insulation on these wires.
 Armature Winding, Section One. Types of Coils. Coil and Slot Insulations. 287

18. TYPES OF COILS Manila paper is made from linen or manila fibre,
There are two general methods of winding arma- producing a tough, strong paper which when dry
ture coils. The proper number of turns can be has very good insulating properties.
wound directly into the armature slots, as is gen- Fish paper and manila paper are commonly made
erally done on the small machines; or the coils in thicknesses from 4 to 28 mils. These materials
can be wound and formed complete before inserting give considerable electrical insulation, as well as
them in the slots, which is the more common mechanical protection to the coils.
method with larger armatures.
Fig. 14-A shows a Diamond Type Coil before
and after pulling or shaping. The unfinished loop
coil consists of three wires wound in parallel the
desired number of turns, and after the coil is wound
a layer of cotton tape is wound over it, with each
turn lapping over the last by half its width. The
coil is then pulled with a coil spreader into the
shape sho'wn in the lower view at "A".
At "B" is shown a coil of the same type wound
with five wires in parallel instead of three. Coils
are often wound with several wires in parallel in
this manner because several small wires are more
flexible than one large one. In other cases they
are wound in this manner so their ends can be
connected to a greater number of commutator bars.
One loop or coil connected between two com-
mutator bars is called an Element. So coils wound Fig. 14. This diagram shows several of the more common types al arma-
with three wires in parallel are called Three Ele- ture coils, both in the rough loop form and in the finished taped
form.
ment Coils.
The coil at "A" is called a three element coil, 21. VARNISHED CLOTH INSULATIONS
while the one at "B" is a five element coil. The The materials particularly for Electrical Insula-
coil shown at "C" in Fig. 14 is known as the tion are as follows: Yellow Varnished Cambric,
Eickemeyer type. The upper view shows it before Black Varnished Cambric, Varnished Silk, Oiled
taping,- and the lower view after it has been taped Muslin, and Yellow Oiled Canvas.
and shaped. At "D" is shown a single turn coil
Yellow varnished cambric is a strong, closely
of copper ribbon or bar, shaped into a wave coil woven cloth having an especially soft finish, and
with a diamond twist on the back end.
is treated with high-grade insulating varnish. The
19. COIL AND SLOT INSULATION varnish is baked into the cloth, producing a tough,
In addition to the insulation on the wires them- flexible material with avery high dielectric strength
selves it is also necessary to insulate the coils and and a smooth glossy surface. This can be obtained
entire winding from the slots and armature core. either by the yard, or in standard width tape, and
The insulations used for this purpose serve both is used for insulating slots and for wrapping coils.
to protect the coils from mechanical injury from It is commonly made from 7to 12 mils thick.
contact with slot edges, and also to electrically Black varnished cambric is also a varnished cloth
insulate them from the slots. and is used in the form of straight cut tape for
The materials commonly used for Mechanical insulating wires and cables, and in a bias cut tape
Protection are as follows: Hard Fibre, Fish Paper, (cut at an angle to the weave) for taping armature
Manila Paper, Vulcanized Fibre, and Press Board. coils.
Varnished silk is made of Japanese silk treated
20. FIBRE AND PAPER INSULATIONS with avery high-grade insulating varnish and oven
Hard fibre, vulcanized fibre, and pressboard or cured. This material is very light and thin, and
fullerboard, are made of dense hard paper or pulp has very high dielectric strength per mil. It is
layers tightly packed under hydraulic pressure, and commonly used in 3 and 5 mil thickness, where
have adielectric strength or voltage breakdown test light weight and minimum thickness are required.
of about 200 volts per mil (1/1000 inch), at thick- Oiled muslin is a linen finish cloth, coated with
nesses from 50 to 150 mils. oil and oven-cured to set the film to a hard smooth
These materials are used wherever insulating surface. It is a very flexible cloth of good insulat-
material of exceptional mechanical strength is ing properties, and does not deteriorate much with
needed, as for armature slot wedges, etc. age or vibration.
Fish paper is made from rag stock and by a Yellow oiled canvas is a high grade duck cloth,
treating process becomes a hard fibre-like paper treated with oil to produce a flexible water-proof
which is very strong and tough. It is very com- material. It is commonly used for insulating field
monly used for lining armature slots. coils and for pads under railway motor field coils,
288 Armature Winding, Section One. Winding Coils.

etc. It can be obtained in 45 mils thickness and very difficult or perhaps impossible to place in the
either by the yard in 36" width, or in standard slots. If they are too long, they will make the
width tapes. winding too bulky at the ends, and possibly cause
it to rub the machine frame or end plates.
22. HEAT-RESISTING INSULATION
When rewinding an armature it is a good plan
For Heat Resisting and High Quality Electrical to pattern the new coils carefully after one of the
Insulation we use Mica, Micanite, Mica Paper, and old ones which has been removed, both in size and
Mica Cloth. shape.
Mica is a mineral which is mined in flake or sheet
In winding an armature on which there are no
form, and is one of the very few materials which
coils to compare with, and no coil measurements
will maintain a high dielectric strength at high
given, it is well to make the first coil from your
temperatures. It is not very strong mechanically
own measurements of the armature, and then try
in its original form, but is generally made up in
this finished coil in the proper slots before making
sheets by cementing numerous thin flakes to-
the others.
gether. This is called micanite, and is used for
Special machines can be obtained for winding
insulating armature slots, between high voltage
and shaping coils of various sizes, and these are
coils, and for commutator insulation. Flexible
generally used in large repair or manufacturing
sheets are made by cementing mica splittings or
shops. Fig. 15 shows an adjustable coil winder,
flakes to paper or cloth.
for making coil loops of various sizes.
A little thought and good judgment will enable
For the small shop or the occasional rewinding
you to select the proper insulating material from
job to be clone by the maintenance electrician, sim-
the foregoing list, according to the requirements
for flexibility, space, insulation, and mechanical ple coil winding forms can be made up at very low
cost.
strength.
The following examples can be used as sugges-
tions, however:
Typical insulation for 220 volt D.C. armature
winding, with coils wound with D.C.C. round wire: •
1. Slot insulation, fish paper .004" thick.
2. Slot insulation, alayer of varnished cam-
bric .008" thick.
3. Coils taped with "half lapped" cotton
tape .004" to .007" thick.
4. Entire coil dipped in insulating com-
pound and baked.
Typical insulation for 500 volt armature winding,
with coils wound with D.C.C. round wire:
1. Slot insulation, fish paper .004" thick.
2. Slot insulation, fish paper and mica .012"
thick, made up of fish paper .004" thick, Fig. IS. The above view shows a coil winder which can be used for
winding coil loops of different sizes, by adjusting the end pins along
3 layers of mica splittings .002" to .003" the slide. When the crank is turned the wire is wound directly from
thick, one layer of Japanese paper .001" the spool into the slots on these end pins.
thick; all cemented together.
3. Coils taped with "half lapped" cotton Fig. 16 shows several of these forms which can
tape .007" thick. easily be made from pieces of board. At "A" is
shown a flat board with 6 nails or wood pins driven
4. Entire coil dipped in insulating com-
in the proper shape to make a plain diamond coil.
pound and baked.
By moving the nails or pins, coils of most any
23. WINDING COILS desired size and shape can be made.
After the proper size of wire and the number of In Fig. 16-B is shown a method of placing an-
turns for the coils have been determined, either other thick piece of board on the first one and
from the old winding in cases of rewinding, or driving the nails for the points of the coil, in the
from the designer's data on new machines, the next edge of this board at an angle. When the wires
step is to wind the coils. are wound over the corner of this board and down
We should be very careful to get the proper under these end nails, it shapes the twist in the
number of turns and the right size of wire, as well coil ends as shown.
as proper wire insulation. Fig. 16, C and D, show how an adjustable winding
When winding the coils care should be used to form can be made, which can be rotated on a large
get them the correct length to fit the armature center bolt by means of a crank. This enables a
slots. If they are wound too short they will be coil to be rapidly wound, by allowing the wire to
 Armature Winding, Section One. Taping and Shaping of Coils. 289

If the coils are to go in open type slots, they

can be completely taped before inserting them. If
they are to go into partly closed slots with narrow
top openings, the wires must be fed into the slots
a few at a time until the coil is all in place. Then
the ends of the coil can be taped, and twisted in
shape to fit compactly together in the smallest pos-
sible space. With the coils in the slots, the points
can be gripped with duck bill pliers and twisted
to just the right curve.
If desired, the coil ends can be twisted before
placing them in open type slots, by hooking a spike
or bolt through the coil end and giving it a pulling
twist, while the coil is held spread out on four pins
or a block.
Remember that to make a neat and well balanced
winding it is very important to get all coils of the
Fig. 16. Simple board forms can be made as shown above for winding
coils of various sizes. These are very economical and easy to make, same size and shape, and the ends twisted uni-
and a very handy device for the small repair shop to have.
formly and evenly. Fig. 17 shows a coil shaping
machine used for shaping and twisting the coils
run directly from a spool into this form as it is ro-
before they are placed in open type slots.
tated; similarly to the coil winder shown in Fig. 15.
The two center blocks can be fitted with slots Fig. 18 shows several coils in various stages of
so they are adjustable for making coils of different completion. The first coil at the left is just a plain
sizes. When adjusted to the proper size for the coil loop of the proper length, before taping or
coils to be wound, the other side-board can be put shaping. In the center are three of these coil loops
in place and the whole form clamped together by already taped. The two coils at the right are com-
the bolts and wing nuts shown. pletely taped and shaped. Note the sleeving placed

24. TAPING AND SHAPING OF COILS

Coils that are wound on forms of this kind can
be tied together with short pieces of wire as they
are removed from the form, removing these tie
wires, however, before taping the coil.

Fig. it. Above are shown several armature coils, both in the unfinished
loops and the completely taped coils. Also note the roll of cotton
tape and the varnished cambric used for insulating the coils and slots.

on the coil leads for marking and protection. A

roll of cotton tape such as used for these coils is
also shown, and underneath the tape and coils are
Fig. 17. This photo shows a coil shaping machine, which is used fer
pulling diamond coils into the proper shape and putting the twist shown a sheet of fish paper and a roll of varnished
in the ends as shown. This machine is adjustable to shape coils of
different ses. cambric such as used for slot insulation.
290

LAP AND WAVE WINDINGS

Armature windings can be divided into two gen- In tracing through a lap winding from one brush
eral classes, according to the methods of connect- to the next, we find two or more groups of coils in
ing the coils to the commutator. These are called parallel between these brushes; while in tracing a
Lap windings and Wave windings. These names circuit of a wave winding, we find anumber of coils
are derived from the appearance of the coils when are in series between the positive and negative
they are traced through the winding. brushes.
Fig. 19 shows asection of alap winding. Starting Both lap and wave windings are used in arma-
with the coil at the left, trace the path of current tures from fractional horse power sizes to those of
through this coil as shown by the arrows, and then hundreds of horse power. The type of winding
on through the next coil, etc. The coils are all selected by the designer depends on several factors
alike but the one on the left is drawn with heavier in the electrical and mechanical requirements of the
lines to make it easier to trace the first one. Examin- machine. Wave windings require only two brushes
ing this diagram, we find that each coil overlaps the on the commutator. Lap windings generally have
next as we trace the circuit through them; thus the as many brushes as there are field poles. Wave
name Lap Winding. windings are quite commonly used on motors for
Fig. 19-B shows the method of connecting coils street cars and electric locomotives, because these
for a wave winding. Starting at the left lead, trace machines are generally used on quite high voltage.
the path of current through the two coils shown Another advantage of wave-wound machines for
by the heavy lines. Note the location of the north this class of work is that their two sets of brushes
and south field poles, which are shown by the dot- can be located at adjacent poles and also on which-
ted rectangles and marked "N" and "S". We find, ever side of the commutator they may be most con-
by tracing the circuit through, that each coil in venient and accessible for inspection and repairs.
this circuit is separated from the last by the dis-
tance of one pair of poles, and you will note the TYPE POLES BRUSHES SPACIN G CIRCUITS
wave-like appearance of the two coils traced in .-- 2 2 IBO'fi. a
4 4 90' 4
heavy lines, and from this appearance the name 6 6 60' 6
LAP
Wave Winding is derived a a 4S 8
Lap Windings are known as parallel windings 10 10 36' 10
s- 12 12 30' 12
and are generally used for lower voltages and ma- — 4 a 90° a
chines which must carry heavy currents. 6 2 60' 2

Wave Windings are known as series windings WAVE a 2 4,5" 2

10 a 36' a
and are generally used for machines of higher 12 2 30' 2
—
voltage and smaller currents.
Fif. 20. This convenient table gives the number of brushes and circuits,
and the brush spacing for lap and wave windings with different
numbers of poles.

The table in Fig. 20 gives the number of brushes,

brush spacing, and the number of circuits for lap
and wave windings with different numbers of poles.
These figures are given for Simplex windings,
which will be explained later.

25. CURRENT FLOW THROUGH A LAP

WINDING
Fig. 21 shows a complete four-pole winding of
the lap simplex type. This diagram shows the posi-
tion of the field poles by the dotted lines and mark-
ings "N" and "S". It also shows the direction of
current flow through the armature conductors under
each pole and the position of the brushes with rela-
tion to those of the poles. Note that the two nega-
tive brushes are connected together in parallel and
the two positive brushes connected the same. This
winding is drawn out in a flat plan view so that
Fig. 19. The two above diagrams show the connections for a lap wind
Ins at "A", and a wave winding at "B". Observe carefully the man you can more conveniently trace the entire circuit
net in which the leads are brought out from the coils to the coin
mutator bars.
and see all the coils. The last six slots on the right
 Armature Winding, Section One. Lap Windings. 291

have only one coil side in each, while all the other All coils for any given winding are connected the
slots have two coil sides in each. same as the first one. The two ends of each coil
If these coils were wound in a round armature are connected to adjacent commutator bars, and
with 24 slots as represented here, the first six coil this connection is known as the Simplex Connec-
sides on the left would overlap the last six on the tion.
right; and the top sides of coils A, B, C, D, E, F, Each coil lies in two slots and spans over the
would go in the same slots respectively with coil intervening slots. They are placed in the slots, one
sides, A', B', C', D', E', F'. The current flow through after the other, completely around the armature.
this winding can be easily traced by starting at the In order to arrange the coil ends more compactly
negative brush G, and entering the left lead of coil and in less space, one side of each coil is placed in
A, coming around this coil and leaving at its right the bottom of the slot, and the other side in the top
lead. As there is no brush on segment 2of the com- of its slot. This permits the ends of the coils to fit
mutator, we must re-enter at the left lead of the coil closely together without crossing each other un-
B, following this coil around and out at its right- necessarily.
hand terminal; then through coils C, D, E, and F 26. COIL SPAN
in the same manner, going out of the right lead of
The number of slots spanned by one coil is known
coil F, to the positive brush H. This completes one
as the Coil Span. The two factors which govern
circuit.
this coil span are the number of slots in the core
Next trace the other circuit from the same brush and the number of poles. When we know the num-
G through coil lead B, which continues through ber of slots and the number of poles of any machine,
the coil at the far right end of the winding. Trace the correct full pitch coil span for its armature
this current counter-clockwise through coils F', E', winding can be found as follows: Divide the total
D', B', and A', leaving at positive brush J. number of slots by the number of poles, and the
The other two circuits from the negative brush I next whole number above this answer will be the
can be traced through in the same manner by start- number of slots the coil should span.
ing with leads C and D. Thus we find we have For example, if we have an armature with 21
four circuits in parallel, or the same number as slots and for amachine with 4 poles, then 21 ÷ 4 =
there are poles. 574. The coil span, of course, cannot be a whole
Note that there are six coils in series in each number and afraction, and therefore the next whole
circuit, and that the number of coils per circuit is number above 54 is selected. So the coil span will
equal to the total number of coils divided by the be 6 slots.
number of circuits. The top side of coil No. 1will lie in slot No. 1,
By comparing this winding with the sketch at A and the bottom side in slot No. 6.
in Fig. 19, we can see that it is nothing more than In another case, we have a 28-slot armature to
a number of coils all connected in series, with the be wound for a four-pole machine. Then 28 ÷ 4
finish of one coil attached to the start of the next, = 7; and the next whole number above this being
etc. 8, we will use a coil span of 1to 8.

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 ri 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Fig. 21. The above diagram shows a complete four-pole lap winding of the Simplex type for a generator. Note the manner in which the
coils are laid in the slots, with one side of each coil in the bottom of a slot and the other side in the top of its slot. Also trace out
this winding carefully with the instructions given on these pages.
292 Armature Winding, Section One. Placing Coils in the Armature.

27. PREPARING AN ARMATURE FOR coil overlaps the last, and the manner in which the
WINDING diamond shaped ends of the coils allow them to fit
Now that we know how to make the connections closely and neatly together, if they are properly
for alap or wave winding and how to determine the shaped and twisted at the ends. In order to obtain
correct coil span for a given number of slots and a satisfactory winding job, it is essential that all
poles, our next step will be the actual placing of coils be exactly the same size, and uniformly fitted
the coils in the slots. Before this is done, however, in the slots and at their ends. Care and practice on
the slots must be prepared and insulated to protect these points are necessary to make a rugged and
the coils from grounding against the sides or cor- well-balanced winding.
ners of them. The slots should be smoothed out
carefully with a flat file, to remove the sharp edges
and burrs which are often found in the bottom and
sides of slots. The commutator should also be pre-
pared by making a slot in the Neck or Riser of each
bar, in which the coil leads will be placed. We
should also test across each pair of bars or segments
with a 110-volt test lamp to make sure that no bars
are shorted together, due to defective mica insula-
tion between them. A test should also be made
from the segments to the shaft, to be sure that no
part of the commutator is grounded to it. This
should always be done before starting a winding,
because if the commutator is defective the arma-
ture will not operate properly when the winding Fig. 23. This armature has the
the coils, and you will also
slot insulation in place ready to receive
note that the coil support ring at the
is in. left end has been wrapped with insulating tape. The armature is
mounted in a stand and free to revolve so it will be more convenítat
to place the coils in all the slots.

The coils at "B" in Fig. 24 are wound into the

slots in the opposite direction around the armature,
iiireugig
4 zdt
.Susa „„liiiime or to the left when facing the commutator end.
Armatures may be wound in either direction, as it
makes no difference in their operation. The direc-
tion in which the coils are placed in depends on the
shape of the twist or curl at their ends, and the im-
portant point to remember is that if the coils are
shaped as shown at "A", they must be laid in the
Fig. 22. The above photo shows a D.C. armature prepared for winding.
The slots are cleaned and smoothed out, and the necks of the com-
slots to the right, in order to get their ends to fit
mutator bars have been slotted to receive coil leads. together compactly. If the twists on the coil ends
are made in the opposite direction, as at "B", then
Fig. 22 shows an armature with the core and com-
the coils must be laid in the armature to the left.
mutator prepared for winding, and in Fig. 23 is
Sometimes coils fit very tightly in the slots and
shown an armature with the insulation placed in
it is necessary to use a driver of some kind to force
the slots. Note that this slot insulation is allowed
them down to the bottom of the slots. Such a coil
to project slightly at the ends of each slot, to pro-
driver can he easily ¡nade from a piece of hard fibre
tect the coils at these sharp edges; and also out
about three inches wide and six inches long, and
of the tops of the slots a short distance, to make
just thin enough to slide easily through the top of
it easier to slide the coils in, and to protect them
the slot. After the coil is started in the slot, this
from scratching or damaging the insulation while
driver is laid on top of it, and by tapping the top
they are being placed in the slots. Also note the
of the driver with a mallet the coil can be driven
insulation wrapping on the coil support ring at
down in place. Extreme care should be used, how-
the left end of the armature. All such metal parts
ever, not to apply too much force, as it may result
against which the coils may rest should be thor-
in broken or cut insulation on the coil.
ougly insulated by wrapping with fish paper or
After the bottom side of the first coil is in place
varnished cambric and tape, before any coils are
in the slot, (leave the top of this coil out for the
placed in the slots.
present), the lower coil lead should be brought out
28. INSERTING COILS FOR A LAP to the commutator and driven into the slot in the
WINDING proper segment. The angle of this lead, or whether
By referring to the several sketches in Fig. 24, the it connects to a segment in line with the center of
method of laying coils in place in the slots can be the coil as in Fig. 24, or is connected straight out
observed. In the three views at "A" the coils are to a bar in line with the side of the coil, depends
wound in from the left to right, as shown by the upon the position of the brush with relation to the
arrow. Note carefully the manner in which each field poles.
 Armature Winding, Section One. Connecting Coils. 293

of making these tests is explained in a later article.

We are now ready to trim off the excess insula-
tion at the top of the slots. Fold in the edges neatly
over the coil and place the slot wedges over it to
hold the coils in. If the slots are not equipped with
lips or grooves to hold the wedges in place, the
armature should be banded with steel wires. The
top leads are also quite often banded with steel wire
or heavy twine to hold them rigidly in place and
prevent their being thrown outward by centrifugal
force when the armature is run at high speed.
If steel wire is used for banding these leads, they
should first be well wrapped with several layers of
fish paper or varnished cambric, to prevent any pos-
sible short circuits between them and the steel band-
ing wire.

Fig. 24. The above diagrams show the method of laying coils of a lap
winding in the slots. Note the direction the coils are laid in or
progress around the core, according to the shape of the twist at
their ends.

An explanation of these two different methods of

connecting the coil leads is given a little later.
Now the first coil is in place and its lower side
in the slot, the bottom lead connected to the com-
mutator segment but the top side of the coil left
out of its slot, and the top lead left unconnected.
The second coil should be placed in the next slot .
and its bottom lead connected to the next adjacent
commutator segment, but the top side of this coil
and its top lead should also be left out, as with the
first one. The next two coils are placed in the slots Fig. 24-C. At "A" is shown a coil for a wave winding and at "B" •
coil for a lap winding. Note the difference in the way their ends or
in the same manner. When the fifth coil is inserted leads are brought out to the commutator bars, and the manner In
both sides can be placed in the slots, as the coil which either side of the wave coil is braced in two directions by
the angle of its front and back connections.
span is one to five, and the top side of the fifth coil
will lie in the slot with the bottom side of the first The shape of wave-wound coils, their connections,
coil. The top lead of the fifth coil should be left and the manner in which they differ from lap wind-
disconnected from the commutator. ings, has already been explained. Wave windings
have the advantage of their coils being more se-
29. CONNECTING THE COILS
curely braced and held in place by the way they are
From this point on, both sides of all the -other
arranged in the armature. This is due to the man-
coils can be placed in the slots as the winding pro-
ner in which the coil ends are bent in the opposite
gresses, but all of their top leads should be left
direction from the coil side in the slot, while those
unconnected until all coils are in, and the bottom
of the lap winding are bent in the same direction
'cads all in place.
as shown in Fig. 24-C.
A layer of varnished cambric should then be
wound tightly around the bottom leads, and should
be wide enough to extend from the ends of the coils
to the commutator, so it will thoroughly insulate
the bottom leads from the top ones. The top leads
can then be connected to the commutator segments
as follows:
The top lead of coil No. 2 in Fig. 24 will connect
to segment No. 2, with the bottom lead of coil
No. 1.
After carefully making this first connection, all
the other leads can be connected in the same man-
ner: the top lead of coil No. 3 to bar No. 3;the top
lead of coil No. 4 to bar No. 4; etc.
After all the top leads are in place, the winding
should be carefully tested for shorts, opens, and
"grounds." This should always be done before Fig. 24-D. This photo shows an armature completely wound, with the
exception of laying in the last top coil sides, and connecting the
soldering the leads to the commutator. The method leads to the commutator.
294 Armature Winding, Section One. Wave Windings.

When an armature is in operation there is con- either to the right or to the left. There is a differ-
siderable centrifugal stress, which tends to throw ence, however, in the manner of making connec-
the windings out of the slots; so the more rugged tions of their coil leads to the commutator bars, and
the winding can be made the better it is. in the distance between leads of any one coil. This
Automobile starting motors frequently use wave distance between the coil leads is expressed by the
windings in open type slots, and even without bands number of commutator bars between them, and is
on the armature. This is because the strength of known as Commutator Pitch. After this commu-
the heavy wave coils is sufficient to hold the wind- tator pitch has been determined the coils are placed
ing in place. Large A.C. machines which have in the slots much the same as with alap winding.
wound rotors very often use wave windings, be- Commutator pitch for wave windings can be de-
cause of the greater mechanical strength of these termined by the following formulas.
windings when completed. For a progressive wave winciings—
Fig. 25 shows a diagram of a complete wave Segments + plex
winding. By tracing the coils, we find that there are Pitch — ,plus 1
72 the number of poles
only two circuits in parallel between the positive
The term Plex refers to the methods of connec-
and negative brushes, but that there are eight coils
tion of the coils to the commutator, known as sim-
in series. Two brushes are all that are needed to
plex, duplex, and triplex. These will be explained
complete the circuits through all coils, but more later.
brushes may be used, if desired, in order to reduce In this formula simplex equals 1, duplex equals 2,
the current intensity in each brush. There can be triplex equals 3.
as many brush groups as there are poles. For retrogressive wave windings—
In Fig. 25, the two coils indicated by X and X Segments — plex
are at present short circuited by the positive brush. Pitch — ,plus 1.
Each pair of coils must reverse in polarity as they 5/2 the number of poles
move from one pole to the next, and this current 32. PROGRESSIVE AND RETROGRESSIVE
should reverse when the segments connecting these
In Fig. 25 the coil sides which lie in the tops of
coils are shorted by the brush or, in other words,
the slots are shown by solid lines, while those
the brush should short circuit the coil as it passes
which lie in the bottoms of the slots are shown by
through the neutral plane in the center of the space
dotted lines. If we start at the negative brush and
between two poles.
trace the top lead of the upper coil shown in the
heavy lines, we find that the bottom lead of the
second coil in this circuit connects to acommutator
bar just to the right of the one at which we started,
and if we trace on around the next pair of coils we
arrive at a bar one more step to the right. This
is known as a Progressive Winding, and applies to
either lap or wave windings.
If, after tracing through two coils, the bottom
lead of the second coil connects to a bar to the left
of the one at which we started, it is called a Retro-
gressive Connection.

33. INSERTING COILS OF A SYMMETRICAL

WAVE WINDING
Fig. 26 shows the procedure of laying in the coils
for awinding such as shown in Fig. 25. At "A" the
first coil is placed in the slots and the bottom lead
brought out to its commutator segment. The proper
point for this first connection can be found by locat-
ing a commutator segment that is in line with the
Fig. 25. This diagram shows a complete four-pole wave winding for an
armature with 17 slots. Note the coil span and commutator pitch, center of the coil as shown at "A". Then divide
and trace out the two coils shown with heavier linea.
by 2 the commutator pitch which has previously
been determined, and count off this number of bars
31. PROCEDURE FOR WAVE WINDINGS
to the right of the center bar, which has been lo-
Wave windings are made much the same way as cated. This will locate the proper bar to connect
lap windings, and the coil span will be the same for the bottom lead of the first coil to. This distance
a given armature regardless of which winding is is shown from "A" to "B" in Fig. 26-A.
used. The coils are laid from the bottom of one Sometimes a mica segment will be in line with
slot to the top of the other, the same as described the center of the coil and in this case we start to
for a lap witiding, and they may also be wound count with the next bar to the right as No. 1. If
 Armature Winding, Section One. Commutator Pitch. Element Windings. 295

the commutator pitch happens to be an odd number, from the top side of one coil will connect to bar
dividing this by 2 will give a whole number and No. 1, and the lead from the bottom of the same
a fraction, in which case we should use the next coil to bar No. 10, counting toward the coil that
larger whole number. is being checked. After the first top lead is con-
After the first coil is in place but with its top nected all the others are connected in the same
side and top lead left out, the second coil is inserted way.
in the next slot to the right and the bottom lead will The completed winding is then wedged and
be connected to the next bar to the right of the first banded if necessary, as was done with the lap
one. The third and fourth coils are inserted in the winding.
same manner, leaving their top sides and leads out. We should remember that some armatures can-
The fifth coil can have both sides placed in the not be wound wave except by using dead coils or
slots, but its top lead should still be left uncon- bars. The commutator pitch formula determines
nected, as should all the other top leads, until all whether a winding can be connected wave or not.
coils are in place. When a commutator pitch is a whole number and
When the winding is completed around the arma- a fraction the winding cannot be connected wave
ture and the bottom sides of the last four coils are without using dead coils or bars.
in their slots, then the top sides of the first coils can
35. ELEMENT WINDINGS
be placed in on top of these. After all coil sides
That part of the armature winding which is con-
and bottom leads are in place, the top leads are
nected between two commutator bars is called a
then connected to the commutator bars.
Winding Element. A simple winding element would
consist of one complete turn of wire. Each side of
this turn or coil is referred to as an armature con-
ductor or sometimes as an "inductor". Each ele-
ment, therefore, will have at least two conductors,
and may have many more, according to the number
of turns per coil.
In many armatures the coils are wound with
several conductors in parallel and the ends of each
of these conductors can be connected to separate
commutator bars. This will, of course, require a
greater number of commutator bars than there are
slots in the armature. But many machines are de-
signed in this manner to reduce the voltage between
bars.
It is not good practice to have too high a voltage
across adjacent commutator bars, because of the
greater liability of puncturing the mica insulation
and the increased tendency to flash over or arc be-
tween bars while the machine is in operation.
Fig. 24. The above views show the method of laying the coils of a wave
Carbon particles from the brushes and metallic
winding in the slots. One side of each coil should go in the bottom dust from the commutator tend to start small sparks
of the slots, and the other sides in the tops of slots, and the coils
should be laid in in the directions as shown and according to the or arcs of this kind; and if the voltage between bars
shape of the twist no their back ends.
is too high, the arcs will be maintained and possibly
34. DETERMINING COMMUTATOR PITCH burn the mica insulation between the bars. If this
AND CONNECTING THE COILS ON mica becomes charred or deeply burned, it results
WAVE WINDINGS in a short circuit between bars, which will cause
The armature shown in Fig. 25 has 17 slots and the coils of the windings to heat up and possibly
17 commutator segments and is connected simplex. burn out.
We will use it for an example to determine the On high voltage machines the voltage between
commutator pitch. bars usually doesn't exceed about 25 volts. On
We have learned that for a wave winding: smaller machines it may range from 2 to 10 volts.
Segments + plex So we can readily see that the higher the voltage
Commutator pitch — ,plus 1,
72 number of poles
the machine is to be operated at, the greater number
of commutator bars it will usually have. This num-
17 + 1,plus 1 ber of bars is determined by the designer or manu-
or :— pitch =
2 facturer in building machines on any given voltage.
In which: The number of slots in an armature is determined
17 = slots by the number of poles and the practical number of
1 = simplex • slots which can be used per pole. The slots, of
2 = Y2 of 4 poles course, cannot be too numerous or close together,
With a commutator pitch of 10, the coil lead or there will not be sufficient iron between the coils
296 Armature Winding, Section One. Winding Small Armatures.

to provide agood magnetic path through the arma- brought together and connected to a segment
ture for the field flux. straight out from the first slot. The second loop in
The number of slots is generally considered in the first slot is connected to the next bar, and the
determining the exact number of commutator bars, first loop in the second slot connected to the next,
as the number of bars is usually a multiple of the etc.
number of slots. For example, an armature with To avoid mistakes these loops should be marked
24 slots might have 24, 48 or 72 commutator bars. with cotton sleeving which is slipped on over them
In the latter case the coils would be wound with as they are made. Red sleeving could be used on
three conductors in parallel, and the six leads the first loop of each slot, and white sleeving on the
from each coil connected to the proper bars. second, which will make it easy to locate the first
So we find that armature windings can be called and second loops for each slot. This winding would
single element, double element, or three element be used in a two pole frame, and has two circuits
windings, according to the number of conductors with 12 coils in each. If 110 volts were applied to
in parallel in the coils, and the number of bars in this winding the voltage between adjacent commu-
proportion to the number of slots. tator segments would be 110 ÷ 12, or 9% volts,
which is not too high between adjacent bars. If
36. WINDING SMALL ARMATURES
this same armature had a commutator of only 12
In the following paragraphs we will explain in
segments, the voltage between bars would be
detail the method of winding a small two-pole, two-
110 ÷ 6, or 18% volts, which is a little high for
element, non-symmetrical armature having 12 slots
this sized armature.
and 24 segments.
The slots should first be lined with fish paper 37. ELEMENT WINDINGS FOR LARGE
about 7 to 10 mils thick, and varnished cambric ARMATURES
about 7 mils thick. The fish paper is placed in In winding large armatures having twice or three
the slot, next to the iron core, and the varnished times as many segments as there are slots, the coils
cloth or cambric is placed inside the fish paper. To are made up specially for the type of armature and
complete the insulation of the core we generally wound with two or more wires in parallel.
use at each end a fibre lamination which is shaped In Fig. 27-A are shown the coils for two-element
the same as the iron core laminations and has the armatures. These coils are wound with two wires in
same number of slots stamped in it. This protects parallel; and when the coil is completed, two small
the coils at the corners of the slots. coils or elements are in each bundle. These two ele-
The armature should be held or clamped with ments are taped together with cotton tape. The top
the commutator end next to the winder. and bottom leads of one element are marked with
In winding the first coil the number of turns will sleeving of one color, and those of the other element
depend on the size of the armature and its voltage are both marked with sleeving of another color.
rating. If this number is taken from coils in an
old winding, the turns in one or more of the old
coils should be very carefully counted.
When winding an armature that has twice as
many bars as slots, we wind two coils in each slot,
thereby providing enough coil leads for all bars.
The first coils for this armature will go in slots
1 and 7, winding to the right of the shaft, at both
the front and back ends of the core. After winding
in one coil, a loop about 4 inches long should be
made at slot No. 1. Then continue and wind the
same number of turns again, still in slots 1 to
7. When the last turn is finished, run the wire
from the 7th slot over to the 2nd, and make a loop
Fig. 27. The diagram at "A" shows the connections of lap coils for a
at slot 2. Next wind a coil in slots 2 and 8, and two element winding- At "B" are shown the connections for a three
again make another loop at slot 2. Then place element winding. Note how the separate windings in each coil are
connected to two separate commutator bars.
another coil in the same slots 2 and 8, and finish
with a loop at slot 3, etc. This places two coils These coils are placed in the slots the same way
and two loops in each slot, and the same procedure as single element coils, the only difference being
should be followed until there are two coils and that there are two bottom leads to connect instead
two loops in every slot. of one. When connecting the bottom leads a defi-
The slot insulation should then be folded over nite system should be followed in the colors. If
the tops of the coils, and the wedges driven in. black and red sleeving are used to identify the two
The loops are next connected to the commutator, elements, first connect a black lead and then a red.
one loop to each segment, and they should be con- When the second coil is placed in, again connect
nected in the same way that they were made in the a black lead and then a red one.
winding. That is, the first and last single wires are In order to avoid mistakes in the connections, all
 Armature Winding, Section One. Voltage Changes. Multiplex Windings. 297

coils should be connected in a similar manner. as the wire with which they were formerly wound.
When the top leads are connected use the same The resistance of the field coils will have to be
system, and connect around the armature in the increased to stand the increased voltage. This, of
same direction. This method can be used on any course, will reduce the amount of current flowing,
armature, regardless of the combination of slots and but the additional number of turns will maintain
segments. approximately the same ampere-turn strength of
Fig. 27-B shows the coils for a three-element the field magnets. If we change the number of turns
winding having three wires wound in parallel in ,in the winding of an armature and leave the applied
each coil, and the leads marked with three separate voltage the same, its speed will vary inversely with
colors. These colors are alternated when the bot- the number of turns.
tom leads are connected in, each succeeding coil be- For example, if an armature is wound with 25 per
ing connected similarly. The top leads are con- cent more turns, the speed will decrease about 25
nected around the armature in the same direction as per cent if the machine is left on the same voltage.
the bottom leads were, and the colors alternated in
the same manner.
An armature winding may be of 2, 3, 4, or more
elements, and the system for connecting these coils
is the same as for a single element wave winding,
only more than one lead is connected to the com-
mutator from each coil. The leads are marked with
sleeving and the colors are alternated as in the lap
windings.
Many 2 and 3 element wave-windings have dead
coils which are not connected in the armature cir-
cuit. They occur when the number of segments in
the commutator is less than a multiple of the num-
ber of slots. When a winding has one dead coil it
should be left in the slots to mechanically balance Fig. 28. The above diagram shows the methods of changing the field
pole connections from parallel to series to be able to operate them
the armature; but if more than one dead coil occurs on higher voltage.
in a winding they may be left out, provided they
39. MULTIPLEX WINDINGS
are at equally distributed points around the arma-
ture core. In some cases, where armature windings are de-
signed to carry very heavy currents and at lower
38. CHANGING AN OLD MOTOR FOR NEW voltages, the connections can be arranged to pro-
CONDITIONS vide agreater number of circuits in parallel through
It is often desired to change the voltage or speed the windings. Windings connected in this manner
at which a motor may operate, and in such cases are called Multiplex Windings. Those which we
some change is usually made in the windings. We have covered so far have been Simplex Windings;
have already learned that the voltage of an arma- and, in the case of the lap windings described,
ture winding depends on the number of turns per they have had the start and finish leads of each coil
coil. So it is evident that if any change is made in connected to adjacent bars of the commutator.
the number of turns between brushes it will have Fig. 29-A shows a coil of a lap winding connected
a direct effect on the voltage. The voltage of a in this manner. With simplex connections a lap
winding will vary directly with the number of turns. winding will have only as many circuits in parallel
For example, a winding has 10 turns per coil of as there are field poles.
wires 4000 C.M. in area and operates on 110 volts. If we simply move the finish lead of a coil one
If we wish to rewind this machine for 220 volts segment further from the starting lead, and use a
we can do it by using 20 turns per coil of wire with wider brush to span two bars instead of one, we
2000 C.M. area. This rewound armature would have provided twice as many circuits through the
operate on 220 volts with the same speed and horse winding, or two circuits for each pole. This is called
power as it formerly did on 110 volts. a Duplex Connection and is shown in Fig. 29-B.
It will be necessary, however, to change the field If we move the leads one more segment apart,
coil connections also. If they were formerly con- we provide 3 circuits per pole, and have what is
nected two in series and two in parallel, as in Fig. known as a Triplex Connection, as shown in Fig.
28-A, they could be reconnected all in series, as 29-C. In this case the brush must be wide enough
shown in Fig. 28-B, and would then operate satis- to span three commutator segments.
factorily on 220 volts. Fig. 30 illustrates the difference between simplex
If the field coils are all connected in series on and duplex connections, with simplified winding
110 volts, they cannot be changed for 220-volt iiagrams. These sketches are laid out to show the
operation without rewinding. To rewind them for winding in astraight form. On the actual armature
double voltage, we should use approximately twice the ends of this winding would come together at
as many turns of wire, of a size one-half as large the points marked X and X.
 Norman EeL'
41 Georgia Ave.
2arooklyn 7 _ N
winding, Section One.
Anhatüté - Symmetrical and Non-Symmetrical Connections.

In Fig. 30-A is shown a simplex connection with So the surest way to determine whether a wave
the start and finish leads of each coil connected to wound armature can be connected duplex or trip-
adjacent segments. If we start at the positive brush lex, is to calculate the commutator pitch; and if
and trace the circuit to the left to the negative this number is a whole number and fraction the
brush, we will pass through 12 coils in series; and winding cannot be connected multiplex.
the same will be true of the other circuit traced to
40. NEUTRAL PLANE—IMPORTANT TO
the right from the positive brush to the point X.
COMMUTATION
which in reality connects back to the negative brush
in the actual winding. So we find we have two We have learned that the coils of a motor or
circuits in parallel between the brushes, and each generator winding must have their polarity re-
of these circuits consists of 12 coils in series. If we versed as the coil sides move thru the neutral plane
between two field poles. As the armature rotates
assume that each coil is wound with a sufficient
and the segments slide under the brushes, the
number of turns to produce 10 volts and with wire
of asize that will carry 5amperes, then this winding brushes repeatedly short circuit the coils which are
connected to adjacent brushes. In order to avoid
will produce 120 volts between brushes and have
bad sparking at the brushes this short circuit must
a total capacity of 10 amperes.
occur at the time the coil is dead, or passing thru
a neutral point where no voltage is induced in it.
This means that the brushes must always be in the
correct position with regard to field poles, in order
that they may short circuit the coils at the right
time. This point is of great importance to good
commutation, and will be more fully discussed later.

1 j
Fig. 29. "A" shows the connections for a coil of a simplex lap winding izI3r4r; 16' 17 8 I9-110 r, iia3 4,54 17 18119 r2orairza Z3 4
"B" shows the connections for a duplex lap winding, and "C" those
for a triplex lap winding.

This is easily understood by recalling our laws

of series and parallel circuits. We know that when 5
coils are connected in series their voltages are added.
So 12 coils with 10 volts each will produce 12 X 10,
or 120 volts.
Connecting circuits in parallel does not increase
their voltage, but does increase the current capac-
n lo 11
ity; so with two circuits each having five amperes
2 3 4 5 G / 8 12 13 14 15 lo I
-1 18 19 20 21 22 23 4

capacity and connected in parallel, the total current

capacity will be 10 amperes.
In the lower sketch of Fig. 30-B, we have simply Fig. 30. At "A" is shown a simplified diagram of the circuit in a wind
moved the start and finish leads of each coil one ing connected simplex lap. At "B" the winding is connected duplex.
doubling the number of circuits from positive to negative brush.
bar farther apart, which in effect makes two sepa-
rate windings, or 4 circuits in parallel between the 41. SYMMETRICAL AND NON-SYMMETRI-
positive and negative brushes. In this diagram we CAL CONNECTIONS
have lengthened the coils of one section simply to The angle at which the coil leads are brought out
make them easier to trace separately from the from the slots to the commutator segments depends
other. Tracing through any one of these four cir- upon the position of the brushes with respect to the
cuits from the positive to negative brush, we now poles. If the brushes are placed in line with the
find there are only six coils in series. So the volt- centers of the field poles, then each coil lead comes
age of this winding will be 10 x 6, or 60 volts. out from the slots at the same angle, to two bars
But as we now have four circuits in parallel be- directly in the center of the coil. This is called a
tween the positive and negative brushes, the cur- Symmetrical Connection, as it leaves the coil and
rent capacity of this winding will be 4 x 5, or 20 leads in a symmetrical diamond shape.
amperes. The wattage of either winding will be the Fig. 31-A shows this condition on a machine
same. however. which has the brush located in line with the center
The brush span for a simplex winding is gener- of the field pole, and you will note that the leads
ally equal to the width of two to 3 segments, are of equal length and brought out from the slots
while for a duplex and triplex winding it must be te the two bars in the center of the coil span. If
increased proportionately. the brushes of the machine are located at a point
Wave windings can also be connected duplex or between the field poles, the coil leads must be car-
triplex if the commutator pitch is a whole number. ried to one side in order to be connected to the seg-
 Armature Winding, Section One. Collecting and Recording Winding Data. 299

to be sure to replace the coils and connections prop-

erly.
If necessary, you can also make a sketch or dia-
gram of the first few coils removed. This sketch
can be made similar to the ones in Fig. 32, and can
show the exact coil span, commutator pitch, etc.
In addition to marking the core and commutator
and keeping a diagram of the winding and connec-
tions, the following data should be carefully col-
lected as the old winding is removed.
1. Turns per element.
A
SYMMETRICAL NON-SYMMETRICAL.
2. Size of conductor.
3. Insulation on conductor.
Fig. 31. Note the position of the brushes with respect to the poles, and
4. Coil insulation.
also the shape of the end connections of the above lap winding coils 5. Slot insulation (layers, type, and thick-
for symmetrical and non-symmetrical windings.
ness.)
ments at the time they are short circuited by the 6. Extension of slot insulation from each end
brush. of core.
Fig. 31-B illustrates this condition. One lead is 7. Extension of straight sides of coils from
brought straight out from the slot to the segment, each end of the core.
while the lead from the other side of the coil is 8. Over-all extension of the winding from
carried clear across to the adjacent segment. This the core, both front and back.
is called a Non-Symmetrical Connection, because of If these things are carefully observed and re-
the lengths and unbalanced shape of the coil leads. corded, you should have no difficulty in properly
Whether the brushes are located in line with the replacing most any type of winding and getting it
center of the field poles or in line with the neutral back in the same space, and with the same connec-
plan depends, to quite an extent, on the mechan- tions. It will, of course, require a little practice to
ical design of the machine. In some cases the be able to make your coils exactly the proper size
brushes are much easier to get at for adjustment and shape so they will fit neatly and compactly in
and replacement, if they are located as in Fig. 31-B. the armature.
In small fractional -horse-power motors there is
generally very little space between the centers of
the field coils and the end shields. So the brush
holders are frequently bolted to the end shields at
a point between the poles. This makes necessary
the use of a non-symmetrical connection on the
armature coil leads.
On larger machines, where there is plenty of
space for the brush holders, they are usually placed
in line with the centers of the field poles, and the
coil leads of the armature are connected symmetri-
cally.
42. COLLECTING DATA FROM OLD
WINDINGS Fig. 32. A very simple and sure way of marking the commutator and
armature when removing an old winding is shown above. Compare
When rewinding any armature, care should be these sketches carefully with the instructions given, so you will be
able to replace winding correctly.
taken to collect sufficient data while dismantling
the old winding to enable you to put in the new 43. BANDING ARMATURES
winding correctly. It is a very good plan to mark Wire bands, as previously mentioned, are gener-
the slots and commutator segments from which the ally used on large armatures having heavy coils, to
first coil and leads are removed. This can be done hold the coil ends securely in place. If the core has
with aprick-punch or file, as shown in Fig. 32. One open slots, bands are often used over the core to
small punch mark can be placed under the slot that hold the wedges in place. High-grade steel piano
held the top coil side, and two dots under the slot wire is commonly used for this purpose and can be
that holds the bottom side of the same coil. The obtained in rolls in various sizes. This wire is
top leads are then traced out to the commutator, usually tinned at the factory.
and each bar that they connect to should be marked When a banding machine is not available, a lathe
with one dot. Next trace the bottom leads to the can be used to hold the armature while the bands
commutator, and each of the bars they connect to are wound on. A layer of paper or cloth is usually
should be marked with two dots. This can be done placed under the band. Cloth makes the best foun-
with both lap and wave windings, and is a positive dation for bands placed on the coil ends, as the cloth
way of keeping the core and commutator marked, tends to keep the bands from slipping off. A layer
300 Armature Winding, Section One. Winding Tools. Armature Testing.

of fuller board or fish paper can be used under bands fold up the ends of several of the tin strips to hold
placed around the core. Grooves about 1/32 of an these wires in place, run the wire across to the next
.nch deep are usually provided for the bands on groove with a couple of gradual turns around the
cores with open slots. core, and start the next band without cutting the
The paper should be cut carefully to the exact wire. Continue in this manner until all the bands
width of this groove, so it will fit snugly and with- are on. Then, before releasing the tension on the
out sticking out at either side. The banding wires wire, run a thin layer of solder across each group
should be wound on under tension, so they will be of band wires in several places, to keep them from
firm and tight when completed. A simple tension loosening when the end wires are cut.
clamp or brake can be made by cutting two strips After cutting the wires between the bands, cut
of fibre Y,t inch by 13/2 by 6inches, and bolting these these ends off to the proper length, so that they will
together with two small bolts, using wing nuts on come directly under one of the tin clamping strips.
each end. Place these pieces of fibre in the tool post Then fold in the ends of all these strips tightly and
of the lathe and run the wire between them. Then, solder them down with a thin layer of solder.
by adjusting the two wing nuts, any desired tension These tin strips are usually about 15 mils thick,
may be obtained. and 74 inch wide, and should be cut just long enough
so that their ends will fold back over the bands
about AI inch.

