The Defining Series: Basic Well Log Interpretation

Published: 07/28/2016

Well logs present a concise, detailed plot of formation parameters versus depth.
From these plots, interpreters can identify lithologies, differentiate between porous
and nonporous rock and quickly recognize pay zones in subsurface formations. The
ability to interpret a log lies in recognizing the significance of each measurement.

Logging tools record the magnitude of a specific formation property, such as

resistivity, measured as the tool traverses an interval defined by depth; a well log is a
chart that shows the value of that measurement plotted versus depth. During the
early days of commercial well logging, logs were primarily used qualitatively for
making formation correlations; within a given field or local geological province,
certain formations have distinctive characteristics that appear remarkably similar
from one well to the next, providing geologists with a basis for locating the depths of
various strata in the subsurface. In 1942, the relationship between resistivity,
porosity and water saturation (and thus its inverse: hydro-carbon saturation) was
established by G.E. Archie, paving the way for a quantitative evaluation of formation
properties using well logs.

Early electric logs, or e-logs, plotted only formation resistivity measurements. The
resistivity of a rock is a measure of the degree to which it can impede the flow of an
electric current. It is measured in ohm.m2/m, which is usually referred to simply as
ohm.m. The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity, which is typically expressed in
terms of millimhos or mmhos. The ability to conduct electrical current is a function of
the conductivity of the water contained in the pore space of the rock. Fresh water
does not conduct electricity; however, the salt ions found in most formation waters
do. Thus, unless that water is fresh, water-saturated rocks have high conductivity
and low resistivity. Hydrocarbons, which are nonconductive, cause resistivity values
to increase as the pore spaces within a rock become more saturated with oil or gas.

The spontaneous potential (SP) log was developed next and was presented along
with resistivity logs. It is a measurement of the voltage difference between a movable
electrode in the wellbore and a fixed electrode at the surface. This electrical potential
is primarily generated as a result of exchanges of fluids of different salinities—those
of the mud system and those in the formation. During the course of drilling,
permeable rock within the wellbore becomes invaded by drilling mud filtrate. If the
filtrate is less saline than the formation fluids, negatively charged chlorine ions from
the formation water cause the SP curve to deflect to the left from an arbitrary
baseline established across impermeable shale formations. The magnitude of the
deflection is influenced by a number of factors, including permeability, porosity,
formation water salinity and mud filtrate properties. Permeable formations filled with
water that is fresher than the filtrate will cause the curve to deflect to the right. So,
simply by the nature of its deflections, the SP curve can indicate to a geologist which
formations are permeable. A permeable formation with a high resistivity is more likely
to contain hydrocarbons.
Over time, the measurements that constitute electric logs have been substantially
refined and expanded upon. In addition to the SP curve, today's basic suite of
logging measurements includes a gamma ray (GR) curve, multiple resistivity curves,
as well as porosity readings obtained from density, neutron and sonic tools.

The GR device measures naturally occurring radioactivity from the formation, and a
GR log helps geologists differentiate nonreservoir rocks—shales and clays—from
reservoir rocks, such as sandstone and carbonates. Shales and clays are derived
from rocks that tend to contain naturally occurring radioactive elements, primarily
potassium, uranium and thorium. As a consequence, shales and clays are more
radioactive than clean sand-stones and carbonates. Quartz and calcium carbonate
produce almost no radiation. Log analysts look for formations with low background
radiation because they have the potential to contain moveable hydrocarbons.

Resistivity tools measure the formation at different depths of investigation. The

resulting log presents shallow-, medium- and deep-reading curves. The shallow
curve, charting the smallest radius of investigation, shows the resistivity of the
flushed zone surrounding the borehole. The medium curves indicate the resistivity of
the invaded zone. The deepest curves show the resistivity of the uncontaminated
zone, which is presumed to be the true resistivity, although even the deepest reading
curves may be affected by the presence of mud filtrate. By evaluating the separation
between these curves, a geologist can estimate the diameter of invasion by the mud
filtrate and may be able to determine which zones are more permeable than others.

Formation bulk density provides a key measure of porosity. The bulk density (rhob or
Pb) of a formation is based on the ratio of a measured interval's mass to its volume.
In general, porosity is inversely related to the density of the rock. The Pb
measurement is derived from the electron density of a formation. This measurement
is obtained by a logging device that emits gamma rays into the formation. The
gamma rays collide with electrons in the formation, giving off energy and scattering
in a process known as Compton Scattering. The number of such collisions is directly
related to the number of electrons in the formation. In low-density formations, more
of these scattered gamma rays are able to reach the detector than in formations of
higher density.