44. ARMATURE TESTING

We have already mentioned the importance of
being able to systematically test armatures to lo-
cate faults and troubles in their windings. One of
the most common devices used for this purpose is
known as a Growler, and sometimes also called
a "bug" or "mill."
A growler is constructed of laminated iron in the
form of a core, around the center of which a coil of
insulated wire is wound, as shown in Fig. 33. When
this coil is connected to an alternating current sup-
ply it sets up a powerful alternating magnetic field
at the two poles of the growler.
Growlers are made with poles shaped at an angle,
as shown in the illustration at "A", so that small
and medium sized armatures can be laid in these
poles. Growlers are also made with poles shaped
as shown in Fig. 33-B, so they can be conveniently
used on the inside of large alternating current wind-
Fig. 37.-C. Above are shown a number of the more common tools used ings, as will be explained later.
in armature windings. No. 1 is a stripping tool for stripping open slot
armatures and stators. No. 3—coil lifter for lifting coils from the The growler shown at "B" has its windings ar-
slots. No. 3—lead lifter for lifting coil leads from commutator risers.
No. 4—lifting tool for prying tight coils from slots. No. 5—coil book
ranged in two separate coils and the leads are con-
to break coil ends loose from insulating varnish. No. 4—coil puller nected to a double-throw, double-pole switch, so
for sliding top sides of coils into slots. No. 7—fibre slot drift for
driving coils into slots. (4 thicknesses needed: 3/16", 5/16" 7/16", that the coils can be used either in series or parallel
9/14") No. If—fibre coil shaper for shaping coil ends after ions are
in slots. No. 9—steel slot drift for driving coils to the bottom of by changing the position of the switch. This per-
partly closed slots. No. 16—push cutter for trimming edges of slot
insulation. No. 11—wedge driver for driving wedges into partly mits the growler to be used on either 110 or 220
closed slots. No. 13—wire scraper for removing insulation from ends
of coil leads. No. 13—lead drift for driving coil leads into commuta-
volts, and also makes possible an adjustment of
tor risers. No. 14—one sided chisel to cut off leads at risers. No. growler field strength for testing windings with
15—commutator pick for picking out short circuits between segments.
No. 14—under cutting saw for under cutting commutator mica. different numbers of turns and high or low resis-
No. 17—banding clamp for placing tension on banding wires while
winding them. tance.

To start the first band, make a hook of heavier 45. GROWLER OPERATION AND USE
wire and attach the band wire securely to this hook. When an armature is placed in agrowler and the
Then slip the hook under the ends of a couple of current turned on in the coil, the flux set up between
coils close to the ends of the slots and start winding the poles of the growler builds up and collapses
the band wire on the core. Make two or three grad- with each alternation; thus cutting across the arma-
ual turns around the core to get the band wire over ture coils and inducing avoltage in them, in a man-
to the first slot. As the first turn is wound in the ner similar to the action in a transformer. If there
slot, narrow strips of tin should be placed in the are no faults of any kind in the armature winding,
slot under it, and every few inches apart around no current will flow in the coils from the voltage
the core. Drawing the first turn tight will hold induced by the growler; but, if there is a short cir-
these strips in place, and other turns are then wound cuit between two of the commutator segments or
on over them. Wire should be wound with the within the turns of a coil, an alternating current
turns tightly together until this groove is full. Then will flow in this shorted coil when it is placed at
 z •
,";n"....

Armature Winding, Section One. Growler. Common Armature Troubles. 301

46. GROWLER INDICATIONS ON WAVE

WINDINGS
A When testing wave-wound armatures, if the leads
of two coils are shorted the indication will show up
at four places around the armature. Fig. 55 shows
awinding for afour-pole wave armature in position
for testing in a growler. The heavy lines represent
two coils which complete acircuit between adjacent
commutator bars, 1 and 2. The top side of one of
these coils and the bottom side of the other connect
at bar 10. It will be seen from this diagram that a
short circuit between bars 1and 2 would cause our
steel strip to vibrate over the four slots shown by
the small double circles.
Practically all four-pole automotive armatures
are wave-wound, so it is well to remember that a
short between any two of their bars will be indi-
Fig. 33. Two types of "growlers". The one at "A" is for testing arma-
tures, and the one at "B" for use inside of stator cores. Note the
cated at the four places around the armature.
switch and double coil arrangement of the growler at "B", which
can be used to connect the coils in series or parallel to vary the 47. COMMON ARMATURE TROUBLES
strength of the growler flux.
In addition to short circuits anumber of the other
common troubles are as follows: grounded coils or
right angles to the growler flux. This secondary
commutator bars, open coils, shorts between com-
current, which is flowing in the armature coil will
mutator bars, and reversed coil-leads. In addition
set up alternating flux around it and in the teeth
to the growler, which can be used to locate any of
or edges of its slots.
these faults, we can also use a galvanometer and
Now, if we hold over the opening of this slot a dry cell to locate several of these troubles by test-
thin piece of steel, such as a hacksaw blade, the ing at the commutator bars. This method will be
steel will vibrate rapidly. A short circuit is the only explained a little later.
fault that will give this indication, so we see that
this method is a very simple one for locating shorted
armature coils.
It is best to make all tests with agrowler on coils
that are in the same plane of the growler flux; so,
as we test from one slot to the next, the armature
should be rotated, in order to make the tests on all
coils in the same positiorí. Sometimes it is difficult
to rotate the armature without turning off the cur-
rent from the growler coil.
A low-reading ammeter, with a scale ranging
from 2Y2 to 10 amperes, is quite commonly used
with a growler. A rheostat should be connected in
series with ameter and apair of test leads, as shown
in Fig. 34. These test leads consist of two pieces of
flexible wire several feet long to the ends of which
are attached a pair of sharp test points or spikes.
Sometimes these points are made of flat spring steel Fig. 34. This sketch shows connections of an ammeter and rheostat
with test points on a "hand-piece". Meter and test leads of this
or brass and are attached to a wood or fibre hand- sort are used for locating faults in armature windings.

piece in a manner that permits them to be adjusted Fig. 36 is a simplified drawing of a two-pole, 24-
close together or farther apart. This makes it con- coil, lap winding in which are shown a number of
venient to test adjacent commutator bars or bars the more common faults which might occur in
farther apart. armature windings, as follows:
If these test leads are placed across a pair of ad- Coil 1 is short-circuited within the turns of
jacent commutator bars which connect to a coil ly- the coil.
ing in the growler flux, we will obtain a definite Coils 20 and 21 have their terminals loose in
reading on the ammeter. If we continue around the the commutator bars.
commutator, testing pairs of adjacent bars while Coil 19 has an open circuit.
rotating the armature to make the test on coils Coil 5 is connected in reverse order.
which are in the same plane, each pair of bars Coil 12 is grounded to the shaft or core of the
should give the same reading. In the case of a armature.
faulty coil the reading may either increase or de- Coils 6 and 9 are shorted together.
crease, depending on the nature of the fault. Coils 15, 16 and 17 are properly connected
302 Armature Winding, Section One. Armature Troubles and Testing.

in relation to each other, but have their leads In order to locate on the commutator the bars to
transposed or connected to the wrong commu- which the leads of the shorted coil are attached, ad-
tator bars. just the test points of the hand-piece so they will
Coil 13 has a short between its commutator span adjacent commutator bars. Place these test
bars. points on two adjacent bars, and adjust the rheostat
The commutator bar to which coils 2 and 3 until the meter reads about 3/4 of its full scale read-
are attached is grounded to the shaft. ing. Note this reading carefully and, by rotating
the armature, check the readings of all the other
bars in this same position.
When the test leads are placed on the bars that
connect to the shorted coil, the reading will be
lower than the other readings obtained. How low
will depend on how many turns of the coil are
short circuited. If the short is right at the leads or
commutator bars and is of very low resistance, no
reading will be obtained between these bars.
49. LOOSE COIL LEADS
In testing for loose coil leads, such as shown on
coils 20 and 21 in Fig. 36, the steel strip would not
vibrate at any slot due to this fault; but, in testing
between commutator bars with the hand-piece,
when the ammeter leads are placed on the commu-
tator bars to which these coils are connected, the
reading between them and adjacent bars would
drop to zero, indicating an open circuit.
50. OPEN CIRCUIT
In testing for an open circuit, such as shown in
Fig. 35. The above diagram shows the coils of a four-po e wave arma coil 19 in Fig. 36, the steel strip would, of course,
ture which is in place in a growler for testing.
give no indication of this fault. So we must locate
Now let's cover in detail each of these faults and it by again testing around the commutator with the
the exact method of testing and locating them. hand-piece. When these leads are placed across the
48. SHORT CIRCUITS bars to which the open coil is connected, we will get
In Fig. 36 we found that coil 1had ashort circuit avery low reading. The reason that any reading at
within the coil, which is probably the result of all is obtained is because there are always two paths
broken or damaged insulation on the conductors. for the current to travel through the winding, unless it
To test for this fault, we will place the armature on is open at some other coil also.
the growler and close the switch to excite the
growler coil. Place the steel strip over an armature
slot which is at least the distance of one coil span
from the center of the growler core. Now turn the
armature slowly, keeping the steel parallel with and
over the slots. When the slot containing coil 1 is
brought under the steel, the induced current flow-
ing in this local short circuit will set up flux between
the teeth of this slot, which will attract and repel
the steel strip, causing it to vibrate like a buzzer.
This indicates that that coil is short circuited. Mark
this slot with a piece of chalk and proceed with the
test. Again rotate the armature slowly and test
each slot, at all times keeping the strip over slots
that are in the same position with respect to the
growler. When the slot which contains the other
side of the shorted coil is brought under the steel
strip, it will again vibrate. Mark this slot. The two
marked slots should now show the span of the ex-
act coil which is shorted.
Fig. 36. This diagram of a two-pole lap winding shows a number of the
If we find no other slots which cause the steel to more common faults which may occur in armature coils and at the
vibrate, we know there is only one short in the commutator segments.

armature. This test will apply to armatures of any With an open circuit only at coil 19, we would
size, regardless of the number of poles in their still have a circuit through all the other coils in series.
winding, and whether they are wound lap or wave. The voltages induced in the coils which lie in the
 Armature Winding, Section One. Armature Troubles and Testing. 303

actixe position for the growler flux would tend to the ammeter leads would not give a definite indica-
neutralize each other, but there is often a slightly tion, but the readings on these bars would be lower
unbalanced condition in the windings which would than normal.
allow a little current to flow through the ammeter. 54. REVERSED LOOPS
If there are three coils of the armature in the In the case of coils 15, 16, and 17 in Fig. 36, which
active flux of the growler and one side of coil 19 is are properly connected to each other but have their
one of these, then there will be three good coil sides leads transposed or placed on the wrong commu-
working against two good coil sides with their in- tator bars, the steel strip will not vibrate or give
duced voltages; and, since coil 19 is open circuited, any indication. The bar to bar test with the am-
the reading would be about 1/3 normal. The exact meter leads would, however, show double readings
amount of this reading, however, will depend upon between bars 1 and 2, normal readings on bars 2
the pitch of the coils and the size of the armature. and 3, and double reading again on bars 3 and 4.
The main point to note is that one open circuit in This indicates that the coils are connected in the
an armature does not necessarily give a zero read- proper relation to each other, but that their leads
ing, unless the coil sides on each side of the test are crossed at the commutator bars.
points are perfectly balanced electrically.
55. SHORTED COMMUTATOR SEGMENTS
51. REVERSED COIL In the case of coil 13 in Fig. 36, which is short
In testing for areversed coil such as No. 5in Fig. circuited by a short between its commutator bars,
36, the steel strip will not vibrate at any slots, and the steel strip would vibrate and indicate a short
testing from bar to bar with the ammeter leads on circuit over both slots in which this coil lies. The
adjacent bars will not show up this fault either; bar to bar test of the ammeter will give a zero or
because the induced current is alternating and the very low reading across these two bars, depending
motor will not indicate the reversed polarity of upon the resistance of the short circuit between
the coil. So, in testing for reversed coils, we should them.
spread the test points on the hand-piece far enough If the winding is connected lap, the short would
apart so they will touch bars 1and 3. In this man- be indicated in two places on the core; and if it is
ner we will get a reading of two coils in series. connected wave for four poles, it would be indicated
Then, when we place the test points on bars which in four places on the core.
are connected to coils 4 and 5, or 5and 6, two coils
will be in series in each case; but, as the voltage in 56. GROUNDED COMMUTATOR
SEGMENTS
one will be opposite in direction to that in the other,
the reading will be zero. The commutator bar to which coils 2 and 3 are
So, in testing for reversed coils we test two coils connected in Fig. 36, is grounded to the shaft. The
at a time by spreading the test leads apart to span steel strip will not indicate this fault. Testing with
an extra commutator segment, and the indication the ammeter leads between other commutator bars
for the reversed coils will be a zero reading. and the shaft would show high readings on the
meter; but, as we test bars that are closer to the
52. GROUNDED COILS grounded one, the reading falls lower and lower,
Coil 12 in Fig. 36 is grounded. The steel strip or and will be zero when one test lead is on the
vibrator will not indicate this fault, nor will the bar grounded bar, and the other on the shaft.
to bar test with the ammeter leads. To locate a If an absolute zero reading is obtained it indicates
ground we should place the test leads one on the the ground is at the commutator bar.
commutator and one on the shaft or core of the
57. GALVANOMETER TESTS ON
armature. If the first test is made between the bar
ARMATURES
of coil 8and the shaft, we would obtain avery high
We have mentioned that a galvanometer and dry
reading on the ammeter, because this would give
cell can be used to test armature windings for open
the reading of the 4 coils in series between the
circuits and short circuits in coils. You will recall,
grounded coil and this bar.
from the description of agalvanometer in an earlier
As we test bars closer to the grounded point the
section on elementary electricity, that this instru-
reading will gradually decrease, and the two bars
ment is simply a very sensitive voltmeter which
that give the lowest reading should be the ones con-
nected to the grounded coil. The sum of the read- will read a fraction of one volt. Fig. 37 shows a
ings from these two bars to the shaft should equal method of making galvanometer tests on armatures.
the reading of a normal coil. Two leads from a dry cell should be held against
bars on opposite sides of the commutator and kept
53. SHORTS BETWEEN COILS in this position as the armature is rotated. This
In Fig. 36 coils 6 and 9 are shorted together, will send a small amount of direct current through the
which places coils 6, 7, 8, and 9 in a closed circuit, coils of the winding in two paths in parallel.
through the short and the coil connections to the com- If the positive lead in Fig. 37 is on the right, a
mutator bars. In this case the steel strip will vi- current will flow from this lead through the commuta-
brate and indicate a short circuit over each of the tor bar to the right side of the winding. If all coils
slots in which these coils lay. A bar to bar test with of the winding were closed and in good condition,
•
304 Armature Winding, Section One. Emergency Repairs.

the current would divide equally, part flowing through The methods and indications described for gach
the top section of the winding to bar 3 and the of the foregoing tests should be carefully stied
negative lead, and the other part flowing through the until you are quite sure you understand the princi-
lower section of the winding to the same bar and ples in each case. It is not expected that you will
lead. When this current is flowing through the arma- be able to remember each of these tests until you
ture and we test between adjacent bars with the have actually tried them a number of times. How-
galvanometer, the instrument reads the voltage ever, with the instructions given in the foregoing
drop due to the current flowing through the resistance paragraphs, you need not hesitate to undertake any
of each coil. So the galvanometer test is quite simi- of these tests, if you have this material on hand to
lar to that with the ammeter leads and growler. refer to during the first few times you make them.
In testing for an open circuit with the galvano- 58. CUTTING OUT FAULTY COILS
meter leads placed on adjacent bars connected to In many cases when a machine develops some
good coils, there will be no reading in the section fault in the coils of its armature, it is inconvenient
of the winding in which the open coil is located; to take it out of service for complete rewinding or
but when these leads are placed across the bars for the amount of time required to replace the de-
connected to the open coil, the needle will probably fective coils with new ones. At times like this, when
jump clear across the scale, because at this point it is extremely important that a machine be kept in
it tends to read practically the full battery voltage. service in order not to stop or delay production on
Of course, if there are two open circuits in this half the equipment it operates, a quick temporary repair
of the armature, no reading will be obtained at any can be made by cutting the faulty coils out of the
pair of bars. This is a good indication that there is armature circuit. This is done by using a jumper
more than one open. If a test is made all the way wire of the same size as the conductors in the coils,
around the commutator and no open circuits are and which should be soldered to the same two bars
present, the galvanometer should read the same to which the defective coil was connected. This
across any pair of bars. You should be careful, how- jumper will then complete the circuit through this sec-
ever, to secure at all times a good contact between tion of the armature, and will carry the current that
these test leads and the bars, and also be sure that would normally have been carried by the defective
the battery leads make good connection to the com- coil.
mutator as the armature is rotated. Otherwise vari- Fig. 38 shows the manner in which an open cir-
ations in the readings will be obtained. cuit coil can be cut out with such a jumper. For
each coil that is cut out of a winding a slightly
higher current will flow through the other coils of that
circuit. The number of coils that can safely be cut
out will depend on the position in which they occur
in the armature.
In some cases several coils may be cut out, if
they are equally distributed around the winding;
but if several successive coils became defective and
were all cut out with a jumper, it might cause the
rest of the coils in that circuit to burn out.
Other factors that determine the number of coils
which can be cut out in this manner are: the num-
ber of coils per circuit, the amount of load on the
motor or generator, and the size of the machine.
If the defective coil is grounded, its two ends should
be disconnected from the commutator bars before
the jumper is soldered in place. Shorted coils should
be cut at the back end of the armature and these
cut ends well taped. The jumper wire should be
well insulated from the leads of other coils.
Fig. 37. This diagram shows the method of testing with a galvanometer Repairs of this type should be considered as only
and dry cell to locate various faults in an armature.
temporary and, as soon as the machine can be con-
A lower reading than normal between any two veniently taken out of operation, the defective coils
bars will indicate a shorted coil, and a zero reading should be replaced with new ones; or the armature
indicates a short between two commutator bars. rewound, if necessary.
When galvanometer leads are placed on bars 2 and Keep well in mind this method of making tempor-
3, which are connected to coils with their leads ary repairs, as there are frequent cases on the job
transposed, the reading will be normal ;but in test- when the man who knows how to keep the machin-
ing between bars 1 and 2, or 3 and 4, the reading ery running through important periods of production
will be double. This indicates that the leads at bars or operation can make a very favorable impression
2 and 3 are the ones reversed. on his employer by demonstration of this ability.
 Armature Winding, Section One. Summary. 305

principles of D. C. machines and their windings will

be of great value to you.
While you are actually winding armatures in the
department in the shops, you will be able to observe
and put into practice many of the important things
covered in this Reference Set.
If you get the important points covered in the in-
tensely practical lectures on this subject, and do
your work on the windings thoughtfully and care-
fully, you should be able to quite easily rewind or
repair armatures, or locate their troubles when
necessary on the job.
Remember that the important points are to get
Fig. 38. The above diagram shows the method of cutting out a defective the correct number of turns of proper sized wire per
coil, and completing the circuit through the winding with a jumper
at the commutator bars to which this coil connects. coil, correct coil and slot insulation, and proper con-
nections to the commutator.
If you have carefully studied the material in this By referring to this Reference Set you will find
section, the knowledge you have obtained of the dependable information on all these points.
 Norman Beder
41 Georgia Ave.
Brooklyn 7, N. Y.
 307

C YM
6lectrical School
CHICAGO --ILLINOIS
ESTABLISHED 18 9 9 COPYRIGHT 1942

ARMATURE WINDING

AND TESTING

Section Two

Principles of A C Motors and Generators

Single and Polyphase Machines
Winding Stators
Connecting Stators
Star and Delta Connections
Reconnecting for Changes in Voltage
Speed, Frequency, Phases
Insulating Varnish, Baking
Stator Troubles and Tests
308

ALTERNATING CURRENT WINDINGS

The previous section covered the windings for D. The circular arrows around the conductors indi-
C. generators and motors only. This section will cate the direction of the lines of force which will
deal with the principles and windings of A. C. ma- be set up around them by their induced currents.
chines. Check this also by the method mentioned in an
Alternating current is very extensively used for earlier section, of considering the field lines as mov-
light and power purposes, and most of the large ing rubber bands rubbing the conductors, and set-
power plants generate alternating current because ting up the new or induced lines in the direction
it is so much more economical than D. C. to trans- the bands would revolve a pulley, etc. Also note
mit over long lines. The reason for this will be ex- the symbols used to indicate the direction of in-
plained in a later section on alternating current. duced E. M. F. in the conductors: + for voltage in,
The general use of A. C. in industrial plants and and the dot for voltage out.
power plants makes it very important for one to
know these principles of A. C. machines and the
methods of winding, connecting, and testing them.
A
59. PRINCIPLES OF A. C. GENERATORS
Volteur. Volta9e
We have learned that voltage can be generated in 5enerated let-tented
a conductor by moving it through a magnetic field, IN OUT

and that alternating voltage will always be gener-

ated in the windings of a D. C. generator, because
Motton.
during rotation the conductors are continuously
passing alternate N. and S. poles.
Let us review this principle briefly, to be sure we
;
have it well in mind as we start the study of A. C. tI II
II
I I I IS '
machines.
I

I
l• !It
In the Elementary Section on electro-magnetic
induction we learned that the direction of induced
voltage in any conductor depends on the polarity of
the field or direction of the lines of force, and the
Fig. 39. This diagram illustrates the method of producing E.M.F. In
direction of movement of the conductor. conductors by cutting them through magnetic lines of force. Note
carefully the direction of the Induced voltage at both "A" and "B".
In Fig. 39-A and B we have another illustration of
this principle. At "A" the lines of force from the
In Fig. 40-A we have two conductors of a coil,
field poles are passing downward and the conduc-
mounted in slots of an armature and revolving
tor is being moved to the right. This will in-
clockwise. In their position at "A" the conductors
duce in the wire a voltage that will tend to cause
are not generating any voltage, as they are in the
current to flow in at the end we are facing, or away
neutral plane and are not cutting across lines of
from us, if this conductor is part of aclosed circuit. force. At "B" the direction of induced voltage will
Check this with the right-hand rule for induced be "in" at conductor "F" and "out" at "G"; so if
E. M. F. in generators. the conductors are connected together at the back
This rule is here repeated for your convenience. of the armature their voltages will add together.
Hold the thumb, forefinger, and remaining fingers In Fig. 40-C the conductors are both in the neu-
of your right hand, all at right angles to each other. tral plane again, so their induced voltage once more
Then, with your fore-finger pointing in the direc- falls to zero.
tion of the flux, and your thumb in the direction of At "D" conductor "G" is passing the north pole
the conductor movement—the remaining fingers and conductor "F" is passing the south pole, so
will point in the direction of the induced E. M. F. they are both moving through the field flux in op-
Try this rule also with Fig. 39-B, where the con- posite directions to what they were at "B", and
ductor is moving in the opposite direction, through their induced voltage will be reversed. At "E" both
the same magnetic field; and you will find the in- conductors are again back in the neutral plane, or
duced voltage has reversed with the direction of at the point they started from.
the conductor movement. A curve indicating the voltage generated is shown
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Principles of A. C. Machines 309

under these various steps of generation in Fig. 40. The symbol for frequency is a small double curve
At "A" the voltage curve is starting at the zero line, like a sine wave, or —. Thus 60 means 60 cycles
as the conductors start to enter the field flux. At per second.
"B", where the conductors are cutting through the The speed at which A. C. motors will operate de-
dense field directly under the poles, the curve shows pends on the frequency of the circuit they are con-
maximum positive voltage. From this point it falls nected to and the number of their poles. This will
off gradually as the conductors pass out of the flux be more fully discussed later.
at the poles, until it again reaches zero at "C".
Then, as the conductors each start to cut flux in the
opposite direction, the curve shows negative voltage
in the opposite direction or below the line, reaching
maximum value at "D". At "E" the negative volt-
age has again fallen to zero.
60. CYCLES AND ALTERNATIONS
Upon completion of one revolution with the sim-
ple two-pole generator we also complete what we
term one Cycle of generated voltage. The single
positive impulse produced by the conductor passing
one complete pole, and shown by the curve from
"A" to "C", is called one Alternation. It takes two
alternations to make one cycle. Therefore, each
time a conductor passes one north and one south
pole it produces one cycle.
There are 360 Mechanical Degrees in a circle, or
in one revolution of a conductor on an armature;
and in generators we say that a conductor travels
360 Electrical Degrees each time it passes two alter-
Fig. 41). The above diagram shows step by step the development of
nate field poles and completes one cycle. So One a complete cycle of alternating voltage. Compare each of the
Cycle consists of 360 Electrical Degrees, and One generator sketches with the voltage of the curve directly beneath it.

Alternation consists of 180 Electrical Degrees. 62. REVOLVING FIELD ALTERNATORS

In a machine having more than two poles, it is Alternating current generators are commonly
not necessary for a conductor to make a complete called Alternators. So far we have discussed gen-
revolution to complete acycle, as One Cycle is pro- erators with their conductors revolving on an
duced for each pair of poles passed. So a four-pole armature through stationary field flux. Now, why
generator would produce two cycles per revolu- wouldn't it work equally well to have the armature
tion; a 12-pole generator, 6 cycles per revolution; conductors stationary and revolve the field, causing
etc. the lines of force of the moving field poles to cut
61. FREQUENCY OF A. C. CIRCUITS across the conductors?
Alternating current circuits have their frequency This is exactly what is done with a great num-
expressed in cycles per second, the most common ber of A. C. generators or alternators; and, while
frequencies being 25 and 60 cycles per second. some of the smaller ones are made with revolving
If frequency is expressed in cycles per second and armatures, most of the larger ones are of the revolv-
if a conductor must pass one pair of poles to pro- ing field type.
duce a cycle, then the frequency of an A. C. gener- This type of construction has two very important
ator depends on the number of its poles and the advantages for large power plant alternators. The
speed of rotation. first of these advantages is that if the armature
For example, if a four-pole machine is rotated at conductors are stationary the line wires can be
1800 R. P. M., the frequency of the current it pro- permanently connected to them and it is not neces-
duces will be 60 cycles per second. Its conductors sary to take the generated current out through
will pass two pairs of poles per revolution, or 1800 brushes or sliding contacts. This is quite an advan-
X 2 = 3600 pairs of poles per minute. Then, as tage with the heavy currents and high voltages
there are 60 seconds in a minute, 3600 ± 60 = 60 produced by modern alternators, many of which
cycles per second. are designed to supply from several hundred to
A generator with 12 poles would only need to several thousand amperes, at voltages from 2300 to
rotate at only 600 R. P. M. to produce 60 cycles per 13,200 and higher.
second. The conductors in such a machine would Of course, it is necessary to supply the current
pass six pairs of poles per revolution; or at 600 R. to the revolving field with slip rings and brushes,
P. M. they would pass 6 X 600 or 3600 pairs of but this field energy is many times smaller in am-
poles per minute. And again, 3600 ÷ 60 = 60 cycles peres and lower in volts than the main armature
Der second. current.
310 Armature Winding, Section Two. Single Phase Generators

The other big advantage is that the armature cycle wh;ch will be produced by one revolution of
conductors are much larger and heavier than those the two pole field; so this machine would have to
of the field coils, and much more difficult to insulate revolve at 3600 R. P. M. to produce 60-cycle energy.
because of their very high voltage. It is, therefore, Revolving fields are made with four or more
much easier to build the armature conductors into poles, to produce 60-cycle energy at lower speeds.
a stationary element than it is in a rotating one. Fig. 42 shows a large alternator of the revolving
The field, being the lighter and smaller element, field type, with 36 poles. Each revolution of this
is also easier to rotate and this reduces bearing field will bring 18 pairs of poles past any given coil,
friction and troubles, as well as air friction at high and so produce 18 cycles per revolution. Then, if
speeds. its speed is 200 R. P. M., 200 X 18 = 3600 cycles
With large revolving field alternators, the sta- per minute, or 60 cycles per second.
tionary armature is commonly called the Stator,
and the rotating field is called the Rotor.

63. SINGLE PHASE CURRENTS

Fig. 41 shows a sketch of a simple revolving field
alternator, with one coil in the slots of the stator or
stationary armature. The circles in the slots show
the ends of the coil sides, and the clotted portion is
the connection between them at the back end of the
stator. Inside the stator core is a two-pole field
core with its coil mounted on a shaft so it can be
revolved.

Fig. 42. This photo shows a large 38-pole alternator of the revolving
field type. Examine its construction carefully as you study the
explanation given on this page.

Note carefully in this figure the slip rings,

brushes, and wires which carry the D. C. from the
rings to the field coils. Also note the armature coils
arranged in the slots of the stator, and at the bottom
the cables by means of which the line leads are at-
Fig. 41. Sketch of a simple single-phase alternator of the revolving tached to these coils.
field type, showing a single coil in the stator slots. The curve at
the bottom of the sketch shows the single-phase alternating voltage The generator shown in Fig. 41 will produce what
which will be produced when the field revolves past the stator coil.
is known as Single Phase alternating current, as
When direct current is supplied to the field core shown by the curve in this same figure.
through the slip rings and brushes shown, the core Single-phase A. C. flows in a simple two-wire cir-
becomes a powerful electro-magnet with flux ex- cuit. and consists of alternations 180 degrees apart.
tending from its poles into the stator core. Then, or current that continuously reverses in direction
as the field is revolved the lines of force from its and varies in amount.
poles revolve with them and cut across the con- This current first flows out in the top wire of the
ductors in the stator slots. line and back in the lower one; then dies down,
As each coil side is passed first by the flux of a reverses, and flows out in the bottom wire and back
north pole and then a south, the induced E. M. F. in the top one. Or, we might say, it consists of
and current will be alternating, as it was with the continuously recurring alternations.
revolving armature type previously shown. The Even if the generator in Fig. 41 had a number of
curve underneath the generator shows the complete stator coils connected in series and just two leads
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Two and Three Phase Generators 311

connected to the group, it would still deliver single- This feature is quite an advantage where the energy
phase current. is used for power purposes, as these overlapping
impulses produce a stronger and steadier torque
64. TWO PHASE CURRENTS
than single-phase impulses do.
Generators are also made to produce 2-phase and For this same reason three-phase energy is still
3-phase currents. Circuits supplied by 2 and more desirable for motor ope•ration and power
3-phase energy are often called polyphase circuits, transmission, and is much more generally used than
meaning that their currents are divided into more two-phase.
than one part.
Fig. 43 shows a sketch of a simple 2-phase alter-
nator, which has two separate coils placed in its
stator at right angles to each other; or displaced 90
degrees from each other.
As the field of this generator revolves it will in-
duce voltage impulses in each of these coils, but
these impulses will not come at the same time, be-
cause of the position of the coils.
Instead, the voltages will come 90 electrical de-
grees apart, as shown in the curves in Fig. 43. The
curve "A" shows the voltage generated in coil "A"
as the poles pass its sides. As these poles rotate
90° farther their flux cuts across coil "B" and pro-
duces the voltage impulses shown by curve "B",
which are all 90° later than those in curve "A".

Fig. 44. This sketch shows the arrangement of the stator cons in a
simple three-phase alternator and beneath it the curves for three-
phase energy.

65. THREE-PHASE CURRENTS

Fig. 44 shows a sketch of a simple three-phase
alternator, with three coils in its stator, and spaced
120 electrical degrees apart.
As the field poles revolve past coils "A", "B",
and "C" in succession, they induce voltage impulses
which are also 120 degrees apart, as shown in the
curves in the figure.
The line leads are taken from the coils at points
120 degrees apart and the other ends of the coils
are connected together at "F". This type of con-
nection is known as a Star connection of the coils
Fig. 43. Sketch of a simple two-phase A.C. generator or alternator. to the line. Another common connection for three-
The curve at the bottom of the sketch shows the two-phase voltage
that will be produced when the field revolves past the two coils
phase windings is known as the Delta connection.
in the stator. Both of these will be explained later.
These two separate sets of impulses are each The principal points to note are that a three-
carried by their own two-wire line circuits as shown phase circuit is one with three parts, or three sepa-
in the diagram. rate sets of alternations occurring 120° apart and
So we see that a two-phase circuit is simply a overlapping each other. These impulses are car-
circuit of two parts, or having two sets of alterna- ried on three line wires, and the current flows first,
tions occurring 90 degrees apart. In the curve you out on wire "A" and in on wires "B" and "C";
will note that these alternations or impulses overlap then out on wire "B" and in on wires "A" and "C";
each other, and that while one is at zero value the then, out on wires "C" and in on wires "A" and
other is at maximum value. So with a circuit of "B"; etc.
this type, there is always voltage existing in one Additional features of single-phase and polyphase
phase or the other as long as the circuit is alive. circuits and machines will be covered later. But.
 1,4Lit 11 ica..

41 Georgia Ave.
Brooklyn 7, N. Y.

312 Armature Winding, Section Two. A. C. Motor Construction

End Bracket Stator Rotor End Bracket

Fig. 45. Above are shown the more essential parts of an A.C. induction motor. Note carefully the
construction of each part and the names by which they are called.

now that you know the difference between these rings act as fans and set up an air draft to cool the
forms of alternating current, you will be able to rotor and machine windings while the motor is
understand the various A. C. windings much easier. in operation.
66. CONSTRUCTION OF A. C. MOTORS Fig. 47 shows a slightly different type of squirrel-
The most common type of A. C. motor is known cage rotor, in which the ends of the bars can be
as an Induction Motor. This name comes from the seen projecting from the core ends. This rotor is
fact that the currents in the rotor are induced in it also equipped with fan blades for ventilating the
by the flux of the stator coils. machine, and you can note the air space left be-
Fig. 45 shows the more important parts of an tween the laminations of the core. These spaces
A. C. induction motor, with the names of each. are also for cooling purposes.
Note that the stator coils are placed in the slots
around the inside of the stator core very much as
the coils of a D. C. armature are placed in slots
around the outside of the armature.
67. ROTORS
A. C. induction motors have two common types
of rotors, known-as Squirrel-Cage rotors and Phase-
wound rotors.
The rotor shown in Fig. 45 is of the squirrel-
cage type; and, instead of having wire windings,
it has heavy copper bars buried in closed slots Fig. 47. Another style of squirrel-cage rotor showing the bars of the
around its surface and all connected together by winding and also the ventilating fans.

rings at each end.

Fig. 46 is a cut view of such a rotor, showing The purpose of the end brackets shown in Fig. 45
how the bars are imbedded in the core iron. The is to support the bearings in which the rotor shaft
end rings are made of copper or brass; or, in some turns. These bearings must always be in such
cases, of aluminum. The short blades on the end condition, and the brackets so lined up, that they
will support the rotor so that it does not rub or
touch the stator core.
Fig. 48 shows in greater detail some of the
smaller parts used in the construction of A. C.
motors. In the center is shown the shaft to which
the rotor core is keyed; and above this are a bear-
i sleeve, shaft 'key, oil ring, and stator coil. At
the left end of the shaft is shown a rotor lamina-
tion, and beneath it an end ring and rotor bar.
In the upper right-hand corner is a stator lamina-
tion, showing the shape of the slots and teeth; and
.below this is one of the frame rings used for clamp-
ing together and supporting the stator core lamina-
Fig. 46. This view shows a sectio la' view of a squirrel-cage rotor for tions.
an A.C. induction mo or. Note he manner in which the copper
bars are imbedded in the surface of the core. Phase-wound rotors for A. C. induction motors
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Single Phase Stator Windings 313

have windings placed in the slots of their cores,

similarly to D. C. armatures. Their windings are
generally connected wave.
68. STATORS
Stators for A. C. motors are constructed of
laminations which are stamped from soft iron. One
of these was shown in Fig. 48. The slots are cut
on the inside of the stator cores, instead of on the
outside as with D. C. armatures.
Two types of these slots are shown in Fig. 49.
Fig. 49. The above diagram shows two common types of stator slots
This view also shows the slot insulation and method with the slot and coil insulation in place around the coils. Also
note the wedge used for holding the finished coils in place.
of protecting the coils and wedging them into the
slots. be used as the center of a pole, and after winding
In large stators, the groups of laminations are the desired number of turns in this coil we con-
spaced apart to leave an air duct every few inches
tinue right on in the same direction in the next
for cooling the windings and core.
pair of slots, with the same wire. In this manner
The partly closed slots shown at "A" in Fig. 49
we build up the coils for one pole, working from
are used on small stators where the wires are fed
the center to the outside. Sometimes more than
into the slots a few at a time. The open-type slots
one slot is left empty in the center as the first wind-
as shown at "B" are used on large stators which
ing is placed in.
have their coils wound and insulated before they
are placed in the slots. 70. SKEIN WINDINGS
69. TYPES OF A. C. WINDINGS Another method, which uses what is known as
Three of the commonly used types of windings the Skein Coil for making spiral windings, is illus-
for A. C. stators are the Spiral Type, Lap, and trated in Fig. 51.
Wave windings. In this method the long skein coil is first made
The spiral-type winding is used very extensively up of the right number of turns and the proper
on small single-phase motors. length tù form the several coils. The end of this
The poles are wound in a spiral form, as shown skein is then laid in the center slots as shown at
in Fig. 50. The wire is started in the two slots to "A" in Fig. 51, and the long end given one-half

Fig. 49. Here are shown a number of the smaller parts used in the construction of A. C. motors of the
induction type. Note the shape of the laminations for both the rotor and stator cores, and compare
each of these parts with their explanations given on these pages.
314 Armature Winding, Section Two. Single Phase Stator Windings

71. RUNNING AND STARTING WINDINGS

FOR SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

Single-phase A. C. motors of these small induc-

tion types generally have two windings called the
Running Winding and Starting Winding. The first
winding placed in the slots as we have just de-
scribed is the running winding. The starting wind-
ing is always placed in the slots over the running
winding coils after they are all in the slots. This
starting winding is usually wound with wire about
one-third as large as that used for the running wind-
ing, and with about half as many turns. The start-
ing winding coils are displaced 90°, or exactly one-
half the width of one pole, from the coils of the
Fig. 50. This diagram illustrates the method of winding the coils for
a spiral-type stator winding. Note how the wire continues from
running winding.
one coil to the other, as shown by the dotted lines under the tape
at the lower end.

twist near the ends of the slots, as shown at "B".

The remaining end is then laid back through the
next two slots—at "C"—and again twisted one-
half turn so its sides cross near the first coil end.
Then the last loop is laid back through the outer
two slots to complete the coils for this pole.
Trace the circuit through this finished coil, start-
ing at the left lead, going through each coil, and
coming out at the right-hand lead.
This skein method of winding is quite a time-
saver where a number of stators of the same size
and type are to be wound. After carefully measur-
ing to get the first skein coil the right length, the
balance of the coils can be made on the same form,
and the stator poles wound very rapidly.
If there are only two or three small stators to be
wound, the first method described is generally best.
Fig. 51. Skein type windings as shown
above are often used to save considera-
ble time when winding a number of
stators which are all alike. Note care-
fully the various steps of twisting the
coil and laying it in place in the slots.

Fig. 52. On the left are shown several

views of small single-phase stators for
A.C. induction motors. Both the start-
ing and running windings can be clearly
seen in each of these views. Note how
the starting winding overlaps the coils
of the running winding about one-half
their width or 90 degrees. This type
of winding is known as a single-phase
split-phase.
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Single Phase Stator Windings 315

In starting to wind these coils, their centers are motor, is thrown open by centrifugal force, thereby
located where the edges of the running coils meet. opening the circuit of the starting winding. The
This brings the edges of the starting coils together motor then runs on the running winding only.
at the center of the running coils, and very often The starting winding must never be left in the
in the slots which were left empty when the run- circuit longer than just the few seconds required to
ning coils were wound. Windings of this type are start the motor. If it is left connected longer than
known as single-phase, split-phase windings. The this it will overheat and probably burn out.
term "split phase" is used because the different Fig. 54 shows a simple sketch illustrating the
numbers of turns in the starting and running wind- method of connection of the starting and running
ings cause them to be of different inductance, which windings to the line, and also the connection of the
makes the alternating current impulses in one wind- centrifugal switch. Remember that this switch must
ing lag slightly behind those in the other winding. always be connected in series with the starting
This produces around the stator a sort of shifting windings.
or rotating magnetic field, which in turn cuts across
the bars of the rotor, inducing current in these bars.
The reaction between the flux of the stator cur-
rents and rotor currents is what produces the torque
or turning effect 9f this type motor.
The principles of inductance and split-phase
operation will be more fully covered in a later sec-
tion.
Fig. 52 shows several small stators and the posi-
tions of their starting and running windings.
Fig. 54. This is a simplified diagram showing the manner in which
72. CONNECTIONS OF STARTING the starting and running windings of a single phase motor are
WINDING connected in parallel to the line. The centrifugal switch "C" is
connected in series with the starting winding as shown.
The starting and running windings are connected
in parallel to the single-phase line, but a centrifugal 73. CENTRIFUGAL SWITCHES
switch is connected in series with the starting wind-
There are many different types of centrifugal
ing as shown in Fig. 53. This switch is arranged
switches used on single-phase motors; but the gen-
so that when the motor is idle it is held closed by
eral principle of all of them is the same, in that they
springs.
open the circuit of the starting winding by cen-
trifugal force when the motor reaches nearly full
speed.
Fig. 55 shows a sketch of one of the common
types of these switches. The two views on the left
show the stationary element, which is mounted on
the end bracket of the motor; and the view on the
right shows the rotating element, which is mounted
on the shaft of the rotor. On the stationary element
we have two terminals, "B" and "B", to which the
line and starting winding leads are connected. These
semi-circular metal pieces are separated from each
other; so that there is no circuit between them

STATIONARY PART
MOUNTCD ON END CRACK T 'IOLA IL», ROTATING PART

Fig. 53. The above diagram shows the complete circuits through
both the starting and running windings of a single phase stator.
Trace out each winding carefully and note how the coils are
connected to produce alternate north and south poles around the
stator.
END VIEW SIDE VIEW
When current is applied to the windings, both END VIEW

the starting winding and running winding are in

use while the motor is starting and getting up to
speed; but as soon as it reaches full speed, the Fig. SS. These sketches illustrate the principle of a simple centrifugal
switch, such as used for starting single phase motors. Examine
switch, mounted to revolve on the shaft of the each part closely as you read the explanations given on these pages.
316 Armature Winding, Section Two. Two Phase Motors

drawn together over the cylinder formed by "B"

and "B". This closes a circuit between them when
the motor is idle. When the motor starts and begins
to revolve at high speed the weight of the pieces
"A" and "A" causes them to be thrown outward to
the ends of their slots, thus disconnecting them from
"B" and "B" and opening the circuit of the starting
winding.

74. OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF TWO-

PHASE MOTORS
Two-phase motors are designed to operate on
two-phase alternating current and have two wind-
ings, each covering one-half of each pole, or spaced
90° apart, similarly to the starting and running
windings of a single-phase motor.
Each of the windings in a two-phase machine,
however, is of the same size wire and has the same
number of turns. Instead of being wound with
spiral coils, two-phase windings are generally made
with diamond-shaped coils similar to those used in
armatures. A section of a two-phase winding is
shown in the lower left view of Fig. 56, and you will
note the manner in which the three coils of each
Fig. 56. The above diagrams show step by step the manner in which
phase overlap in forming the winding for one pole a revolving field is produced in a two-phase motor winding. Refer
to each of the five sketches frequently when reading the descrip-
of the motor. tions in these columns. This figure illustrates a very important
In the upper view of this figure are shown the principle of induction motors and is well worth considerable study.

curves for two-phase current with alternations 90°

except when the metal pieces "A" and "A" are
apart. When this current flows through the two
this group covers the first half of the pole, these
windings, it sets up poles that progress step by
three slots will change in polarity. The first three
step around the stator so rapidly that it produces
slots of the second pole will also change and cause
what is practically a revolving magnetic field. The
the pole to move three slots, to the right as shown
progress of this field and the magnetic poles can
in position No. 2 of the field rotation sketch.
be observed by tracing out and comparing the
This shift of the magnetic pole is also illustrated
several views in Fig. 56. The dotted lines running
in position 2 of the magnetic circuit sketch. At
vertically through the curves in the upper view
indicate the polarity of the curves at that instant. position 3 on the current curves, "B" has changed
These will be referred to as "positions". to negative and the current in the leads of the "B"-
For example, in position 1, "A" and "B" are both phase coil will reverse, causing the last three slots
positive; and, referring to position 1 at the leads in each pole to change in polarity so the center of
of the windings, we find that current will flow in the pole moves three more slots to the right, as
at the starting leads of the two windings which are shown in position 3 of the field rotation sketch.
marked "S" and "S". The polarity set up will be as We find that as the currents in the coil groups
shown by the positive and negative marks in the reverse in this manner and keep shifting the mag-
sketch above these coils and at position 1. netic poles to the right, a corresponding change or
At this instant we find that the current flows in movement of the field takes place in the stator, as
at all of the six wires on the left and out at all six we have seen in positions 1 and 2 of the magnetic
on the right. See Fig. 56B, lower line. This will circuit. As this flux moves to the right and cuts
set up a magnetic flux or polarity as shown in the across the rotor bars, it induces currents in them
sketch of the magnetic circuit, position No. 1shown and the reaction between the poles of this secondary
at D. This shows that the center of the pole at current in the rotor and the stator poles causes the
this instant will be in the exact center of the coils, field of the stator poles to be distorted from its
and that a north pole will be produced at this point natural shape, as shown in position 2 of the mag-
on the stator teeth. netic circuit. It is from this field distortion that the
At position No. 2in the current curves, "B"-phase torque or twisting force is produced and causes the
is still positive but "A" is changed to negative; so rotor to turn. It may be necessary to read the pre-
the current in the starting lead of "A"-phase will ceeding paragraphs and trace the diagrams several
reverse as shown at position No. 2 and cause a re- times in order to thoroughly understand this prin-
versal of the polarity around the "A" group. As ciple, but it is well worth the time.
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Three Phase Motors. A. C. Winding Terms 31 7

75. OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF THREE- center group, or "C"-phase, will be traced around
PHASE MOTORS the coils in the opposite direction to "A" and "B".
This should be the case in any three-phase winding,
The rotating action of the field in a three-phase
and will be if the coils are properly connected. This
motor is very much the same as that of two-phase
machines, with the exception that only one-third of may seem confusing at first, but keep in mind that
the pole, or two slots, reverse at atime. In the two- the three currents never flow toward the winding
phase machine one-half of the pole, or three slots, at the same time and that there will always be a
change at each reversal of current. The coil groups return current on one of the wires. At any time
of the three-phase winding should be placed in the when all three wires are carrying current, there
slots in such a manner that they alternate in the will either be two positives and one negative or
same order as the currents change in the three- two negatives and one positive.
phase system. When these three currents flow through a three-
If we observe the three-phase current curves in phase winding, as shown in Fig. 57, three consecu-
Fig. 57 we find that the alternations change polarity tive coil groups will be of the same polarity, and
or cross the center line in the order A, C, B ;A, C, B; the next three groups will be of opposite polarity,
etc. The coil groups should be wound in to corre- thus building up alternate poles, N.S., N.S., etc.
spond with these current changes, or in the order Trace out and compare each of the positions 1, 2,
A, C, B; etc., as shown in Fig. 57. 3, and 4 in Fig. 57 as was done in Fig. 56, and you
A very interesting fact to know about three- will find how the field poles progress around the
phase systems is that at any given time the voltage stator to produce a revolving magnetic field in a
or current curves above the zero line will exactly three-phase motor.
equal those below the line. For example, in Fig, 57 76. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR A. C.
at position 1, A and B are each at about half their WINDINGS
maximum positive value, while "C" is at full maxi- The following terms and definitions should be
mum negative value. A vertical line through these studied carefully, in order that you may more easily
curves at any point will show the same voltage understand the material in the following pages.
or current relation. A Coil Group is the number of coils for one phase
There is another condition that always exists in for one pole.
three-phase windings, and with which you should The formula for determining a coil group is:
be familiar. You will notice that when tracing cur-
poles X phases
rent in towards the winding on the line wires, the Coils per group=
Slots
The term Full Pitch Coil Span refers to coils that
span from a slot in one pole to acorresponding slot
or position in the next pole.
The formula for determining full pitch coil span
is:
Slots
Full pitch coil span= 1
poles
NOTE: Full pitch is also known as l00% pitch.
In some cases a winding may be more than full
+ + + + -4- )
pitch, but should never exceed 150% pitch.
Position 5 4 • • • • • • +
3 • • • • + + ++++ • • The term Fractional Pitch applies to coils which
a • • r+ + + + + + • • • • span more or less than full pitch. A fractional pitch
. I +++++ + • • • • • • )
should never be less than 50% of full pitch.
We have already learned that there are 360 elec-
trical degrees per pair of poles; so, in the study of
the following material be sure to keep in mind that
any single pole, regardless of size, has 180 electrical
degrees.
The term Electrical Degrees Per Slot is com-
monly used to express the portion of the pole which
one slot covers, and is abbreviated E° per slot.
The formula for determining the electrical de-
gree per slot is:

Fig. 57. The above diagrams show the development of the rotating
180 X poles
field of a three-phase alternating current motor. Compare carefully Electric degrees per slot
the top, center, and lower diagrams and note the manner in which slots
the field poles gradually advance in the slots as the current alter-
nates in the three phases A. C, and B. Some of the material just covered may seem to
3I
8 Armature Winding, Section Two. A.C. Lap Windings

you to be somewhat technical or theoretical, but These twelve groups are divided into six parts for
a thorough study of the principles and terms the six poles, and each part is again divided in two
on these preceding pages will help you obtain a for the two phase-groups. Then these small groups
better understanding of many of the most import- of six coils each are connected into one phase of
ant and practical features in the winding and test- atwo-phase winding.
ing of alternating current machines. A simple form of two-phase lap winding for two
poles is illustrated in Fig. 58.
77. LAP WINDINGS FOR A.C. MACHINES
The starting leads of the coils for the "A" and
Both lap and wave windings are used for A.C.
"B" phases are marked "S A" and "S B", while
motors and generators, but some of the rules which
the finish leads are marked "F A" and "F B". This
were given for these windings on D.C. machines
winding could not be connected for three phase
do not apply to A C. machines.
because the coils in each pole are not evenly divisi-
Instead of classing them as parallel and series
ble by three.
windings, as we did for D.C., they are defined for
A.C. as follows: Note that the starts of each phase are 90° apart,
A lap winding is one in which all coils in a pole or displaced from each other by one-half the width
group can be traced through before leaving that of one pole.
group. This should be remembered when connecting any
A wave winding is one in which only one coil two-phase winding, as the starts for these windings
in each pole group can be traced through before must always be spaced this distance apart.
leaving that group.
Lap and wave windings are practically the same •
as to polarity and general characteristics.
On D.C. machines with a certain number of coils
the wave connection gives the highest voltage. This
is not true of A.C. windings, as the A.C. wave con- (
nection gives no higher voltage than the lap. A 1
A
a a 4
single circuit A.C. lap winding puts all possible ,
coils in series, so it gives just as high voltage as the
wave. T
4 4
Ne e

The wave winding is stronger mechanically than

the lap winding, and for that reason it is generally
used for phase-wound rotors, as there is often con-
siderable stress on their windings due to centrifugal
force and starting torque.
Stators are generally wound with lap windings.
In the design of A.C. stators, the number of slots •
Fig. 58. This sketch shows the coils and connections of a simple
is determined by their size and the number of poles, two-pole, two-phase winding. Examine the connections of the coils
and is selected for convenience in connecting the carefully and note the direction of current in each coil.

type of winding desired for the purpose of the

machine. 79. COIL POLARITY IMPORTANT
When there is more than one coil per group the
78. TWO PHASE A.C. WINDING EXAMPLE coils must be very carefully connected, as all coils
'When the total number of slots is evenly divisible of the same group must be connected for the same
by the product of the number of poles and the polarity, or, so that current flows in the same direc-
number of phases, there will be an equal number tion through all coils of this group. This is avery
of coils in each group and the same number of important rule to remember and is illustrated in
groups in each phase. This is known as an equal Fig. 59.
coil grouping. The two coils in the group at "A" are properly
For example: if we have a machine with 72 slots connected; that is, the finish of one is connected
and we wish to wind it for 6 poles and 2 phase to the start of the next; so that the flux will unite
operation, then, to determine the coils per group, around the sides of these coils, as it should to pro-
we use the formula: duce the pole. The coils in group "B" are improp-
Slots erly connected, with the finish of one to the finish
Coils per group = of the other. So in this case the current in the
poles X phases right hand coil is reversed. This causes the flux
or, in this case, of the two coils to oppose and neutralize each other
72 and therefore they cannot build up a strong mag-
Coils per group = = 6 netic pole in the stator core.
2X 6 Check the connections of these two groups of
Then there would be 6 coils in series in each coils carefully, so you will know the right and
pole group, and twelve such groups in the winding. wrong methods.
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Two Phase Windings. Types of Coils 319

will overheat, as their self-induction will be neutral-

ized and too much current will flow through them.
This principle will be explained in alater section.
80. TYPES OF COILS FOR STATOR
WINDINGS
Stators of 15 h. p. and under, and for less than
550 volts, usually have partly closed slots and are
commonly wound with "fed in" or "threaded in"
windings. For this type of winding we can use
either the threaded-in diamond coil or what is
known as a basket coil. Fig. 61 shows a coil of
each type.

Fig. $6. Above are shown both the right and wrong methods of
connecting stator coils to obtain the right polarity. Note the
conditions of magnetic flux set up in the slots with each connection.

Fig. 60 shows a simple two-pole, three-phase

winding with one coil per phase group and three
groups per pole. This winding only has one coil
per group. Observe very carefully the method of
connecting the coil groups together. You will note
that they are connected to give alternate polarity
—N, S, etc. Also note that there are two coil sides
per slot, one lying on top of the other.
The leads from the coil ends are referred to as
top and bottom leads, the one from acoil side lying Fig. 41. Two common types of coils used in winding small stators
in the top of the slot being called the top lead, and with partly closed slots. These coils can be easily fed into the
narrow slot openings.
the one from abottom coil side is called the bottom
The diamond coil is wound, shaped, and the ends
lead.
taped with half lapped cotton tape before the coil
is fed in the slots. The basket coil is simply wound
to the approximate shape, and to the proper length
and size; but is left untaped except for little strips
of tape at the corners just to hold the wires together
until they are placed in the slots. The ends of
Y .à/ V 1 •I
, •
these coils are taped after they are placed in the
slots, or in some cases on small stators the coil
...- 60 *-•••••• 6r-
12r_.......-120—. ends are left untaped. After placing the coils in
the slots, their ends are shaped with a fibre drift
and a rubber or rawhide mallet, so the coil ends
-
can pass over each other.
These basket coils are generally used only for
the smaller machines, and the diamond coils are
usually more desirable for the larger machines.
The untaped sides of either of these types of
coils make it possible to feed the wires one or two
at a time into the narrow slot openings. Thus
the name "fed in" coils.
81. PROCEDURE FOR WINDING A
THREE PHASE STATOR
Fig. 60. This sketch shows a two-pole, three-phase winding. Note The following paragraphs describe in detail the
the spacing in degrees between the coil sides and line leads, and
also the arrangement of the coil connections. procedure of winding a three-phase stator of 36
slots and 6 poles.
In making the connections from one pole group Let us apply the formula:
to the next of the same phase, always connect like Slots
leads together; that is, bottom leads together and Coils per group =
top leads together for the short jumper arrange- poles X phases
ment. This rule should be followed strictly, in order or. in this case.
to produce the alternate poles which are necessary 36
in the winding to make the machine operate. If Coils per group = =_- 2 coils per group
any of these coils is connected wrongly, the coils 6X 3
320 . Armature Winding, Section Two. Three Phase Windings

The full pitch coil span will then be found by

the coil span formula:
slots
Full pitch coil span =
poles
or, in this case,
36
Full pitch coil span _-_—_ + 1= 7.
6
The first coil will then span or lie in slots one
and seven.
After the slots have been insulated, begin by
placing one side of the first coil in any slot with
the leads of the coil toward the winder, as shown
in Fig. 62.
One side of the next coil is then placed in the
slot to the left of the first, which will make the
winding progress in a clockwise direction around
the stator. Four more coils are then placed in the
slots in a similar manner, leaving the top sides of Fig. 63. This diagram illustrates the method of placing the first coila
in a stator and the proper rotation for inserting them. Note the
all of them out. sleeving used for marking the leads of the different phase groups,
and also the several coil sides which are left out of the slots until
those of the last coils are inserted under them.

coils have been laid in under the top sides of the

first coils. These top sides are now ready to be
inserted in the slots and then the slot insulation
can be trimmed, folded in over the coils, and the
slot wedges put in place.
While the coils of the winding just described
were laid in to the left of the first, or clockwise
around the stator, they can be laid either clockwise
or counter-clockwise, according to the shape of the
end twist of the coils.

Fig. 62. This view shows a method of starting the first coil for a
stator winding. The fish paper insulation is in all slots and the
varnished cambric has been placed in several.

When the bottom side of the seventh coil is

placed in the seventh slot, its top side is laid on
top of the first coil, as shown in Fig. 63. The
bottom of eighth coil is placed in the eighth slot
and its top is placed on top of the bottom side of
the second coil.
This procedure is followed until all the coils are
in place, the bottom sides of the last six coils being
slipped in under the first six coils, the top sides Fig. 64. This photo shows a stator winding nearly completed and
of which were left out of the slots. Fig. 64 shows ready for the top sides of the first coils to be placed in on the
bottoms of the last coils which were inserted. The insulation has
a view of a stator from the back end, after the last been neatly folded down over the coils in most of the slots.
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Three Phase Windings 321

l
eT'Pole. am° Pole 3 1e'
D. Pole. 4-TH •
Pole. 5 TH. Pole a. 6TH.--a•
Pole
C

• • • • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • \ • • • • • • • • % \ \ \

• • \ \ \ \\
• • ‘ ., \ \ \
, •• 1 1 1 • ..

/ / f
V
' / / /
/ / /
/
/
1 / /
/ /
1/
/ / • / / 1/ 1/
t / /
f í t
1 f
1
I 1
1
( I 1 I • ( f
1 r 1
I —I. l 1
—— I
— — —I.7.= — —Ii — - -.. - 7---1
. - - — X
i
3 A FC 3 b 5 ____ _l /
al- izo-E. Izo•E -i. l— — — — — —J
- Pole Grou.p Co -TFAeCt %ebb.

Fig. 85. Complete diagram of a three-phase, six-pole winding for a machine with 3(I slots. The coils of each phase are shown in lines of
different thickness in order that they may be easily traced through the winding. Trace these circuits very carefully and note the
manner in which the coils are connected to obtain alternate N. and S. poles. Also note how the coil groups of each phase overlap to
complete the three phases of each pole of the winding. Refer to this diagram frequently while studying the accompanying pages, and
also at any time you may need it when connecting a three-phase winding.

82. MARKING AND CONNECTING for B phase are then connected and, last of all, those
COIL LEADS for C phase are connected. The C phase should
In winding stators of small size it is general start at the top lead of the fifth coil group, which
practice to connect the coils into groups as they would be the same distance from B as B is from A.
are fed in the slots. You will notice in Fig. 63 There will then be six leads left, three starts and
that the bottom lead of the first coil is connected three finish leads. In Fig. 65, these leads are marked
to the top lead of the second. The top lead of the SA, FC, SB, SC, FA, and FB, and you will note that
first coil and the bottom lead of the second are they are all from top sides of coils. In selecting
identified or marked with sleeving of the same the starting leads for such a winding, we choose
color. All of the following groups are connected three groups which are close to the opening for the
together the same as the first; but the unconnected line leads in the frame or end-bracket.
leads of the second group are marked with a dif- Fig. 66 shows a complete connection diagram for
ferent colored sleeving than the first, and the third a two-phase, four-pole winding with 24 slots. The
group with still another color. For the fourth coils are laid in the slots the same as for a three-
group we again use the same color as for the first, phase winding. There are three coils per group and
and from there on the colors are duplicated on the two groups in each pole. The coils are also con-
other groups, the same as on the first three. nected into groups the same as for a three-phase
When all the coils of this 36-slot winding are winding, and the pole group connections made simi-
in place there will be five more poles similar to larly, except with two groups per pole instead of
the one in Fig. 63. three.
After the wedges are in the. slots the pole group
connections are made as shown in Fig. 65. This dia-
gram shows the connections of the groups into a
three-phase winding. "
Careful observation of the starting leads of A, B,
and C phases will show that there are three separate
windings spaced two-thirds of a pole, or 120 elec-
trical degrees, apart.
You will note however, that the windings are
placed in the stator in the "order A, C, B, from left
to right; thus actually making the effective spacing
60 degrees for certain connections.
After selecting the top lead of any convenient coil
in the winding for the start of A phase and con-
necting all groups of acorresponding color into one Fig. 44. Complete two-phase winding for a four-pole machine with
winding, the second start, or B phase, is selected. 24 slots. Note the similarity between this diagram and the one
in Fig. 85 as to the arrangement of coils and connections between
This lead must be taken from the top of the third pole groups; but also note that there are only two phase groupe
per pole, and the different spacing in electrical degrees between
group, counting A phase as number one. All groups the leads in this winding and the three-phase winding in Fig. IS.
322 Armature Winding, Section Two. Connecting Stator Windings

83. PROCEDURE FOR CONNECTING A about 3 inches long. Strip the insulation from
3 PHASE WINDING about 1Y2 inches of their ends; then connect them
Fig. 67 shows complete four-pole, three-phase together, the bottom lead of one coil to the top of
winding in a stator with 48 slots. The coils are all the next. This is shown in Fig. 68, and the pigtail
in place, but no group connections have been made. splices of these coil groups can be plainly seen.
You will note that all top and bottom leads are The bottom leads of the pole group are still shown
brought out at the points or ends of the coils, and sticking out around the frame, and the top pole
all in the same position on the coils, in order to group leads are projecting out from the center of
make a neat and systematic arrangement of the the core.
leads and to simplify the making of connections. 85. POLE AND PHASE CONNECTIONS
In Fig. 69 the coil-group connections have been
soldered, taped, and folded down between the coil
ends and the pole group leads have been connected
together. The bottom lead of one group is connected
to the bottom lead of the the next group of the same
phase and color. The top lead of one group is also
connected to the top lead of the next group of the
same phase. This places all pole groups of each
phase in series in the winding. These pole-group
leads are commonly called jumpers.
You will note that the three starts for the phases
which are marked SA, SB, and SC are taken from
the first, third, and fifth pole groups, near the line-
lead opening in the frame.

Fig. 67. The above photo shows a stator with 48 slots wound for
four poles, three phase. The coils are all in the slots and the leads
are marked with sleeving and ready for the connections to be made.

The bottom leads of all coils are bent out around

the edge of the frame, and all top coil leads are ar-
ranged straight out from the stator core. The next
step would be to strip the ends of these leads and
temporarily connect them in bunches for making a
ground test from the coil leads to the stator. This
test can be made with a 110-volt test lamp, and it
should always be done before connecting any coils,
to make sure that none of them are grounded be-
cause of damage to their insulation while they were
being placed in the slots.
To make sure that no coils in any group are open,
the start and finish leads of each group should also
be tested by placing one wire of the 110-volt line Fig. 68. This view shows the same stator as in Fig. 67, except that
the coil group connections have been made. By looking carefully
on a start and the test lamp on the finish lead. you can see the bare pig-tail splices of these connections around
Note that all coil leads are marked with sleeving the winding. The pole group leads are not yet connected.

and that every fourth bottom lead and also every The three finish leads marked FA, FB, and FC,
fifth top lead are marked with longer sleeving, as are shown at the top of the winding.
these leads are those of the start and finish of each In Fig. 70 the three finish leads are shown con-
pole group. nected together at the top of the machine, and the
84. MAKING "STUB" CONNECTIONS three start leads are connected to heavy rubber
The next step will be to cut off all leads of the covered wires for the line leads.
coil groups that are marked with the short sleeving, The pole-group leads are now folded or pressed
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Connecting Stator Windings 323

this grouping will even up the coils per phase in

the complete winding. These tables show unequal
groupings which are commonly used in two and
three-phase motors.
The horizontal lines or rows show the number
of coils per group in each phase, for each of the
poles. The vertical columns show the number of
coils per group throughout the entire winding. By
adding the columns for each phase you will find
that the number of coils per phase is the same in
all three phases.
87. STAR AND DELTA CONNECTIONS
After the coil groups and pole-group connections
in a three-phase winding have been completed, six
leads remain to be connected for line leads.
The two methods of connecting these are known
as Star and Delta connections. These connections
are very important, as they determine to quite an
extent the voltage rating of an A. C. generator or
motor.
The left view in Fig. 72 shows the star connection
for an A. C. winding. The three coils—A, B, and
C—represent the three-phase windings of the ma-
chine and are spaced 120° apart. The center con-
nection of this star is the point at which all three
of the finish leads of the winding are connected to-
Fig. 69. Again we have the same stator as in the last two figures,
but in this case the connections are one step farther along. The gether. The three outer ends of the coils are the
coil group connections have been soldered and taped, and the pole
group connections are made, leaving only the start and finish leads
starts, and are connected to the line wires.
of each phase. These are marked by the tags as shown. The sketch at the right in this figure shows the
down around the outside of the coil ends to make method of making the star connection right on the
them clear the end bracket and rotor, and the wind- leads of a winding.
ing is then ready for the insulating compound and
baking.

86. UNEQUAL COIL GROUPING

The lap windings previously covered have all had
equal coil grouping, that is, the same number of
coils in consecutive groups. In some cases it is
necessary to wind a stator with unequal coil groups
in the winding. This is because the number of slots
does not happen to be evenly divisible by the prod-
uct of the number of poles and the number of
phases. The unequal coil grouping to be used in
such a case will have two or more groups in each
pole, with an unequal number of coils per group.
For example, suppose we have a 48-slot machine
to wind for 6 poles and 3-phase. In this case the
product of the poles and phase, is 6 >< 3, or 18. The
number of slots, or 48, is not evenly divisible by 18
so we cannot use equal coil grouping.
This stator can, however, be wound satisfactorily
for three-phase by using the following coil group-
ing: Three coils in group "A", three coils in group
"C", then two coils in group "B", which completes
the first pole.
For the second pole the small group should be
shifted to another phase; so we will place three coils
in group "A". two in group "C", and three in group
"B", etc. Thus we keep rotating or shifting the
small group from one phase to the next through- Fig. 70. The last step in the connections has now been completed
out the winding. and the starts and finishes of the first groups are connected to
the line wires which are brought out through 'Ise right side ce
The tables in Fig. 71 show the manner in which the frame.
324 Armature Winding, Section Two. Star and Delta Connections

The symbol for the star connection is amark con-

sisting of 3 small lines 120° apart and connecting
at the center. The letter Y is also commonly used.
The left view in Fig. 73 shows the delta connec-
tion for an A. C. winding. The three coils—A, B,
and C—again represent the three-phase winding of
the machine, and are connected together in a closed
circuit with the start of "A" to the finish of "C",
start of "C" to finish of "B", and start of "B" to
finish of "A".
The line leads are then taken from these points
at which the windings are connected together.
The sketch at the right in Fig. 73 shows the
method of making the delta connection right on the
leads of a winding.
The symbol for the Delta connection is a small
triangle, A.
Fig. 72. The above two sketches illustrate the method of making star
AC B AC connections with alternating current windings. Note the phase
displacement between the three windings on the left and also the
POLE 1 3 3 2 manner in which two windings are placed in series between any
e
POLE e 1 4 5 4
pair of phase wires. The sketch at the right will be convenient
for reference when connecting machine windings in this manner.
2 3 2 3

3 2 3 3
2 5 4 5 it might at first seem that it would give double the
voltage of adelta connection. The voltage increase,
' 4 3 3 2 » 3 4 5 4 however, will not be quite double, because the spac-
S 3 2 3 ing of the two windings in the machine is 120°
6 2 3 3
" 4 5 4 5 apart and consequently their maximum voltages oc-
cur at slightly different periods of time. The placing
48 SLOTS 6 POLES 54 SLOTS 4 POLES
3 PHASE 3 PHASE of the C phase winding between the windings of A
and B phases, as explained in Art. 82, actually re-
AC B
verses its phase relation to the other two windings
POLE * 1 3 2 2 POLE 1 5 4
by 180 degrees; and in the star connection this puts
A.

2 2 3 2
" 2 4 5 phase voltages in series which are only 60 degrees
' 3 2 2 3
., 3 5 4 displaced. So when two equal voltages which are
4 2 2 2
60 degrees apart are connected in series, their total
" 5 3 2 2 " 4 4 5
voltage at any instant will not be double, but will
6 2 3 2
5 5 4 be approximately 1.73 times the voltage of either
7 2 2 3

2
.1
6 4 5 one.
8 2 2

54 SLOTS a POLES 54 SLOTS 6 POL ES

3 PHASE 2 PHASE
Fig. 71. The above table shows unequal coil groups which can be
used for two and three phase windings. Note how this arrange-
ment of coils places an equal number in each phase when the
winding is complete, even though there is not the same number
in each phase of any one pole.

88. VOLTAGE OF STAR AND DELTA

CONNECTIONS
By carefully comparing these two forms of con-
nections in Figures 72 and 73, you will note that
the delta connection has only half as many turns of
wire in series between the line leads of any phase,
as the star connection. We know that the number
of turns or coils in series directly affects the volt-
age, so we can see that for a given voltage per
phase, the star connection for a generator will pro-
duce higher voltage than the delta, and that the star
connection when used on a motor will enable the
Fig. 73. These diagrams show the method of making delta connections
motor to be used on higher line voltage. for alternating current windings. The sketch on the left shows
that with this delta connection two windings are in parallel between
The delta connection, however, has two windings any pair of phase wires. The sketch on the right shows the
in parallel between any two line or phase leads, so manner of making a delta connection to the leads of a machine
winding.
it will have a greater line current capacity than the
star connection. This value is obtained by vectorial addition in-
As the star connection places twice as many coils stead of numerical addition. Fig. 74 shows how this
in series between line wires as the delta connection, can be done graphically or with lines drawn to scale
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Fractional Pitch Windings 325

and at the proper angles to represent the voltages to less than full pitch. There are several reasons for
be added. The line from "B" to "A" represents 100 making windings with fractional-pitch coils. The
volts of one winding, and the line from "B" to "C" shorter coils used in these windings provide greater
represents 100 volts of another winding 120° out mechanical strength of the winding, and they also
of phase with the first. However, as one of the produce a lower voltage than full-pitch coils. Frac-
phases is reversed with respect to the other, we will tional-pitch windings are also used to improve the
draw a line in the opposite direction from B to D, power factor of alternating-current machines, as
will be explained in a later section.
to represent the voltage 180° displaced, or in the
reverse direction to that shown by line B A. This By referring to Fig. 75, you will note that the
length of the coil between its ends or points is re-
voltage will then be 60° displaced from that in the
duced by making the coil span less than full pitch.
other phase, shown by line B C.
In this figure the large coil which spans from slot
By completing our parallelogram of forces as
1 to slot 7 is assumed to be a full-pitch coil, so a
shown by the light dotted lines we can now de-
coil laid in slots 1 and 6 will be a fractional-pitch
termine the vectorial' sum of the two phase winding
coil and will have 833/3% pitch. The shorter the coil
voltages in series, by measuring the diagonal line
ends are, the greater the mechanical strength of the
B. E. If the lengths of the lines -4 C" and "B D"
coil.
are each allowed to represent 100 volts by a scale Most two and three-phase motor windings use a
of 38 inch for each 10 volts, we find by measuring coil span of less than full pitch, and generally about
the length of the line "B E" that it is 1.73 times as 75 to 85 per cent of full pitch. If agenerator wind-
long as either of the others, so it will represent ing is changed from full pitch to fractional pitch, the
about 173 volts. coils which are thus shortened will ,not span from
Observation of Fig. 74 will show that a straight the center of one pole to the center of the next.
line drawn from A to C would be exactly the same Thus the generator voltage will be decreased. This
length as the line from B to E. In many cases these voltage reduction will vary with the sine of an angle
vector diagrams are drawn in this manner by merely of one-half the electrical degrees spanned by the
reversing the arrow on line A B and leaving off coil.
lines B D, C E, and B E. For example, if a machine has 54 slots and 6
This same method can be applied to find the sum poles, the full-pitch coil span would be (54 6)
or combined force of two separate mechanical forces plus 1, or 10. The coils for this winding would then
acting at an angle. If we have a force of 100 lbs., span from slots 1to 10 and this full pitch would, of
acting in a direction from "B to C", and another course, be 180 electrical degrees. Such a coil will
equal force acting from "B" to "D", then the com- span from the center of one pole to the center of the
bined force "B to E" will be approximately 173 lbs. next, and the voltage generated in it will be maxi-
mum or 100%.
If we use afractional pitch coil which lies in slots
1and 7, it would in this case span only 120 electrical
degrees, instead of 180. Since 54 ÷ 6, or 9 slots
represent 180 degrees, one slot will represent 20 de-
grees and 6 slots 120 degrees. One-half of 120 de-
grees is 60 degrees, and the sine of an angle of 60
degrees is .866. So a fractional-pitch coil spanning
o
Fig. 74. The above diagram illustrates the method used to determine
the sum of two voltages that are 60 out of phase, as when two
phases of a three phase winding are connected finish to finish.

Another method of calculating the sum of vol-

tages which are out of phase will be given in alater
section; and the use of vectors, or lines and angles
for such problems will also be more fully explained
in that section.
The important fact to remember is that the star
connection always gives 1.73 (or, to be exact, 1.732)
times the voltage of the delta connection. So, in
changing from delta to star we multiply the delta
line voltage by 1.732; and in changing from star to
delta we divide the star line voltage by 1.732, or
multiply it by .5774, to get the delta line voltage.

89. FRACTIONAL-PITCH WINDING Fig. 75. Note how fractional-pitch windings make the coils shorter
Fractional-pitch windings, also known as short- as their pitch is decreased. The shorter coils will have greater
mechanical strength, which is one of the advantages of this type
chord windings, are those in which the coil span is of winding.
 Norman Seder
41 Georgia Ave.
13920klyn 7, N. Y. Armature Winding, Section Two. Changing Winding Connections

6 slots instead of 9 would only generate alittle over the connecting system is practically the same as for
86% of the voltage that would be produced by a all wave windings. This rotor can be used satisfac-
full-pitch coil, and this would apply to the entire torily with either a two or three-phase stator wind-
winding of the machine. The sines of various angles ing.
can be found in tables given in a later section on The actual winding procedure for such rotors is
A. C. and will be more fully explained in that sec- practically the same as for D. C. armatures, except
tion. for the difference in the connections.
90. SPECIAL POLE GROUP CONNECTION 92. CHANGING OPERATING VOLTAGE OF
Fig. 76 shows a system of connections very often INDUCTION MOTORS
used on three-phase motors. This system of con- Very often the maintenance man is confronted
nections will give the same results as the one previ- with a problem of changing the operating voltage
ously described in this section and can be used on of induction motors to permit them to be operated
any two or three-phase winding. You will note that on adifferent line voltage, in case they are moved to
instead of connecting from the finish of a certain a new locality where the original operating voltage
coil group to the finish of the next coil group of is not obtainable.
that phase, this finish lead is carried over to the The voltage of any individual motor winding var-
start of the third coil group of that phase, skipping ies directly with the number of turns it has con-
the second one and leaving it to be connected when nected in series.
the counter-clockwise connections are made. This If you remember this simple rule it will help you
produces the same polarity as though all coils of a solve many problems in making voltage changes on
certain phase were connected together in succession equipment. There are, of course, certain practical
from finish to finish, start to start, etc. limits beyond which this change of voltage should
Compare this method with that shown in Fig. 65. not be carried. For example, if we have a winding
One of the advantages of this system is that on operating at 220 volts we might, by reconnecting,
heavy windings it allows the end connections to be able to increase the number of turns in series
fit more compactly against the coils and in a small to a poinf where the winding would stand 2300
space in the machine, and it also permits the use volts, but it is doubtful whether the insulation
of equalizer connections to correct magnetic un- would stand so high a voltage.
balance. It is almost always permissable to reconnect a
winding to operate on a lower voltage than it has
been designed for; but, when reconnecting a ma-
chine to increase its operating voltage, the insula-
CS ACBA C e A C B
4— -•
b 4— —3> — 4.— tion should always be considered. The usual ground
_Pk test for the insulation of such equipment is to apply
an alternating current voltage of twice the machine's
rated voltage, plus one thousand volts. This voltage
should be applied from the winding to the frame for
SA FC 55 FA SC F
at least one minute and a test should be made after
the winding is reconnected, or on any new winding
Fig. 76. This diagram shows a different method of connecting together
the pole groups of the winding to allow a more compact arrange-
ment of the leads on heavy windings. This method simply connects
every other pole of one phase in a straight series group without
crossing the leads; then connects back to get the remaining poles
of those phases which were skipped the first time. These are
connected in another straight series group and to the first group
in a manner to produce alternate N. and S. Wen throughout
that phase.

91. ROTOR WINDINGS

\V e have previously mentioned that some alter-
nating current machines have wound rotors using
windings similar to those of a D. C. armature, but
instead of these coils being connected to the bars of
the commutator, they are connected together for
two or three-phase the sanie as stator coils are. The
main leads are then connected to slip rings on the
rotor shaft. Such windings are used on machines
for variable speed duty and machines where extra-
heavy starting torque and certain power factor char-
acteristics are required.
Fig. 77 shows adiagram of a"phase-wound" rotor
of four poles and 24 slots, wave wound. This type
of winding is used very extensively on large rotors Fig. 77. This sketch shows a complete winding diagram of a 24-slo
wave-wound rotor. Rotors with windings of this nature are some
which have heavy coils made of copper bars, and times called "phase-wound" rotors.
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Changing Winding Connections 327

That is, they should point alternately clockwise and

counter-clockwise around the winding as in Fig. 79.
94. EFFECT ON CURRENT WHEN CHANG-
ING THE VOLTAGE
It is common practice among most manufacturers
to design machines that can readily be connected
for either of two common voltages. This is accom-
plished by a series or parallel arrangement which
can be more easily understood by comparing Figs.
79 and 80. In the center of each of these diagrams
Fig. 78 The above diagram shows the method of reconnecting poles is shown a small schematic sketch that illustrates
of the winding from series to series-parallel to be operated on a
lower voltage. in a simple manner the series or parallel arrange-
ment of the coils. This center sketch in Fig. 79
before it is placed in operation. When a winding shows that there are twice as many coil groups in
is reconnected for a different voltage, it should be
series between the terminal leads as there are in
arranged so that the voltage on each coil group will
the connection in Fig. 80. This means that if the
remain unchanged. winding in Fig. 79 is properly connected for 440
Fig. 78 illustrates the manner in which this can be volts the one in Fig. 80 would be correct for 220
done. In the diagram at "A", 220 volts are applied volts.
to four coil groups in series, which places 55 vrits
on each group, and we will assume this voltage will
cause 5amperes to flow. The same winding is shown
again at "B", reconnected for 110 volts, with two
groups in series in each of two parallel circuits.
When 110 volts are applied to these two parallel
groups we will still have 55 volts per coil, and the
same amount of current will flow. l'he rotating
magnetic field will not be affected any differently
as long as the amount of current per coil is not
changed and the polarity of the coils is kept the
same. This explains why it is not necessary to
change the rotor winding when the winding in the
stator is reconnected for a different voltage.
In reconnecting two or three-phase windings all Fig. 79. This diagram shows a 3-phase, four-Pole winding in which
phases must be connected for the same number of the pole groups in each phase are all four connected in series,
and the three series groups connected star as illustrated by the
circuits, and when connecting the groups for a diagram in the center. Don't confuse the inner and outer diagrams
as they are entirely separate and each shows the same winding
winding having several circuits, extreme care should merely in a different manner.
be taken to obtain the correct polarity on each
We know that in any motor the horse power de-
group.
pends on the number of watts which are used in
93. TEST FOR CORRECT POLARITY its circuit, and we also know that the watts are
In changing the connections of a three-phase equal to the product of the volts and the amperes;
winding one must be very careful not to connect so, if we wish to maintain the same horse power of
the phases in a 60° relation instead of 120° as they a motor at one-half its normal voltage, we can see
should be. By referring to Fig. 79 we can see that that it will have to carry twice as many amperes at
it would be easy to connect the wrong end of the full load.
B-phase to the star point. This would reverse the ACB
polarity of the entire B-winding, and cause the sta-
tor winding to fail to build up the proper rotating
field. The result would be that the motor would
not develop proper torque, and the winding would
heat up and burn out if the reverse connection were
not located and corrected at once.
To avoid making a mistake of this kind, trace
through each winding, starting from the leads or
terminals and proceeding to the star connection at
the center of the winding. As each successive coil
group is traced through, place an arrow showing
the direction in which that group was passed
through. When all three phases have been traced
Fig. 80. This diagram shows the same three-phase, four-pole winding
through in this manner and the arrows on the which was shown in Fig. 79, but in this case the four pole groups
groups are inspected, the sketch or connection is of each phase have been connected two in series and two in
parallel, and then the phase groups connected star as shown by
correct if the arrows on adjacent groups reverse. the center sketch.
328 Armatu-e Winding. Section Two. Changes in Voltage

By comparing the center diagrams in Figs. 79 and

80, we can see that this extra current can be carried
all right by the windings as they are reconnected
for the lower voltage in Fig. 80. In this connection
there are two circuits in parallel which, of course,
will have twice the cross-sectional area of copper
that the single circuits in Fig. 79 had.
If the number of poles in the machine is evenly
divisible by 4—as, for example: 4, 8, 12, 16, etc.—
the winding may be connected in four parallel cir-
cuits, as shown in Fig. 81. By comparing this with
the connections and voltages of Figs. 79 and 80, we
find it will be proper to operate the winding in Fig.
81 at 110 volts, and four times the current which Fig. 83. In this case the six-pole, three-phase winding has all six
poles of each phase connected in parallel and the three-phase
was used in the connection in Fig. 79; which should groups connected star. These diagrams from 79 to 83 inclusive
show additional prac ical applications of series and parallel cir-
maintain the same horse power. The increased cur- cuits to obtain different voltage and current capacities of machine
rent in this connection is again provided for by the windings.

four circuits in parallel.

95. SPECIAL CONNECTIONS FOR CON-
C 1
3
. VENIENT VOLTAGE CHANGES
Inasmuch as some factories and plants may be
supplied with more than one voltage for power pur-
poses, manufacturers commonly supply motors that
can easily be changed from one voltage to another;
for example, 110 to 220 volts, or 220 to 440 volts;
or from either of the higher voltages to the lower
ones.
In most cases each winding is divided into two
parts with suitable leads from each section brought
outside the motor. These leads can be conveniently
changed for either one or two voltages.
Practically all repulsion induction motors that
Fig. 81. Again we have the three-phase, four-pole winding. This
use a spiral type winding are provided with this ar-
diagram has all four poles of each phase connected in parallel and rangement for two voltages. Fig. 84 shows the
the three phase groups connected star as shown by the center
sketch. windings and terminal block of such a machine and
the manner of changing the connections for either
On this same principle, if the number of poles of 110 or 220 volts. Two poles are connected in series
amachine can be evenly divided by 6, it will be pos- with leads 1and 4brought out to the terminal block,
sible to reconnect the windings for either three or and also two poles in series with leads 2 and 3. By
six parallel groups, as shown in Figs. 82 and 83. simply changing the connections of the line leads
Before attempting to make such changes in con- and one or two short jumper wires at these ter-
nections, acheck should be made to see if the wind- minals, the winding can be changed to operate on
ing can be connected for the desired number of cir- either of the two voltages given.
cuits. A simple rule for this is that the total num- A similar system is also used on two or three-
ber of poles must be evenly divisible by the num- phase motors. Fig. 85 shows the method of arrang-
ber of circuits desired, otherwise the winding can- ing the leads of a three-phase winding and the con-
not be changed to that connection. nections from the winding to the terminal block.
The two small diagrams on the right-hand side of
this figure show the method of changing the line
and jumper connections to operate the motor on
either 440 or 220 volts. In this figure the windings
of the motor are represented by the heavy black
lines arranged in the delta connection, with separate
leads for each section of the winding brought out
to the terminal block.
Fig. 86 shows a diagram of a star-connected sta-
tor winding, and the arrangement of the leads from
the separate winding sections to the terminal block.
The small sketches on the right-hand side of this
figure also show the method of arranging the line
Fig. 82. This diagram shows a six-pole, three-phase winding with the leads and jumpers to change this machine for opera-
six poles of each phase connected two in series and three in parallel,
and then the three phase groups connected star tion on either 220 or 440 volts.
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Changes in Phase and Frequency 329

96. CHANGE IN NUMBER OF PHASES

In certain emergency cases it is desirable to know
how to change a motor from three-phase to two-
phase operation, or vice versa. The following ex-
ample will illustrate the procedure that should be
used in making a change of this kind. Suppose we
have a machine that is connected three-phase and
has 144 slots in the stator and a 24-pole winding.
The coils are connected 4-parallel delta for 440 volts,
and we wish to reconnect them for operation on
two-phase at the same voltage. 144 coils connected
for three-phase would have 144 ÷ 3, or 48, coils per
phase. This would be connected for four-parallel
circuits, so there would be 48 ÷ 4. or 12, coils in
series across the line.

Fig. 85. Sketch showing the arrangement of the leads for a three-
phase delta winding, and the manner in which they can be areanged
on a terminal block for convenient voltage changes.

most common frequency for alternating current

circuits in this country nowadays is 60 cycles, but
occasionally a 25-cycle circuit or one of some other
odd frequency is encountered.
We have learned that when an induction motor
is running, a rotating magnetic field is set up in
the stator and that it is this field which induces
the secondary current in the rotor and produces
the motor torque; also that this same rotating field
cuts across the coils in the stator itself and gener-
ates in them a counter-voltage which opposes the
applied line voltage and limits the current through

Fig. 84. This diagram shows how the terminals of a single phase
winding can be arranged for convenient changing from series to
parallel, so they can be operated ou two different voltages.

Remember that these 12 coils are connected in

series on 440 volts, so we would have approximately
36% volts applied to each coil in the original wind-
ing. This winding is to be regrouped for two-
phase, which means that if it is connected single
circuit there would be 144 ÷ 2, or 72, coils in series.
To maintain the same voltage on each coil, the
same number of coils must be connected in series
across the line as before; or 72 12 = 6 parallel
circuits in which we must arrange the coils for
the two-phase winding.
According to the formula for determining coils
per group, the three-phase winding would have
(144 24) 3, or 2 coils per group.
As a two-phase winding would have (144 24)
2 or 3 coils per group, it will be necessary to
reconnect some of the coil leads for this new
grouping.

97. CHANGES IN FREQUENCY

Sometimes it is desired to change a motor which
has been operating on one frequency so that it will Fig. sí. The above diagram shows a winding which is connected star
and has its leads all brought out to a terminal block for convenient
operate on a circuit of another frequency. The change from 448 to 828 volts.
330 Armature Winding, Section Two. Changes in Speed

the winding. The speed of field rotation governs tion motor, if the voltage is varied in the same
the strength of the counter E.M.F., and therefore direction and same proportion as the change pro-
regulates the amount of current which can flow duced in the speed, the torque will remain practi-
through the winding at any given line voltage. cally the same and the horse power will vary with
There are two factors that govern the speed of the speed. Therefore, the horse power increases
rotation of this magnetic field. These are the num- with the higher speeds and decreases at lower
ber of poles in the winding and the frequency of speeds, in exact proportion to the change of speed.
the applied alternating current. The effects of
changing the number of poles will be explained in 99. SPECIAL CONNECTIONS FOR
a later article. Any change that is made in the CONVENIENT SPEED CHANGES
frequency of the current supplied to amotor should Generally the change in the number of poles is
be offset by a change of voltage in the same direc- confined to a variation of only one pair of poles,
tion, and in the same proportion. as for example, changing from 6 to 8 poles or from
This should be done so the current thrbugh the 10 to 12, etc. There are, however, specially-built
coils will be kept at the same value. For example, motors which llave windings so connected that they
if a motor is to be changed from 30 to 60 cycles, can be changed from outside the motor by suitable
the magnetic field will rotate twice as fast and arrangement of the leads and a switching device.
the counter-voltage will be doubled. This means Such motors can be changed to operate at either
that if we are to maintain the same current value full speed or one-half of full speed.
in the stator coils the line voltage should also be Fig. 87. shows a lap three-phase winding which
doubled. If the winding is to be operated on the may be connected for either two or four poles by
same voltage at this higher frequency, the number changing the connections of its leads outside the
of turns in each group across the line should be motor. This winding will produce the same torque
reduced to one-half the original number, in order at both speeds and will develop twice the power
to allow the same current to flow. when running as a two-pole motor and the higher
This procedure should, of course, be reversed speed than it will develop as a four-pole motor
when changing a motor to operate on a lower fre- and operating at the lower speed.
quency.
The horse power of any motor is proportional
to the product of its speed and torque or turning
effort. So, when the frequency is varied and the
stator flux kept constant, the horse power will vary
directly with the change in speed.

98. CHANGING NUMBER OF POLES

AND SPEED
It is very often desired to change the speed of
motors for various jobs around manufacturing and
industrial plants. This can be done by changing
the number of poles in the stator windings of A.C.
motors.
The speed of an induction motor is inversely Fig. 87. A three-phase lap winding with six line leads brought ou
for convenient connection into either two or our polea. This
proportional to the number of poles; that is, if the enables the speed of the machine to be easily changed.
number of poles is increased to double, the speed
will decrease to one-half; or, if the poles are de- Six leads are brought outside the motor frame
creased to one-half their original number, the speed and the external connections should be made as
will increase to double. This rule assumes that follows: For two poles, connect the line leads to
the speed of the rotor will be the same as that L 4, L 5, and L 6. Then connect L 1, L 2, and
of the revolving magnetic field. There is, however, L 3 together. For four poles, connect line leads
a small amount of "slip" between the speed of the to L 1, L 2, and L 3, and leave L 4, L 5, and L 6
rotor and that of the revolving field. This causes open or unconnected. This winding has two coil-
the rotor to turn slightly slower than the field. groups per phase and when such a winding has as
A very simple formula which can be used to many groups in each phase as it has poles it is
determine the speed of the rotating field of such known as a salient pole connection.
motors and the approximate speed of the rotor is You will notice that in the four-pole winding only
as follows: two groups are used to build up four magnetic
circuits in the stator. This is known as a conse-
120 X frequency quent pole connection.
— R.P.M. In connecting two-speed windings of this kind
poles they are usually made fractional pitch for the high
When changing the number of poles of an induc- speed connection. When reconnecting windings for
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Insulating Compounds 331

a different number of poles it will be necessary to then, with a coil span of 15 slots, each slot will
change some of the group connections. represent 180 ± 15, or 12 electrical degrees. The
new coil span is 4 slots less than full pitch, and 4
100. PROCEDURE OF RECONNECTING X 12 = 48, the number of degrees less than full
FOR CHANGE IN SPEED pitch. Full pitch would be 180 degrees; so 180 — 48
The following example illustrates the necessary — 132 electrical degrees for the new coil span.
changes to make in reconnecting a machine for a We recall that the voltage changes with the sine
different number of poles. Suppose we have a of an angle of one-half the number of electrical de-
motor that has been operated at 300 R.P.M. on grees. One-half of 132 squals 66, and the sine of an
25 cycles frequency. On inspecting the winding angle of 66 degrees is .9135. This means that the
and connections we find that it is a 10-pole, 3-phase correct voltage to apply to the new winding will be
winding, connected series delta, and operating at 476 x .9135, or 435 volts. This will be for all prac-
440 volts. We also find that the winding has 120 tical purposes near enough to the desired voltage.
coils with a fractional-pitch coil-span of 1 to 12.
Each group, therefore, has (120 ÷ 10) 3, or 4 101. USE OF INSULATING VARNISH AND
coils. We wish to increase the speed of this motor COMPOUNDS ON WINDINGS
25% at the same voltage. 25% of 300 R.P.M., or
the normal speed is 75; so the new speed should All windings, whether D. C. or A. C., should be
be 375 R.P.M. thoroughly impregnated with a good grade of in-
To determine the number of poles that will be sulating varnish before they are put into service.
required for this speed we can use the formula: This varnish serves several very important pur-
poses. When properly applied it penetrates to the
120 x frequency
= poles inner layers of the coils and acts as extra insulation
speee of the conductors, thereby increasing the dielectric
strength of the insulation between them. This corn-
120 x 25
pound within the coils and in their outer taping,
or, in this case, — 8
greatly reduces the liability of short circuits be-
375
tween conductors and of grounds to the slots or
As the number of poles is to be changed, the coils frame.
per group must also be changed. This will be ac-
When a winding is thoroughly saturated with in-
complished by reconnecting the coil leads; and, ac-
sulating varnish and this varnish is properly hard-
cording to the formula for coil group, the number of
ened, it adds agreat deal to the strength of the coils
coils for the new connection should be
and holds the conductors rigidly in place. This pre-
(120 8) ÷- 3 = 5 coils per group. vents agreat deal of vibration that would otherwise
After the coils have been regrouped the next tend to wear and destroy the insulation, particularly
factor to consider is the voltage. We have already in the case of alternating current windings where
said that the voltage will change directly with and the alternating flux tends to vibrate the conductors
in proportion to the speed; so that a 25% increase when in operation.
in speed will also produce a 25% increase over the Insulating varnish also prevents moisture from
original voltage, which in this case would be 440 x getting in the coils and reducing the quality of the
1.25, or 550 volts. This would be the voltage neces- insulation; and it keeps out considerable dust, dirt,
sary to use for the winding if it were left connected and oil that would otherwise accumulate between
series delta. But, as we wish to operate the motor the coils. Keeping out moisture, dust, and oil
on the same voltage as before, some change must greatly prolongs the life of the insulation.
be made in the connections to permit it to be oper-
ated at 440 volts. 102. AIR DRY AND BAKING VARNISHES
If we change the original connection of series There are many grades of insulating varnish,
delta to a two-parallel star connection, the voltage some of which require baking to "set" or harden
would then be (550 2) X 1.732, or 476 volts. If them, and others which have in them certain liquids
we consider the effect of the coil span on the vol- or solvents which make them dry and harden very
tage, we find that this will bring it about right quickly when exposed to air. The first type are
with the 8 pole connection. The coil span already called baking varnishes and the latter are called air
in the winding is 1to 12, and of course, will remain dry varnishes.
the same for the new connection, as we are only Good air-dry insulating varnish will set or harden
changing the connections and not the coils. Full in from 20 to 30 minutes, but it should be allowed
pitch coil span for the 8 pole connection would be to dry out thoroughly for about 24 hours before
(120 8) + 1, or a span of 1to 16; or covering 15 the windings are put in service. Air dry varnish
slots. is not considered quite as good as the better grades
Leaving the coil span at 1 to 12, makes it 4 of baking varnish. Therefore, the latter should be
slots less than full pitch, for the new 8 pole connec- used wherever a bake oven or some means of ap-
tion. As each pole group represents 180 degrees; plying heat is available.
332 Armature Winding, Section Two. Baking Insulation

103. METHODS OF APPLYING INSULA-

TING VARNISH
There are three common methods by which in-
sulating varnish can be applied to coils and wind-
ings. These are :dipping, brushing, and spraying.
Dipping is considered the best method and should
be used for all small windings of stators and arma-
tures, and for armatures and stator coils and field
coils. To dip these coils or windings, a pan or tank
of the proper size and depth will be required. Be-
fore dipping the windings they should be thorough-
ly dried out in abake oven at about 212° F., in order
to drive out all moisture and to heat the coils so
that when they are dipped the varnish will rapidly
penetrate to their inner layers.
The coils should be allowed to remain in the var-
nish until all bubbling has ceased. When they seem
to have absorbed all the varnish possible they
should be slowly withdrawn from the tank at about
the same rate as the varnish flows from them of its
own accord. This will give them a uniform coating
with the least possible accumulation of varnish at
the lower end. They should then be allowed to
Fig. 88. This photo shows a D.C. armature in place in an electrical
drain until the varnish stops dripping and becomes bake oven and ready for the insulating compound on the windings
to be baked.
partially set. The time required for this will de-
pend on the size of the winding or coils. the temperature uniform throughout the baking
When dipping a large number of small coils, con- operation. Also note the ventilation chimney on top
siderable time can be saved by arranging a drip of the oven.
board set at an angle, so the coils can be hung above When applying the varnish with a brush, the
it and the varnish which drips from them will run winding should, if possible, be preheated to drive
down the board and back into the tank. With this out the moisture and permit the varnish to flow
method other coils can be dipped while the first set deeper into the coils. Varnish can be applied with
are draining. an ordinary paint brush, and this method is used
After all the surplus varnish is drained from the where the dipping tank is not large enough to ac-
coils they should be baked. When placing them in commodate the winding, or where no dipping tank
the oven it is agood plan to reverse their positions, is available.
so that any excess varnish on the bottom ends will Spraying is used principally on large winding'
tend to flow back evenly over their surface when and gives avery good surface for afinishing coat.
first heated. The ends of coils should be given two or three
coats of varnish as an added protection against
104. GOOD VENTILATION IMPORTANT mechanical damage and moisture, and to help pre-
WHEN BAKING vent flash-overs to the frame of the machine.
When a large number of coils are being baked at
one time and practically fill the oven, trouble is 105. PROPER TIME AND TEMPERATURES
sometimes experienced with insufficient ventilation. FOR BAKING
If the air inside the oven is not kept moving Fig. 89 shows aconvenient table which gives the
through the coils, and fresh air constantly supplied, proper temperatures and approximate time in hours
the vapors from the varnish will cause a green for baking insulating varnishes. You will note that
coating to form on the coils and greatly decrease when baking complete armature or stator windings
the insulating qualities of the varnish, and it may more time is required to thoroughly bake the larger
also permit an accumulation of highly explosive sizes. Also note that a slower baking produces a
vapors. With large ovens, fans are sometimes used more elastic and better quality of insulation.
to force an air draft and insure good ventilation. In emergency cases, where time is very important,
Small ovens are usually provided with a chimney the windings can be baked at the higher tempatures
at the top and an air inlet at the bottom, so the in a much smaller number of hours, but the varnish
heated air can rise and provide its own circulation. will be somewhat more brittle and inclined to crack
Fig. 88 shows an electrical baking oven and a or check when any strain is placed upon it. Never
large D. C. armature to which a coat of varnish has attempt to bake windings at temperatures very
been applied and which is ready for baking. This much higher than those given in the first column of
oven has an automatic temperature-control to keep this table, or you are likely to damage the insulation
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Faults in A.C. Windings 333

already on the coils. When a job doesn't need to whistling noise caused by the fan blades on the
be rushed, it is much better to bake it at the lower rotor, friction of the air with the revolving parts,
temperatures and for the longer periods given in the and air passing through ventilation ducts. This air
table, which will give a much more durable and de- whistling is harmless and it will continue for ashort
pendable insulation. period after the current is shut off and while the
In addition to the advantages already mentioned machine is still turning. If a motor is unusually
for this form of insulation, it also provides a noisy there is probably some defect responsible for
smoother surface on the windings and coils, mak- the noise.
ing them much easier to clean, either by means of a A deep, heavy growling is usually caused by some
brush, compressed air, or by washing them with electrial trouble resulting in an unbalanced condi-
a mixture of carbon-tetra-chloride and gasoline or tion of the magnetic field in the windings.
some such solution to remove grease and oil. If a shock is felt when the frame is touched it is
Fig. 89-B shows a stator winding heavily coated quite sure evidence that one or more coils in the
with a solid mass of insulating compound applied winding are grounded to the core or frame. This is
by repeated dipping. Note the rugged protection a very dangerous condition with any voltage and
this gives the winding. To remove awinding which particularly so with voltages above 220. A grounded
has been treated in this manner it is necessary to coil on a 440-volt machine may result in a very
heat it first, in order to soften the compound. dangerous shock, and it is for this reason that the
frames of motors should be grounded when the ma-
224' F. 212F.
Sire of Armature o,-Stator 2419*F.
Quick Elastic Extra Elastic
chines are installed.
Baking Baking Baking
COre Diameter

Under 6 Iriches 4 to 6 hrs. 6 to ehrs. 8 te10 her

6 to 12 Inches 12 hrs. 24 hi-a. 36 hrs.

It to lb Inches 24 hrs. 36 hrs. 40 hrs.

VS to 24 1ncheS 36 hrs. 48 hrs. 60 hrs.

Fig. 89. This convenient table gives the proper temperature and time
in hours for baking insulation of windings of different sizes.

106. TROUBLES OF INDUCTION MOTOR

WINDINGS
By far the greater number of defects which occur
in windings during service or operation are caused
by short circuits, open circuits, and grounds. Water
may have found its way into the coils, or oil from
the bearings may have destroyed the quality of the
insulation. Metallic dust and grit sometimes work
into the windings and cause short circuits; or a
static charge from abelt-driven machine may cause
punctures or small pin holes in the insulation, which
Fig. 89-B. The above photo shows a stator winding heavily impreg-
results in flash-overs and grounds. nated with insulating compound. Note how insulation of this type
Any one of the above mentioned faults is also affords mechanical strength and protection to the windings and
would also prevent dirt, oil and moisture from getting in between
likely to show up just after a motor has been re- the coils.

wound or repaired. So, if a machine doesn't operate

properly after having been rewound, it is quite When the frames are grounded in this manner
likely that some of the coils are connected wrong and a coil does become grounded, it will usually
or that there is a short, open, or ground in some blow afuse, thus indicating a defect at once.
coils because of work carelessly done in the repair Fig. 90 is a diagram of a three-phase winding in
shop. which are shown a number of the more common
The average small induction motor when running faults occurring in such windings. These faults are
properly is almost noiseless, and even in the larger numbered and listed for your convenience in locat-
motors only a uniform, gentle humming should be ing them.
heard. This humming noise is due largely to vibra- 1. The last coils in the second and fourth groups
tion of core laminations, which are caused to vi- of phase "A" are grounded.
brate slightly by the reversals of the magnetic field. 2. The last coil in the third group of phase "A"
This vibration will be in synchronism with the fre- is shorted.
quency of the alternating current in the windings. 3. The start and finish leads of the first coil in
In addition to this humming, which is unavoidable the second group of phase "A" are shorted together
even in the best of motors, there is also a slight at the stubs.
334 Armature Winding, Section Two. Location and Repair of Winding Faults

on the grounded coil group, the lamp will indicate

the ground in this group by again lighting. The
stub connections between the coils and this group
may then be disconnected and each coil tested sepa-
rately until we locate the exact coil that is
grounded.
108. HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDS
Sometimes moisture in the insulation around the
coils, or old and defective insulation will cause a
high-resistance ground that is difficult to detect
with a test lamp. In this case we can use a test
outfit consisting of a telephone receiver and several
dry cells connected in series, as shown in Fig. 92.
Fig. 90. The above is a diagram of a three-phase winding in which Such a test set will detect a ground of very high
are shown a number of the more common faults that occur in
stator windings. resistance, and this set will often be found very
effective when the ordinary test lamp fails to locate
4. The last coil in the fourth group of phase "B" the trouble.
is open.
109. REPAIRS FOR GROUNDED COILS
5. The last coil in the third group of phase "C" is
When the grounded coil is located it should either
reversed.
be removed and reinsulated, or cut out of the cir-
6. The second coil group of phase "B" is reversed.
7. The second coil group of phase "C" and third cuit, as shown in Fig. 93. At times it is inconveni-
coil group of phase "B" have wrong numbers of ent to stop a motor long enough for a complete
rewinding or permanent repairs. In such cases,
coils connected in them.
8. Another fault known as "reversed phase" oc- when trouble develops it is often necessary to make
curs when the three starts are spaced in the wrong a temporary repair until a later time when the
position. This fault is not shown in this sketch. motor may be taken out of service long enough for
rewinding or permanent repairs.
The following paragraphs describe in detail the
methods of testing to locate these faults and al su
the method of correcting them.

107. GROUNDED COILS

The usual effect of one grounded coil in a wind-
ing is the repeated blowing of a fuse when the line
switch is closed. That is providing the machine
frame and the line are both grounded. Two or
more grounds will give the same milk and will also
short out part of the winding in that phase in which
the grounds occur. A quick and simple test to de-
Fig. 91. Several dry cells in series with a low voltage test lamp and
termine whether or not a ground is present in the a pair of test leads or "points" make a very convenient test outfit
winding, can be made with the test outfit shown in for locating a number of the troubles in motor windings.

Fig. 91. This test set consists of several dry cells

The sketch in Fig. 93 shows a coil group consist-
connected in series with a small test lamp and pair
ing of the three coils on the left. The single coil on
of test leads.
the right is the first one of the following group
In place of the dry cells and low-voltage lamp, we
which is not all shown in this sketch. Coil 2 is de-
can use two test leads connected to a 110-volt line
fective and the temporary repair will be the same
and with a 10-watt lamp in series. In testing with
whether the fault is a short, an open, or a ground.
such a set, place one lead on the frame and the
A jumper wire of the same size as that used in the
other -in turn on each of the line wires leading from
coils, is connected to the bottom lead of coil 1, and
the motor. The line switch should, of course, be
across to the top lead of coil 3, leaving coil 2 en-
open before making any test. If there is agrounded
tirely out of the circuit. Coil 2 should then be cut
coil at any point in the windings the lamp will indi-
at the back of the winding, as shown by the dotted
cate it by lighting.
lines in the sketch. If the defective coil is grounded
To locate the phase that is grounded, test each it should also be disconnected from the other coils,
phase separately. In a three-phase winding it will as shown on the diagram.
be necessary to disconnect the star or delta con-
nections. After the grounded phase is located the 110. ONE OR MORE TURNS SHORTED
pole-group connections in that phase can be discon- TOGETHER
nected and each group tested separately. When the Shorted turns within coils are usually the result
test leads are placed one on the frame and the other of failure of the insulation on the wires. This is
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Location and Repair of Winding Faults 335

frequently caused by the wires being crossed and amined and those that appear to have poor insula-
having excessive pressure applied on the crossed tion should be moved during the time that the
conductors when the coils are being inserted in the test is being made. It will often be found that when
slot. Quite often it is caused by using too much the shorted stub connections are moved during the
force in driving the coils down in the slots. In the test the vibration of the steel will stop. If these
case of windings that have been in service for several stubs are reinsulated the trouble should be elimin-
years, failure of the insulation may be caused by ated.
oil, moisture, etc. If a shorted coil is left in awind-
112. OPEN COILS
ing it will usually burn out in a short time and, if
When one or more coils become open-circuited by
it is not located and repaired promptly, will prob-
a break in the turns or a poor connection at the
ably cause a ground and the burning out of a num-
stubs, they can be tested with a test lamp and dry
ber of other coils.
cell such as previously shown and explained. If
this test is made at the ends of each winding, an
open can be detected by the lamp failing to light.
The insulation should be removed from the pole-
group connections and each group should be tested
separately. After locating the coil group that is
open, untape the coils between that group and test
each coil separately. In making this test it is not
necessary to disconnect the splices or connections.
In many cases the open circuit will be at the coil
Fig. 92. A telephone receiver can also be used in series with dry
cells and test leads for locating high resistance grounds occurring ends or stubs, due to a loose connection or broken
in windings.
conductor. If the trouble is at this point it can
usually be located by careful observation and
One of the most practical ways of locating a
checking. If the trouble is aloose connection at the
shorted coil is by the use of a growler and thin stub, it can be repaired by resoldering the splices;
piece of steel, similar to the method described for but if it is within the coil, the coil should either be
D. C. armatures. Fig. 94 shows a sketch of a replaced or have a jumper placed around it, as
growler in use in a stator. Note that the poles are shown in Fig. 93, until abetter repair can be made.
shaped to fit the curvature of the teeth inside the
stator core. The growler should be placed in the
core as shown and the thin piece of steel should be
placed the distance of one coil span away from the
center of the growler. Then, by moving the growler
around the bore of the stator and always keeping
the steel strip the same distance away from it, all
of the coils can be tested.
Fig. 95 shows a photo of a growler in use on a
large stator. The steel strip is held over the slot
the proper distance from the growler for the siz
of coils or coil span used in this case.
If any of the coils has one or more shorted turns
the piece of steel will vibrate very rapidly and cause
a loud humming noise. By locating the two slots
over which the steel will vibrate, we can find both
sides of the shorted coil. If more than two slots
cause the steel to vibrate, they should all be marked Fig. 93. This diagram illustrates the method of cutting out a defective
and all shorted coils should be removed and re- coil with a jumper. In this manner a machine can be quickly
repaired and kept in service until such time as the defective coil
placed with new ones, or cut out of the circuit as can be replaced.

previously described.
113. REVERSED CONNECTIONS
111. SHORTED COIL GROUPS Reversed coils cause the current to flow through
Sometimes one coil or a complete coil group be- them in the wrong direction. This fault usually
comes short circuited at the stubs or end connec- manifests itself—as do most irregularities in wind-
tions. The test for this fault is the same as that for ing connections—by a disturbance of the magnetic
a shorted coil. If all the coils in one group are circuit, which results in excessive noise and vibra-
shorted it will generally be indicated by the vibra- tion. The fault can be located by the use of a mag-
tion of the steel strip over several consecutive slots. netic compass and some source of low-voltage, di-
corresponding to the number of coils in the group. rect current. This voltage should be adjusted so
The stub connections should be carefully ex- it will send about one-fourth to one-sixth of full
336 Armature Winding, Section Two. Testing and Repairs

load current through the winding; and the D. C. 115. REVERSED PHASE
leads should be placed on the start and finish of one Sometimes in a three-phase winding a complete
phase. If the winding is three-phase, star-connected, phase is reversed by either having taken the starts
this would be at the start of one phase and the star from the wrong coils or by connecting one of the
point. If the winding is delta-connected, the delta windings in the wrong relation to the others when
must be disconnected and each phase tested sepa- making the star or delta connections. If the wind-
rately. ing is connected delta, disconnect any one of the
Place a compass on the inside of the stator and points where the phases are connected together,
test each of the coil groups in that phase. If and pass current through the three windings in
the phase is connected correctly, the needle of the series. Place a compass on the inside of the stator
compass will reverse definitely as it is moved from and test each coil group by slowly moving the com-
one coil group to another. However, if any one of pass one complete revolution around the stator.
the coils is reversed the reversed coil will build up The reversals of the needle in moving the com-
a field in the opposite direction to the others, thus pass one revolution around the stator should be
causing aneutralizing effect which will be indicated three times the number of poles in the winding.
by the compass needle refusing to point definitely to In testing a star-connected winding, connect the
that group. If there are only two coils per group three starts together and place them on one D. C.
there will be no indication if one of them is reversed, lead. Then connect the other D. C. lead and star
as that group will be completely neutralized. point, thus passing the current through all three
windings in parallel. Test with a compass as ex-
plained for the delta winding. The result should
then be the same, or the reversals of the needle in
making one revolution around the stator, should
IPASI DE GROWLER USED again be three times the number of poles in the
roR STATOR TESTINIE.
winding.
These tests for reversed phases apply to full-pitch
windings only. If the winding is fractional-pitch, a
careful visual check should be made to determine
STEEL PIECE)
whether there is a reversed phase or mistake in
connecting the star or delta connections.

116. TESTING SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS

If a split-phase motor fails to start when a line
switch is closed, the trouble may be due to one or
several of the following faults:
1. Tight or "frozen" bearings.
2. Worn bearings, allowing the rotor to drag on
Fig. S4. The above view shows the manner in which a growler can
be used to induce current in a shorted coil and indicate the short the stator.
circuits by vibration set up in the steel strip at the right. This
is a very simple and effective method of locating short circuits. 3. Bent rotor shaft.
4. One or both bearings out of alignment.
114. REVERSED COIL GROUPS 5. Open circuit in either starting or running wind-
ings.
When an entire coil group is reversed it causes
6. Defective centrifugal switch.
the current to flow in the wrong direction in the
7. Improper connections in either winding.
whole group. The test for this fault is the same 8. Grounds in either winding or both.
as that for reversed coils. The winding should be
9. Shorts between the two windings.
magnetized with direct current, and when the com-
pass needle is passed around the coil groups they 117. TIGHT OR WORN BEARINGS
should indicate alternately N. S., N. S., etc. If one Tight bearings may be caused by failure of the
of the groups is reversed, three consecutive groups lubricating system; or, when new bearings are in-
will be of the same polarity. The remedy for either stalled, they may run hot if the shaft is not kept
reversed coil groups or reversed coils, is to make a well oiled.
visual check of the connections at that part of the If the bearings are worn to such an extent that
winding, locate the wrong connection, and recon- they allow the rotor to drag on the stator, this will
nect it properly. usually prevent the rotor from starting. The inside
When the wrong number of coils are connected of the stator laminations will be worn bright where
in two or more groups, the trouble can be located they are rubbed by the rotor. When this condition
by counting the number of stubs on each group. If exists it can generally be easily detected by close
any mistakes are found they should be remedied by observation of the stator field and rotor surface
reconnecting properly. when the rotor is removed.
 Armature Winding, Section Two. Testing and Repairs 337

close when the rotor stops, the motor will not start
when the line switch is closed. Failure of the
switch to close is generally caused by dirt, grit, or
some other foreign matter getting into the switch
mechanism; or by weakened springs on the switch.
The switch should be thoroughly cleaned with gaso-
line and then inspected for weak or broken springs.
If the winding is on the rotor, the brushes some-
times stick in the holders and fail to make good
contact with the slip rings. This causes sparking
at the brushes. There will probably also be a cer-
tain place where the rotor will not start until it
is moved far enough for the brush to make con-
tact on the ring. The brush holders should be
cleaned, and the brushes carefully fitted so they
move freely with a minimum of friction between
the brush and the holders. If a centrifugal switch
fails to open when the motor is started, the motor
will probably growl and continue to run slowly
and the starting winding will burn out if not
promptly disconnected from the line by a fuse or
switch. This is also likely to be caused by dirt or
hardened grease in the switch.

120. REVERSED CONNECTIONS AND

GROUNDS
Reversed connections are caused by improperly
Fig. 95. This photo shows a growler in use in a large stator. Note connecting acoil or group of coils. The wrong con-
the size and shape of these coils and the position of the steel strip
which is just the width of one coil from the center of the growler.
nections can be found and corrected by making a
careful check of the connections and reconnecting
118. BENT SHAFT AND BEARINGS OUT OF those that are found wrong. The test with D. C.
LINE and acompass can also be used for locating reversed
A bent rotor shaft will usually cause the rotor to coils. Test the starting and running windings sepa-
bind when in a certain position and then run freely rately exciting only one winding at atime, with the
until it comes back to the same position again. An direct current. The compass should show alternate
accurate test for abent shaft can be made by placing poles around the winding.
the rotor between centers on a lathe and turning The operation of a motor that has a ground in
the rotor slowly while a tool or marker is held in the windings will depend on where the ground is,
the tool post close to the surface of the rotor. If and whether or not the frame is grounded. If the
the rotor wobbles it is an indication of abent shaft. frame is grounded then when the ground occurs in
Bearings out of alignment are usually caused by the winding it will usually blow a fuse. À test for
uneven tightening of the end-shield plates. When grounds can be made with atest lamp and dry cells,
placing end-shields or brackets on amotor, the bolts or a 110-volt lamp and leads. One test lead should
should be tightened alternately, first drawing up be placed on the frame and the other on a lead to
two bolts which are diametrically opposite. These the winding. If there is no ground the lamp will not
two should be drawn up only a few turns, and the light. If it does light, it indicates a ground due to a
others kept tightened an equal amount all the way defect somewhere in the insulation.
around. When the end shields are drawn up as far
121. SHORT CIRCUITS
as possible with the bolts, they should be tapped
Short circuits between the two windings can also
tightly against the frame with amallet and the bolts
be detected by the use of a test lamp. Place one of
again tightened.
the test leads on one wire of the starting winding
119. OPEN CIRCUITS AND DEFECTIVE and the other test lead on the wire of the running
CENTRIFUGAL SWITCHES winding. If these windings are properly insulated
Open circuits in either the starting or running from each other the lamp should not light. If it
winding will cause the motor to fail to start. This does light, it is a certain indication that there is a
fault can be detected by testing in series with the short between the windings. Such a short will
start and finish of each winding with a test lamp. usually cause part of the starting. winding to burn
A defective centrifugal switch will often cause out. The starting winding is always wound on top
considerable trouble that is difficult to locate, unless of the running winding; so, if it becomes burned out
one knows where to look. If the switch fails to due to a defective centrifugal switch or a short cir-
 Norm tm Teder
41 Geeîgià Fve:
1316boklyn 7, Y: Armature Winding, Section Two. Factory Wound Coils

small and large sizes, that the owners have planned

to discard because they did not know they could be
rewound or knew no one nearby who could rewind
them. Such cases are splendid opportunities for you
to get additional experience and practice and to get
started in this line of work if you choose.
In any case, let us again emphasize the import-
ance of applying the instruction covered in this sec-
tion, and keeping familiar with it by frequent refer-
ence to its pages, for any question or problem of
this nature which you may have.
You are very likely to find a knowledge of arma-
ture winding, connecting and testing very valuable
on some job when you least expect it.
Welcome every opportunity to get added experi-
ence of this nature, and use this Reference Set
frequently and you should be able to make a
definite success of any job of armature winding or
96. The above photo shows a stator partly wound with factory- testing.
made coils. Coils of this type can be purchased ready made from
many manufacturers so they can be quickly and conveniently
inserted, and speed up repairs of the machines.

cuit, the starting winding can be conveniently re-

moved and replaced without disturbing the running
winding.
Single phase motors are very simple to rewind,
and in many localities there are a great number to
be rewound or repaired each year. Many of them
need only to have the centrifugal switches cleaned
and adjusted, or fitted with new springs. Others
have only a loose or grounded connection which
can be quickly repaired.
Many of our graduates start a fine business of
their own, or make considerable money in their
spare time from their regular job, by repairing small
motors of fans, washing machines, and others. With
a few lbs. of wire and a little insulation material
many men do this work right at home in their own
basements or garages. Fig. 97. This view shows the neat appearance of the stator in which
In many cases you can get old motors of both the coils are of the proper size and. shape and carefully placed in
the slots.
 339

DATA FOR CONSTRUCTING GROWLERS

122. GROWLER SPECIFICATIONS shown in the Fig. 98C. Terminals should be pro-
vided on the fibre clamp so that the ends of the coil
Laminations designed for use in making small
may be attached to them, or the two clamping bolts
transformers may be used to good advantage in
may be used as terminals as shown by the draw-
constructing a growler for use in testing armatures
ing.
or stators.
After the coil is completed, it may be dipped in
Fig. 98 shows how the laminations may be insulating varnish, or if varnish is not available, it
trimmed and arranged for use in constructing a should be wound with tape to protect the coil. This
growler for use in testing either armatures or sta- little growler will be very serviceable in testing
tors. small and medium sized armatures or stators.
After the laminations are trimmed as shown by Fig. 99 contains complete constructional data for
the dotted lines, at "A" they are stacked as shown in another growler which is very convenient for use in
Fig. 98B, so as to form the letter "H." Place the shops where a large number of armatures are
piece with the center bar attached on the work tested.
bench and then butt the "I" piece against the center Fig. 100 shows complete constructional data for
bar as shown. The next tw'o laminations are re- another style of growler to be constructed from
versed so as to break joints. That is, if the "I" piece laminations 5%" x 4%". The laminations are
is on the right for the first layer, it should be on the stacked together to form a stack about 1inch high.
left for the next layer, and so on. Continue stacking They are then bolted together with a strip of wood
the laminations alternately on first one side and then on each side of both ends. These clamping bolts
the other until you have a stack about one-inch should be %" x 2%". The 4pieces of wood may be
high. cut from strips of wood 3%." long by 1" wide by
The laminations must then be bound together %" thick. The two base supports are 5inches long
either with bolts or by use of a clamp as shown at by 1% inches wide by 1inch thick. The base sup-
"C" in Fig. 98. Two pieces of fibre or wood about ports are fastened to the upright strips by wood
3 inches long with a hole in each end may be used screws inserted through the bottom.
as a clamp. After the core is assembled, it should Varnished cambric or some other good grade of
be carefully insulated. The part of the core which insulation should completely cover all parts of the
will come in contact with the wire should be cov- iron core which will come in contact with the coil.
ered with a layer of varnished cambric or oiled The coil should be wound around the center leg of
paper. The cambric may be wound around the the core as shown in Fig. 100. About 2 oz. of No.
core and over the fibre strips. 31 S. C. E. wire will be required for the coil.
The 110 volt A. C: winding consisting of about Terminal posts may be mounted on the base strips
2000 turns, or 2 oz. of No. 34 S.C.E. wire should be to accommodate the ends of the coil, and for con-
carefully wound on the center part of the core as nection of the 110 volt A. C. line.

9.7 0)

Fig. N. This figure shows bow a combination internal and external growler can be made from "E" & "I"
transf armer laminations by cutting off shaded portion,.
340 Armature Winding, Section Two. Factory Wound Coils.

24 LBS. OF
LAMINATED IRON
AM mLTER
FULL SCALE
PERES READING
LO I
ARMATUR

RHEOSTAT 7 OHMS

TWO COILS OF WIRE ARE USED

EACH CONTAINING 250 TURNS
OP 12 Il S.C. L.WIRE.THE COILS
ARE TNSuLATLo FROM EACH
OTHER BY TWO LAYERS OP PION
PAPER AND TWO LAYERS OF
EMPIRE CLOTH. THESE COILS
MAY E,E WOUND ONE OVER THE
OTHER OR IN TWO SECTIONS AS
SHOWN.
Ye_4— ,
./„;,
/
4 1
4 "

D.P. D.T. SW. USED

TO CONNECT COILS
IN SERIES OR.
PARALLEL FOR
DIFFERENT STRENGTH
MAGNETIC FIELDS GROWLER SPEC' FI
CATIONS
110E. NO A.C.

FLg.

Fig. 100. A medium sized growler for armature testing.

 341

C YM
Oectrical School
CHICAGO - -ILLINOIS
ESTABLISHED 1899 COPYRIGHT 1942

DIRECT CURRENT POWER

AND MACHINES

Section One

D. C. Generators
Construction and Operating Principles
Types of Generators and Their Applications
Operation and Care of Generators
Parallel Operation
Three Wire Generators and Balancers
Commutation and Interpoles
for Generators and Motors
342

D. C. GENERATORS

Direct current energy and machines are very ex- in cities, and electric railways across the country,
tensively used for traction work and certain classes series D. C. motors are extensively used, because
of industrial power drives. their great starting torque enables them to easily
The principal advantages of D. C. motors are start a loaded car or train from astanding position,
their very excellent starting torque and wide range and quickly bring it up to very high speeds.
of speed control. Fig. 3shows apowerful electric locomotive which
D. C. motors are excellent for operating certain is driven by several electric motors of several hun-
classes of machines which are difficult to start under dred horse power each.
load, and must be driven at varying speeds, or per- D. C. motors are commonly made to operate on
haps reversed frequently. Their speed can be varied voltages of 110, 220, and 440, for industrial service;
over a very wide range, both above and below nor- and from 250 to 750 volts for railway service.
mal speed. Elevators in large skyscraper office and store
Many thousands of factories and industrial plants buildings also use thousands of powerful D. C.
use electric motors exclusively for driving their motors, to smoothly start the loaded cars and
various machines, and in certain classes of this swiftly shoot them up or down, ten, forty, or 70
work D. C. motors are extensively used. They are stories as desired.
made in sizes from 1 A0 h. p. to several thousand Here again their good starting torque, smooth-
horse power each, and are used both for group drive ness of operation, and accurate control for stopping
and individual drive of various machines. exactly at floor levels, make them very desirable.
Fig. 1shows an installation of large D. C. motors
in use in a steel mill. These motors are located in
the power room as shown, and are connected to
shafts extending through the wall at the right, to
drive the great rolls which roll out the hot steel in
the adjoining room.
Fig. 2 shows a smaller motor used for driving a
metal working machine. Where a separate motor
is used for each machine in this manner, it is classed
as individual motor drive. Millions of electric
motors are used in this manner in industrial plants.
yor operation of street cars and elevated trains

Fig. 2. Hundreds of thousands of small and medium sized motors are

used to drive individual machines, as shown in this view.

One modern type of elevator equipment uses

direct current motors and what is known as variable
voltage control. The variable voltage for each
elevator motor is supplied by a separate D. C.
generator, which is designed to vary its voltage
as the load on the car varies, thus providing even
Fig. 1. This photo shows a group of large D. C. motors in use in a speed regulation and extremely smooth starting and
steel mill. Machines of this type, ranging from several hundred
to several thousand horsepower each, are used in this work. stopping.
 D. C., Section One. Uses of Direct Current. 343

M. generator can be driven by a 3600 R. P. M. tur-

bine, through speed reducing gears with a ratio of
10 to 1.
Fig. 5shows a small D. C. generator driven by a
vertical steam engine. Note the flywheel used to
maintain even speed and voltage, and also note the
commutator and brushes which are in plain view on
this generator.
Fig. 6 shows a larger D. C. generator also driven
by a steam engine; which, in this case, is of the
horizontal type and is located behind the generator.
Note the very large flywheel used on this machine,
and also the commutator and brush rigging on the
left.
Fig. 3. Electrical locomotives of the above type often use six or eight
powerful D. C. motors to turn their driving wheels. Direct current is not much used where the energy
must be transmitted over distances more than one-
Fig. 4 shows a large D. C. elevator motor with half mile to a mile, as it requires high voltage to
its cable drum and magnetic brake attached on the transmit large amounts of power over longer dis-
right hand side. tances; and it is usually not practical to operate D.
Because of the extensive use of direct current C. generators at voltages above 750.
for elevators in large buildings, and for traction Where large amounts of power are used in a com-
purposes, some large cities have their central busi- pact area, such as in a large factory, in mines, steel
ness districts supplied with D. C., and the outlying mills, or densely built up business section of cities,
districts where the power must be transmitted D. C. finds its greatest use.
farther are supplied with A. C. Where direct current is desired for use at a con-
Direct current generators are used to supply the siderable distance from the location of the power
direct current wherever it is extensively used; and plant, alternating current may be used to transmit
many privately owned power plants use D. C. gen- the energy at high voltage, to asubstation in which
erators because of the simplicity of their operation a motor generator set is used to produce D. C.
in parallel, where several are used.
In the operation of D. C. generators the speed at
which they are driven is not as critical as it is with
A. C. generators. Small D. C. generators can be
belt driven; but this is not practical with A. C.
generators, because a slight slip of the belt would
cause their speed to vary, and make trouble in their
parallel operation.
D. C. generators are made in sizes from 60 watts
for automotive use, up to those of several thousand
kilowatts for industrial and railway power plants.
Their voltages range from 6 volts on automotive
generators to 440 volts for industrial purposes; and
on up to 600 and 750 volts for railway work.
The smaller sizes for belt drive operate at speeds
from 300 to 1800 R. P. M., while the larger sizes
which are direct connected to steam, oil, or gas
engines, run at speeds from 60 to 250 R. P. M.
When these generators are driven by direct shaft
connections to reciprocating steam engines, a large
flywheel is usually provided on the same shaft to
Fig. 4. Thià photo shows a D. C. elevator motor with the magnetic
produce a more even speed. It will also deliver brake on the right end of the cable drum.
power to the generator during suddenly increased
loads, until the engine governor can respond. Fig. 7 shows a motor generator of this type, con-
D. C. generators are not so well adapted for direct sisting of an A. C. motor on the left, driving aD. C.
connection to steam turbines, because of the very generator on the right. In this case the two machines
high speeds of the turbines, and the great stress are coupled directly together on the same shaft.
these speeds would set up in the commutators and Other common uses for Direct Current are for
windings of the generators. electro-plating, electrolytic metal refining, battery
When driven by turbines, they are usually charging, operation of electro-magnets, farm light-
coupled together by gears. For example a360 R. P. ing plants, and automotive equipment.
344 D. C., Section One. Uses of Direct Current.

Powerful electro -magnets requiring direct cur-

rent for their operation, are used by the thousands
to speed up the handling of iron and steel materials
in industrial plants, railway shops, etc. Fig. 8shows
alarge magnet of this type which is used for lifting
kegs of nails and bolts. This illustration also shows
how the magnetism acts through the wooden kegs,
proving what we have learned in an earlier section—
that magnetism cannot be insulated.

Flg. S. Small engine-driven D. C. generators of the above type are

used in a great number of privately owned power plants.

D. C. generators for electro-plating and electro- F g. 7. Motor generator sets of the above type are very extensively
lytic refining, are made to produce low voltages, used for changing A. C. to D. C. The D. C. generator is shown
on the right and is driven by the A. C. motor on the left.
from 6 to 25 volts, and very heavy current of sev-
eral thousand amperes on the larger machines. The automotive field is an enormous user of di-
Garages use thousands of small motor generators, rect current equipment. Each modern automobile
to produce D. C. for battery charging; and stores has a complete little power plant of its own, con-
and plants using large fleets of electric trucks, sisting of its D. C. generator, series D. C. starting
charge their batteries with D. C. from larger charg- motor, battery, lights, ignition coil, horn, etc. Many
ing generators. millions of D. C. generators and motors are in use
Train lighting with the thousands of batteries and on cars and trucks in this country alone. Fig. Q
generators for this work is another extensive field shows acommon type of 8 volt, shunt-wnund, D. U.
for D. C. equipment. automotive generator.
Many thousands of D. C. farm lighting plants are Many powerful busses also use gas electric drive,
in use throughout this country, supplying direct having agasoline engine to drive aD. C. generator,
current at either 32 volts or 110 volts for light and which in turn supplies current to D. C. motors
power on the farms. geared to the axles. This form of drive provides

Fig. I. This photo shows a large D. C. generator such as used in a great many industrial and railway power plants. Note the large fly wheel whicii
is used to keep the speed of the generator even and "smooth out" the pulsations produced by the strokes of the engine.
 D. C., Section One. Generators. 345

smoother starting and stopping, greater hill climb-

ing ability, higher speeds on level roads and
eliminates gear shifting. Diesel-Electric trains also
use D. C. generators and motors.
With this great variety of uses for direct current
and D. C. machines you can readily see the value
of making a thorough study of the equipment and
principles covered in this section. The opportuni-
ties open to a trained man are certain to be much
greater if he has agood knowledge of the operation,
care and testing of direct current machines of all
common types.