Because hydrogen is a major constituent of both water and hydrocarbons and

because water and hydrocarbons concentrate in rock pores, the concentration of
hydrogen atoms can be used to determine the fluid-filled porosity of a formation.
Hydrogen atoms have nearly the same mass as neutrons. Neutron logging tools emit
neutrons using a chemical source or an electronic neutron generator. When these
neutrons collide with hydrogen atoms in a formation, they lose the maximal energy,
slow down and eventually reach a very-low-energy—or thermal—state. The rate at
which neutrons reach the thermal state is proportional to the hydrogen concentration
or index (HI). Neutron porosity tools measure the HI, which is then converted to
neutron porosity.
The sonic log may be used to determine porosity by charting the speed of a
compressional sound wave as it travels through the formation. Interval transit time
(∆t), measured in microseconds per meter [foot] and often referred to as slowness, is
the reciprocal of velocity. Lithology and porosity affect ∆t. Dense, consolidated
formations characterized by compaction at depth generally result in a faster (shorter)
∆t while fluid-filled porosity results in a slower (longer) ∆t.

Measurements are also uniquely affected by formation and borehole conditions. Log
analysts perform quality control on the data and determine what corrections are
required before carrying out quantitative analysis of the data. For example, gas,
fractures and lack of compaction require corrections to be applied to the sonic log.
Lithologies affect the density, neutron and sonic logs. Invasion of mud filtrate into
porous formations affects resistivity readings, and temperature affects the resistivity
of both filtrate and saline formation water. Some resistivity tools work in
nonconductive bore-hole fluids, others only work in salt saturated mud systems. Pad-
contact logging tools may be affected by borehole washouts. If data are
compromised by hole conditions, analysis may not be possible.

Figure 1: A basic log. A suite of logging measurements might include spontaneous potential, gamma ray,
resistivity, neutron and density curves in a single presentation. The gamma ray response (Track 1)
distinguishes the low gamma ray value of sand from the higher value of shale. The spontaneous potential
curve generally follows a trend similar to that of the gamma ray. The next column, called the depth track,
indicates the depth at which the measurement was made. Across the sandstone formation, the resistivity
measurements (Track 2) are noticeably higher in the hydrocarbon zone than in the water-saturated zone in
the lower part of the sand. Both neutron porosity and bulk density (Track 3) provide measures of porosity.
Within the hydrocarbon-bearing zone, the separation of the curves varies depending on the type of fluid
encountered.

Figuring It All Out

An initial review of the log should identify deviations from baseline trends that could
indicate changes in lithology, fluid content, porosity or borehole diameter.
Recognizing the significance of such deviations is the key to determining which
intervals on the well log merit further analysis. For example, a deflection of the GR
curve to the left of the baseline established for shales might indicate a sandstone
that warrants additional evaluation. When accompanied by increases in resistivity
and porosity, this interval should be scrutinized more thoroughly. A particularly useful
indicator for gas is the telltale decrease in neutron porosity, which can cause the
neutron curve to cross over the density curve. This gas effect is created because gas
contains fewer hydrogen atoms than oil or water.

After a potential pay zone is identified, it must be analyzed to determine porosity and
hydrocarbon saturation. The neutron porosity is transformed from the HI
measurement. To evaluate porosity (Ø) from ρb or ∆t measurements, the log analyst
must factor in the respective densities or interval transit times of the rock matrix and
the drilling fluid

The equation for converting the sonic measurement to porosity is similar.

Having established the porosity of the zone of interest, the next step is to determine
its true resistivity and the resistivity of a nearby interval containing water. True
resistivity (Rt) is based on the deep reading resistivity measurement, corrected for
filtrate invasion. A nearby water-bearing interval can be used to compute the water
resistivity Rw. These readings may be combined in the formula developed by Archie
to calculate the water saturation Sw in the pore spaces of a rock.

The values for a, m and n are often based on the formation properties. After S w is
computed, the log analyst can arrive at a hydrocarbon saturation by subtracting that
value from 1.
Initially all logs were obtained from logging tools lowered into the well-bore using a
logging cable. Today sensors embedded in the drill collars of MWD and LWD
toolstrings provide alternatives to wireline tools. Although manual interpretation of log
data is still common, log evaluation has also evolved beyond calculations using
Archie's water saturation equation. Modern log analysis is more frequently carried
out using computers. With the proliferation of production from unconventional
reservoirs, more information is required to properly evaluate and complete these
formations. As such, computer processing has become an essential element in log
interpretation.

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THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

Logging Tools and Measured Properties
 All logging tools and measured formation properties with
log samples in one page..

Fracture Detection

Well logging methods for fracture identification. GR, Resistivity, Dipmeter, Imaging logs for fractu

CASED HOLE LOGGING:

CEMENT BOND LOG (CBL) TEMPERATURE LOG INTERPRETATION

INTERPRETATION
CBL-VDL Log Interpretion models Fluid flow behind casing

OTHER SOFTWARE:

Rock Mechanics Software

(Rock Mechanics: Shear velocity, Poisson's Ratio, Young Modulus and sanding analysis by So

FUN SOFTWARE:

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SP-GR
l Time Clay Type Lithology
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Scale Log

This program
Clay type
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Time Scale determines clay litology is Grain size distributon effects on
posted in a type by using determined GR and Sp Log.
logarithmic log Spectral Gamma with a Density
scale. Ray Log.. Neutron Log.

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USEFUL LINKS:
Petrophysical Handbook
Analog
SPWLA
CWLS
Schulumberger
Halliburton
World Oil
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYMLDlIop5M

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Well logging chronicles the depths, subsurface formations and events encountered while
drilling. Well logs can include visual observations or be made by instruments lowered into
the well during drilling.

Tradition holds that the term "well logs" is borrowed from ship nomenclature. Similar to a
ship's log that tracks the events aboard the vessel, a well log tracks the events of drilling, but
instead of being plotted in a timeline, a well log is recorded by depth drilled. In the early
1800s, well loggers scaled the oilfield derricks and simply wrote down what happened at
certain depths, including problems, types of formations encountered, speed of drilling and, of
course, oil or gas flows.

In the early 1900s, Conrad Schlumberger envisioned the concept of using electrical
measurements to map subsurface formations; and in 1927, he and his brother Marcel
performed the world's first electrical resistivity well log in France. (Resistivity is the
measurement of the level of difficulty an electric current has passing through a formation.)

Well logging today means anything recorded having to do with the drilling versus the depth
of the well at that moment, many times represented by a graph and corresponding notes.
Logging tools are inserted into the well to measure the electrical, acoustic, radioactive and
electromagnetic properties of the subsurface formations. Sometimes the logging tools are
incorporated into the drilling tool, and sometimes the drilling tools are lowered into the well at
regular intervals to collect data.
Density LogSource: Geoline Services
Engineers and drillers use well logs to measure depths of formation tops, thickness of
formations, porosity, water saturation, temperature, types of formations encountered,
presence of oil and/or gas, estimated permeability, reservoir pressures and formation dip --
ultimately determining whether a well is commercially viable or not and whether casing,
cementing and completion should be run on a well. It's not only a journal of what is
perforated below the surface, but also a predictor of success.

Reading A Well Log

The well log includes the header, which provides specific information about the well, such as
the operating company, well information and type of log run; as well as the main log section,
or the graph. The graph charts vertically the depth reached, and the horizontal scale is the
measurement scale, which can be represented linearly and/or by logarithms.

Inserts are found throughout the graph at each major section of the log, identifying each
curve. Curves on the log, also called traces, readings or measurements, can be represented
by solid, long-dashed, short-dashed or dotted lines to decipher between the different
measurements represented on the log.

The final part of the log includes the tool calibrations for before and after the log was
conducted, ensuring that the log is accurate.
Calibration Log
Source: Central Geological Survey

Types Of Well Logs

As the technology of well logging has improved over the decades, myriad types of well logs
have emerged. From Gamma Ray (GR) Logs that measure radioactivity of the rocks to
determine the amount of shale in a formation to Sonic (or Borehole Compensated) Logs that
measure porosity by measuring how fast sound waves travel through rocks, different tools
are used to determine different subsurface characteristics.

As previously mentioned, Resistivity Logs measure how electricity travels through rocks
and sediments. This determines what types of fluids are present because oil and fresh water
are poor conductors of electricity, while formation waters are salty and easily conduct
electricity.

Induction Logs are used in wells that do not use mud or water, but oil-based drilling fluids
or air, which are nonconductive and, therefore, cannot use electric logs. Induction uses the
interaction of magnetism and electricity to determine Resistivity.

Spontaneous Potential (SP) Logs show the permeability of the rocks in the well by
calculating the electrical currents generated between the drilling fluids and formation water
held in the pore spaces. SP is used many times to determine between shale and sandstone.

Methods Of Well Logging

Mud Logs refers to the drilling mud, or drilling fluid, used to provide buoyancy to the drill, as
well as remove cuttings from the well. Information from a mud logger supplements the
driller's log, cuttings log and evaluation log, and is used along with logs of nearby wells to
determine the commerciality of a well. Additionally, mud logs monitor the wellbore to help
prevent blowouts.