Fig. S. Direct current is used to operate powerful electro-magnets of

the above type for handling metal materials in industrial plants,
warehouses, foundries, and iron yards. Note the manner in which
these kegs of bolts are lifted by the magnet, even though the
wooden heads of the kegs are between the magnet and the metal
to be lifted. In plants where the principal supply of electricity is
alternating current small motor generators are often used to supply
the direct current for magnets of this type. Fig. I. Direct current generators of the above type are used by the
millions on automobiles.

D. C. GENERATORS

It has already been stated in an earlier section, The K. W. rating of aD. C. generator is the power
that D. C. generators and motors are almost exactly load that it will carry continuously without exces-
alike in their mechanical construction, and that in sive heating, sparking, or internal voltage drop.
many cases the same machine can be used either as If a load greater than a machine is designed or
a motor or a generator, with only slight changes in rated for is placed upon it for an extended period,
the field connections, brush adjustment, etc. This it will probably give trouble due to one of the three
is a very good point to keep in mind while studying causes mentioned; and if the overload is very great
the following material, as many of the points covered and left on too long it will cause the armature
on construction, operation, load ratings, tempera- winding to burn out.
tures, etc., will apply to either a motor or a gen- Nearly all generators are designed to be able to
erator. carry some overload for short periods without in-
jury to the machine. This is usually from 15 to 25
1. GENERATOR RATINGS per cent, for periods not longer than an hour or so.

D. C. generators are always rated in kilowatts, a 2. OPERATING TEMPERATURES

unit of electric power with which you are already The safe temperature rises in electrical machinery
familiar. It will be well to recall at this point, how- are determined by the temperatures the insulating
ever, that one kilowatt is equal to 1000 watts, and materials will withstand without damage. All other
approximately 1.34 h. p. You will also recall that materials in the machine are metals which may be
the watts or kilowatts consumed in any circuit are subjected to quite high temperatures without much
equal to the product of the volts and amperes. damage.
Therefore, with amachine of any given voltage, the Of course the higher the temperature of the cop-
greater the load in K. W., the greater will be per windings the greater their resistance will be, and
the load in amperes of current carried by the wind- the higher will be the losses due to voltage drop in
ings of that machine. the machine.
 •\!
346 /2.... D. C., Section One. Generators.

Ordinary combustible insulations such as silk, ciprocating engines, may have as many as 24 or
cotton, and paper, should never be subjected to tem- more field poles, and operate at speeds of 60 to 600
peratures higher than 212° F. (or 100° C). Mica, R. P. M. Armatures for these lower speed machines
asbestos, and other non-combustible insulations are made shorter in length and much larger in diam-
may be subjected to temperatures as high as 257° F., eter, so their conductors cut through the field flux
or 125° C. at high speeds, even though the R. P. M. of the
In establishing temperature rise ratings for elec- armature is low.
trical machinery, it is assumed that the temperature The peripheral speeds of armatures not only de-
in the rooms where the machines are installed will termine the voltage induced and the stresses on the
never be over 104° F. or 40° C. This gives, for the coils and commutator bars, but also determine the
ordinary insulations, a permissable rise of 212 — wear on brushes and the type of brushes needed, as
104. or 108° F. or 60° C. For non-combustible will be explained later.
insulations the permissable rise is 257 — 104, or
4. TYPES OF DRIVES
153° F. or 85° C.
Ordinary generators and motors are usually guar- Belt driven generators are not much used in large
anteed by the manufacturers to operate continu- plants any more because of possible belt slippage,
ously at full load, without exceeding a temperature and the danger of high speed belts. A number of
rise of 35° C., 40° C., or 50° C., as the case may be. older plants and many small ones use belt driven
The temperatures of machines can be checked by machines, and with fairly satisfactory results if the
placing small thermometers in between, or close to, proper belts and pulleys are used.
the ends of their windings. A good general rule to One advantage of small belt driven generators is
remember, is that if the hand can be held on the that they can be designed for high speeds and are
frame of the machine near the windings without much lower in cost.
great discomfort from the heat, the windings are The engine type generator with the large diam-
not dangerously hot. eter, slow-speed armature, direct connected to the
engine shaft, is more commonly used. Steam en-
3. GENERATOR SPEEDS gines are a very desirable form of prime mover for
The speeds at which generators are operated de- generators, because of their high efficiency, simple
pends upon their size, type of design, and method of operation, and because they can be operated on the
drive. The speed is of course rated in R. P. M. ordinary steam pressures.
(revolution per min.) but another expression com- Steam turbines are used to drive D. C. generators
monly used in referring to the rotating armatures in plants where space is limited, because they are
of electrical machines is the Peripheral Speed. This so small and compact.
refers to the travelling speed of the outside or cir- Water wheels are used for prime movers where
-cumference of the rotating element, and this sur- convenient water power is available. Generators
face is commonly known as the Periphery. This for water wheel drive may be either low or high
speed is expressed in feet per second or feet per speed type, according to the water pressure and
minute. type of water wheel used.
The centrifugal force exerted on the armature
conductors or commutator bars depends on the
peripheral speed of the armature or commutator.
This speed, of course, depends on the R. P. M., and
the diameter of the rotating part.
The larger the armature, the farther one of its
conductors will travel in each revolution. When a
coil of a bi-polar, (two pole) machine makes one
revolution, it will llave passed through 360 actual
or mechanical degrees and 360 electrical degrees.
But a coil of a six pole machine will only have to
rotate 120 mechanical degrees to pass two poles,
and through 360 electrical degrees.
So we find that with the same flux per pole in the
larger machine as in the two pole one, the same
E. M. F. can be generated at a much lower speed
with the multipolar machine.
Small generators of two or four poles and for
belt drive, have long armatures of small diameter
and may be operated at speeds from 120 to 1800
R. P. M. Larger machines for slower speed drive
Fig. 10. An early type of D. C. generator deve oped by Thomas
by direct connection to the shafts of low speed re- Edison. Note the construction of the field magnets of this machine.
 D. C., Section One. Generator Fields. 347

5. MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION OF D. C. The frames for larger generators are usually cast
GENERATORS in two pieces for more convenient handling during
We have already learned that a generator is a installation and repairs. They can be split either
device used to convert mechanical energy into elec- horizontally or vertically. Fig. 12 shows a frame
trical energy. We also know that the principal of this type for an eight-pole machine. Note where
parts of a D. C. generator are its field frame, field the halves of the frame are joined together and
poles, armature, commutator, brushes, bearings, etc. bolted at each side.
The purpose of the field poles is to supply a
strong magnetic field or flux, through which the 7. FIELD POLES
armature conductors are rotated to generate the There may be any equal number of field poles in
voltage in them. a generator or motor frame, according to its size
D. C. generators were the first type commercially and speed. These poles are made of soft iron to
used, and the early types were very simply con- keep the magnetic reluctance as low as possible.
structed with two large field poles in the shape of a The poles can be cast as a part of the frame on
huge bipolar electro-magnet. The armature was smaller machines, but are usually bolted into the
located between the lower ends of these magnets, as larger frames. It is very important that they should
shown in Fig. 10. This figure shows one of the fit tight to the frame to prevent unnecessary air
early types of Edison generators of 100 K. W. size. gaps and reluctance in the magnetic circuit.
6. FIELD FRAMES The ends of the poles which are next to the ar-
Modern generators and motors have their field mature are usually curved and flared out into what
poles mounted in a circular frame, as shown in Fig. are called Pole Shoes or Faces. This provides a
11. This figure shows a two-pole field frame with more even distribution of the field flux over the
the two large poles mounted on the inside of the armature core and conductors. These pole shoes
frame. The field coils can be plainly seen on the are generally machined to produce an even air gap
poles. between them and the armature core.
Pole shoes are often made of laminated strips to
keep down the induced eddy currents from the flux
of the moving armature conductors. These lamin-
ated pole shoes are then bolted to the field poles.
The machine in Fig. 11 has laminated pole shoes of
this type.
In some large machines the entire field poles are
often laminated for the same reason as the pole
shoes are.
The field coils may be wound with round or
square copper wire or with thin copper strip or

Fig. 11. Field frame of a modern generator or motor. Field coils

located on the poles set up powerful magnetic flux in which the
armature rotates.

The circular frame, in addition to providing a

support for the field poles, also provides acomplete
closed path of magnetic material for the flux circuit
between the poles. For this reason the frames are
usually made of soft iron.
For the smaller and medium sized machines, they
are generally cast in one piece with feet or exten-
sions for bolting to a base. The inner surface is
usually machined smooth where the poles are bolted
to it, or in some cases the poles are cast as apart of
the frame. The ends of the frame are machined to Fig. 12. Field frame for an eight-pole D. C. generator. Note the
manner in which the frame is built in two sections for convenience
rilow the bearing brackets to fit properly. when installing and makinv repairs.
348 D. C., Section One. Generator Armatures and Commutators.

view clearly shows the coils in the slots, and the

long risers which extend from the commutator bars
up to these coil ends. This armature and commu-
tator give some idea of the size to which the larger
D. C. generators and motors can be built.

9. COMMUTATORS
A commutator, we already know, is a device used
to rectify or change the alternating E. M. F. which
is induced in the armature, to a direct E. M. F. or
voltage in the external circuit. A commutator might
also be called asort of rotating switch which quickly
reverses the connections of the armature coils to
the external circuit as these coils pass from one pole
to the next.
The manner in which the commutators are con-
structed of forged copper bars which are insulated
from each other by mica segments, was covered in
a preceding article under D. C. armatures.
Figs. 14 and 15 show two excellent views of com-
mutators of slightly different types. The smaller
one in Fig. 14 is held together by the ring nut
Fig. 13. This large armature shows the size to which D. C. generators shown on the right, while the larger one is known
can be built. An armature of this size would develop several
thousand horsepower. as a"bolted type" commutator, and has bolts which
draw the V-rings tightly into the grooves in the
ribbon. These coils are connected to produce alter- bars.
nate north and south poles around the frame. In
Fig. 12 the connections between the field coils can 10. BRUSHES
be noted. The brushes slide on the commutator bars and
deliver the current from a generator winding to the
8. ARMATURES line; or, in the case of a motor, supply the current
We have already learned a great deal about this from the line to the winding. Most of these brushes
very important part of D. C. machines, as armature are made of a mixture of carbon and graphite
construction and winding were thoroughly covered molded into blocks of the proper size. While this
in the preceding section. A few of the points that material is of fairly high resistance, the very short
are particularly good to keep in mind throughout length of the brushes doesn't introduce enough re-
the study of D. C. motors and generators will be sistance in the circuit to create much loss. The
briefly reviewed here.
The function of the armature, we know, is to
carry the rotating conductors in its slots and move
these swiftly through the magnetic flux of the field,
in order to generate the voltage in them.
Armature cores are made of thin laminations of
soft iron which are partially insulated from each
other either by a thin coating of oxide which is
formed on their surface when they are being heat
treated or by a thin layer of insulating varnish.
This laminated construction prevents to a great
extent the eddy currents which would otherwise be
induced in the core as it revolves through the field
flux.
The very soft iron and steel in armature cores
and its excellent magnetic properties also greatly
reduce hysteresis loss. Also remember that the
number of turns per coil and the method of con-
necting these coils will determine the voltage that
is induced in a generator armature, or the counter-
voltage in a motor armature.
Fig. 13 shows a very large armature of a D. C.
Fig. 14. The above photo shows an excellent sectional view of a
generator with the commutator on the right. This commutator for a D. C. machine.
 D. C., Section One. Generator Brushes and Brush Holders. 349

in brush holders. The brush holders in common

commercial use today may be classed under three
general types, called Box Type, Clamp Type, and
Reaction Type.
The box type holder was one of the first to be
developed and used, while the clamp type has been-
developed in two forms known as the "swivel" and
"parallel" motion types. Fig. 17 shows sketches
of these several types of brush holders. The upper
views in each case show the holders assembled on
round studs, while the lower views show them
bolted to rectangular studs.
A brush holder, in addition to providing a box
or clamp to hold the brush in place, also has springs
to hold the brush against the commutator surface
and under the proper tension. Fig. 18 shows a
box-type brush holder and the springs which apply
the tension on the brush, and the view on the right
shows this brush holder from the opposite side,
mounted in the rocker ring. The requirements of
good brush holders are as follows:
1. To provide means for carrying the current
from the brush to the holder stud, either with a
flexible copper connection or by direct contact be-
tween the brush and the holder. This must be
accomplished without undue heating or sparking
Fig. 15. This view shows another type of commutator in which the
bars are held in place by bolts that are used to draw the clamping between the brush and holder, as this would result
rings tight.
in a rapid burning and damage to the holders.
properties of the carbon and graphite tend to keep 2. To provide means for accurately adjusting
the commutator clean and brightly polished as the the brush on the commutator or ring.
brushes slide on its surface. Some resistance in the 3. To hold the brush firmly at the proper angle.
brush material is an advantage, as it tends to pre- 4. To permit free and quick movement of the
vent severe sparking during the period the commu- brush in order that it may follow any uneven sur-
tator bars are short circuited. This will be ex- face of the commutator or ring.
plained in a later section on brushes.
Brushes must be of the proper size and material
to carry, without undue heat, the full load currents
of either agenerator or motor. The carrying capaci-
ty of the brushes is a figure generally set by the
manufacturers to indicate the number of amperes
the brush will carry per square inch of cross-sec-
tional area. This figure takes into account the heat
due to overloads, friction, short circuit currents in
the coils, voltage drop at the contact, and the heat
produced by sparking.
Fig. 16 shows two common types of generator
brushes to which are attached Pig Tails of soft
stranded copper. These copper pig-tails are used for
making a secure connection to carry the current
from the brush to the holder and line.
11. BRUSH HOLDERS
Brushes are held firmly in the correct position Fg. 16. Two common types of carbon brushes used for D. C. machines.
Note the flexible copper leads used for connecting them to the
with relation to the commutator by placing them brush holders.

Fig. 17. The sketches on the left

show several common types of
brush holders. At "A" are two
views of box-type holders. "B"
and "C" are known as clamp-type
holders; while "D" is a brush
holder of the reaction-type.
350 D. C., Section One. Generator Brush Holders.

Fig. 18. Above are shown two box-type brush holders. The one at
the left is simply attached to its holder stud sleeve and springs, while
the one at the right is mounted on the holder stud which is fastened
in a brush rocker arm.

5. To provide a tension spring of such length

or shape that the tension on the worn brush will
Fig. 20. Above are shown two brushes in their holders which are
be very little less than that on a new brush. mounted on a brush rocker arm for a four-pole machine. Note
the coil springs by which the brush .tension on the commutator
6. To have a brush hammer so constructed that can be adjusted.
it will bear directly on the top of the brush and not
give aside push either when the brush is full length
or nearly worn out.
Fig. 19. shows a brush holder of the Reaction
Type, in which the brush is held securely between
the commutator surface and the Brush Hammer
shown on the top in this view. The spring used
with this brush holder is a coiled steel wire and
can be seen on the back of the holder near the
hammer hinge.
Brush holders are generally mounted or attached
to a Rocker Ring by means of holder studs, as
shown in Fig. 20. The holders can usually be ad-
justed on these studs both sidewise and up and
down, to provide the proper spacing and tension.
The purpose of the rocker frame or ring is to allow

Fig. 21. This view shows a complete set of brushes and holders
mounted on the rocker arm, which in turn is fastened in the end
bracket of the machine.

the entire group of brushes to be rotated through

a small arc, so their position can be adjusted for
varying current loads on the machine. This is often
necessary on machines that do not have interpoles
— as will be explained later.
Frequently there are two or more brushes
mounted on each stud, as several small brushes are
more flexible and will fit themselves to uneven com-
mutator surfaces much better than one large brush.
The brush holder studs are, of course, insulated from
Fig. 18. Reaction-type brush holders keep the brush in place by the the rocker frames by means of fibre washers and
pressure of a "brush hammer", as shown on top of the brush in
this view. bushings.
 D. C., Section One. Generator Principles. 351

Fig. 21 shows six sets of brushes mounted on the cause two similar metals will rapidly wear away
brush holder studs and rocker frame, which in turn or eat into each other when they are rubbed to-
is mounted in the end bracket of the machine. gether.
Sleeve-type bearings are commonly oiled by oil
12. BEARINGS
rings or chains which rotate in the oil well and
As previously mentioned, the bearings of motors carry a small amount of oil up on top of the shaft
and generators are to support the armature prop- continuously while it is rotating. In other cases,
erly centered between the field poles and to allow on smaller machines, the oil is fed to the shaft by
it to rotate freely when the machine is in operation. a cotton wick. Ball and roller bearings are lubri-
These bearings are mounted in bearing brackets and cated with a light grade of grease.
held firmly at the ends of the machine; or, in some A more thorough study of bearings will be given
cases, they may be mounted in pedestals which are in a later section. The principal point to remember
separate from the field frame. at this time in connection with bearings is the im-
These bearings are of two common types, called portance of keeping all bearings properly lubri-
sleeve bearings and ball bearings. Roller bearings cated with clean oil. There should always be
are also used in some cases. Sleeve bearings are enough oil to be sure that the bearings are receiv-
made of babbit metal on the medium and larger ing it; but never oil them excessively and thus
sized machines, while bronze is used for very small, cause an overflow which may run into the winding
high-speed machines. Bearing metal must always and damage their insulation or get on the commu-
be of a different grade than that in the shaft, be- tator and destroy its clean, bright surface.

OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF D. C. GENERATORS

We have learned that the E. M. F. or voltage in it serves to show what the voltage of generators
a generator is produced by electro-magnetic induc- depends upon in their design and also to illustrate
tion when the conductors of the armature are ro- the factors of greatest importance in regulating the
tated through the lines of force of the field. voltage of a generator.
We also know that the amount of voltage pro- It is an easy matter to determine the direction
duced depends on the number of lines of force which of induced voltage in the conductors of a generator
are cut per second. This in turn depends on the by the use of Fleming's Right Hand Rule, which
strength of the field, the speed of armature rotation, has been previously stated and explained.
and the number of turns or coils in series between The rule is one that you will have a great deal
brushes. of use for in connection with generators, so we will
The voltage that will be produced by a generator repeat it here.
can be calculated by the formula: Place the first finger, thumb and remaining fingers
P X Op X Cr X Rpm of the right hand all at right angles to each other.
E = (See Fig. 22). Let the first finger point in the direc-
108 x 60x M. tion of magnetic flux from the field poles, the thumb
in which: in the direction of conductor rotation, and the re-
P— No. of field poles maining fingers will indicate the direction of in-
Op — Total useful flux per pole duced voltage.
Cr — Total No. of inductors on armature This rule can be used either with diagrams or at
108 100,000,000 lines of flux to be cut per sec. the machine to quickly determine the direction of
by one conductor induced voltage in any conductor, where the direc-
60 — 60 sec. per min. tion of conductor movement and field polarity are
M — No. of parallel conducting paths between known.
the + and — brushes.
For example, suppose we have a machine with 4 13. MAGNETIC CIRCUIT IN A GENERATOR
poles and with 200 armature inductors (conductors) The number of conductors in the armature of a
in four parallel circuits between the brushes. The generator usually remains unchanged once it is built,
machine runs at 1200 R.P.M., and we will assume and while the speed can be varied somewhat, the
that the useful flux per pole is 3,000,000 lines. machine is generally operated at about the speed
4 X 3,000,000 x 200 X 1200 for which it is designed. So we find that the voltage
Then E — ,or 120 volts. adjustment or variation during the operation of a
100,000,000 X 60 X 4 generator will depend largely upon the field
You may not need to use this formula often, but strength. It would be well, therefore, to consider
352 D. C., Section One. Generator Field Excitation.

more in detail some of the factors upon which this will weaken the strength of the field and reduce the
field strength depends, and also the methods by generator voltage considerably.
which it can be varied. Fig. 24 shows a sketch of a four-pole generator
Every generator or motor has what is called a frame and the four magnetic circuits which it will
Magnetic Circuit. This is the path followed by the have. It is very easy to determine the direction of
flux of its field poles through the poles themselves, flux at any pole of a generator if we know which
and through thé armature core, and field frame — ends of the pole are N. and S., and simply remember
as shown in Fig. 23. the rule that magnetic flux always travels from a
north to a south pole in the external circuit. Exam-
ining Fig. 24 again, we find that the flux from either
north pole divides and half of it goes to each of the
south poles, then through the air gap and armature
core which form the external circuit for the field
poles. The internal circuit from the south pole back
to the north pole is completed through the field
frame. From this we see that each pair of field poles
of a generator form a sort of horse-shoe magnet.
The area of the field poles and frame must be
great enough to carry the flux without saturation.
For highest efficiency, generators are operated at
field densities considerably less than saturation, and
generally at about 20,000 to 40,000 lines per sq. inch.

Fig. 22.. This figure shows a method of holding the fingers to use
the right-hand rule for determining direction of induced voltage
in generators.

There are always as many magnetic circuits in

a generator as it has poles. That is, a two-pole
generator will have two magnetic circuits. A four-
pole generator four magnetic circuits, etc. These
magnetic paths must be continuous and will com-
plete themselves through air unless iron or steel is
provided. It is advisable, therefore, to have as
much of the magnetic circuit through iron as possi-
ble, in order to reduce the reluctance of the circuit
Mall-Leto Cut-coat of 4 Poles.
and increase the strength of the field.
The magnetic paths of commercial generators are Fig. 24. Magnetic circuits in a four-pole machine. Note the direction
of flux from N. to S. poles in the external circuit and from S.
completed through an all-iron or steel path, with to N. poles in the internal circuit of the field.
the exception of the air gap between the armature
core and field poles. If this air gap is increased it 14. FIELD EXCITATION
We know that the strong magnetic field of the
poles in a generator is set up by direct current
flowing through the coils on these iron poles. This
current is called the Field Exciting Current. The
strength of the field will, of course, depend on the
number of turns in the field coils and the amount
of current which is passed through them. So, by
controlling excitation current with a rheostat, we
can readily adjust the strength of the field and the
output voltage of the generator.
Generators are classed as either Separately Ex-
cited or Self-Excited, according to the manner in
which their coils obtain the exciting current.
A separately excited generator is one that has its
field excited from some source other than its own
Macp-tettc Crrcu.it of z Poles. armature. This source may be either a storage bat-
tery or another small D.C. generator. Alternating
rig. 2S. The above diagram shows the magnetic circuit or path et current cannot be used to excite the field poles of
the field flux in a simple two-pole machine.

•—,
 D. C., Section One. Generators, Building up Voltage. 353

either a D.C. or A.C. generator. So alternators are stronger field a little higher voltage is induced in
practically always separately excited by current them. This increases the field strength still more,
from storage batteries or D.C. generators. Sepa- which in turn builds up a greater voltage in the
rately excited D.C. generators are sometimes used armature and further increases the field strength.
for electro-plating machines and work of this type, This continues, and the strength of the field as well
and have their field coils wound for a certain volt- as the armature voltage keep on getting greater,
age. This voltage may range from 6 to 25 for until the point of Saturation is reached in the field
battery excitation; and from 110 to 220 when ex- poles.
cited from another generator. The saturation point, you will remember, is when
Fig. 25 shows a sketch of a simple two-pole D.C. amagnetic circuit is carrying its maximum practical
generator which has its field separately excited from load of flux. When this point is reached it would
a torage battery. Note the field rheostat which is require aconsiderable increase of current in the field
provided to vary the field current and the generator coils to make even a small increase in the flux of
voltage. the poles. So we find that self-excited generators
build up their voltage gradually from residual mag-
netism as the machine comes up to speed.
Sometimes it may require afew seconds after the
machine has reached full speed for its voltage to
come up to normal value.
N To Load 16. FAILURE TO BUILD UP VOLTAGE
FR
( )5 With self-excited generators, it is, of course, nec-
essary that the flux lines produced by the field coils
be of the same polarity as the residual magnetism
in the iron of the poles. Otherwise, the first low
voltage applied to the field coils would tend to
111111i1E-1 Separately Excited Generator neutralize the residual magnetism and cause the
Fig. 25. This diagram shows a simple D. C. generator which has its generator to fail to build up its voltage. For this
field separately excited from a storage battery. reason, self-excited generators will build up voltage
only when rotated in the proper direction. Gen-
A self-excited generator is one that receives its
erators may, however, be made to build up voltage
field current from its own armature winding. Fig.
when rotated in the opposite direction by changing
26 shows a sketch of a simple generator of this
the field connections.
type. You will note that the field coils are connected
across the positive and negative brushes of the
armature in parallel with the line and load. The
field will at all times receive a small amount of
D. C. from the armature, whether there is any load
connected to the line or not. Practically all com-
mercial D.C. generators are self-excited.
15. BUILDING UP VOLTAGE IN A
GENERATOR
With a separately excited generator, as soon as
the circuit is closed from the source of direct cur-
rent for the field, the field will be magnetized at full
strength, and the generator voltage will build up Fig. 26. This simple two-pole machine has its field coils self-excited
by connection to its own armature brushes. Note ¿he field rheostat
immediately as soon as the machine goes up to full at F. R., which is used to control the field strength.
speed.
A self-excited generator must build up its voltage After a generator has been idle for quite a period
more gradually from the small amount of residual it sometimes loses its residual magnetism to such
magnetism in the poles when the machine is started. an extent that it will not build up voltage until it
You will recall that residual magnetism is the mag- is first separately excited. Some of the causes of
netism which remains in or is retained by the iron a generator failing to build up voltage are as
of the field poles even when their current is shut off. follows: Weak or dead residual magnetism, low
This residual magnetism, of course, produces only speed, poor brush-contact on the commutator, severe
avery weak field. overloads, open field circuits, or high resistance
When the machine is first started up and the connections.
armature conductors begin to cut this weak residual Removing the cause of the trouble will usually
field, a very low voltage is generated in them. As start the machine generating, but if it does not a
the field is connected to the armature this first low low voltage storage battery or some other source
voltage slightly increases the strength of the field. of direct current applied to the field coils momen-
Then as the conductors cut through this slightly tarily and in the proper direction will generally
354 D. C., Section One. Generators, Neutral Plane and Armature Reaction.

cause the machine to promptly build up voltage flux under a pole, and generating appreciable volt-
again. age, it would cause very severe sparking at the
On some generators it is necessary to cut out brushes. So it is important that the brushes be
part or all of the resistance of the field rheostat adjusted properly for this neutral plane.
before the machines will build up voltage. 19. ARMATURE REACTION
In addition to the flux which is set up between
17. VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT AND
the field poles from their coils and exciting current,
REGULATION
When a generator is running at normal speed, its there is also to be considered the flux around the
voltage can be conveniently controlled and adjusted armature conductors. When a load of any kind is
by means of the field rheostat, as shown in Figs. connected to a generator and its voltage begins
25 and 26. On most D.C. generators this adjustment to send current out through the line and load, this
is made manually by the operator, putting resist- current, of course, flows through the armature con-
ance in or out of the field circuit by means of this ductors of the generator as well.
rheostat. In some cases automatic voltage regu- The greater the load placed on the machine the
greater will be the current in the armature con-
lators are used to control this voltage according
to the load on the machine. This automatic regu- ductors and the stronger will be the flux set up
lating device will be explained later. around them.
The terms "control" and "adjustment" refer to
changes made in the voltage by the operator or
automatic device. The term "voltage regulation"
refers to some change in the voltage which the ma-
chine makes of its own accord as the load is changed
or varied. This change is inherent in the machine
and is determined by its design and construction.
18. NEUTRAL PLANE
The neutral plane in a generator is that point
between adjacent field poles at which the armature
conductors are traveling parallel to the lines of
force, and in a very weak field. Normally, when the
generator is not carrying a load this neutral plane
is half way between adjacent poles of opposite
polarity, as shown in Fig. 27.

Fig. 28. This sketch shows the magnetic flux set up around the
armature conductors of the simple two-pole machine when current
is passing through them.

The armature flux is set up at right angles to the

flux of the field poles, and therefore tends to distort
the field flux out of its straight path between poles.
This effect is known as Armature Reaction.
Fig. 28 shows the position of the armature flux
as it would be when set up by current in the con..
ductors, if there were no field flux to react with it.
In actual operation, however, the armature and
field flux of the generator are more or less mixed
together or combined to produce the distorted field
shown in Fig. 29. Here we see that the lines of force
from the field poles have been shifted slightly out of
their normal path and are crowded over toward
Fig. 27. This diagram shows the normal path of flux through the the tips of the poles which lie in the direction of
armature of the generator when the machine is not operating under
load. Note the position of the normal neutral plane and also the the rotation of the armature. This causes the field
position this plane takes when a machine is loaded. strength to be somewhat uneven over the pole faces,
When the conductors are passing through this and more dense on the side toward which the arma-
point they do not generate any voltage, as they are ture is rotating.
not cutting across the lines of force. It is at this You will also note that this distortion of the field
point that the commutator bars attached to the has shifted the neutral plane, which must remain at
conductors usually pass under the brushes, where right angles to the general path of the field flux.
they are momentarily short circuited by the As the armature flux depends on the amount of
brushes. If the brushes were allowed to short cir- current through its conductors, it is evident that
cuit coils while they were passing through a strong the greater the load on the machine, the greater
 D. C., Section One. Armature Reaction and Voltage Drop. 355

tion of an ohm, it nevertheless causes a certain

amount of voltage drop in the internal circuit of
the armature. In other words, a certain small
amount of the generated voltage is used to force
the load current through the resistance of the arma-
ture winding. The greater, the load on a generator,
the greater will be the voltage drop through the
armature.
As we know, this voltage drop is always propor-
tional to the product of the amperes and ohms; and
for this reason it is often referred to as I. R. Drop.
We can also determine the watts lost in an arma-
ture, or converted into heat because of its resistance,
by squaring the current and multiplying that by
the resistance, according to the watts law formula.
Therefore, 12 X R will equal the watts lost in an
armature due to its resistance. In which:
Fig. zo. This view shows the manner in which the magnetic lines I= the load current
of the field are distorted from their normal path by the effect of
armature reaction. The neutral plane is shifted counter clockwise, R = the resistance of the armature only.
or in the direction of rotation as shown by the dotted line.
This armature resistance can be measured with
will be the armature reaction and field distortion; instruments connected to the commutator bars at
and the farther the neutral plane will be shifted the brush locations; or it can be calculated, if we
from its original position. So unless a generator know the size of the wire, the length of the turns
is provided with some means of overcoming the in the coils, and the number of paths in parallel in
effect of armature reaction, it will be necessary to the armature.
shift the brushes with varying loads in order to 21. VOLTAGE DROP IN BRUSHES
obtain sparkless commutation. AND LINES
Some machines are provided with commutating There is also a certain amount of voltage drop
poles or interpoles, as they are sometimes called, at the brushes of a generator which is due to the
which are placed between the main field-poles to resistance of the brushes themselves and also the
neutralize this feature of armature reaction and resistance of the contact between the brushes and
thereby eliminate the necessity of shifting the commutator. This resistance is also very low and
brushes with changes of load. These poles and their will cause a voltage drop of only about one or two
operation will be more fully explained later. volts on ordinary machines under normal load.
The tendency of the armature flux to distort the In addition to the voltage drop encountered in
field flux constantly exerts a force in the opposite the generator, we also have the drop in the line
direction of rotation and this force is what requires which leads from the generator to the devices which
more power of the prime mover to drive the gen- use the current produced by the generator.
erator when its load is increased. Knowing that the voltage drop in both the line,
20. ARMATURE RESISTANCE AND I. R. or external circuit, and the generator internal circuit
LOSS will vary with the amount of load in amperes, we
All armature windings offer some resistance to can see the desirability and need of some voltage
the flow of the load current through them. While adjustment or regulation at the generator, to keep
this resistance is very low and usually only a f
rac- the voltage constant at the devices using the energy.

GENERAL TYPES OF D. C. GENERATORS

Direct current generators can be divided into current through these coils is, therefore, determined
several classes, according to their field construction by their resistance and the voltage of the armature.
and connections. They are called respectively:
Series generators have their field coils connected
Shunt Generators, Series Generators, and Com-
in series with the armature, as shown in Fig. 30-B;
pound Generators.
so they carry the full load current. Such coils must,
The shunt generator has its field coils connected
of course, be wound with heavy wire in order to
in shunt or parallel with the armature, as shown
carry this current and they usually consist of only
in Fig. 30-A. Shunt field coils consist of a great
a very few turns.
many turns of small wire and have sufficient re-
sistance so that they can be permanently connected Compound generators are those which have both
across the brushes and have full armature voltage a shunt and series field winding, as shown in Fig.
applied to them at all times during operation. The 30-C.
356 . D. C., Section One. Shunt Generators.

A B C
Fig. 34. "A" shows the connections of the field coils for a shunt generator. Note that they are connected in parallel with the brushes and the armature.
"13" shows the connection of the field coils for a series machine. "C" illustrates the connection of the field coils for a compound generator. Note
that at "C" the shunt coils next to the armature are connected in parallel with the brushes while the series coils on the outside are connected
in series with the brushes.

Each of these machines has certain characteristics the field, increasing the lines of force and building
which are particularly desirable for certain classes up the voltage to full value, as previously explained.
of work, as will be explained in detail in the fol- However, if there is a heavy load connected to the
lowing paragraphs. line the shunt generator may refuse to build up its
voltage, as the heavy load current flowing thru
22. SHUNT GENERATORS
the armature causes a voltage drop thru the arma-
Fig. 31 is a simple sketch showing the method of ture and brush resistance and reduces the terminal
connecting the field winding of a shunt generator or output voltage of the armature. This reduces the
in parallel with its armature. The field rheostat, voltage supplied to the field and may weaken the
F.R., is connected in series with the shunt field field enough to prevent the generator from build-
winding to regulate the field strength, as previously ing up voltage.
explained.
It is well to note at this point that, in various 23. VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF
electrical diagrams, coils of windings are commonly SHUNT GENERATORS
represented by the turns or loops shown for the The voltage of the shunt generator will vary
shunt field at "F", while resistance wires or coils inversely as the load due to the same reason men-
are commonly shown by zigzag lines such as those tioned in the preceding article. Increasing the load
used for the rheostat at "F.R." causes increased voltage drop in the armature cir-
cuit thus reducing the voltage applied to the field.
This reduces the field strength and thereby reduces
the generator voltage.
If the load on a shunt generator is suddenly
increased, the voltage drop may be quite noticeable;
while, if the load is almost entirely removed, the
voltage may rise considerably. Thus we see that
the voltage regulation of a shunt generator is very
poor, because it doesn't inherently regulate or main-
tain its voltage at a constant value.
The voltage may be maintained fairly constant
by adjusting the field rheostat, provided the load
variations are not too frequent and too great.
Fig. 31. Thu diagram shows the connections of a shunt generator. Shunt generators are, therefore, not adapted to
The shunt field winding "F" is connected in series with the field
rheostat and then across the brushes. Note that this field winding heavy power work but they may be used for incan-
Is also in parallel with the load on the line. descent lighting or other constant potential devices
where the load variations are not too severe.
Fig. 32 shows the connections of a shunt genera-
tor as they would appear on the machine itself. Shunt generators are difficult to operate in paral-
By comparing this diagram with the one in Fig. 31 lel because they don't divide the load equally be-
and tracing the circuits of the field and armatures, tween them. Due to these disadvantages shunt
you will find they are connected the same in each generators are very seldom installed in new plants
nowadays, as compound generators are much more
case.
The shunt generator, being a self-excited ma- satisfactory for most purposes.
chine, will start to build up its voltage from residual Fig. 33 shows avoltage curve for a shunt genera-
magnetism as soon as the armature commences to tor and illustrates the manner in which the voltage
rotate. Then, as the armature develops a small of these machines varies inversely with the load.
amount of voltage, this sends some current through You will note that at no load the voltage of the
 D. C., Section One. Series Generators. 357

up voltage when it is started, we must have some

load connected to the line circuit.

25. VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC OF

SERIES GENERATORS
The greater the load connected to such a genera-
tor, the heavier will be the current flowing through
the field winding and the stronger the field flux.
This causes the voltage of a series generator to
vary directly with the load; or to increase as the
load is increased and decrease as the load decreases.
This, you will note, is exactly the opposite charac-
teristic to that of a shunt generator.
As most electrical equipment is to be operated
on constant voltage and is connected to the line in
parallel, series generators are not used for ordinary
power purposes or for incandescent lighting. Their
principal use has been in connection with series arc
lights for street lighting and a number of series
generators are still used for this purpose.
Fig. 32. This sketch shows the wiring and connections of the brushes
and field coils for a four-pole, shunt generator.

generator is normal or maximum, while as the load

in kilowatts increases the generator voltage grad-
ually falls off to a lower and lower value.

24. SERIES GENERATORS

These machines have their field coils connected
in series with the armature and the load, as shown
in Fig. 34. The field winding is usually made of
very heavy wire or strip copper, so that it will carry
the full load current without overheating.
By referring to Fig. 34 we can see that with
no load connected to the line, it would be im-
Fig. 34. This sketch shows the connections of a series generator.
possible for any current to flow through the series The series field at "F" is connected in series with the armature
field and therefore the generator couldn't build up and the line. Note that no current could flow through this field
if there was no load connected to the line.
voltage. So, in order for a series generator to build

150
With aload of this kind, the current must always
remain at the same value for the series lamps and,
140
therefore, the generator field and voltage will re-
130
main fairly constant. You can readily see that a
120 series generator would be entirely impractical for
vaou ordinary power and light circuits, because, if the
110
load is decreased by disconnecting some of the de-
100
vices, the voltage on the rest will drop way below
90
normal.
60
26. SERIES FIELD SHUNTS
70
Fig. 35 shows a curve illustrating the voltage
40
regulation of a series generator. The voltage of
50 such machines can be adjusted by the use of a
.40
low-resistance shunt connected in parallel with the
series field coils, as shown in Fig. 36. This figure
30
shows the connections of a series generator as they
20
would appear on the machine. By tracing the cir-
10 cuit you will find that the field coils are connected
in series with the armature and load.
gØoo
;82W228 z c,,' 2gg The purpose of the shunt is to divide the load
LOAD IN AMPER E3 current, allowing part of it to flow through the
Fig. 33. This curve illustrates the voltage characteristic of a shone series field and the rest through the shunt. By
generator. Note how the voltage drops as the load In kilowatts is
increased. Full load in this case is 246 amperes. varying the resistance of this shunt, we can cause
 Normar'
Georgni
358 Bro oklyn 7, t‘l• D. C., Section One. Compound Generators.

50
coils being placed on each pole. Fig. 37 shows the
40 connections of both the series and shunt fields of
30 a compound generator.
The shunt field is connected in parallel with the
20
armature and therefore it maintains a fairly con-
10
stant strength. The series field, being in series with
00 the armature and load, will have its strength varied
47. as the load varies. These machines will therefore
have some of the characteristics of both shunt and
ea 7
series generators.
( 2

70 We have found that the shunt generator tends

40
60 to decrease its voltage as the load increases and
that the series generator increases its voltage with
50
increases of load. Therefore, by designing a com-
.
40
pound generator with the proper proportions of
30 shunt and series fields, we can build amachine that
20
will maintain almost constant voltage with any
reasonable variations in load.
10
The shunt field winding of a compound generator
is usually the main winding and produces by far
2 Z 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3
LOAD IN AMPERES
the greater portion of the field flux. The series
Fig. 3$. This curve shows the voltage characteristic of a series gen-
field windings usually consist of just a few turns,
erator. Note that the voltage increases rapidly as the load on the or enough to strengthen the field to compensate
machine is increased up to about full load. Full load in this case Is
12$ amperes. for the voltage drop in the armature and brushes
as the load increases.
more or less of the total load current to flow
through it, thus either weakening or strengthening
the series field.
These shunts are generally made of very low
resistance material, such as copper ribbon or strips
of metal alloy with higher resistance than copper,
in order to make them short in length and compact
in size.
By referring again to the curve in Fig, 35, you
can see that the voltage regulation of a series gen-
erator is also very poor.

27. COMPOUND GENERATORS

The fields of acompound generator are composed
of both shunt and series windings, the two separate Fig. 37. This sketch shows the connections of a compound generator.
The shunt field is connected across the brushes. The series field
is connected in series with the line.

Compound generators can have the shunt field

strength adjusted by a rheostat in series with the
winding, and may also have a shunt in parallel
with the series field for its adjustment. The series
field shunt on these machines, however, is not
generally used for making frequent adjustments in
their voltage, but is intended for establishing the
proper adjustment between the series and shunt
field strengths when the generators are placed in
operation.
The variation in the strength of the series field,
which compensates for the voltage drop with vary-
ing load, makes it unnecessary to use the field
rheostat with these machines, as is done with shunt
generators.
Fig. 38 shows the complete connections for the
armature and fields of a compound generator. You
will note that the series winding is composed of
just a few turns of very heavy wire on each pole
Fig. Connections cd brushes and field coils of a four-pole, merles
34.
generator. and is in series with the armature and line. The
 D. C., Section One. Compound Generators. 359

shunt winding is composed of a far greater number the load is not located too far from the generator
of turns of small wire and is connected in parallel and the line drop is small. Fig. 39 shows the
with the armature brushes. voltage curve of a flat compound generator at F.
By referring back to Fig. 12, you will note the
series coils wound on the poles over or outside of 30. OVER COMPOUND GENERATORS.
the shunt winding, which is wound next to the pole VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS
cores. Where the load is located some distance from
the generator or power plant and the line drop is
sufficient to cause considerable reduction of voltage
at the current-consuming devices when the load is
heavy, the generators are commonly equipped with
series field windings large enough to compensate
for this line drop as well as their own armature
and brush voltage drop. Such machines are called
Over Compound generators and are by far the most
common type used in power work.
The voltage of an over compound generator will
increase slightly at the generator terminals with
every increase of load. These voltage increases are
due to the greater number of turns in the series
field winding. Every increase of load increases
the current through these series turns, thereby
strengthening the field enough to actually raise the
voltage a little higher at full load than at no load.
This voltage increase at the generator terminals
makes up for the additional voltage drop in the
line when the load is increased. Therefore, if the
series and shunt fields of such a machine are
Fig. 3$. Connections of brushes and field coils for a four-pole, cumula-
tive compound generator. Note that the direction of current properly adjusted, it will maintain a very constant
through the series field winding Is the same as that through the
shunt coils. voltage on the equipment at the end of the line.

28. CUMULATIVE AND DIFFERENTIAL L50

COMPOUND GENERATORS ,40

In the type of compound generator which we 40

.. 0
vote3
have just described the series coils are wound in 80
r
the same direction as the shunt coils, so their flux ..---.............._
to
will aid and strengthen that of the shunt field. They
are therefore known as Cumulative Compound ma- oo .................\ .

chines. This name comes from the fact that the so

two windings both work together, or add their go

fluxes, to build up the total cumulative field.
70
Some compound generators have the series fields
80
wound in the opposite direction, so that their flux
opposes that of the shunt field. Such machines are 50
known as Differential Compound generators. Their 40
uses will be explained later.
50

29. FLAT COMPOUND GENERATORS. 50

VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS
10
When a compound generator has just enough of
series field to compensate for the voltage drop in
o es ea em el o
its own armature and brushes, and to maintain a LOAD IN ANIPERCO

nearly constant :voltage from no load to full load Fig. 39. These curves show the voltage characteristic of a flat compound
generator at F, over compound at 0, and under compound at U. Full
on the generator, it is known as a Flat Compound load in this case is no amperes.
machine.
The voltage regulation of such a machine is very The adjustment of the shunt and series fields of
good, as it automatically maintains almost constant these machines can be made with the usual shunt
voltage with all normal load variations. Such field rheostat and series field shunts.
machines are very commonly used for supplying The voltage regulation of an over compound
current to general power and light circuits where generator is very good, and for ordinary power
360 D. C., Section One. Compound Generators

purposes they don't require frequent adjustment of 120

1 OVE. CO POU N D

the rheostat or any special voltage regulating equip- 110

ment, because this regulation is inherent in the 3 .

4 2'
I
design and operation of the machine. Over com- 100

pound generators are usually made and adjusted 90

so that the terminal voltage will be from 4%2% to
6% higher at full load than at no load. 80
I

31. DIFFERENTIAL COMPOUND 70

GENERATORS

I
Any compound generator can be connected either
60
1
cumulative or differential, by simply reversing the
DIPFIEREN
connections of the series field windings so that these 40

coils will either aid or oppose the flux of the shunt

field. 30

Compound generators are usually designed to

20
operate cumulative unless otherwise ordered tor
special purposes. 10

: 3 3 ,,, e ei î .?, î
LOAD IN KILOWAT T3

Fig. 41. This chart shows the curves of several types of generators
all together so they can be easily compared.

circuits, the differential compound winding is a

good protective feature.
When an overload is placed on the line, the ad-
ditional current in the differential series coils tends
to neutralize the shunt field flux and thereby re-
duces the generator voltage considerably. This also
reduces the amount of current which will flow
through the armature, and therefore protects it
from overheating.
The shunt field winding of the differential
generator should be the main field winding and
determine the polarity of the pole. The series field
should at no time determine the polarity of the
poles, unless the shunt field circuit is open or except
in case of a short circuit across the brushes.
Fig. 44. Connections of brushes and field coils for a four-pole, dif- Fig. 40 shows the connections of a differential
ferential, compound generator. Note that the direction of current
through the series field coils is opposite to that in the shunt coils. compound generator. Note that the current flows
in opposite directions in the shunt and series wind-
When the series field coils are connected differen- ings around the field poles.
tial, and so that their flux opposes that of the shunt Fig. 41 shows the curves for the several types
field, each increase in the load on the machine will of generators just described and provides a good
cause quite a decided voltage drop, as it increases opportunity to compare the voltage characteristics
the current in the differential winding and thereby of shunt, series, and compound generators. Note
weakens the field flux. how rapidly the voltage of the differential machine
The voltage of these machines, therefore, will falls off as the kilowatt load increases.
vary inversely with the load and considerably more It will be well to keep in mind the different
than it varies with the shunt generator. The volt- voltage characteristics of these machines and the
age regulation of differential compound generators principles by which their voltage regulation is ob-
may be classed as very poor, but they have advan- tained, because you will encounter all types in
tages in certain classes of work. various plants in the field. Therefore a knowledge
For the generators used in welding, where sudden of their field connections and adjustment, and the
and severe overloads are placed on the machine in proper methods by which these connections can be
starting the arcs, or for any machines that have changed to obtain different characteristics, will
frequent severe overloads or the possibility of short often be very valuable to you.
 361

OPERATION OF D. C. GENERATORS
In commencing the study of the operation of convenient rule for determining the approximate
generators, it will be well to first consider prime horse power required to drive any generator, is to
movers, or the device, used to drive the generators. multiply the kilowatt rating of the machine by 1.5,
The term Prime Mover may apply to any form which will usually allow enough extra power to
of mechanical power device, such as a steam en- make up for the loss in the generator.
gine, steam turbine, gas or oil engine, or water For example, if we have a generator which is
wheel. These devices, when used to drive electric rated at 250 volts and 400 amperes, and this ma-
generators, are designed to operate at a constant chine has an efficiency of 90%, we can determine
speed at all loads up to full load. They are usually the necessary horse power by the formula, as fol-
equipped with governors which maintain this con- lows:
stant speed by allowing the correct amount of 250 x 400
power in the form of steam, gas, or water to enter H. P. -= ,or 148.94 h. p.
.90 x 746
the prime mover, according to the variations of
current load on the generator. The kilowatt rating of this same generator would
The prime mover should always be large enough be 100 KW, as can be proven by multiplying the
to drive the generator when it is fully loaded, with- volts by the amperes. So, if we simply multiply
out any reduction in speed which would be notice- 100 x 1.5, according to our approximate rule, we
able in the generator voltage output. find that 150 h. p. will be required. This is approxi-
It is not our purpose in this Electrical Reference mately the sanie figure as obtained by the use of
Set to discuss in detail the design or operation of the other formula
prime movers, although in a later section they will
be covered to a greater extent with regard to their
operation.
32. CALCULATION OF PROPER H.P. FOR
PRIME MOVERS
To determine the proper size of engine or prime
mover to drive a D.C. generator of a given rating
in kilowatts, we can easily calculate the horse
power by multiplying the number of kilowatts by
1.34.
You will recall that one h. p. is equal to 746 watts,
and one kilowatt, or one thousand watts, is equal
to 1.34 h. p.
Multiplying the kilowatt rating of the generator
by 1.34 gives the horse power output of the
machine. This horse power output can also be
determined by the formula:
EX!
H. P. —
746
Fig. 41-A. This photo shows a large modern D. C. generator with
In which: a welded frame. The capacity of this generator is 1000 KW.
What horse power will be required to drive it and satisfactorily
E = the generator voltage maintain the speed when the generator is 10% overloaded? Assume
I= the maximum current load rating the efficiency of the generator to be 03%•

746 = the number of watts in one h. p.

If the generator has less than 90% efficiency and
In addition to the electrical horse power output
if it is known that the load will be up to the full
of the generator, we must also consider its effi-
capacity of the generator at pratically all times, and
ciency, or the loss which takes place in its windings
occasionally a little overload, then it is better to
and bearings.
allow slightly greater horse power than in the prob-
If the efficiency of a generator is known to be
lem just given.
80%, the formula to determine the horse power
Prime movers for the operation of generators
required to drive it will be as follows:
should be equipped with governors which are quick
E x I
H. P. enough in their response so that they do not allow
e x 746 the generator to slow up noticeably when additional
In which: load is applied.
e -= the efficiency of the generator, ex- There is generally some adjustment provided on
pressed decimally. these governors which can be used to set the prime
We should also allow a certain amount for any mover to run the generator at the proper speed to
overload that the generator is expected to carry. A maintain the proper voltage.
 N ormaii
41 Georgia Ave.
Brooklyn 7, N. Y.
362 D. C., Section One. Operation and Care of Generators.

As the voltage of the generator depends upon its make any further necessary adjustments with the
speed, we should keep in mind that its voltage can field rheostat.
be adjusted by adjusting the governors or throttle If the generator is operating in parallel with
of the prime mover. others, the ammeter will indicate whether or not it
is carrying its proper share of the load. The load on
33. INSPECTION BEFORE STARTING any generator should be frequently checked by
GENERATORS means of an ammeter or wattmeter to see that the
When starting up a generator we should first machine is not overloaded.
make a thorough examination, to make sure that The temperature of the machine windings and
the prime mover and generator are both in proper bearings should also be frequently observed in order
running order. The oil wells should be examined to check any overheating before it becomes serious.
to see that there is sufficient oil in all main bearings
35. CARE OF GENERATORS DURING
and that the oil rings are free to turn. Be careful, OPERATION
however, not to flood oil wells, because excess oil After the machine is running, the most important
allowed to get into the windings of the generator observations to be made frequently are to check the
is very damaging to the insulation, and may neces- bearing oil and temperature, winding temperatures
sitate rewinding the machine. and ventilation, voltage of the machine as indicated
On small and medium-sized machines only a little by the volt meter, and the load in amperes shown
oil need be added from time to time, unless the oil by the ammeter. Commutator and brushes should
wells leak. On large machines, where the armature also be observed to see that no unusual sparking or
is very heavy, forced lubrication is necessary to heating is occurring there.
maintain the film of oil between the shaft and bear-
ings. With these machines an oil pump is used to
force oil to the bearings at a pressure of 20 to 30
lbs. per square inch to insure proper lubrication.
Some bearings are also water cooled, having open-
ings through the metal around the bearing for water
to flow through and carry away excessive heat.
If there are auxiliaries of this kind, they should
be carefully examined and checked before running
the machine.

34. STARTING GENERATORS

Before starting up a generator it is usually best
to see that the machine is entirely disconnected from
the switchboard. This is not always necessary, but
it is safest practice. Next start the prime mover and
allow the generator armature to come gradually up
to full speed. Never apply the power jerkily or
irregularly.
Power generators are always rotated at their full
speed when operating under load. When the ma-
chine is up to full speed the voltage can be adjusted
by means of the field rheostat which is connected
in series with the shunt field.
The machine voltage can be checked by means of
the switchboard voltmeter, and it should be brought
Fig. 41-B. This view shows two engine-driven D. C. generators in
up to full operating voltage before any switches are a power plant. Two or more machines of this type are commonly
operated in parallel.
closed to place load on the generator.
After the voltage is adjusted properly, the ma- Commutators should be kept clean and free from
chine may be connected to the switchboard by dirt, oil, or grease at all times. Brushes should be
means of the circuit breakers and switches. Where kept properly fitted and renewed when necessary,
circuit breakers are used they should always be and the commutator surface kept smooth and even
closed first, as they are overload devices and should for the best results.
be free to drop out in the event there is an overload All parts of an electric generator should be kept
or short circuit on the line. clean at all times as dust and oil tend to clog the
After closing the circuit breaker the machine ventilating spaces in the windings, destroying the
switch may be closed, completing the connection of value of the insulation, and also intefering with
the generator to the switchboard. As the switch is proper commutation.
closed the operator should watch the ammeter and The supply of ventilating air in the generator
voltmeter to see that the load is normal and to room should be frequently checked to see that it is
 D. C., Section One. Parallel Operation of Generators. 363

not restricted, and that the temperature of the arma- higher voltage will force current backward through
ture is not allowed to become too high. Moisture the one of lower voltage and tend to operate it as
is very detrimental to the generator windings and amotor.
water in or around the generator is very dangerous, It is, therefore, very important that the voltage
unless confined in the proper pipes for such pur- be carefully checked before closing the switch which
poses as cooling bearings, etc. Never use water to connects agenerator in parallel with others.
extinguish fire on any electrical equipment. If the polarity of one machine were reversed, then
when they are connected together it would result
36. PARALLELING D. C. GENERATORS
in a dead short circuit with double voltage or the
'Where direct current is used in large quantities
voltage of both machines applied in series.
the power is usually furnished by several generators
operating in parallel, rather than by one or two very
large machines. The larger machines when operated
at full load, are, of course, more efficient than
smaller ones, but the use of several machines in-
creases the flexibility and economy of operation in
several ways.
If only one large generator is used and the load
is small during a considerable part of the time, it
is then necessary to operate the machine partly
loaded. The efficiency of any generator is generally
less when operating at less than full load, as they
are designed to operate at highest efficiency when
they are fully loaded or nearly so.
When several machines are used, the required
number can be kept in operation to carry the exist-
ing load at any time. Then if the load is increased
additional machines may be put in operation, or if Fig. 42. This simple sketch shows a method of connecting two D. C.
generators in parallel. Note the polarity of the generator brushes
it is decreased one or more machines may be shut and bus bars.
down.
In a plant of this kind if any generator develops Just try making a sketch similar to Fig. 42 and
reverse the polarity of one generator and see what
trouble it can be taken out of service for repairs, and
would happen. You will find that the positive of
its load carried by the remaining machines for a
one machine feeds directly into the negative of the
short period, if it doesn't overload them more than
other, and so on around a complete short circuit.
the amount for which they are designed.
The resistance of the machine windings, bus bars,
37. IMPORTANT RULES FOR PARALLEL ammeters and connections is so low that an enor-
OPERATION mous current would flow, until circuit breakers or
As we learned in the previous section on series fuses opened the circuit. If no such protective de-
and parallel circuits, when generators are connected vices were provided, the windings would be burned
in parallel their voltages will be the same as that of out or possibly even thrown out of the slots, by the
one machine. The current capacity of the number enormous magnetic stresses set up by the severe
of generators in parallel, however, will be equal to short circuit currents.
the capacity of all of them, or the sum of their rated You can readily see that in such matters as these
capacities in amperes. your training on electrical principles and circuits
To operate generators in parallel, their voltages becomes of the greatest importance, as you should
must be equal and their polarities must be alike. at all times know the results of your movements
The positive leads of all machines must connect to and operations in a power plant, and know the
the positive bus bar and the negative leads of all proper methods and precautions to follow.
machines must connect to the negative bus bar. 38. CORRECTING WRONG POLARITY
This is illustrated by the sketch in Fig. 42, which If the polarity of a generator should build up
shows two D. C. generators arranged for parallel wrong, or in the reverse direction, it will be indicated
operation. You will note that if the switches are by the voltmeter reading in the wrong direction,
closed the positive brushes of both machines will and these meters should always be carefully ob-
connect to the positive bus bar, and the negative served when starting up machines.
brushes are both connected to the negative bus bar. Sometimes the generator will build up wrong
The voltmeters connected to each machine can be polarity because its residual magnetism has reversed
used to check the voltage as the machine is brought while the machine was shut down. Sometimes stop-
up to speed, in order to be sure that it is equal to ping and starting the machine again will bring it up
the voltage of the other machine which may already in the right polarity if some load is connected
be running and connected to the bus. If the voltages on the circuit. If it doesn't, the polarity can
are unequal to any great extent, the machine of be corrected by momentarily applying alow voltage
364 D. C., Section One. Parallel Operation of Generators.

source of direct current to the field coils and send- 41. TESTING AND ADJUSTING COM-
ing current through them in the proper direction. POUNDING OF GENERATORS
In power plants where several D. C. generators The compounding effects of different generators
are used, they are generally arranged so their fields can be tested or compared by separately loading
can be connected to the bus bars, assuring proper in increasing amounts and observing their volt-
excitation and polarity. meters. This can be clone by connecting one of the
39. COMPOUND MACHINES BEST FOR machines to the switchboard, or to aspecial loading
GENERAL SERVICE rheostat, and operating the machine under normal
Shunt wound generators will operate quite satis- voltage. Then apply a certain amount of load to it
factorily in parallel on constant loads if their volt- and observe the voltmeter closely, to note the
ages are kept carefully adjusted to keep the load amount of increase in the voltage due to the com-
divided properly between them. If the voltage of pounding effect.
one machine is allowed to rise or fall considerably It will probably be well to check the voltage in-
above or below that of the others, it will cause the crease as the load is changed from one-fourth to
machine of lower voltage to motorize and draw ex- one-half, and then to three-fourths and full load
cessive reverse current, and trip open the circuit values. By testing each generator in this manner we
breakers. can determine which of them has the greatest over-
If the voltage of one machine falls only a little compounding effect, or produces the highest in-
below that of the others, the back current may not crease in voltage for the various increases in load.
be sufficient to open the breakers, but would be in- If this compounding is found to be different on
dicated by the ammeter of this machine reading in the various machines, it can be adjusted by means
the reverse direction. of the series field shunt, which will allow more or
Shunt generators are not very often used in large less of the total load current to flow through the
power plants, because of their very poor voltage series winding of the compound field.
regulation and the considerable drop in their voltage When anumber of machines of similar design are
when a heavy load is applied. A plain shunt gen- thus properly adjusted they should operate satis-
erator can usually be changed for compound opera- factorily in parallel under all normal load changes.
tion by simply adding a few turns of heavy wire In case the machines do not properly divide their
around the field poles, and connecting them in series loads and one is found to be taking more than its
with the armature, with the right polarity to aid share of any load increases, this can be corrected
the shunt field flux. by very slightly increasing the resistance of its
The compound generator is best suited to most series field cirerait by adding a few feet of cable in
loads and circuits for power and lighting service and the series field connection.
is the type generally used where machines are oper- The series field windings may be connected to
ated in parallel in D. C. power plants.
Series generators are not operated in parallel and
in fact they are very little used, except for welders,
test work or in older street lighting installations.
40. SIMILAR VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS
NECESSARY FOR PARALLEL
OPERATION
Compound generators can be readily paralleled if
they are of the same design and voltage. They usu-
ally have similar electrical and voltage character-
istics and should be made with the same compound-
ing ratios. That is, the compounding effects of the
machines must be equal even though they are of
unequal size.
Machines of different kilowatt ratings can be sat-
isfactorily operated in parallel, if they are made by
the same manufacturer or of the same general de :
sign, so that each will tend to carry its own share
of the load. If their compounding is properly pro-
portioned, the voltage rise of each generator should
be the same for asimilar increase of load.
When a D. C. generator is operated in parallel
with others and its voltage is increased, it will im-
mediately start to carry a greater share of the cur-
rent load. We can, therefore, adjust the load on the
various machines by increasing or decreasing their Fig. 42-A. Large D. C. generator driven by a vertical engine. If
this machine is rated at 250 volts and 3000 amperes, what is its
voltages the proper amount. capacity and KW?
 D. C., Section One. Equalizers for Parallel Generators. 365

either the positive or negative brush leads of the meters are connected across ammeter shunts which
armature; but, where compound generators are are in series with the positive leads of each machine.
operated in parallel, the series field lead of each ma- These shunts will be explained later.
chine must be connected to the same armature lead, The machine switches for connecting the genera-
either positive or negative, on all generators. tors to the bus bars are also shown in this diagram;
but the circuit breakers, which would be connected
42. EQUALIZER CONNECTIONS in series with these switches, are not shown.
When compound generators are operated in par- 43. LOCATION OF EQUALIZER SWITCHES
allel, an equalizer connection should be used to
On machines of small or medium sizes and up to
equalize the proportion of currents through their
about 1,000 ampere capacity, the equalizer switch is
series fields and to balance their compounding ef-
often the center pole of the three-pole switch, as
fects. shown in Fig. 43.
This equalizer connection, or bus, is attached to
The two outside switch blades are in the positive
the end of the series field next to the armature.
and negative leads of the machine. For machines
Its purpose is to connect the series fields of all requiring larger switches, three separate single-pole
generators directly in parallel by a short path of
switches may be used for greater ease of operation.
very low resistance, and to allow the load to divide In this case the center one is usually the equalizer
properly between them. When this connection is
switch.
properly made the current load will divide between
It is quite common practice to mount all of these
the series fields of the several machines in propor-
switches on the switchboard, although in some in-
tion to their capacity. stallations the equalizer switch is mounted on a
The equalizer allows the total load current to pedestal near the generator. In this case, the equal-
divide through all series fields in inverse proportion izer cable or bus is not taken to the switchboard
to their resistance, independently of the load oil the but is run directly between the two machines.
armature of the machine and of the armature resist-
ance and voltage drop. This causes an increase of .=>
A.,, ...
voltage on one machine to build up the voltage of ‘01.
Bus B an
et e
the others at the same time, so that no one machine
can take all the increased load. Bus Bar

The connecting cables or busses used for equal-

izer connections between compound generators Equatizer

should be of very low resistance and also of equal

F.' ff. F.' R.
resistance. This also applies to the series field con-
nections from the generators to the main buss, if
the machines are of the same size. /
If the machines are located at different distances
from the switchboard, bus cables of slightly differ-
ent size can be used, or an additional low resistance
unit can be inserted in the lower resistance leads.
Whenever possible, leads of equal length should se
o
be used; and, in the case of cables, it is sometimes m
m ... g
m
advisable to loop them or have several turns in the m
m. 0 - -- E
cable to make up the proper length. If these cables m ...
E
or busses were of unequal resistance on machines
of the same size, there would be an unequal division ., Shunt Field c' Shunt Field
1
of the load through the machines, and the machine
having the lowest resistance would take more than Series held Shunt /

its share of the load. Fig. 43. This diagram shows the connections for two compound D. C.
When machines of unequal size are to be paral- generators to be operated in parallel. Note carefully the connec-
tions of the equalizer leads, series and shunt fields and instruments.
leled, the resistance of the series field leads should
be in proportion to the resistance of the series field Regardless of the location of the equalizer
windings. switches, they should be closed at the same time or
Fig. 43 shows a wiring diagram for two com- before the positive and negative machine switches
pound generators to be operated in parallel. Note are closed.
the series and shunt field windings, and also the Where three-pole switches are used, all of the
series field shunts and shunt field rheostat. The poles are, of course, closed at the same time; but,
equalizer connections are shown properly made at if three single-pole switches are used, the equalizer
the point between the series field lead and the nega- should be closed first. If the positive and negative
tive brush. From this point they are attached to switches are closed one at a time, the switch on the
the equalizer bus on the switchboard. The volt- same side of the armature from which the equalizer
meters are connected directly across the positive connection is taken should be closed second.
and negative leads of each generator, and the am- The series field should always be paralleled before
366 D. C., Section One. Load Adjustment on Parallel Generators.

or at the same instant that the generator armature the main switch, so that the voltage readings can
is paralleled with the main bus, in order to insure be obtained before this switch is closed. This is
equalization of the compounding effects and to necessary because we must know the voltage of the
allow the machine to take its proper share of the generator before it is connected in parallel with the
load at once. others.
45. STARTING, PARALLELING and ADJUST-
44. INSTRUMENT CONNECTIONS WITH ING LOAD ON GENERATORS
PARALLEL GENERATORS In starting up a generator plant with several ma-
Current instruments and devices—such as am- chines, the first generator can be started by the pro-
meters, overload coils on circuit breakers, current cedure previously described and connected to the
coils of wattmeters, etc.—should always be con- bus as soon as its voltage is normal. The second
nected in the armature lead which doesn't contain generator should then be brought up to speed and
the series field winding. This is shown by the am- its voltage then carefully checked and adjusted to
meter shunts in Fig. 43, which are properly con- be equal to that of the first machine. Then this
nected in the positive lead. second machine can be connected to the bus. The
If these devices are connected in the lead which ammeters of both machines should then be read to
has the series field in it, the current indications will see that they are dividing the load equally or in
not be accurate, because current from this side of the proportion to their sizes.
machine can divide and flow through either the By adjusting the voltage of any generator with
equalizer bus or the armature. its field rheostat, it can be made to take its proper
Ammeters and other current devices should indi- share of the load. After this adjustment is made,
cate the amount of current through the armature of the same procedure can be followed on the remain-
the machine. It is not necessary to measure the cur- ing. machines. If there are a number of branch cir-
rent through the series fields, since they are all in cuits and switchboard panels feeding to the lines
parallel with each other. and load, the switches on these panels can be closed
The voltage generated in the armature will deter- one at a time, applying the loads to the generators
mine the amount of current which is carried through gradually.
it, and it is possible to control the armature voltage To shut down any machine, adjust its shunt field
of any machine by the adjustment of the shunt field rheostat to cut in resistance and weaken its field,
rheostat and thus vary the load carried by each lowering the voltage of that generator until its am-
generator. meter shows that it has dropped practically all of
Voltmeters should be connected, as shown in Fig. its load. The circuit breaker can then be opened
43, at a point between the generator brushes and and the machine shut down.

THREE-WIRE D. C. SYSTEMS
The Edison three-wire D. C. system is used chiefly prime movers or both driven by the same prime
where the generating equipment is to supply energy mover if desired; and the drive may be either by
for both power and lighting. The advantages of this belt or direct coupling.
system are that it supplies 110 volts for lights and In general the operation of athree-wire system is
220 volts for motors and also saves considerably practically the same as for atwo-wire machine. The
in the amounts and cost of copper, by the use of the voltage of each generator may be adjusted by means
higher voltage and balancing of the lighting circuits. of the shunt field rheostat.
Some of these features of 3-wire systems were As these machines are operated in series instead
also explained in Section 2, on Electrical Wiring. of parallel, it is not necessary to have their voltage
One of the most simple and common methods of exactly even; but they should be kept properly ad-
obtaining the two voltages on three-wire circuits is justed in order to maintain balanced voltages on the
by connecting two 110-volt generators in series, as two sides of the three-wire system.
shown in Fig. 44. There is no division of the current load between
\Ve know that when generators are connected in these generators—as in the case of parallel ma-
series in this manner their voltages add together, chines—as the main current flows through both ma-
so these two 110-volt machines will produce 220 chines in series. When the voltage of both machines
volts between the outside or positive and negative is properly adjusted, they can be connected to the
wires. The third, or neutral, wire is connected to switchboard busses. The ammeters should then be
the point between the two generators where the observed to note the current in each wire.
positive of one and negative of the other are con- 46. DIRECTION AND AMOUNT OF CUR-
nected together. The voltage between the neutral RENT IN THE NEUTRAL WIRE
wire and either outside wire will be 110 volts, or the The ammeter in the neutral wire is of the double-
voltage of one machine. reading type, with the zero mark in the center of
Generators for this purpose may be either shunt the scale, and it will read the amount of current
or compound, but the compound machines are more flowing in either direction.
generally used. They can be driven by separate When the load on athree-wire system is perfectly
 D. C., Section One. Three Wire Systems and Generators. 367

balanced, the neutral wire will carry no current and Quite often the neutral wire is made one-half the
the set operates on 220 volts. In this case the two size of either of the outer wires, unless local rulings
outside ammeters will read the same and the center require it to be of the same size. If the neutral wire
ammeter will read zero. When there is an unequal is made one-half the size of the outer ones, a three-
amount of load in watts on each side of the system wire system of this type will require only 31.3% of
it is said to be unbalanced, and the neutral wire will the copper required for the same load on atwo-wire,
carry current equal to the difference between the 110-volt system.
current required by the load on one side and that The neutral wire is generally grounded, as shown
on the other. in Fig. 44.
This current may, therefore, flow in either direc- 48. THREE-WIRE GENERATORS
tion, according to which side of the system has the In some cases a special three-wire generator is
heaviest load. Referring to Fig. 44—if the greater used, instead of the two machines in series, to pro-
load were on the lower side, the extra current re- duce a three-wire D. C. system. An early type of
quired would be furnished by the lower generator; three-wire generator, and one which is still used for
and the current in the neutral wire would be flow- certain installations, consists of a 220-volt armature
ing to the right, or away from the generators. If equipped with both a commutator and slip rings.
the heavier load were placed on the upper side of The armature coil connections are made to the
the system, the extra current would be supplied by
commutator in the usual manner, and 220 volts is
the upper machine, flowing out on its positive wire
obtained from the brushes on the commutator. In
and back to the line on the neutral wire. addition to the leads from each coil to the commuta-
tor bars, other leads are taken from points spaced
180° apart around the winding and are connected
to a pair of slip rings mounted on the shaft near
the end of the commutator. This supplies single-
phase alternating current at 220 volts to the slip
rings.
From the brushes on these slip rings two leads are
taken to opposite ends of a choke coil, which con-
sists of a number of turns of heavy wire wound on
an iron core similar to a transformer core. This
connection is shown in Fig. 45.
A tap is made at the exact center of this choke
coil for the third or neutral wire. In some cases a
choke coil is mounted on the armature shaft and
rotated with it; but in most cases this coil is sta-
tionary and outside of the machine, having its con-
Fig. 44. This sketch shows two D. C. generators connected in series
nections made through the slip rings and brushes.
for providing three-wire, 110 and 220 volt service. These coils are often referred to as three-wire trans-
formers or compensators.
47. BALANCED SYSTEM MORE
ECONOMICAL 49. PRINCIPLE OF THE BALANCE COIL
For efficient operation, the amount of unbalance The neutral wire, being connected to the center
should not exceed 10% of the total load. In many of the coil, is always at a voltage about one-half
cases, however, it is allowed to exceed 15% or more. that between the positive and negative brushes.
If the load could always be kept perfectly balanced, Therefore, if 220 volts are obtained between these
no neutral wire would be required as all of the load brushes, 110 volts are obtained between either the
devices would be operated two in series on 220 volts. positive and negative wire and the neutral.
Without the neutral wire, if one or more of the When the load on a three-wire generator of this
lamps or devices should be disconnected, the re- type is perfectly balanced, no current flows in the
maining ones on the other side of the system would neutral wire and all of the load current is supplied
operate at more than normal voltage. This was from the commutator by the positive and negative
thoroughly explained under the heading, "Three- D. C. brushes. There is, however, a small amount
Wire Systems", in Section Two of Electrical Con- of alternating current flowing through the choke or
struction and Wiring. balance coil at all times, as there is an alternating
In most systems it is practically impossible to voltage applied to it from the slip rings as long as
keep the load balanced at all times, and, therefore, the machine is operating. This current will be very
the neutral wire is necessary to carry the unbalanced small, as achoke coil of this type offers avery high
load and keep the voltages equal on both sides of impedance or opposition to the flow of alternating
the system. It is very seldom, however, that the current.
neutral wire will have to carry as much current as This impedance, or opposition, is composed of the
the outside wires. Therefore, it may be made smaller ohmic resistance of the conductors in the coil, and
than the positive and negative wires. also of the counter-voltage generated by self-induc-
368 D. C., Section One. Three Wire Generators.

tion whenever alternating current is passed through 51. THREE-WIRE MOTOR GENERATORS
such turns of wire wound on an iron core. OR BALANCER SETS
Direct current, however, can flow through a coil Three-wire circuits may also be obtained by
of this type with only the opposition of the copper means of a 220-volt D. C. generator in combination
resistance, as the flux of direct current is not con- with a motor-generator or balancer set. These
stantly expanding and contracting like that of alter- balancer sets consist of two 110-volt machines
nating current, and so doesn't induce the high mounted on the same bed plate and directly con-
counter-voltage of self-induction. nected together by their shafts. See Fig. 48. The
armatures of both n4achines are connected in series
with each other, and across the positive and nega-
tive leads of the 220-volt generator, as shown in
Fig. 47.
This allows 110 volts to be applied to each arma-
ture and operates both machines as motors when
the load is perfectly balanced. Either machine can,
however, be operated either as amotor or as a gen-
erator, if the load on the system becomes un-
balanced.
If one side of the system has a heavier load con-
nected to it, the machine on this side automatically
starts to operate as agenerator and is driven by the
machine on the other side, which then operates as
a motor. This condition will immediately reverse
if the greater load is placed on the opposite side of
the system. A balancer set of this type will, there-
Fig. 45. The above diagram shows the commutator, slip rings, and
fore, supply the unbalanced current in either direc-
balance coil of a three-wire D. C. generator. tion, and will maintain 110 volts between the neu-
tral and either outside wire.
50. UNBALANCED LOAD ON THREE-WIRE
GENERATORS
When a system such as that shown in Fig. 45 is
unbalanced and has, we will say, a heavier load be-
tween the positive wire and neutral, the unbalanced
current flowing in the neutral wire will return to
the center tap of the choke coil. From this point it
will flow first in one direction and then in the other,
as the alternating current reverses in direction
through the coil. Thus it returns to the armature
winding, through first one slip ring and then the
other.
If the lower side of the circuit is loaded the heavi-
est the unbalanced current will flow out through
the choke coil in the same manner, passing first
through one half and then the other, to reach the
neutral wire.
The choke coil must, of course, be wound with
wire large enough to carry the maximum un- Fig. 45-B. This view shows a three-wire generator disassembled. You
will note the slip rings mounted on the end of the commutator.
balanced current that the neutral wire is expected
to carry. It must also have a sufficient number of Where these machines are larger than one or
turns to limit the flow of alternating current from two kilowatts, a starting rheostat should be used to
the slip rings to a very low value, in order to pre- limit the flow of current through their armatures
vent a large waste of current through this coil. until the machines attain full speed. After they
Three-wire generators of this type can stand con- reach full speed, they generate sufficient counter-
siderable unbalanced load without much effect on voltage to limit the current flow through their arma-
the voltage regulation. They are very compact and tures while operating as motors.
economical and are used to some extent in small The neutral wire is connected between the arma-
isolated D. C. plants, where the circuits carry aload tures of the motor generator set where their posi-
of 110-volt lamps and equipment, and also 220-volt tive and negative leads connect together.
motors. 52. EFFECTS OF SHUNT AND SERIES
Fig. 46 shows a three-wire generator on which FIELDS OF BALANCER GENERATORS
the slip rings can be seen mounted close to the end Either shunt or compound machines may be used
of the commutator. for these equalizers, but compound machines are
 D. C., Section gne. Three Wire Balancer Seta. 369

53. BALANCING OF UNEQUAL LOADS

When a system is unbalanced, the neutral current
divides between the two armatures, driving the one
on the lightly loaded side as a motor and passing
through the other as a generator. In Fig. 47 the
upper side of the system has the heaviest load, and
the lower side has the highest resistance. This will
cause the excess current from the greater load to
flow back through the neutral wire and through the
series of the lower machine, in a direction opposing
its shunt field. This weakens the field flux and
causes this machine to speed up and tend to act as
a motor to drive the upper machine as a generator.
As the voltage of the generator unit rises slightly
with the increased speed, it causes part of the un-
balanced load to flow through it, and its series field,
Fig. 44. Assembled three-wire generator. Slip rings can be seen at
in adirection aiding the flux of the shunt field.
the right-hand end of the commutator. If this machine is rated
at 500 KW, what should the maximum load in amperes be on both
This increases its voltage still more, which en-
of the 110 volt circuits it supplies? ables it to take its proper share of the unbalanced
used more extensively. The number of turns in the current and to compensate for the voltage drop on
series field coils must be carefully selected to pro- the heavily loaded side of the system.
vide the proper compounding effects. Generally the If the heaviest load is placed on the other side of
number of turns is very small, so that the voltage the system, the current through the series fields of
rise due to compounding will not be very great. both machines will reverse, and cause the one which
If this series field produces too great a voltage was operating as a generator to speed up and oper-
rise on either machine, that machine will be apt ate as amotor.
to take more than the unbalanced part of the load.
The machines shown in Fig. 47 are of the com-
pound type and have their series fields connected
in series with the armatures and the positive and
negative line wires.
The shunt fields are connected in parallel with
their armatures and are both in series with a field
rheostat, which can be used to increase the strength
of the field of one machine and decrease that of the
other at the same time.
The series fields are connected so that they in-
crease the field strength when either machine is
operating as a generator, but tend to decrease or
oppose the flux of the shunt field on either machine
when it operates as a motor. This is caused by
the reversal of the direction of current through the
series field and armatures as the unbalanced load
is shifted from one side of the system to the other.
Current through the shunt fields, however, con-
tinues to flow in the same direction at all times, be-
cause they are connected across the positive and Fig. 47. This diagram shows the connections for the main generator and
negative leads from the main generator. two balancer machines of a three-wire system.

If the compounding effect of the balancer ma-

chines tends to strengthen the field of either one The motor armature must take enough more than
operating as agenerator, the voltage of that machine one-half of the neutral current to supply the losses
will rise slightly; while the compound effect on the of both armatures.
machine operating as a motor weakens its field and Referring again to Fig. 47, we find that the con-
tends to make it speed up. nections of the field rheostat, F. R., are such that
As long as the load on the system is perfectly when the handle or sliding contact is moved up-
balanced, both machines operate as differential ward it will cut resistance out of the shunt field of
motors without any mechanical load. The current the upper machine and add resistance in series with
through their armatures at such times is very small, the shunt of the lower machine. This would pro-
being only sufficient to keep the armatures turning duce the desired effects when the upper machine is
against the bearing and friction losses and to supply operating as a generator and the lower one as a
the small electric losses in the machines. motor.
 Norman eceer
41 Georgia Ave.
37krooklyn 7, N. Y, D. C., Section One. Commutation on Generators.

As this change of resistance increases the field

strength voltage of the generator, it weakens the
field strength and increases the speed of the motor.
The shunt fields can be controlled separately, if
desired, by connecting a separate rheostat in series
with each field. In Fig. 44 the shunt fields of each
machine are connected in parallel with their own
armatures. By changing these connections so that
the shunt field of each machine is connected across
the armature of the other mahine, the machine
which is operating as a generator will increase the
current flow through the motor field and improve
the torque of the motor armature. Fig. 48. Photo of a motor-generator balancer set used for
three-wire system machines of this type are used con-
Fig. 48 shows a motor-generator balancer set of
.. siderably, where the unbalanced load is small compared
the type just described. to the total load on the main generator.

COMMUTATION AND INTERPOLES

The term "commutation" applies to the process ture will add together. The voltages from both
of reversing the connections of the coils to the halves of the winding cause current to flow to the
brushes, as the coils pass from one pole to another positive brush, out through the line and load, and
in rotation. back in at the negative brush where it again
The function of the commutator, as we already divides through both sides of the winding.
know, is to constantly deliver to the brushes voltage Now let us follow the movement of one coil
in one direction only, and thereby rectify or change through positions A, B, and C; and see what action
the alternating current generated in the winding takes place in the coil during commutation.
to direct current for the line. We will first consider the coil in position A,
We have also learned that commutation for the which is approaching the positive brush. This coil
various coils, or the contact of their bars with the is carrying the full current of the left half of the
brushes, should take place when the coils are in winding, as this current is still flowing through it
the neutral plane between adjacent poles; at which to commutator bar 1 and to the positive brush.
point there is practically no voltage generated in The coil at "A" also has a voltage generated in it,
them. because it is still under the edge of the north field-
The reason for having commutation take place pole.
while the coils are in the neutral plane is to prevent An instant later when the coil has moved into
short-circuiting them while they have ahigh voltage position B, it will be short-circuited by the brush
generated in them. This would cause severe spark- coming in contact with bars 1 and 2.
ing, as will be more fully explained later.
55. SELF INDUCTION IN COILS SHORTED
54. PROCESS OF COMMUTATION BY BRUSHES
The process of commutation, or shifting of coils As soon as this coil is shorted by the brush,
in and out of contact with the brushes, is illustrated the armature current stops flowing through it, and
in Fig. 49. Here we have a sketch of a simple flows directly through the commutator bar to the
ring-type armature with the ends of the coils shown brush. When this current stops flowing through
connected to adjacent commutator bars. This the coil, the flux around the coil collapses and cuts
winding is not the kind used on modern power across the turns of its winding, inducing a voltage
generators, but it illustrates the principles of com- in this shorted coil. This is called voltage of self-
mutation very well, and is very easily traced. induction, and it sets up a considerable current flow
We will assume that the armature in this figure in the shorted coil, as its resistance is so low. Note
is rotating clockwise. All of the coils which are that the voltage of self-induction always tends to
in front of the north and south poles will be gen- maintain current in an armature coil in the direction
erating voltage, which we will assume is in the it was last flowing when generated from the field
direction shown by the arrows inside the coils. pole.
As the coils are all connected in series through As long as the coil remains shorted, the current
their connections to the commutator bars, the set up by self-induction flows around through the
voltage of all of the coils on each side of the arma- coil, bars, and brush. But as the coil moves far
 D. C., Section One. Commutation. Brush Shifting. 371

enough so bar 2 breaks contact with the brush, this shorted only while they are in the neutral plane,
interrupts the self-induced current and causes an when the coil itself is not generating voltage from
arc. Arcing or sparking will tend to burn and pit the flux of the field poles. Therefore, the brushes
the commutator, and is very detrimental to the must be accurately set so they will short circuit
commutator surface and brushes. Methods of pre- the coils only while they are in this neutral plane.
venting arcing will be explained later.
57. SHIFTING BRUSHES WITH VARYING
As the coil which we are considering moves on
LOAD ON MACHINES WITHOUT
into position C, its short circuit has been removed
INTERPOLES
and it is now cutting flux undtr a north pole. This
The neutral plane tends to shift as the load on
will generate a voltage in the opposite direction
a generator is increased or decreased. This is due
to what it formerly had, and it still feeds its current
back to the positive brush through bar 2. to the fact that increased load increases the current
So we find that, by shifting the contact from one through the armature winding and the additional
end of the coils to the other as they pass from pole armature flux will cause greater distortion of the
to pole and have their voltages reversed, the same field flux. The greater the load, the further the
brush always remains positive. neutral plane will move in the direction of armature
rotation.
If the brushes are shifted to follow the movement
of this neutral plane with increased load, commu-
tation can still be accomplished without severe
sparking. For this reason, the brushes are usually
mounted on a rocker arm which allows them to be
shifted or rotated a short distance in either direc-
tion around the commutator.
In addition to the sparking which is caused by
shorting coils which are not in the neutral plane,
the other principal cause of sparking is the self-
induced current which is set up in the coils by the
collapse of their own flux when the armature cur-
rent through them is interrupted.
We have previously stated that this self-induction
will set up a considerable flow of current in the
shorted coils. Then, when the coil moves on and
Fig. 49. This diagram illustrates the principles of commutation in one of its bars moves out from under the brush
a generator. Examine each part of it very carefully while reading and thus opens the short circuit, this current forms
the explanation given on these pages.
an arc as it is interrupted.
56. IMPORTANCE OF PROPER BRUSH Sparking from this cause can be prevented to a
SETTING FOR NEUTRAL PLANE large extent by generating in the coil a voltage
The time allowed for commutation is extremely which is equal and opposite to that of self-induction.
short, because when agenerator armature is turning Shifting the brushes also helps to accomplish this,
at high speed, the bars attached to any coil are in by allowing commutation to take place as the coil
contact with a brush for only a very small fraction is actually approaching the next field pole.
of a second. • This is illustrated in Fig. 50. In this figure you
The reversal. of the coil leads to the brushes must will note that the brushes have been shifted so that
take place very rapidly as the coils are revolved they do not short circuit the coils until they are
at high speed from one pole to the next. On an actually entering the flux of the next pole beyond
ordinary four-pole generator each coil must pass the normal neutral plane.
through the process of commutation several thou- The voltage of self-induction always tends to set
sand times per minute. Therefore, it is very impor- up current in the same direction as the current
tant that commutation be accomplished without induced by the field pole which the coil is just
sparking, if we are to preserve a smooth surface leaving. If, at the time the short circuit on the
on the commutator and prevent rapid wear of the coil is broken, the coil is entering the flux of the
brushes. next pole, this flux will induce in the coil a voltage
Brushes are made in different widths according in the opposite direction to that of self-induction.
to the type of winding used in the machine; but, This will tend to neutralize the voltage and currents
regardless of how narrow the brushes may be, there of self-induction and enable the short circuit to be
will always be ashort period during which adjacent broken when there is practically no voltage or cur-
commutator bars will be shorted together by the rent in the shorted coil.
brushes as they pass under them. Keep in mind that this is the required condition
We have found that, in order to avoid severe for most satisfactory commutation.
sparking during commutation, the coils must be If the load on generators doesn't change often
 372 D. C., Section One. Commutating Field and Interpoles.

We will assume that this armature is rotated in

a clockwise direction, and that its armature con-
ductors have generated in them voltage which tends
to send current in through the conductors on the
left side, and out through those on the right side
of the winding. Recalling that the voltage of self-
induction tends to maintain current in the same
direction in the conductor as it was under the last
field pole, we find that this voltage is generated
"in" at the top conductor in the neutral plane and
"out" at the lower one.
59. POLARITY OF INTERPOLES FOR A
GENERATOR
If you will check the polarity of the interpoles,
you will find that their flux would be in a direction
to induce voltages opposite to those of self-induc-
tion in each of these two conductors. The direction
Fig. U. This sketch shows the method of shifting the brushes to
short circuit coils in a position where they will be generating the of these voltages is shown by the symbols placed
voltage to neutralize that of self-induction.
just outside of the conductor circles. So we find
or suddenly, manual shifting of the brushes with that, if these commutating poles are made to set up
each change of load and new position of the neutral flux of the right polarity and in the right amount,
plane, may be all that is required to prevent spark- they can be caused to neutralize the effects of self-
ing; but when the load changes are frequent and induction and distortion of the neutral plane almost
considerable, it would be very difficult to maintain entirely.
this adjustment by hand. These poles are called "commutating poles" be-
Where the manual method is used to maintain cause their principal purpose is to improve commu-
proper commutation, it is common practice to tation and reduce sparking at the commutator and
adjust the brushes to a position where they will brushes.
spark the least for the average load. Then, even
though a certain amount of sparking results when
the load rises above or falls below this value, the
brushes are not changed unless the sparking be-
comes too severe.
•Fig. 51 shows a D. C. generator without the shaft
or bearing post. The brushes of this machine are
all attached to the ring framework as shown, and
this entire assembly can be rotated to shift the
brushes, by means of the hand wheel at the left.
Referring again to Fig. 50, the solid arrows show
the direction of the voltage of self-induction, and
the dotted arrows show the direction of the voltage
which is induced by the flux of the field pole which
the coil is approaching. These two voltages, being
in opposite directions, tend to neutralize each other,
as has previously been explained.
58. USE OF COMMUTATING POLES TO
PREVENT SPARKING
On the more modern D.C. machines commutating
poles, or interpoles, are employed to hold the neu-
tral plane in its normal position between the main
poles, and to neutralize the effects of self-induction Fig. 51. This end view of a generator with the pedestals, bearing,
and shaft removed shows very clearly the brush ring mounted in
in the shorted coils. These interpoles are smaller grooved rollers on the side of the field frame. The hand-wheel at
field poles which are mounted in between the main the left can be used for rotating this ring to shift the brushes to
the proper neutral plane.
poles of the machine, as shown in Fig. 52.
The interpoles are wound and connected so they In order to produce the desired results the inter-
will set up flux of proper polarity, to generate poles of a generator must be of the same polarity
voltage in the opposite direction to that of self- as the adjacent main pole in the direction of rota-
induction, as the armature coils pass under them. tion.
Fig. 53 shows a sketch of a simple generator with 60. STRENGTH OF COMMUTATING FIELD
interpoles, or commutating poles, placed between VARIES WITH LOAD
the main field poles. In order that these commutating poles may pro-
 •
D. C., Section One. Commutating Field and Interpoles. 373

duce fields of the proper strength for the varying

loads on the generator armature, their windings are
connected in series with the armature, so that their
strength will at all times be proportional to the
load current. In this manner, the strength and
neutralizing effect of the interpoles increases as the
load increases, and thereby tends to counteract the
effect of increased load on field distortion and self-
induction.
In this manner, interpoles can be made to main-
tain sparkless commutation at all loads and thus
make unnecessary the shifting of the brushes for
varying loads.