For many years, well logging tools were lowered into the well at regular intervals while
drilling to retrieve data. With the advent of directional drilling, well logging had to develop to
be able to log a well that was no longer vertical. Logging While Drilling and Measurement-
While-Drilling (or MWD) place the logging tools on the end of the drilling column. That way,
drillers can use the information immediately to determine the direction and future of the well.

Well logs of today use Computer-Generated Logs to immediately interpret information

gathered while drilling. In addition to keeping measurements, these sophisticated logs can
notify drillers of a potential hazard and transmit data via satellite to computers offsite.

1400.0000 PULSED NEUTRON NEUTRON TOOL [PNN] measures Sigma,

the ability of material to capture thermal Neutrons, in capture units (c.u.).

PNN counts directly the thermal neutrons reaching the detectors after their interaction with
the surrounding formation; then, the usual inference by common Thermal decay tools that
count Gamma Rays where High-counts means high-Sigma-Values changes by the PNN tool
into High-counts means Low-Sigma-Values, and it has the significance of obtaining
statistical uncertainties reduction for low Sigma values. This sole measuring approach allows
better differentiation in environments of low Sigma values, which is the case when fresh
water, oil and/or gas are present in the pore spaces, overcoming by this way, the low salinity
formation water problem which appears as a limitation factor of standard Thermal Decay
Time tools; additionally, Neutron readings are less affected by Neutron activation, hence,
logging of Time-driven Stop-Checks in area of interest helps reduce the statistical
uncertainties of readings at any desired depth spot. All of this makes pnnPlus tool, in
conjunction with our PNN processing and analysis, a competitive behind-casing formation
evaluation tool for high to moderate water salinity formations and the ultimate thermal decay
tool for evaluation of lower salinity and lower porosity formations.
Application
Water saturation behind casing, porosity, remaining Hydrocarbon reserves estimation, Oil-
water, gas-water and gas-oil contacts location, geothermal energy, etc.
Operation
The formation is bombarded with pulses of high-energy neutrons (14 MeV) generated by the
tool. Neutrons interact
with the surrounding atoms and, during the lapse of time between high-energy neutron
pulses, the thermal neutron
population that reaches the Neutron detectors is sampled by two detectors with 60 time
channels each; Per Channel
Neutrons counted are used to compute the rate of decay, it is equivalent to measuring the rate
at which thermal neutrons
are absorbed into the formation, the greater fluids and minerals capture thermal neutrons, the
higher the value of Sigma.
TOOL SPECIFICATIONS
Max Temperature:
Max Pressure:
Tool Length:
Tool OD:
Min Hole Diameter:
Tool Weight:
Logging Speed:
Recommended Borehole Fluid:
Tool Voltage:
Tool Current:

175°C (350 °F)

103 MPa (15,000 psi)
5.110 mm (201,18")
43 mm (1-11/16”)

47.6 mm (1-7/8")
31,57 kg (69,60 lb)

2.14 m/min (7 ft/min)

Any

160VDC
40 mA ( neutron generator off)
100 mA (neutron generator on)

DOWNLOAD TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

How Does Logging-While-Drilling (LWD) Work?

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For centuries, drillers (whether drilling for oil or water) have been keeping keen notes of
drilling activities. What started as a regular record of drilling depth versus cuttings observed
(also known as mud logging) has transformed to encompass various technological well
logging measurements, including electric logging, SP, induction and GR. Most recently,
scientists and engineers have developed Logging-While-Drilling (LWD), a type of well
logging that incorporates the logging tools into the drill string, administering, interpreting and
transmitting real-time formation measurements to the surface.

Loggin While Drilling LWDSource: Leg Summaries & Maps

Overcoming well logging challenges presented by directional drilling, LWD has
revolutionized the well logging concept. By locating well logging tools near the drill bit on the
end of the drilling apparatus, LWD enables drillers to log wells that exceed 60 degrees,
which makes pushing the tool through the well impossible. Additionally, by providing real-
time information, LWD helps drillers and engineers to make immediate decisions about the
future of a well and the direction of drilling.
Providing information on porosity, resistivity, acoustic waveform, hole direction, and weight
on bit, LWD transmits logging measurements at regular intervals while drilling is taking
place. Data is transmitted to the surface through pulses through the mud column (also
known as mud pulse of mud telemetry) in real time.

A type of LWD, Measurement-While-Drilling (MWD) specifically refers to information used to

help in steering the drill, such as direction, orientation and drill bit information.

Drillers and engineers are able to use LWD information immediately to define well placement
and predict drilling hazards. Known as "intelligent drilling," use of real-time logging
information provided by LWD is enabling stronger, more successful wells both onshore and
off.

fully compatible with Warrior

Logging Software
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