Fig. 53. This sketch illustrates the manner in which Interpoles

generate voltage opposite to that of self-induction in the con-
ductors which are shorted by the brushes.

mounted rigidly in the bracket but are, of course,

insulated from the metal with fibre sleeves and
washers.
When the brushes are to be rotated the bolts
which hold the end plate to the field frame are
loosened slightly and the entire end plate is shifted.
This allows the armature coils to be commutated
at a point where the effects of the interpole are
just great enough to neutralize or balance self-
induction.
Before removing the end plate to make repairs
on a machine of this type, it is well to mark its
position, so that you can be sure to get it replaced
Fig. 52. This photo shows a four-pole, D. C. generator with commu- in the correct position. This can be done by making
tating poles. These commutating poles or Interpol.* are the
«nailer ones shown between the main field poles. one or two small marks in line with each other on
both the field frame and the end plate. The marks
Referring again to Fig. 52, you will note that
can be made with a file or prick punch.
the windings on the interpoles consist of a few
turns of very heavy cable, so that they will be
able to carry the armature current of the machine.
The strength of the interpoles can be varied by the
use of an interpole shunt, which is connected in
parallel with the commutating field to shunt part
of the armature current around these coils. The
connections of this shunt are shown in Fig. 54-A.
The interpole shunt is usually made of low re-
sistance materials, such as bronze or copper, so it
will carry the current readily without undue heat-
ing.
This method of weakening the strength of the
commutating field is quite commonly used on the
larger machines. The terminals of the commu- Fig. $4. At "A" is shown the connection of an Interim:44 shunt tot
varying the strength of the commutating field. "B" shows an
tating field are usually connected directly to the end bracket with slots to allow it to be rotated slightly to shift
the brushes. The .rush holders on this machine would be mounted
brushes, to eliminate confusion when making ex- on this end bracket.
ternal connections to the machine.
62. ADJUSTING INTERPOLES BY
61. ADJUSTMENT OF BRUSHES ON CHANGING THE AIR GAP
INTERPOLE MACHINES The strength of interpoles can also be varied
On machines of small and medium sizes, the end by placing iron shims or thin strips between the
plate or bracket on the generator is sometimes slot- interpole and the field frame of the machine, as
ted, as shown in Fig. 54-B, to allow the brushes to shown in Fig. 55. It is possible in this manner
be rotated or shifted within a very limited range. to vary the width of the air gap between the face
With such machines, the brush-holder studs are of the interpoles and the armature core.
374 D. C., Section One. Commutation on Motors.

ture are momentarily short circuited by the brushes,

the same as with a generator.
This shorting and commutation should take place
while the coils are in the neutral plane between
the field poles, where they are doing the least work
or producing the least torque.
We also know that the coils of any motor arma-
ture have a high counter-voltage generated in them
as they rotate under the field poles. This counter-
voltage will be at its lowest value while the coils
are passing through the neutral planes; which is
another reason for having commutation take place
at this point in a motor.
64. POSITION OF NEUTRAL PLANE IN
MOTORS
The neutral plane of a D.C. motor will also shift
Fig. SS. Thin iron shims can be used under an interpole to vary its with load variations and changes in armature cur-
strength by changing the air gap between the pole and the rent, but this shift will be in the opposite direction
armature.
to what it is in a generator. This is due to the
Decreasing the air gap reduces the magnetic fact that the rotation of a motor will be opposite
reluctance of the interpole field path, thereby to that of agenerator if the current direction is the
strengthening its flux and increasing its effect on same in the motor armature as in the generator
commutation. This method can be used on ma- armature.
chines of any size and when no other visible means Motor coils also have counter-voltage of self-
of varying the interpole strength is provided, shims induction produced in them when they are shorted
are probably used. by the brushes. In a motor, the direction of this
On some machines, the number of interpoles may self-induced voltage will be opposite to that in a
only be one-half the number of main field poles; generator, as the motor armature currents are in
in which case they will be placed in every other the opposite direction to those in agenerator arma-
neutral plane and will all be of the same polarity. ture of the same direction of rotation.
By making these interpoles of twice the strength
as would be used when a machine has one for each
main pole, we can still effectively neutralize the
self-induction in the coils. This is true because,
with a modern drum-wound armature, when one
side of any coil is in one neutral plane the other
side will be in the adjacent neutral plane.
For this reason, if interpoles are placed in every
other neutral plane, one side of any coil will always
be under the interpole while this coil is undergoing
commutation. This is illustrated by the sketch in
Fig. 56, which shows a four-pole generator with
only two interpoles.
As both sides of any coil are in series, the double
strength of the interpole over one side will neu-
tralize the effects of self-induction in the entire coil.
This type of construction reduces the cost of the
generator considerably and is often used on ma-
chines ranging up to six-pole size.
63. COMMUTATION ON MOTORS
Fg. Si. This simple sketch illustrates the manner in which two
The problem of obtaining sparkless commutation interpoles can be used to neutralize self-induction in the coils of
a four-pole machine.
on D. C. motors is practically the same as with
D.C. generators. \Ve can, therefore, improve commutation on a
Motors as well as generators must have the con- motor by shifting the brushes in the opposite direc-
nections from the brushes to the coils reversed as tion to that used for a generator. Motor brushes
the coils pass from one pole to another of opposite should be shifted against the direction of rotation,
polarity. This is necessary to keep the current from when the load is increased.
the line flowing in the right direction in all coils Fig. 57 is a sketch of the armature conductors
in order to produce torque in the same direction and field poles of a simple D.C. motor, showing
under all field poles. the position of the neutral plane with respect to
During commutation, the coils of a motor arma- the direction of rotation.
 D. C., Section One. Commutation on Motors. 375

The heavy symbols in the six armature conduc-

tors on each side show the direction of the applied
current from the line, which is flowing "in" on the
conductors at the right and "out" on those on the
left side. The lighter symbols in the single con-
ductors at the top and bottom show the direction
of the currents set up in this coil by self-induction
when the coil is shorted. The symbols shown out-
side of the conductor circles indicate the direction
of the counter E.M.F. produced in the motor wind-
ing. This counter-voltage always opposes the
direction of the applied line voltage.

Fig. 58. This diagram shows the connections of the interpoles for a
two-pole generator or motor.

Fig. 58 shows the connections of the interpoles

for a two-pole D.C. motor. You will note that one
armature lead is connected directly to the negative
brush, while the other lead connects first to the
commutating field and then, through these poles,
to the positive brush.
If this connection is properly made when the
machine is assembled, it is not necessary to make
any change in the connections of the commutating
field when the motor is reversed. Either the arma-
ture current or field poles must be reversed to
reverse the rotation, so that the relation of the
commutating poles will still be correct.
This connection can be the same whether the
Fig. 57. This sketch shows the position of the neutral plane with
respect to rotation in a motor. Compare this with Fig. 53 for machine is operated as a motor or generator, be-
a generator. cause a generator rotated in the same direction as
65. POLARITY OF INTERPOLES FOR a motor will generate current in the opposite direc-
MOTORS tion through the armature. This is shown by the
Interpoles or commutating fields can also be used dotted arrows in Fig. 58, while the solid arrows
on motors to improve commutation at all loads and show the direction of motor current.
to eliminate the necessity of frequent shifting of As the commutating poles are in series with the
the brushes. armature, this reversed current will also reverse
On a motor, these interpoles are connected in the polarity of the commutating field, and maintain
series with its armature, the same as those of a the proper polarity for generator operation.
generator are, but the polarity of motor interpoles • These principles of commutation and interpoles
must be the same as that of the adjacent main poles should be kept well in mind, as an efficient main-
in the opposite direction to rotation. This is be- tenance electrician or power plant operator will
cause the self-induced voltages in the coils shorted never allow unnecessary sparking to damage the
by the brushes in a motor are opposite to those in brushes and commutator of machines of which he
a generator with the same direction of rotation. has charge.
 Norman Dedier
41 GeorEia Ave.
Bro0Myn 7; N. Y.
•
 377

CoYENI
Oectrical School
CHICAGO ILLINOIS
ESTABLISHED 1899 COPYRIGHT 1942

DIRECT CURRENT POWER

AND MACHINES

Section Two

Switchboards and Switchgear

Knife Switches, Circuit Breakers, Relays, Busses
Switchboard Layout and Wiring
D. C. Meters
Voltmeters, Ammeters, Wattmeters
Kilo-watt Hour Méters, Operation, Reading and Testing
Recording Instruments, Demand Meters
Wheatstone Bridge
Megger.
378

D. C. SWITCHBOARDS

ln power plants, substations, and industrial plants and have good mechanical strength as supports for
where large amounts of electric power are generated the switchgear.
or used, it is necessary to have some central point Slate is cheaper than marble and is easier to drill
at which to control and measure this power. For and cut for mounting on the frames and for mount-
this purpose switchboards are used. ing the switchgear. Slate is not quite as good an in-
The function of the switchboard is to provide a sulator, however, and is usually not used for vol-
convenient mounting for the knife switches, circuit tages over 500 or 750.
breakers, rheostats, and meters which are used to Marble is a better insulator and can be used on
control and measure the current. The equipment voltages up to 1100. Marble presents an excellent
located on the switchboard is generally called appearance, but it is more difficult to keep clean. It
switchgear. is also very hard to drill or cut.
A newer material recently developed for switch-
66. TYPES OF SWITCHBOARDS board panels, and known as ebony asbestos, has a
Switchboards are of two common types, known number of very important advantages for this work.
as panel boards and bench boards. The latter are It is made of acomposition material in which asbes-
also called Desk-type boards. tos fibre and electrical insulating compounds are
Panel-type boards consist of vertical panels of the mixed and formed under great pressure into
proper height and width, on the face of which the smooth-surfaced panels.
switchgear is mounted. On the rear of the board This material has a beautiful natural black finish,
are located the bus bars and wires which connect is lighter in weight, and has better insulating quali-
the switches, circuit breakers, and meters to the ties and mechanical strength than either slate or
various power circuits which they control or meas- marble. In addition to these advantages, ebony as-
ure the energy of. Fig. 59 shows a panel-type bestos is also much easier to drill and cut, which
switchboard for a D. C. power plant. Examine it makes it easy and economical to install.
carefully and note its construction and the arrange- Steel panels are also coming into use for switch-
ment of the equipment mounted on it. boards, and have the advantage of great strength
Bench-type switchboards have the lower section and durability. The switchgear on steel panels
built like abench with a sloping top, and above the must, of course, be insulated from the metal at all
rear edge of the bench section is a vertical panel points.
which contains the instruments.
The sketch in Fig. 60 shows an end view of a 67-A. GENERATOR AND FEEDER PANELS
bench-type switchboard with the panels mounted on The common panel-type switchboards are usually
a pipework frame. Boards of this type are used made about ninety inches high, and as wide as
mostly for remote-control switchboards, where the necessary to provide the required space for the
switches and circuit breakers are operated by elec- equipment needed. They are practically always
tro-magnets and solenoids, which are controlled by built up in vertical sections or panels, each of which
small push-button or knife switches on the bench is used for the control of separate circuits. Panels
portion of the board. of greater width are used for the main circuits or
Another type of switchboard which is frequently generator circuit control, and sub-panels of nar-
used in industrial power plants is known as the rower width are used to control the separate feeder
truck type. These boards are built in separate sec- circuits, which supply the energy to the various
tions, which can be drawn out on rollers for con- lines or power circuits controlled from the switch-
venient repairs and adjustment to switchgear. Fig. board.
61 shows a section of a truck-type board, removed Fig. 59 shows two generator panels on the right,
from the main board, and showing the oil switch and six feeder panels on the left. Note the difference
and bus bars which are mounted in the frame be- in the size of the switches and circuit breakers on
hind the front panel. the main panels and sub-panels. By referring to
Bench-type and truck-type switchboards will be this same figure, you will also note that each verti-
more fully explained in a later section on A. C. cal panel is divided into three sections. This type
switchboards. of construction facilitates repairs and changes of
certain equipment, without disturbing the rest of
67. SWITCHBOARD PANEL MATERIALS the equipment on that panel.
Switchboard panels are sometimes made of slate For example, if the switches on a panel are to be
or marble, as these materials are good insulators changed to others of different size or type, the sec-
 D. C., Section Two. Switchboards 379

Fig. 59. This photo shows a modern panel type switchboard equipped with knife switches, meters, and circuit breakers. The two large
panels on the right are the main generator panels and are equipped with field rheostats and instrument switches and much larger cir-
cuit breakers. The six smaller panels on the left are feeder or distribution panels. Examine all the parts and details of construction
of this board very carefully, and refer to this figure frequently while reading the accompanying pages.

tion containing them can be removed and anew one can be cut to proper length by means of ahack saw,
drilled and inserted. It is not necessary to disturb and drilled for the bolts with which the panels are
the other two sections, or to leave unsightly holes attached, and also for the bolts which hold the angle
in the board where the old switches were removed. irons of adjoining panels together.
Sectional construction of panels also reduces the Fig. 62 shows how the panels should be bolted
danger of cracked panels which might result from to the angle irons at "h," and the method of bolting
mechanical strains or vibration if larger single the angle irons together at "h2". The panels should
panels were used. be carefully marked for drilling, so they will line up
Switchboard panel material can be obtained in neatly and give the proper appearance when fin-
thicknesses from Y2", for very small boards for light ished.
duty, to 2" or more for large heavy-duty boards. Short bolts of the proper length, with washers
These panels are usually beveled on the corners of and nickle-plated cap nuts, can be used to provide
the front side, for better appearance. good appearance of the front surface of the board.
68. SWITCHBOARD FRAMES These bolts and nuts should be tightened suffi-
Switchboard panels are commonly mounted on ciently to hold the panels securely, but not tight
either angle iron or pipe-work frames. enough to crack the corners of the panels.
Where angle iron is used, it should be of the The bolt holes can be drilled in the panels with
proper size to give the required strength and rigidity ordinary metal drills used in a breast drill or an
for proper support of the panels and switchgear. electric drill. Slate and marble are hard and should,
The board should not bend or vibrate noticeably therefore, be drilled slowly or the drill should be
during operation of heavy knife-switches or circuit- cooled while it is cutting. Ebony asbestos is very
breakers. easy to drill ;in fact, nearly as easy as hardwood.
Angle iron of 1Ya" to 3" is commonly used. It • The lower ends of the angle irons should have
380 D. C., Section Two. Switchboards

which can easily be adjusted to fit various panels

and devices by merely sliding the clamp fittings.
One of the pipes of the frame can be seen on the
left end of the board shown in Fig. 59.

70. KNIFE SWITCHES. TYPES

Knife switches, used for controlling the various
circuits on switchboards, are made in single, double,
and three-pole types. The smaller and medium sizes
are generally two or three-pole; but the larger ones
are generally single-pole, for greater ease of opera-
tion. Three-pole switches or three single-pole
switches are used to control the circuits of com-
pound generators, the three poles being used in the
positive, negative, and equalizer leads.
Three-pole switches are also used for circuits of
the Edison three-wire system. Other D. C. circuits
are usually two-wire, and they use either one two-
pole or two single-pole switches.
Equalizer switches are sometimes mounted on
small panels on pedestals near the generators, to
eliminate the necessity of running equalizer busses

Fig. 60. The above diagram shows an end-view of a "bench-type"

switchboard mounted on pipe frame work. This type of board is
often referred to as "desk type".

"feet" bent in them or attached with bolts, for

secure anchorage to the floor. The upper ends
should be braced to keep the switchboard rigid.
69. PIPE FRAMES AND THEIR
ADVANTAGES
Pipe-work frames are very convenient to install,
as they do not require drilling as angle iron does.
The pipe frame-work is held together by special
clamps, as shown in Fig. 60. Fittings with holes for
the panel bolts are also provided to clamp on the
pipes. The pipes are attached to the floor with
threaded floor-flanges.
Standard pipe sizes can be used; the common
sizes being 1Yi." to 2", or larger for very heavy
boards. Special clamp fittings can be obtained for
mounting bus insulators and various devices on the
rear of the board. Other fittings are used for attach-
ing brace pipes to secure the framework and board
in a vertical position.
Pipe-work frames are very popular and are ex- Fig. 61. This view shows a unit of a "truck type" switchboard on
which the sections can be drawn out on rollers to make repairs and
tensively used, as they provide a very flexible frame adjustments more conveniently.

SLAB

AZ
AZ
Fig. 62. The above sketches show the method of attaching switchboard panels to the angle iron frame work. Note bow the panels are
bolted to angle irons, and the angles bolted together between panels. Also note the type of bolts, nuts, and washers used with this
construction.
 D. C., Section Two. Knife Switches 381

to the switchboard. In such cases, the main panels

for compound generators will also use two-pole
switches.

71. CONSTRUCTION OF SWITCHES

Knife switches consist of three essential parts
called the blade, hinge, and clips. The blades are
made of flat copper bus bar material and arc at-
tached to the hinges by means of short bolts and
spring washers. This fastening gives the required
tension for good contact between the blades and
hinges. and yet allows freedom of operation. See
Fig. 63.

Fig. 64. Single-pole and double-pole switches of a modern type. Note

the manner in which the hinges and clips are attached to the board
and the method of making cable or bus connections to the studs on
the back of the board.

72. SWITCH MOUNTING AND CURRENT

RATINGS
In mounting switches on the panels, the hinges
and clips should be carefully lined up so that the
blades will fit well and make good electrical con-
tact.
All knife switches are rated' in amperes according
to the copper area of their blades and the contact
area of clips and hinges. They are commonly made
in sizes from 50 amperes to one thousand ampere
capacity; and for heavy power circuits they are
mane to carry 6000 amperes or more.
You will note that a number of the switches on
the right-hand side of the switchboard in Fig. 59
have multiple blades in each pole. This gives amuch
Fig. 63. Above are shown a double-pole and three-pole knife switch
Note carefully the construction of the switch plates, hinges, and clips greater contact area between the blade surfaces and
hinges and clips, and also allows air to circulate
Switch clips are made of two or more thin, springy through the switches to cool them.
pieces of copper, mounted in a block. The blades
are inserted between these clips when the switch is
closed. The clips are usually slotted to make them
more flexible and allow them to make better con-
tact with the blade of the switch. These details of
construction can be observed by examination of the
switches shown in Fig. 63, and also those on the
switchboard in Fig. 59.
Switch blades are equipped with insulating hand-
les and guards on their free ends. The hinges and
clips usually have threaded studs of copper attached
directly to them, for convenient mounting on the
switchboard panels. Bus bars or cable lugs on the
rear of the board are attached to these studs by
means of extra nuts provided with them.
The switch at the left in Fig. 64 shows the studs
and the nuts used both for holding the switch on
the board and for attaching cable lugs or bus bars. Fig. 66. A number of special types of knife switches are made with
This switch and also the double-pole switch on the auxiliary clips and blades as shown above. These two switches are
used as field discharge switches for generators.
right in this figure, are both of a newer type which
has double blades and single clip prongs. Switches should never be loaded above their rated
Knife switches on switchboards are practically al- capacity in amperes for any great length of time, or
ways mounted with the blades in a vertical position they will overheat. Hinges or clips which are loose
and the clips at the top. This allows easier opera- or poorly fitted will also cause overheating of the
tion and prevents danger of the switch falling closed switch at these points. If switches are allowed to
by gravity. overheat too much, the copper will become soft and
 Norman Beder
41 Georgia Ave.
Brooklyn 7, N. Y.
382 D. C., Section Two. Circuit Breakers

lose the springy qualities which are necessary for in Fig. 65. Their purpose is to prevent the setting
tight fitting of the clips. Overheated switches often up of high voltages by self-induction due to the
cause the copper clips or blades to turn a bluish collapse of the flux around the shunt field coils when
color. Switches that have been heated to this ex- this circuit is opened.
tent will probably need to be replaced. 74. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
73. CARE AND OPERATION OF SWITCHES For opening heavy power-circuits in case of over-
load or short circuits, automatic circuit breakers are
New switches should be carefully fitted and
commonly used. These are divided into two general
"ground in" before loading. "Grinding in" can be
classes, known as air circuit-breakers and oil cir-
done by coating the switch-blades with vaseline or
cuit-breakers. Air breakers will be described here
oil mixed with abrasive powder, and then opening
and oil breakers will be covered in a later section.
and closing the switch a number of times. This
An air circuit-breaker is a type of electric switch
grinds and polishes the sides of the blades and clips
equipped with special contacts and a trip coil to
to make their surfaces perfectly parallel and pro-
open them automatically in case of overload on the
vide a good contact between them.
circuit. Thus they provide for equipment the same
protection as would be afforded by fuses.
For circuits which frequently require overload
protection, circuit-breakers are much more suitable
than fuses, as the breakers can be quickly closed as
soon as the fault is removed from the circuit.
Circuit breakers are commonly made in single-
pole, double-pole, and three-pole types, and for vari-
ous current ratings, the same as knife switches are.
Figures 66-A and 66-B show two views of a single-
pole circuit-breaker. The view in 66-A shows the
breaker in closed position, and in 66-B it is shown
open.
The main current-carrying element or bridging
contact is made of anumber of thin strips of copper
curved in the form of an arch and fitted closely to-
gether. This copper leaf construction permits thE
ends of this main contact to fit evenly over the sur-
face of the two lugs, or stationary contacts, which
are mounted in the switchboard and attached to the
bus bars.
75. CIRCUIT-BREAKER OPERATION
Fig. 66-A. This photo shows a common type of air circuit breaker in \Vhen the breaker is closed by means of the
closed position. Note the manner in which the main contacts and
auxiliary contacts connect with the stationary contacts on the panel.

Never open knife-switches under heavy load, if

they have a circuit-breaker in series with them.
Opening the switch under load will draw an arc at
the point where the blades leave the clips. These
arcs tend to burn and roughen the blades and clips,
making the switch hard to operate and also destroy-
ing the good contact between the blade and clips.
Where circuit-breakers are provided they should
always be tripped open first and the knife-switch
opened afterward. This prevents arcing at the
switch and is also much safer for the operator, as
the arcs drawn by opening switches under heavy
current load may be very dangerous.
Knife-switches should be kept lubricated with a
thin film of petroleum jelly or light vaseline.
Special types of knife-switches, with snap-action
blades operated by springs, are made for use in the
shunt field circuits of generators. Field circuit
switches often have auxiliary blades to close the
field across a resistance just before the main blades
Fig. 66-B. This view shows the same circuit breaker as &u rig. éli-A,
open. Such switches are called field discharge except that it is now in open position. Again note carefully the
construction and position of the main contacts and arcing contacts.
switches. Two types of these switches are shown Also note the trip adjustment on the bottom of the breaker.
 D. C., Section Two. Circuit Breakers 381
3

handle, a lever action is used to force the main con- ever, to keep the auxiliary contacts and carbon arc-
tact tightly against the stationary contacts under ing tips properly adjusted and occasionally renewed,
considerable pressure. so that they make and break contact in the proper
Auxiliary arcing contacts and tips are provided order.
above the main contact, as shown in the figures. 76. CIRCUIT-BREAKER TRIP COILS OR
The intermediate contact, or the one directly above OVERLOAD RELEASE
the main contact, consists of the heavy copper Fig. 68 shows a single-pole and adouble-pole cir-
spring with a removable copper tip. The top arcing cuit breaker which are both in closed position. The
contact on the movable element is carried by along overload coils, or trip coils, can be seen on each of
copper spring and has a removable carbon tip. the breakers in this figure. These coils are of the
series type and consist of avery few turns of heavy
copper bar or cable, inside of which is located an
iron plunger.
When the coil is connected in series with the line
and breaker contacts, any overload of current will
increase its strength and cause it to draw up the
plunger. The plunger then strikes the release latch
and allows the breaker to open.
An adjustment is provided for raising and lower-
ing the normal or idle position of the plunger so
that the breaker can be set to trip at different cur-
rents and loads. Trip coils of this type are known
as series-type overload release coils and are com-
monly used on breakers up to 500 amperes capacity.
The circuit-breakers shown in Figures 66-A and B
have electro -magnets and armatures which trip the
holding latches, and also an oil dash-pot to delay
Fig. 17. This sketch shows a side-view of a circuit breaker in closed
position and illustrates the copper "leaf" construction of the main the opening of the breaker on light overloads. The
contact. Note the copper stubs which project through the board
for connections to bus bars.
adjustments for these devices can be seen below the
breaker in these figures.
When the breaker is opened, the main contact 77. SHUNT TRIP COILS AND OVERLOAD
opens first and allows the current to continue flow- RELAYS
ing momentarily through the auxiliary contacts. For circuit breakers of 500 amperes and more, it
This prevents drawing an arc at the surface of the is not usually practical to use series overload-coils,
main contact and eliminates possible damage to this because of the large sized conductor which would be
contact surface, which must be kept bright and needed to carry the current.
smooth and of low resistance, in order to carry
the full load current without loss.
The intermediate contact opens next and it may
draw a small arc, because the remaining circuit
through the carbon tips is of rather high resistance.
The carbon contacts open last and the most severe
arc is always drawn from these points. Carbon
withstands the heat of the arc fairly well, and these
contacts are easily and cheaply renewed whenever
they have been burned too badly by repeated arcs.
Circuit-breakers of this type can usually be trip-
ped open by means of a small lever or button, as
well as by the automatic trip coil. When released
they are thrown quickly open by the action of
springs or gravity on their moving parts.
Fig. 67 is a sketch showing a side view of an air
breaker in which can be seen the leaf construction
Fig. U. Single-pole and double-pole, circuit breakers, showing the over-
of the main contact, and also the bus stubs to which load trip coils and their adjusting mechanism for operation of the
breakers at different current loads..
the connections are made at the rear of the board.
When acircuit-breaker is closed the contacts close On these larger breakers, shunt trip coils are used,
in the reverse order, the carbon tips closing first, and these coils are wound with a greater number of
intermediate contact second, and the main contact turns of small wire and are operated from an am-
last. This construction and operation eliminates meter shunt. Shunt trip coils are not connected
practically all arcing and danger of pitting at the directly to the ammeter shunts, but are operated by
ends of the main contacts. It is very important, how- a relay which obtains from the ammeter shunt the
384 D. C., Section Two. Protective Relays

small amount of energy needed for its coil. The current coil or element is connected across
The greater the current flow through ammeter the terminals of the ammeter shunt. The potential
shunts, the greater will be the voltage drop in them. coil is connected directly across the positive and
This voltage drop is usually only a few milli-volts, negative leads or busses and serves to maintain a
and as it is difficult to wind the shunt trip coils to constant field flux.
operate on this small fraction of a volt, overload re- The direction of current through the current ele-
lays are generally used to close a circuit to these ment or moving coil of the relay is determined by
coils. the direction of current through the ammeter shunt.
The overload relay is a very sensitive instrument, When the current through the ammeter shunt is in
having a small coil designed to operate on a very the normal direction, the moving coil tends to hold
low voltage of 50 to 100 milli-volts; and this coil is the relay contacts open and keep the shunt trip-coil
connected across the ammeter shunt. of the circuit-breaker de-energized.
The t•-nsion spring on the armatures of these re- If the current through the ammeter shunt is re-
lays is adjustable so the relay can be made to close versed this will reverse the polarity of the voltage
its contact and energize the shunt trip coil on the drop across the shunt and send current through the
breaker, at any desired current load within the range movable element of the relay in the opposite direc-
for which the relay and breaker are designed. tion. This reverses its torque and causes the coil
to turn in a direction which closes the relay con-
78. REVERSE CURRENT RELAYS
tacts and energizes the shunt trip-coil which trips
Some circuit-breakers are also equipped with re-
the breaker.
verse current protection to cause them to open in
These relays are also adjustable so they can be
case of reversed polarity of a generator or reversed
set to open the circuit-breaker at the desired amount
current flow in the line.
of reversed current.

79. CIRCUIT-BREAKER CARE AND MOUNT-

ING
Circuit-breakers are one of the most important
pieces of switchgear and afford a great deal of pro-
tection to the electrical machinery on their circuits
as well as to operators. They should be kept in good
repair and adjustment, and should be frequently
tested to be sure that they will open freely and
quickly when necessary. The main contacts should
be kept clean and well fitted, and arcing contacts
should be renewed when badly burned. Operating
springs and trip coils should be kept carefully ad-
justed.
Heavy-duty circuit-breakers require considerable
force on the handle to close them, and also deliver
quite ashock to the switchboard when they fly open.
For this reason, switchboard panels carrying heavy
breakers should be thick enough and sufficiently well
braced to provide a rugged mounting for the
breaker, and to prevent vibration of the board when
the breaker is operated.
Fig. 69 shows a large circuit-breaker which also
has a motor for automatically reclosing it. Such
breakers can be equipped for remote control by the
operator or for automatic reclosing by a time ele-
ment or relay, after the breaker has been tripped
open for a certain definite period.

80. INSTRUMENT SWITCHES

Fig. 49. Large, heavy duty circuit breaker equipped with a motor for
automatic reclosing, after it has been tripped either by an overload,
In addition to the knife switches and circuit-
or by remote control. breakers, special switches are used for the switch-
Reverse-current relays are used to trip the break- ing and control of motor circuits. These may be of
ers to obtain this protection. These relays have two the plug type, pull and push button type, or rotary
elements or windings similar to the field and arma- button type. These switches are mounted in open-
ture of a simple motor. One is called the potential ings drilled through the board, so that the handles
or voltage element, and the other the current ele- or buttons project from the face of the board; and
ment. the switch element is mounted on the rear for con-
 D. C., Section Two. Bus Bars 385

Busses of opposite polarity and for voltages up to

750 should be spaced several inches apart wherever
possible. When they are run closer together they
should be well mounted and braced so they cannot
easily be bent or vibrated together.
82. CONNECTING BUS BARS TOGETHER
Where bus bars are joined together, they can be
fastened either by means of bolts through holes
drilled in the copper or by bus clamps which do not
require drilling the bars.
Fig. 72 illustrates the use of a common type bus
clamp, consisting of two triangular pieces with three
holes for the bolts which draw the parts of the
clamp up tightly and grip the bars together. These
clamps are very easy to install, as they do not re-
quire any drilling of the bars.
Copper bus bars can be cut to the proper length
with a hack saw; and where bolts are used for con-
nections the bars can be drilled with an ordinary
metal drill.
Flg. 70. Instrument switches of the above types are frequently used for
changing the connections of various meters to different switchboard Fig. 73 shows the method of connecting bus bars
panels and busses.
to the studs of switches or circuit-breakers, by
venient connections to the smaller wires of instru- means of two nuts and a short strip of bar con-
ments and relays. nected to the main bus by a clamp. All joints and
Fig. 70 shows two instrument switches of the pull connections in bus bars should be made tight and
and push type in the upper view and one of the plug secure, to avoid overheating when the current flows
type in the lower view. through them. \Vhere the sections join the copper
should be well cleaned of all dirt and oxide.
81. BUS BARS. MATERIALS AND MOUNT-
Copper bus bars of the smaller and medium sizes
ING
can be easily bent to various angles where neces-
Copper bus bars are commonly used for connect-
sary, but care should be used not to bend the cor-
ing together the various switches, circuit breakers,
ners too sharply and cause the bar to crack.
and heavy power circuits on switchboards. Long
In locations where the busses are well ventilated,
busses are usually mounted on insulators attached
it is common practice to allow about 1000 amperes
to the rear of the switchboard frame or panels, while
per square inch of cross-sectional area of the bars.
short lengths may be supported by the studs or
bolts to which they connect. 83. EXPANSION JOINTS OR LOOPS IN
Bus bars are generally run bare for the lower BUSSES
voltages up to 750 or, in some plants, even higher. Where long busses are run, some allowance
Busses for higher voltages can be wrapped with should be made for expansion and contraction with
varnished cloth or friction tape after they are in- changes in temperature, or sufficient strains may be
stalled. set up to warp the busses or crack the switchboard
Copper bus bar materials can usually be obtained panels by twisting the studs.
in sizes from to y2" in thickness, and from 1" to A special loop or "U"-bend is sometimes put in a
4", or even 6" wide. When very heavy currents are long bus to absorb this expansion in the spring of
to be carried, several bus bars are usually run in
parallel and mounted with their flat sides vertical,
as shown in the right-hand view in Fig. 71.
This arrangement of the busses allows air to cir-
culate freely through them and helps to keep them
cool. The view on the right in Fig. 71 shows two
separate busses, "A" and "B", each consisting of
three bars. One set is the positive bus and one is
negative. Both sets are mounted in a base of in-
sulating material, shown at "C", and supported by
metal brackets attached to the switchboard frame.
The insulation used for mounting and spacing
the bars can be hard fibre, slate, bakelite, or ebony
asbestos.
In the left view in Fig. 71 is shown a single bus
Fig. 71. The above diagrams show methods of mounting and installing
bar supported by a porcelain bus insulator. bus bars on the back of switchboards.
386 D. C., Section Two. Switchboard Layout Wiring

SWITCH 2 -SWITCH /
Fig. 72. Bus bars can be connected together by means of special clamps as shown above. These clamp pieces are held securely gripped to the
busses by means of short bolts through the holes in their three corners. Clamps of this type save the trouble of drilling the copper
busses.

the bend. In other cases, bus ends can be overlapped which are very seldom subject to overload, cartridge
and held fairly tight with two bus clamps, but not fuses will provide economical overload protection.
tight enough to prevent the lapped ends from sliding On heavy power circuits or any circuits which are
on each other under heavy strains. One or more subject to frequent overloads or occasional short
short pieces of flexible cable can then be connected circuits, circuit-breakers should be used. Circuit-
around this joint to carry the current without heat- breakers eliminate the replacement of fuse links and
ing. The cable ends should be soldered into copper enable the circuit to be closed back into operation
lugs, and these securely bolted to the bus on each more quickly.
side of the slip joint. Usually it will be desired to measure the load in
amperes on some of the circuits, if not on all of them.
84. SWITCHBOARD LAYOUT AND Ammeters of the proper size should be used for this
CIRCUITS purpose.
It is not a difficult matter to lay out and erect an Where only one generator is used, one voltmeter
ordinary switchboard for a small power plant or may be sufficient to check the voltage of the main
distribution center. busses. Where several generators are operated in
A plan should be laid out on paper for the re- parallel, we will need one voltmeter for the main
quired number of circuits. The desired switches, bus and probably one for each generator, in order
circuit-breakers, and meters for the control and to check their voltages before connecting them in
measurement of the power, should be included in parallel.
this sketch or plan. Sometimes one extra voltmeter is used for check-
After the load has been determined for the vari- ing the voltage of any one of the generators which
ous circuits, the size of the switches and devices is being started up. This is done by the use of a
for the proper current ratings can be obtained from voltmeter bus and plug switches for connecting the
the manufacturer's specifications. meter to whichever machine is being started up. A
Panels can then be selected large enough to hold meter used in this manner is often mounted on a
these devices in neat, uncrowded arrangement. hinged bracket at the end of the switchboard, as
The simplest type of switchboard would at least shown in Fig. 59.
contain switches for each of the main circuits and Wattmeters are often used to obtain instantane-
feeder circuits. There should also be on each of ous readings of the power in certain circuits. Watt-
these circuits some form of overload protection, hour meters may be installed for showing the total
such as fuses or circuit-breakers. power consumed per hour, per day, or per month,
On circuits of not over 500 amperes capacity and on any circuit.
In medium and larger sized plants, recording
voltmeters and ammeters are often used to keep a
daily record of the voltage and current variations.
These instruments will be explained in a later sec-
tion on D. C. meters.

85. SWITCHBOARD WIRING

Fig. 74 shows awiring diagram for asimple D. C.
switchboard with three panels, as shown by the
dotted lines. The main generator-control panel is
rig. 73. Two views showing the method of connecting bus bars to the
studs of switches and circuit breakers.
on the left, and contains the main switch, circuit-
 D. C., Section Two. Switchboard Layout Wiring 387

86. LOCATION OF METERS AND SWITCH-

GEAR
Refer again to Fig. 59 and note the positions and
arrangement of the various switchgear and devices
on the board. Knife switches are usually mounted
so their handles come about in the center of the
board height, or a little lower, as this height is very
convenient for their operation. Watthour and re-
cording meters are frequently mounted along the
lower panel-sections, underneath the knife switches.
Voltmeters and ammeters are usually placed
above the knife switches, at about eye level or a
little above, so they can be easily read.
Circuit-breakers are commonly placed at the top
of the board, so any smoke or flame from their arcs
cannot reach other instruments or blacken and burn
the switchboard.
Fig. 74. The above diagram 'bows the wiring and equipment for a
simple switchboard with one generator panel and two distribution
panels.
When air circuit-breakers open under severe over-
loads or short circuits, they often draw long, hot
breaker, voltmeter, ammeter and shunt, and the arcs. The flame, heat, and smoke from these arcs
shunt field rheostat. are driven upward by their own heat. Therefore,
The two feeder panels on the right merely have if meters or instruments were located above the
switches and circuit breakers in each circuit. breakers and close to them, they would be likely
Note that the circuit breakers and knife switches to be damaged.
are in series in each circuit; so that, when the Mounting the breakers at the top of the boards
breaker in any circuit is tripped, there will be no also places them up high enough so operators are
current flowing through the switch.
not likely to be bumped or burned when the
The coils in series with each pole of the circuit-
breakers fly open or, as we say, "kick out".
breakers are the series overload-release coils, which
trip the breakers in case of an overload of current.
Note that the voltmeter is connected on the gen-
erator side of the main switch, so a reading of the
generator voltage can be obtained before the ma-
chine is connected to the busses.
Fig. 75 shows awiring diagram for aswitchboard
with two generator panels and two sub-panels or
feeder panels. A number of feeder panels could be
added to either side of this board if necessary.
Equalizer connections are shown for the genera-
tors, which are compound and are to be operated in
parallel.
The circuit-breaker trip-coils are not shown in
this diagram.
Circuits for switchboard instruments and meters
which do not require heavy currents, are usually
made with No. 12 or No. 14 switchboard wire, which
has white colored slow-burning insulation. These
wires can be held on the back of the board with
small metal clamps and screws. Fig. 75. Wiring diagram for a D. C. switchboard with two main gen-
erator panels and two or more feeder panels. Additional feeder
Examine the wiring and check the locations and panels would be connected to the board and busses the same as the
two which are shown. Note carefully the arrangement of all of
connections of the various devices shown in Fig. 75. the parts and circuits shown in this diagram.
388 D. C., Section Two. Meters

DIRECT CURRENT METERS

Electrical meters are used for accurately meas- of a permanent magnet of horse-shoe shape which
uring the pressure, current, and power in various supplies a magnetic flux or field, a delicately bal-
electrical circuits. There are a great number of anced coil of fine wire which is rotated in this field,
types of meters, some of which are used only in a pointer, scale, and case.
laboratory work and others that are more com- Fig. 76 shows the principal parts of a meter of
monly used in every-day work by the practical man. this type, with the case or cover removed. The
These latter types are the ones which we will poles of the permanent magnet are equipped with
principally consider in this section. The meters most pole shoes which have curved faces to distribute the
frequently used by electricians and operators are flux evenly over the rotating element. In the center
the voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter. These in- of the space between the magnet poles can be seen
struments are made both in portable types and for a round soft iron core which aids in concentrating
switchboard mounting. and distributing the magnetic field over the space
87. TYPES OF METERS in which the coil moves. The needle is attached to
The portable meters are used for convenient test- this rotating or moving element so it will swing
ing of machines and equipment wherever they are across the scale when the coil is rotated. This type
located, while the switchboard types are perman- of construction is known as the D'Arsonval, be-
ently mounted on switchboards for measuring the cause it was first developed by a Frenchman named
energy of certain circuits on these boards. D'Arsonval.
Voltmeters and ammeters are also made in record- Fig. 76-A shows a separate view of the moving
ing types, which keep arecord of their various read- coil with the needle attached. Also note the
ing throughout certain periods of time. small coil-spring on each end of the moving coil.
Wattmeters are divided into two general classes, This coil is usually wound with very fine wire on a
called indicating and integrating. light-weight aluminum frame, the shaft of which is
The indicating instrument merely indicates the then set in jeweled pivots made of first-grade sap-
power in the circuit at any instant at which it is phires. These pivots make it possible for the coil
read. Integrating wattmeters, or watthour meters to move with an extremely small amount of energy
as they are commonly called, keep summing up the which makes the instrument very sensitive and ac-
total amount of energy in kilowatt hours which is curate.
used throughout any certain period of their opera- 89. OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF D. C.
tion. VOLTMETERS AND AMMETERS
88. PARTS AND CONSTRUCTION OF D. C. The operating principles of meters of this type are
METERS very similar to those of a D. C. motor. \Vhen a
Most meters operate on magnetic principles or small amount of current is sent through the turns of
use the magnetic effect of electric currents to pro- the moving coil, it sets up around this coil a flux
duce the movement of the meter needle. which reacts with the flux of the per.manent magnet
Ordinary D. C. voltmeters and ammeters, consist field and exerts torque to turn the moving coil
against the action of the fine coil springs. The coil
springs tend to hold the pointer, in normal or zero
position, usually at the left side of the scale.
The greater the current passed through the mov-
ing coil, the stronger will be its flux ;and the re-
action between this flux and that of the permanent
magnet will tend to move the needle across the
scale, until the magnetic force is balanced by the
force of the springs.
The amount of voltage applied to the coil will de-
termine the amount of current flow through it. So
the distance that the pointer is moved across the
scale will indicate the amount of voltage or cur-
rent in the circuit to which the meter is attached.
The same type of meter element can be used for
either a voltmeter or ammeter, according to the
manner in which the instrument is connected to the
circuit to be measured.
The permanent magnets used with good-grade
meters are made of the best quality of steel, and are
Fig. 76. The above view shows the important parts of a D. C. voltmeter.
Note the horse-shoe magnet which provides the magnetic field in usually aged before they are used in the meters.
which the movable coil rotates. The movable coil with the pointer
attached can also be seen between the magnet poles. This aging process leaves them with a certain
 D. C., Section Two. Meters 389

amount of magnetic strength, which they will retain in any desired position on the scale by turning the
for very long periods without noticeable weakening. button on the front of the case. This makes it
The pole shoes are made of good-grade soft iron easy to tell when the voltage of the generator or
to provide a low reluctance path for the flux of the circuit has reached normal value, as the moving
permanent magnets. An additional stationary core needle would then be directly over the marker.
of soft iron is often placed within the rotating coil, 91. CARE AND ADJUSTMENT OF METERS
to provide a better magnetic path between the pole Because of the delicate construction of the mov-
shoes, and to more evenly distribute the flux. ing coils and the manner in which they are mounted
in jeweled bearings, electric meters should be very
carefully handled when they are being moved
about; because, if they are dropped or severely
jarred it may damage the mechanism and cause
their readings to be inaccurate. Jarring also tends
to weaken the permanent magnets. Meters should
not be mounted where they are subject to severe
vibration or mechanical shocks.
On many meters adjustments are provided by
means of which the tension on the coil spring can
be regulated by a small screw, thereby correcting
any slight inaccuracies in the meter reading. Pivot
1 screws should be kept tight enough to prevent too
Fig. 76-A. An excellent view of the movable coil, pointer and spring
much end play of the shaft and coil, but never tight
of a D. C. meter. enough to keep the coil from moving freely.
90. DAMPING OF METER NEEDLES OR 92. VOLTMETERS
• POINTERS When meter elements of the type just described
As the aluminum coil-frame is rotated through are used for voltmeters, the moving coil is con-
the flux of a meter of this type, small eddy currents nected in parallel, or across the positive and nega-
are induced in the frame. These tend to set up a tive wires of the circuit on which the voltage is to
damping effect which slows or retards the rapid be measured.
movement of the coil and needle, making the instru-
ment more stable and preventing the needle from
vibrating back and forth with small fluctuations in
the voltage or current.
Some instruments have a light-weight air-vane
attached to the needle, to provide afurther damping
effect and to prevent the needle from striking
against the case at the end of the scale when sudden
increases occur. in the voltage or current of the
circuit.
Small rubber cushions, or "stops", mounted on
light wire springs are usually provided at each end
of the scale to limit the needle travel and prevent
it from striking against the case. These stops can
be seen in Fig. 76.
Meter scales are usually printed in black on a
white cardboard background, and are located di-
rectly behind the pointers, as shown in Fig. 77.
To obtain very accurate readings, some instru-
ments have a mirror strip parallel to the scale and
directly behind the pointer. In reading a meter of
this type, one should stand in such a position that
the pointer covers its own reflection on the mirror.
Fig. 77. Switchboard type voltmeter for mounting flush with the sur-
This eliminates viewing the meter from an angle face of the board. Note the stationary index pointer or marker,
to indicate when full voltage is reached by the movable pointer.
and perhaps reading the voltage or current at a
scale line which is not directly under the pointer. It is difficult to wind a sufficient number of turns
The instrument shown in Fig. 77 is one for on the moving coil to have high enough resistance
switchboard use and is designed to be mounted to stand the full line voltage on ordinary power
flush with the surface of the board by setting the and light circuits. For this reason, special resist-
case in an opening cut in the switchboard panel. ance coils are connected in series with the moving
This meter is provided with a marker, or additional coil element and the meter terminals, as shown in
black needle with a round head, which can be set Fig. 78.
a ti VI 514:4 •

Brooklyn 7, N. Y.

390 D. C., Section Two. Voltmeters and Ammeters

These resistance coils limit the current flow 93. AMMETERS AND AMMETER SHUNTS
through the meter to a very small fraction of an The construction and parts of an ordinary D.C.
ampere, and thereby allow the meter element to ammeter are the same as those of the voltmeter.
be constructed of light weight and as delicately When the instrument is used as an ammeter, the
balanced as required for accuracy. Voltmeter re- terminals of the moving coil are connected in paral-
sistance coils can be located either inside the case lel with an ammeter shunt, and this shunt is con-
or outside. Portable instruments usually have them nected in series with the one side of the circuit to
located within the case, while with switchboard be measured, as shown in Fig. 81-B.
instruments the resistance coils are sometimes The ammeter shunt is simply a piece of low
mounted on the back of the switchboard behind resistance metal, the resistance of which has a fixed
the instrument. relation to that of the ammeter coil. The load
current in flowing through this shunt causes a
voltage drop of just a few milli-volts and this is
the voltage applied to the terminals of the ammeter
coil.
In other words, the meter element simply meas-
ures the milli-volt drop across the shunt; but, as
this drop is always proportional to the current
flowing through the shunt, the meter can be made
so that the load in amperes can be read directly
from the meter scale.
This principle can be explained by another
method, as follows: We know that electric current
will always divide through any number of parallel
paths which it is given. As the ammeter shunt is
connected in parallel with the instrument coil and
is of much lower resistance than this coil, the
greater part of the load current passes through the
shunt, and only a very small fraction of the current
flows through the meter coil.
Fig. 78. This diagram shows the parts also the connections for a
D. C. voltmeter. The use of a shunt in this manner eliminates the
necessity of constructing meter coils large enough
By changing the number of these coils in series,
to carry the load current. This would be practically
or by changing their size and resistance, we can
impossible on meters of this style for heavy duty
often adapt the same meter element for use on
circuits. Shunts also make possible the use of the
circuits of different voltages. When a meter is
same type of moving coil element for either am-
changed in this manner to operate on a different
meters or voltmeters.
voltage, a different scale will probably also be
required.
Fig. 79 shows a view of the inside of a voltmeter
in which are mounted four resistance coils that are
connected in series with a meter element.
Fig. 80 shows two types of external voltmeter
resistance coils that can be used for mounting on
the rear of the boards with voltmeters for switch-
board use. With these resistance coils in series
with the voltmeter element, it requires only a few
milli-volts across the terminals of the moving coil
itself to send through it enough current to operate
the meter. Therefore, when the instrument is used
without the resistance coils it can be connected
directly to very low voltage circuits of one volt
or less, and used as a milli-volt meter.
Whether it is used with or without the resistance
coils, the strength of the flux of the moving coil
and the amount of movement of the needle will
depend entirely upon the voltage applied, because
the current through the coil is directly proportional
to this voltage.
Any type of voltmeter, whether for portable or
switchboard use, should always be connected across Fig. 79. The above view shows a D. C. voltmeter of a slightly different
type, with the case removed to show the resistance coils which
the circuit, as shown in Fig. 81 at "A". are connected in series with the movable element.
 D. C., Section Two. Meter Resistances and Shunts 391

which on heavy circuits would be dangerous to the

person connecting the meter and would at least
blow the fuse and kick out circuit breakers. It
would also probably burn out the meter or destroy
the shunt.
...... •.- Fig. 83 shows a common type of portable meter,
such as is used in testing various electrical machines
;44. 41,..::erreZeraMei and circuits. The protective case and convenient
:=111.11n4,4 carrying handle make these instruments very handy
for use on the job. Voltmeters, ammeters, and
.....
t wattmeters of this type are very essential in any
....
plant where a large number of electric machines
are to be maintained.
;r: :
eeea

•1
Iteamottrar..

etnre.-.:Ir.,
:rt•te•••••
•

emu:-
;tie ' t
•

gee. 4:11g-

Fig. 80. External resistors for use with voltmeters and wattmeters.
Resistors of this type are to be mounted outside thé meter case,
and usually on the rear of the switchboard

Ammeter shunts for portable instruments are Fig. 81. This diagram shows the proper methods of connecting volt
meters and ammeters to electric circuits. Note carefully the man
usually mounted inside the instrument case; and ner of connecting voltmeters in parallel with the line and am
meters or their shunts in series with the line.
for switchboard instruments on heavy power cir-
cuits, the shunt is usually mounted on the rear of Testing the voltage and current of motors of
the switchboard. different sizes will often disclose an overload or
To obtain accurate readings on the meters, am- defective condition in time to prevent a complete
meter shunts should be made of material the re- burnout or serious damage to the machine windings.
sistance of which will not change materially with Some portable instruments have two separate
ordinary changes in temperature, as the shunt may elements in the case and two separate scales, one
become heated to a certain extent by the flow of for a voltmeter and one for an ammeter. Portable
the load current through it. The material commonly instruments of this type are very convenient for
used for these shunts is an alloy of copper, manga- tests, but extreme care must be used to be sure to
nese, and nickle, and is called "manganin". This connect the voltmeter terminals in parallel and the
alloy has a temperature co-efficient of almost zero; ammeter terminals in series with ally circuit to be
in other words, its resistance doesn't vary any ap- tested.
preciable amount with changes in its temperature.
Manganin is used also because it doesn't develop
thermo-clectric currents from its contact with the
copper terminals at its ends.
Ammeter shunts for use with D.C. ammeters are
made in sizes up to several thousand amperes
capacity. Fig. 82 shows several sizes and types
of these shunts. Note the manner in which the
strips of alloy are assembled in parallel between
the bus connector stubs. This allows air circulation
through the shunt to cool it.

94. CONNECTION OF AMMETERS AND

SHUNTS
Remember that ammeter shunts or ammeters
must always be connected in series with the line
and never in parallel. The resistance of meter
shunts is very low and if they were connected in
parallel across positive and negative wires of a Fig. 82. The above photo shows several sizes and types of ammeter
shunts which are generally used with ammeters where heavy loads
circuit, they would produce a severe short circuit, are to be measured.
392 D. C., Section Two. Wattmeters

The potential coil is the movable element and

is wound with very tine wire and connected in series
with resistance coils, similarly to those used in the
voltmeter. As this coil is connected across the
line, the strength of its flux will always be pro-
portional to the line voltage.
The current element is stationary and consists
of a few turns of larger wire. As this coil is con-
nected in series with the line, its strength will be
proportional to the load and the current which is
flowing. This current element supplies the field
and takes the place of the permanent magnet used
in voltmeters and ammeters.
As the turning effort, or torque, exerted on the
movable coil is the result of reaction between its
flux and the flux of the current element, the pointer
movement will always be proportional to the
product of these two fields and will, therefore, read
the power in watts directly from the scale.
The coils of these instruments are not wound on
iron cores but are wound on non-magnetic spools
or in some cases the wires are stiff enough to hold
their own shape in the coils. Wattmeters of this
same design can be used on either D.C. or A.C.,
Fig. W. Portable meters of the above type are very convenient and
necessary devices for the practical electrician to use in testing as they will read correctly on A.C. circuits if the
various machines and circuits.
reactances of both the moving and stationary coils
D. C. meters must be connected to the line with are equal.
the proper polarity, and their terminals are usually Wattmeters are designed for different amounts
marked "positive" and "negative", as shown in Fig. of voltage and current and should never be used
84. If meters of this type are connected to the on circuits with agreater amount of power in watts
line with wrong polarity, the needle will tend to than they are rated for, nor circuits with higher
move backwards and will be forced against the stop voltage or heavier currents than the instruments
wire or the meter case at the zero end of the scale. are designed for.
The meter shown in Fig. 84 is another type of
switchboard meter for surface mounting. This
instrument doesn't require cutting any opening in
the switchboard panel, since the meter is mounted
flat against the front surface of the panel.
Fig. 85 shows another type of switchboard meter
commonly used in power plants. Meters of this
style often have the scale illuminated by electric
lamps placed behind it. This makes the meter
easier to read when the operator is some distance
away, or working at the other end of the switch-
board.
These meters are often mounted on a hinged CAL I
WE STONELECTRI NSTRUMENT CO..
bracket at the end of the switchboard so that they
can be seen from any point along the board.
95. INDICATING WATTMETERS
Wattmeters, as previously mentioned, are used
for measuring the power of circuits in watts. As
this power is proportional to both the voltage and
amperage of the circuit, wattmeters use two coils,
one of which is known as the voltage or potential
element, and the other as the current element.
Fig. 84. Switchboard type ammeter for surface mounting. This meter
The potential element is connected across the does not require any large opening to be cut in the switchboard
panel.
line, similarly to a voltmeter coil; while the current
element is connected in series with one side of the The terminals for the potential and current ele-
line, similarly to an .ammeter coil. ments can be distinguished by their size, as those
A diagram of the internal wiring and the con- of the current element are usually much larger than
nections of a wattmeter is shown in Fig. 86. those of the potential element. Extreme care should
 D. C., Section Two. Watthour Meters 393

be used never to connect these in the wrong relation

to the circuit, because if the current coil is con-
nected across the line, a short circuit will result.
Fig. 87 shows the internal construction of a D.C.
wattmeter. In this view the current coils, consist-
ing of a few turns of heavy wire, can be plainly
seen. The potential coil cannot be seen, however,
as it is inside of the current coil.
96. WATTHOUR METERS
The common type of meter used in homes, fac-
tories, and power plants for measuring in kilowatt
hours the total amount of power used during any
certain period, is known as a watthour meter.

Fig. 86. This diagram shows the potential and current coils of a watt
meter. Note the manner in which each of these elements are con-
nected in the circuit. The movable coil is shown in a sectional
view so you can observe the direction of current through its
turns and note how the flux of this movable coil will react with
that of the current coils and cause the pointer to move.

positive and negative leads of the line, is always ex-

cited and has a very small current flowing through
it as long as it is connected to the circuit. This
coil usually has additional resistance coils placed
in series with it, to limit the current flow to a very
small value. Therefore it doesn't waste any appre-
ciable amount of current by being permanently
connected across the line.
As long as no load current is flowing through
the line and the current element of the meter, there
is no field flux for the flux of the potential coil to
react with, and so it doesn't turn. As soon as load
is applied to the line and current starts to flow
through the stationary coils, it sets up afield which
Fig. 85. The above view shows a large voltmeter of the type com-
monly used on power plant switchboards. The scale of these meters
reacts with that of the potential coil, causing the
can be illuminated with lamps placed behind them so the meter can latter to start to turn.
be read from any place along the board.
The greater the load of current, the stronger will
These meters have a current and potential ele-
ment somewhat similar to those in the indicating
wattmeter. The potential element, however, is
allowed to revolve continuously, like the armature
of a D. C. motor, as long as there is any load on the
circuit line to which the meter is attached.
This element is not limited to a fraction of a
turn by the coil springs, as in the case of indicating
meters, but is mounted on a vertical shaft set in
jeweled bearings and is free to revolve completely
around, with the application of very small torque.
This rotating element is connected to a series
of gears which operate the hands or pointers on
the clock-like dials of these instruments. The cur-
rent element consists of a few turns of large wire
and is connected in series with the line, or in parallel
with an ammeter shunt which is connected in series
with the line. This stationary current coil provides
a magnetic field similar to that of a D.C. motor,
and in which the potential coil or armature element
rotates.
97. PRINCIPLES OF WATTHOUR METERS
Fig. ST. This view shows the current coils, resistor cons, and general
The potential element, being connected across the construction of a caminan type wattmeter.
394 D. C., Section Two. Watthour Meters

be this field and the faster will be the rotation of

the potential element or armature. This will cause
the jointers on the dials to revolve faster and total
up power more rapidly. The longer the load is
left on the circuit, the farther these pointers will
be revolved and the greater will be the total power
reading.

98. CONSTRUCTION OF POTENTIAL AND

CURRENT COILS
Fig. 88 shows three views of the armature or
potential element of a watthour meter, both partly
wound and completely wound. The coils of fine
wire are wound on a drum or hollow ball of light
weight non-magnetic material and are held in place
by a coating of insulating compound. You will
note that they are wound similarly to the coils of
a simple D.C. motor armature. The leads of the
coils are brought up to a very small commutator
located on the top end of the shaft at the right.
Fig. 89. This view shows the potential and current coils and also the
commutator and brushes of a watthour meter.

speed is not regulated by counter-E.M.F., as arma-

tures of direct current motors are.
In order to prevent over-speeding and to make
the driving torque remain proportional to the power
applied, the motor armature must have some damp-
ing or retarding effect to oppose the torque exerted
by the magnetic fields. This counter-torque is ob-
tained by mounting a thin aluminum disk upon the
lower end of the armature shaft, and allowing it
to rotate in the field of one or more permanent
magnets of the horse-shoe type. This disk and the
Fig 88. The above photo shows several potential or armature coils of
watthour meters and illustrates the manner in which they are damping magnets can be seen in the lower part of
wound.
the meter, shown in Fig. 90 with the cover removed.
As the aluminum disk is rotated, it cuts through
Fig. 89 shows both the current coils and poten-
the lines of force from the magnet poles and this
tial coil of a watthour meter. The current coils
generates eddy currents in the disk. The reaction
are wound of heavy copper strip and are each
between the flux of these eddy currents and that
divided in two sections. They are mounted close
of the magnets tends to oppose rotation, just as
to the potential or rotating element, which can be
placing a load upon a generator will produce
seen just inside of them. You will note at the top
counter-torque and require effort from the prime
of this figure the very small metal brushes mounted
mover to turn it.
on wire springs and in contact with the small com-
The induced eddy currents will be proportional
mutator to which the leads of the potential element
to the speed of rotation of the disk and, as the flux
are attached. Directly above this commutator is
of the permanent magnets is constant, the counter-
the small wormgear which drives the series of small
torque exerted by the disk will be proportional to
gears that operate the dials. The brushes of the
the product of the flux from these eddy currents
meter are connected in series with the proper re-
and that from the permanent magnets.
sistance coils and then across the line wires, and
When the load on the meter is increased, the
they complete the circuit through the potential ele-
speed of its armature increases, until the counter-
ment, or armature, of the meter.
torque developed by the disk just balances the
These brushes are commonly made of silver or
torque exerted by the armature. In this manner,
some very good conducting material, in order to
the armature speed is maintained proportional to
prevent resistance and voltage drop at the brush
whatever load is applied to the meter, causing the
contact with the commutator.
pointers on the dials to read the correct power in
99. DAMPING DISK AND MAGNETS kilowatt hours.
The speed at which the armature of the watthour This type of meter is often referred to as a watt-
meter will rotate depends upon the voltage applied hour meter, but the gears and speed of most of
to the potential element and the current flowing them are so adjusted and of the proper ratio so that
through the current element. Because of the very the readings will be in kilowatt hours, instead of
slow speed at which this armature revolves, its watt hours.
 D. C., Section Two. Watthour Meters 395

100. ADJUSTING DAMPING EFFECT be accurately adjusted so it will just compensate

The amount of damping effect produced by the for the friction, and no more.
disk can be adjusted by moving the poles of the Sometimes these coils have a number of taps
permanent magnets in or out along the disk. If provided at various sections of the winding and
the poles are moved closer to the outer edge of also a small switch to shift the connections to in-
the disk where it will cut their flux at higher speed, clude more or less of the turns of the coil. This
a greater amount of eddy current will be induced also provides an adjustment of the amount of torque
and cause a greater damping effect, and if the mag- the coil will exert to overcome friction.
net poles are moved closer to the shaft where the Fig. 91 shows the coils and connections of a D.C.
disk is traveling at lower speed, the induced eddy kilowatt-hour meter. You will note in this figure
currents will be less, and the damping effect will that the friction compensating coil is connected in
be reduced. series with the armature and resistance coil, and
this group are connected across the positive and
101. COMPENSATING COIL negative line wires.
No matter how carefully the armature of a meter Current coils are connected in series with one
of this type may be mounted, there is always a side of the line so they will carry the full load
slight amount of friction to offer resistance to its current. The terminals of a watthour meter of this
rotation. Some of the energy produced by the type are usually marked for the line and load con-
meter coils will be required to overcome this fric- nections, and these connections must, of course, be
tion and the friction of the gears on the dials. properly made so that the meter will run in the
right direction.
102. WATT-HOUR CONSTANT AND TIME
ELEMENT
A given amount of power in watts must pass
through a watthour meter to produce one revolu-
tion of the armature and disk. For example, it
may require a flow of energy representing 6 watt-
hours, or the equivalent of 6 watts for one hour,
to produce one revolution of the meter armature.
This amount would be termed the watthour con-
stant of the meter.
Knowing the number of watts per revolution, it
only remains to get the total number of revolutions
during a certain period of time, in order to know
or measure the total amount of energy passed
through the meter during that time. As each revo-
lution of the armature is transmitted to the gears
which operate the pointers on the dials, the total
power in kilowatt hours can be read directly from
these dials.

Fig. 90. Complete view of a KW-hour meter with the cover removed
clearly showing the dials, current and potential coils, compensating
coil, damping disk, and drag magnets.

In order to make a meter register accurately on

light loads, this friction should be compensated for.
This is done by means of a coil consisting of many
turns of fine wire, connected in series with the
armature or voltage coil of the meter. This com-
pensating coil is mounted on an adjustable bracket
in a position where its flux will react with that of
the potential and current coils.
Fig. 91. This diagram shows the coils and circuits of a KW-hour
This coil can be seen in front of the current coils meter and the manner in which they are connected to the line
and armature of the meter shown in Fig. 90. By and load.

having this coil adjustable, it can be moved closer The operation of the gears and dials or register-
to or farther from the meter coils and its effect can ing mechanism is very simple. The worm-gear on
396 D. C., Section Two. Watthour Meters

the upper end of the armature shaft is meshed with in doing this until one has had enough practice to
the teeth of a gear which is the first of a row or do it automatically. If each dial is not carefully
chain of gears all coupled together. This gear has observed, mistakes will be made; because each
attached to it a small pinion which meshes with adjacent pointer revolves in the opposite direction
the teeth of the next gear and drives it at IA ° the to the last, as can be seén by the numbers marked
speed of the first one. This second gear, in turn, on the dials shown in Fig. 92-A.
drives the third gear 1/10 as fast as it runs, and the \Vhen the pointer is almost directly over one
third drives a fourth, the speed of which is again of the numbers, there may be a question as to
reduced to ten times lower than the third one. whether the pointer has actually passed this num-
Referring to Fig. 90, when the pointer on the ber or is still approaching it. This should always
right has made one complete revolution, the pointer be determined by referring to the next dial to the
on the next dial to the left will have travelled just right to see whether or not its pointer has completed
one division or one-tenth of a revolution. its revolution. If it has completed the revolution
When the first pointer has made ten revolutions, or passed zero on its dial, the pointer to the left
the second one will have completed one revolution, should be read as having passed its number.
and the third pointer will have moved one point. If the pointer to the right has not completed its
When the first pointer completes 100 revolutions, last revolution, the one next to the left should not
the second will have completed 10; and the third be read as having passed its number, even though
will have completed one revolution. it may appear to be beyond the number.
In this manner the first dial will have to make If the readings are carefully checked in this man-
1000 revolutions to cause the left-hand dial to com- ner there is very little chance of mistakes.
plete one revolution. On the second dial from the left in Fig. 92-A,
the pointer revolves in a clockwise direction, and
it might easily appear that it has passed the No. 2.
By checking with the dial next to the right, how-
ever, we find that this pointer, which revolves
counter-clockwise, has not quite completed its revo-
lution or passed zero. Therefore, the dial at the
left should still be read as No. 1. The correct
reading for a meter with the pointers in the position
shown in Fig. 92-A would be 3194 kilowatt hours.
The reading for the pointers in Fig. 92-B should
be 4510 kilowatt hours. Here again the pointer
on dial No. 3 appears to be on figure No. 1; and,
by checking with dial No. 4, we find that its pointer
is on zero or has just completed a revolution; so
it is correct to read dial No. 3 as No. 1.
The reading for the set of dials in Fig. 92-C
should be 7692. The pointer on dial No. 2 in this
case appears to have passed No. 7; but, by checking
with dial No. 3 to the right, we find its pointer has
not quite completed its revolution; therefore, the
Fig. 92. The above sketches, A, B, C, show the dials of a kilowatt- dial to the left should be read as No. 6.
hour meter in three different positions. If you will practice read-
ing each set of these dials with the instructions here given, you 104. "CREEPING"
will be able to easily and accurately read any KW-hour meter.
The armature of a watthour meter will some-
103. READING WATTHOUR METERS times be found to be rotating slowly, even when
By noting the figures at which the pointers stand, all load is disconnected from the circuit. This is
in order from left to right, we can read the commonly called creeping of the meter. It may
kilowatt hours indicated by the meter. Some me- be caused by a high resistance ground or a short
ters used on larger power circuits are adjusted so on the line. The resistance of such a ground or
that their dials and pointers don't show the amount short may not be low enough to cause the fuse to
of power directly, but provide areading which must blow, and yet there may be a small amount of
be multiplied by some certain figure, such as 10, current flowing through it at all times.
20, or 50, to obtain the correct total reading. This If the load wires are entirely disconnected from
figure is called a constant or multiplier, and it the meter and the disk is still creeping, it may be
should be used whenever reading a meter of this due to the effects of stray magnetic fields from
type. This constant, or multiplier, is usually marked large conductors which are located near the meter
beneath the dials of the meter. • and carrying heavy currents, or it may be caused
When reading kilowatt-hour meters, we should by the fields from large electrical machines located
always read the last number which has been passed near by.
by the pointer on any dial. Some care is required For this reason, watthour meters, or for that
 ,

D. C., Section Two. Testing Watthour Meters 397

matter any other electric meters, should not be number with the revolutions made by the disk of
located within a few feet of large machines, unless a "rotating standard" test instrument, the accuracy
they are magnetically shielded, and they should be of the meter can be determined.
kept at least a few inches away from large con- When no standard load box or test instrument is
ductors carrying heavy currents. available, a test can be conveniently made with a
Large bus bars or cables carrying currents of known load of several lamps or some device of
several hundred or several thousand amperes set which the wattage is known.
up quite strong magnetic fields around them for For this test the following formula should be
distances of several feet, and very strong fields a used:
few inches away from them. WHK x 3600 X R
Sometimes avery small load such as abell trans- — seconds
former or electric clock may cause the meter to
In which:
rotate very slowly, but this is actual load and not
WHK = the watt-hour constant marked on the
creeping.
meter disk.
Vibration of the building or panel to which the
3600 = number of seconds in an hour.
meter is attached may sometimes be the cause of
R = any chosen number of revolutions of the
creeping. In some cases this may be stopped by
disk.
proper adjustment of the compensating coil; or a
W — known load in watts which is connected to
small iron clip can be placed on the edge of the
the meter.
aluminum disk, if the clip does not rub the damping
For example, suppose we wish to test a meter
magnets as the disk revolves.
which has a constant of .6, marked on its disk. \Ve
When this iron clip comes under the poles of the
can connect a new 200-watt lamp, or two 100-watt
permanent magnets, their attraction for the iron
lamps across the load terminals of the meter, after
will stop the disk and prevent it from creeping. As
all other load has been disconnected. At the instant
long as this clip doesn't touch the permanent mag-
the lamp load is connected, start counting the revo-
nets, it will not interfere with the accuracy of the
lutions of the meter and observe accurately the
meter; because its retarding effect when leaving the
amount of time it requires to make a certain num-
poles of the magnets is balanced by its accelerating
ber of revolutions. Let us say it is 5revolutions.
effect when approaching the poles.
Then, according to the formula, the time required
for the disk to make these 5 revolutions should be:
.6 X 3600 x 5
,or 54 seconds
200
If it actually requires longer than this, the meter
is running too slow. If the time required to make
the 5 revolutions is less than 54 sec., the meter is
running too fast.
Remember where to find this formula for future
reference, as it may often be very convenient to use.
106. RECORDING INSTRUMENTS
In power plants or substations where large
amounts of power are generated and handled, it is
often very important to keep accurate records of the
voltage, current, and power on principal circuits at
all hours of the day and night.
Records of this kind will show any unusual varia-
tions in load or voltage and they are often the means
of effecting great savings and improvements in the
operation of power plants and industrial electric
machinery.
Fig. 93. Common type of recording voltmeter used for keeping an
hourly and daily record of the voltages on the system to which
It is usually not practical for an operator or elec-
it is attached. trician to keep constant watch of meters to obtain
105. TESTING KILOWATT-HOUR METERS a record of their readings hourly or more often.
Kilowatt-hour meters can be tested for accuracy, Recording meters which will mark a continuous
or calibrated, by comparison with standard portable record of their readings on a paper chart or disk
test instruments. can be used for this purpose.
A known load consisting of a resistance box can 107. DIRECT-ACTING RECORDING METERS
he connected to the load terminals of the meter One of the simplest types of recording instru
when all other load is off. Then, by counting the ments uses the ordinary meter element and has a
revolutions per min. of the disk and comparing this case quite similar to that used for D. C. voltmeters
 Norman Beder
398 41 Gecrgia Ave. D. C., Section Two. Recording Meters
BrookiYn 7 iN. Y.
or ammeters, and has a small ink cup and pen at- tween the larger stationary coils, and are equipped
tached to the end of the needle or pointer. This pen with a torsion spring which tends to oppose their
rests lightly on a paper disk which is rotated once movement in either direction.
around every 24 hrs. by a clock-work mechanism Any change of voltage or current in these coils
inside the meter. See Fig. 93. changes the repulsion or attraction between the
As the disk slowly revolves, the pointer pen traces fields of the moving and stationary elements, and
on it a line which shows the movements of the will force the coils of the moving element up or
pointer and the variations in voltage or current, down. This moving element then operates a set of
whichever the instrument is used to measure. relay contacts which close acircuit to the solenoids
The paper disks have on them circular lines which or small operating motor which moves the pen.
represent the voltage or current scale. By the posi-
tion of the ink line on this scale the voltage or am-
perage at any point can be determined. Around the
outer edge of the disk is marked the time in hours,
so the readings for any period of the day can be
quickly determined. Fig. 94 shows a disk from a
meter of this type.

Fig. 95. This photo shows a complete recording instrument of the

relay type with the cover removed. Note the stationary coils and
balance coils at the top, and the roll for carrying the paper chart
beneath the pointer.

The instrument shown in Fig. 95 uses a motor

for the operation of the pen and pointer. The motor,
Fig. 94. Paper disk or chart from a direct acting recording meter.
The irregular black line shows the voltage curve traced by the which can be seen above the chart roll, revolves a
pointer and pen throughout each hour of the day and night.
worm shaft which moves the pen. The movement
Recording meters of the type just described are of the pen also readjusts the counter-torque spring
called Direct-Acting instruments. One of the disad- on the movable coil so that it is balanced properly
vantages of meters of this type is that the friction for the new position of the pen. This causes the
of the pen on the paper chart does not allow the balance coils to open the relay contacts and stop
pointer and pen to move freely enough to make the the motor: so the pen will remain in this position
meter very sensitive or accurate on small variations until another change of the voltage or current
in the voltage or current. They also require fre- occurs.
quent winding, replacing of charts, and refilling of The "clock" mechanism which drives the paper
the pen, but they are low in cost and very satis- chart in this type of instrument is electrically wound
factory for certain requirements. and therefore does not require frequent attention.
Fig. 96 shows arecording instrument of this type,
108. RELAY TYPE RECORDING METERS
with the chart roll in place. This paper chart is
Another type of recording instrument in very continuous throughout the roll. So, as the roll
common use is the Relay Type, which operates on travels and the pen moves sidewise across it, a con-
the electro-dynamometer, or Kelvin balance, prin- tinuous record of the voltage or power is kept. When
ciple. the end of one roll is reached, a new one can be
The Kelvin balance consists of aset of stationary inserted.
coils and a set of movable coils. These coils can be Fig. 97 shows the connections for a recording
seen at the top of the instrument shown in Fig. 95, meter of the type just described. Terminals 1and 2
which is a relay-type recording meter. are for the motor circuit, and 3 and 4 are for the
The thin moving coils are shown balanced be- control circuit.
 D. C., Section Two. Recording Meters 399

Indicators are used. They are sometimes called

"max. meters".
One type of demand indicator is the Wright max-
imum ampere-demand indicator, which operates on
the thermal or heat expansion principle.
This instrument consists of a specially shaped
sealed glass tube, as shown in Fig. 98. In this tube
is sealed a certain amount of colored liquid, usually
sulphuric acid, and a certain amount of air.
A resistance coil of platinoid metal is wound
around the bulb as shown at "A" in the figure. This
coil is connected in series with the line and load,
or in parallel with an ammeter shunt. When cur-
rent passes through the coil it causes it to become
slightly heated and this heat expands the air in the
bulb "A".
This expansion increases the air pressure and
forces more of the liquid over into the right-hand
Fig. 96. This view shows the recording instrument which was shown part of the tube. If the liquid is forced high enough
in Fig. 95. with the paper chart in place. The glass ink cup and
pen can be dimly seen attached to the lower part of the pointer.
in this tube, some of it will run over into the small
Index Tube, "C".
109. LOAD DEMAND INDICATORS
Power and lighting loads which are of a steady
or constant nature and do not vary greatly through-
out the day are most desirable to power companies.
Loads which have high "peaks" in proportion to
the average hourly load, require the operation and
maintenance of generating equipment which is suffi-
cient for these peak periods, and may be either idle
or lightly loaded at other periods. This tends to
reduce the operating efficiency and economy in the
power plant, and power companies will often give a
customer lower rates per KW hr, on his power if
his peak load is not over acertain percentage higher
than his average load.

Movings Contact Stationary coils

? Movitt9 coils
Ser
UCH IHi
I
Clock
ResIstnee riTT-71 f( Fig. 98. This sketch illustrates the principle of a common type maxi-
mum demand meter which operates by expansion of the air in the
bulb "A", when current is passed through the coil around this bulb.

Cut out

Clock
Switch As the heat developed in the resistance coil is
Motor Cowtroi proportional to the square of the current passing
Motor
through it, the index tube "C" can be graduated or
equipped with a graduated scale behind it; so the
maximum current in amperes can be read from the
height of the liquid in this tube.
A momentary increase in load will not register
on an indicator of this type, because it requires a
little time for the heat in the coil to expand the air
inside the tube. This is a desirable feature, as it
Fig. 97. This diagram shows the coils and winding of a recording meter usually is not desired to measure peak loads that
such as shown in Figs. 95 and N.
last only an instant.
To determine the maximum load, or peak, for any A load increase which lasts for 30 minutes will
period during the day or week. Maximum Demand register the full amount, or 100%, of the increase.
 Norma' scoer
41 Georgia Ave:
400 Brooklyn 7, N. Y' D. C., Section Two. Wheatstone Bridge

110. \.A., HEATSTONE BRIDGE

This instrument is a very convenient device for
measuring the resistance of electric circuits or de-
vices, by comparison with standard resistances of
known value.
You have already learned that electric current
will tend to follow the path of lowest resistance, and
will divide through parallel paths in inverse propor-
tion to their resistance.

Fig. 98-A. Two types of demand meters using pointers operated by

magnets and thermostats instead of liquid to indicate maximum load.

After a reading, this type of instrument can be

reset by tilting the tube and allowing the liquid to
flow back into tube "B".
Small, inverted, glass funnels are fastened inside
the bottom of each side of the tube, to prevent the
passage of air from one side of the tube to the other.
These are called traps. When the tube is tilted to
reset the indicator, these traps remain covered with
liquid and prevent air from passing through. Fig. 100. Resieance box of a common Wheatstone bridge. Note the
plugs which are used for varying the amount of resistance in the
Recording wattmeters or ammeters also serve as circuit.
maximum-demand meters, as they show all load
For example, suppose we have one resistance coil
variations.
Another type of maximum-demand meter uses a of 5 ohms and one of 10 ohms connected in parallel,
combination of a wattmeter element and pointer and as shown in Fig. 99-A. If we apply 10 volts to the
a watthour meter time element, to allow the watt- end terminals, 2 amperes will flow through the
meter pointer to register only over certain time 5-ohm coil and 1 ampere through the 10-ohm coil.
Now let us connect a group of four coils as shown
periods.
Some demand meters use a thermostatic strip to in Fig. 99-B. Here we have two coils of 5 ohms
each in series on one path, and a 5-ohm coil and a
move the pointer as the strip is expanded and
warped by the heat of the load current. 3-ohm coil in series on the other path.
Fig. 98-A shows demand indicators of these types.

Fig. 101. This diagram shows the connections and principle of a

Wheatstone bridge or resistance balancer. Note how the split
metal sockets can be used to short out various resistance coils
when a metal plug is inserted in these sockets. Study this dia-
gram carefully while referring to the explanations on these pages.

If we now connect a sensitive galvanometer

across the center of the paths between the coils, as
shown, it will indicate a flow of current from the
upper path to the lower when voltage is applied to
Fig. 99. The sketch at "A" shows the manner in which current will the terminals of the group.
divide in inverse proportion to the resistance of two parallel cir-
cuits. At "B" is shown the manner in which current will flow Tracing from the positive terminal to the center
through a galvanometer placed between four resistances, one of
which is of a different value than the rest. of the group, the resistance of each path is equal,
 D. C., Section Two. Resistance Measurement 401

but from this point on to the negative terminal the

lower path or coil "X" has the lowest resistance.
For this reason, some of the current tends to flow
down through the galvanometer wire to the lower
coil or easier path.
If we changed the coil "D" to one of 3 ohms,
both sides of the circuit would again be balanced
and no current would flow through the galvan-
ometer.
On this same principle, if the resistance of coil
"X" is not known, we can determine it by varying
the resistance of coil "D" in known amounts until
the galvanometer indicates zero, or a balanced cir-
cuit. We would then know that the resistance of Fig. 183. Simple circuit showing the connections and principles of a
'Megger". Note the arrangement of the D. C. generator arma-
coil "X" is equal to whatever amount of resistance ture and meter element at opposite ends of the magnet poles and
the connections of this device to the line or test terminals.
we have in coil "D" to secure the balance.
Arms, or balance arms; and C is called the Rheo-
111. OPERATION AND CIRCUIT OF
stat Arm.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Arms A and B usually have the same number of
The Wheatstone Bridge operates on the same
resistor units of similar \allies in ohms. Arm C
general principle just described. It consists of a
has a number of resistors of different values.
box of resistance coils with convenient plugs for
When the unknown resistance, X. has been con-
cutting coils of various resistance in and out of the
nected in and the bridge arms so balanced that the
balancing circuits. Fig. 100 shows the resistance
galvanometer shows no reading when the button
box of a bridge of this type. is pressed, the resistance of X in ohms can be de-
Some bridges have knobs and dial switches in-
termined by the use of the following formula:
stead of plugs for switching the resistance units;
A
and some have the galvanometer built in the top X — x
of the box, and the dry cells inside.
Fig. 101 shows a diagram of a common type of
In which:
bridge and the method by which the coils can be
X = resistance in ohms of device under test.
left in the various circuits or shorted out by insert-
A — known resistance in ratio arm A.
ing metal plugs in the round holes between metal
B = known resistance in ratio arm B.
blocks attached to the ends of each resistance coil.
C = known resistance in rheostat arm C.
The coil or line of which the resistance is to be
The Wheatstone bridge is a very convenient de-
measured is connected at X. The circuits A, B, and
vice for testing the resistance of coils or windings
C are called Bridge Arms. A and 13 are called Ratio
of electrical equipment ;of lines, cables and circuits;
and of the insulation on various wires or devices.
There are a number of types of bridges for resist-
ance measurement, most of which are supplied with
a connection chart and instructions for operation.
So, with a knowledge of their general principles as
covered here, you sheeuld be able to use and operate
any ordinary bridge.
112. "MEGGER"
Another testing instrument frequently used by
the practical electrician for testing the resistance
of insulation on electrical machinery is known as a
Megger. This name comes from the fact that this
instrument is commonly used to measure resistances
of millions of ohms; and a million ohms is called
one meg-ohm.
The megger consists of a small hand-operated
D. C. generator and one or more meter elements,
mounted in a portable box, as shown in Fig. 102.
When the crank is turned, the D. C. generator will
produce from 100 to 1000 volts D. C., according to
the speed at which the generator is rotated and the
number of turns in its winding.
Fig. 102. The above photo shows a "Megger", or device used for meas-
uring the resistance of insulation and high resistance circuits. This Normal operating voltage is usually from 300 to
instrument contains its own D. C. generator as well as meter
element.
500 volts, and is marked on the meter scale. Some
402 D. C., Section Two. Meters

of these instruments have a voltmeter to show the Either the Wheatstone bridge or the megger can
generator voltage, and an ohm-meter to indicate the be used to determine the approximate location of
insulation resistance of the device under test. grounds or faults in cables and long lines, by meas-
The terminals of the instrument can be connected uring the resistance from the end of the line to the
to one terminal of a machine winding and to the fault, through the cable and its sheath or the earth.
machine frame. Then, when the crank is rotated Then, by comparing this resistance with the known
the insulation resistance in meg-ohms can be read resistance total of the line or with its resistance
directly from the scale. per foot or per 1000 ft., the distance to the fault
Fig. 103 shows the internal connections of a meg- can easily be calculated.
ger and the terminals for connections to the equip-
113. METERS ESSENTIAL IN ELECTRICAL
ment to be tested. As the insulation of electrical
WORK
machines or lines becomes aged, or in some cases
A number of simple and practical tests of resist-
where it has been oil or water-soaked, its resistance
ance can also be made with voltmeters and am-
in ohms is considerably reduced. Therefore, the
meters, and the use of ohms law formulas. By
resistance test with the megger is a good indication
applying voltage of a known value to any device
of the condition or quality of the insulation.
and accurately measuring the current flow set up
Periodic megger tests of electrical equipment and by this voltage, we can readily calculate the re-
records of the insulation resistance will often show
sistance of the circuit or device by the simple
up approaching trouble before the insulation breaks
formula:
down completely and burns out the equipment.

While on the subject of meters, it will be well

to mention that very sensitive relays are often made
from regular meter elements, using a short arma-
ture or moving contact in place of the regular
pointer or needle. Fig. 104 shows a relay of this
type. In this figure you can see the short contact
needle attached to the moving coil, and the adjust-
able contacts on each side of this needle.
By proper adjustment of the contacts of relays
of this type, they can be made to close or open cir-
cuits when the voltage or current values rise above
or fall below any certain values.
Keep well in mind the importance of ordinary
electric meters in the work of any practical, up-to-
date electrician, and remember that great savings
in power or equipment can often be made by the
proper use of electrical meters and instruments.
For testing the efficiency of machines, checking
operations in power plants, inspection of electrical
equipment, and for trouble shooting and fault loca-
tion, electrical meters of the proper types are of
enormous value.
Fig. 14. Very sensitive relays such as shown above are commonly
The trained practical man should never overlook
made with the same principal elements used in voltmeters or an opportunity to effect a saving or improve opera-
ammeters. Relays of this type can be used to open or close various
circuits at any set voltage or current values. tion by the selection and use of the proper meters.
 D. C., Section Two. Meters 403

Changing Meters for Higher or Lower Readings

In certain cases an electrician may not have ing of 150 volts, and for safe use on a 150 volt
suitable meters for testing all of the various circuit circuit.
voltages and current loads in the plant, and in such 150 E
cases it is often very convenient to know how to Then — 7500 R. total resistance
.020 I
change the meters on hand, to indicate voltages or
currents other than those for which they were de- Then 7500 — 2.5 — 7497.5 ohms of additional re-
signed. This can quite easily be done by changing sistance to be used.
the resistors on voltmeters or the shunts used with
ammeters.
In recent years instrument manufacturers have
begun to standardize on the construction of essen-
tial parts of meters. This not only reduces original
costs and makes it easier to secure repair parts,
but it also makes certain meters more flexible or
adaptable to a wider range of service. For exam-
ple, many volt meters and ammeters are now made
with a standard moving coil having a resistance of
21/2 ohms and designed to give full scale deflection

of the pointer with a current of 20 milliamperes, or

.020 amperes. According to Ohm's Law formula,
I X R = E, or .020 I X 2.5R .= .050E, or 50 mili-
volts drop, or pressure applied to force full scale
current through this coil. A coil having 21/ 2 ohms
for a 50 millivolt reading would be on a basis
of 50 ohms per volt, as one volt or 1,000 m.v.
÷ 50 m.v. = 20, and 20 X 2.5 = 50.
Now if we wish to use this 50 m. v. meter to
measure 100 m.v., or double the present voltage
rating, we should simply double the resistance of
Fig. MC This diagram shows a meter designed for reading two dif.
the meter circuit or add 21/ 2 ohms more resistance ferret voltages.
in series with the 21/ 2 ohm moving coil. Then
2 21 5 ohms total resistance, which when If we wish to use the same meter for dual service
connected across a 100 m.v. circuit would draw or 150 and 300 volt circuits, we can arrange another
.100 .4- 5 or .020 amperes and again give full scale resistor of 14997.5 ohms as shown in Fig. 105. Then
deflection. If we now remark or recalibrate the by connecting the wires of the circuits to be tested
scale for 100 m.v., we have doubled the range of to the proper terminals or resistors we can measure
the meter. either voltage. Some multiple range meters have
these extra resistors located inside the case and con-
You can readily see that if the ohm coil were
nected to proper terminals. These meters may also
connected on a circuit of double its rated voltage
have the scale marked for 3or more voltage ranges.
without increasing the resistance, the coil would
The same changes can be applied to ammeters to
receive double current and be burned out. There-
adapt them for other ranges by changing the resis-
fore, in changing voltmeter resistances to adapt
tance of the shunts which are used with this same
the meter for correct readings of higher voltage
standard meter element and 21/ 2 ohm moving coil.
values, we simply use the following formula to de-
Using only the meter coil without any shunt the in-
termine the correct resistors to use in series with
strument's capacity and full scale reading would be
the meter coil:
only 20 milli-amperes. If we wish to change it to
Desired voltage range measure current up to 100 M.A. or 5 times its
Total resistance former rating, we would place in parallel with the
Full scale meter coil current for meter circuit. moving coil a shunt having a resistance one-fourth
that of the coil or, 2.5 4 — .625 ohms resistance
Then by subtracting the resistance of the moving for the shunt.
coil from this total resistance we can determine the With this shunt connected in parallel with the
amount of extra resistance to use in series for the meter as shown in Fig. 106, the current will divide
higher readings. For example, suppose we wish to in inverse proportion to the resistance of the two
adapt this same meter element for a full scale read- parallel paths, and 4/5 of the current, or 80 M.A.
404 D. C., Section Two. Meters

will pass through the shunt, while 1/5 of the cur- such small current loads, we must consider the
rent, or 20 M.A. will pass through the meter coil. amount of current which flows through the meter
When making such changes for scale readings of element. However, for changes over 2amperes the
2 amperes or less, we should determine the shunt following simple formula can be used to determine
resistance according to the desired division of cur- the shunt resistance:
rent between the meter coil and the shunt, as we Voltage rating of meter coil
have just done in the foregoing problem. This is = Resistance of shunt.
Desired current capacity
due to the fact that in order to obtain readings
which are accurate at least within one per cent on Then if we want to change this same type of
meter with the 50 millivolt coil to measure currents
up to 10 amperes at full scale reading,

.050
.005 ohm shunt
10
to be used in parallel with the meter element. Note
that the shunt resistance is 1/500 of the meter coil
resistance, and the meter coil current of .020 is
1/500 of the new full scale current of 10 amperes. If
we desire to change this type of meter to read 200
amperes, then,

.050
.00025 ohm shunt.
200
Meters which use these standard coils of 21
2 ohms
/
resistance for M.A. current, at 50 ohms per volt, are
guaranteed by the manufacturers for accuracy
within one per cent. This is accurate enough for all
ordinary shop tests. When a higher degree of ac-
curacy is required for laboratory measurements,
etc., meters with higher resistance moving elements
IN& are used. The more resistance per volt which is
used in the meter coil, the higher the degree of ac-
Fig. Ils. This figure shows how the ammeter shunt is connected in
parallel with the meter coil. curacy will be.