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Write full details on atomic theory of matter with those that took an impact on the experiment

Atomic theory is the scientific theory that matter is composed of particles called atoms. The
concept that matter is composed of discrete particles is an ancient idea, but gained scientific
credence in the 18th and 19th centuries when scientists found it could explain the behaviors of
gases and how chemical elements reacted with each other. By the end of the 19th century,
atomic theory had gained widespread acceptance in the scientific community.

The current theoretical model of the atom involves a dense nucleus surrounded by a
probabilistic "cloud" of electrons

The term "atom" comes from the Greek word atomos, which means "uncuttable". John Dalton
applied the term to the basic units of mass of the chemical elements under the mistaken belief
that chemical atoms are the fundamental particles in nature; it was another century before
scientists realized that Dalton's so-called atoms have an underlying structure of their own.
Particles which are truly indivisible are now referred to as "elementary particles".

The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea, appearing in many ancient
cultures, including Greece and India. The word "atom" (Greek: ἄτομος; atomos), meaning
"uncuttable", was coined by the Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers Leucippus and his pupil
Democritus (c.460–c.370 BC).Democritus taught that atoms were infinite in number, uncreated,
and eternal, and that the qualities of an object result from the kind of atoms that compose
it.Democritus's atomism was refined and elaborated by the later Greek philosopher Epicurus
(341–270 BC), and by the Roman Epicurean poet Lucretius (c.99–c.55 BC).During the Early
Middle Ages, atomism was mostly forgotten in western Europe. During the 12th century, it
became known again in western Europe through references to it in the newly-rediscovered
writings of Aristotle. The opposing view of matter upheld by Aristotle was that matter was
continuous and infinite and could be subdivided without limit.

In the 14th century, the rediscovery of major ancient works describing atomist teachings,
including Lucretius's De rerum natura and Diogenes Laërtius's Lives and Opinions of Eminent
Philosophers, led to increased scholarly attention on the subject. Nonetheless, because
atomism was associated with the philosophy of Epicureanism, which contradicted orthodox
Christian teachings, belief in atoms was not considered acceptable by most European
philosophers. The French Catholic priest Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) revived Epicurean
atomism with modifications, arguing that atoms were created by God and, though extremely
numerous, are not infinite in number. He was the first person who used the term "molecule" to
describe aggregation of atoms.Gassendi's modified theory of atoms was popularized in France
by the physician François Bernier (1620–1688) and in England by the natural philosopher Walter
Charleton (1619–1707). The chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) and the physicist Isaac Newton
(1642–1727) both defended atomism and, by the end of the 17th century, the idea of an
atomistic foundation of nature had become accepted by portions of the scientific community.

The Impact of the atomic theory

John Dalton proposes his atomic theory and lays the foundation of modern chemistry

OVERVIEW

As the nineteenth century dawned a significant problem that remained in the chemical sciences
was the ultimate nature of matter. Was matter continuous and therefore had no finer structure
or was it discontinuous and thus made of tiny particles? The chemical revolution due to the
work of Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) and his circle that had occurred in the last two decades
of the eighteenth century had clarified the concept of what elements are, developed a
comprehensive and consistent vocabulary of chemistry, and led to the introduction of
quantitative methods in chemical investigations. However, to fully understand the nature of
chemical reactions one needed to have a way to visualize how the elements combined together.
The atomic theory of matter as proposed by John Dalton in his New System of Chemical
Philosophy (Part I,1808; Part II,1810) was the first successful attempt to solve this problem.

Background

The concept that matter may ultimately be composed of particles originated in Greek natural
philosophy. In the fifth century b.c. Democritus (c. 460-370 b.c.) proposed that matter was
composed of individual indestructible particles (called "atoms" in Greek for "uncuttable") and
that the size and shape of these particles were responsible for the properties of matter. The
atomic theory of the Greek philosophers lacked any evidence based upon observation,
measurements, and testing by experiment. These ideas, though interesting, could not be
considered a scientific theory.

The atomic concept was rejected by most Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle (384-322
b.c.), because of the paradox that these atoms had no sensible properties—yet they had to be
responsible for all the properties of matter that one could sense, such as an object being hot.
The concept of atoms would also mean that there were possibly an infinite number of primary
substances in nature. This was in direct conflict with the idea of the four elements—earth, air,
fire, and water—being the primary building blocks of everything on Earth. A further problem was
that if matter was particulate, then there would be spaces or voids between matter, which would
make motion impossible. Finally, if matter was made up of atoms, then a purely mechanical
explanation of human actions and behavior would be possible. By the Middle Ages such an
explanation was rejected because it introduced the possibility that human actions were not set
in motion by a divine being. A revival of atomism would have to wait until the rise of
experimental science in the seventeenth century.

Robert Boyle (1627-1691) in his Skeptical Chemist (1661) proposed that all matter is composed
of solid particles that can be rearranged to form new substances. What differentiated these
different types matter was their size, shape, and structural pattern. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) in
his Opticks (1704) also proposed a particulate view of matter, and he further proposed that
there were strong short range forces that existed between these particles that could be of an
attractive or repulsive nature. This was used by him to explain why some chemical reactions
occurred and others did not. As was the case with the Greeks, Boyle, Newton, and others had no
evidence to back up their claims. However, their view that matter is particulate signaled an
increasing consensus among scientists of the era—a consensus that would make the theory
proposed by Dalton much more readily acceptable.

John Dalton (1766-1844) was a most unlikely person to develop the atomic theory. Born into a
devout Quaker family in a rural area of northwest England, he was drawn early in life to an
interest in the natural sciences. His formal education was spotty and he was basically self-
taught. He was for a time the equivalent of a high school teacher in Manchester, England. He
quit classroom teaching in 1800 to provide private instruction in the sciences and mathematics
in Manchester, which he did for the balance of his life.

The impetus for the development of the atomic theory was Dalton's life-long interest in
meteorology and the study of gases. This interest had developed from his association in his
youth with a fellow Quaker, John Gough, who provided Dalton with most of his formal education
in the sciences and mathematics.

Dalton developed his atomic theory as a way of trying to answer certain questions about the
atmosphere. In the eighteenth century it was shown that the atmosphere was a mixture of
gases rather then a single substance. The identities of many of these gases had only had been
recently established. Dalton wondered if the atmosphere was a simple mixture of gases such as
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor, or perhaps if there was some type of
chemical reaction that occurred between these gases. Since the atmosphere appeared to be a
homogenous mixture of gases, the consensus view at the end of the eighteenth century was
that the various components were chemically combined and dissolved in the water vapor.
Further evidence for this view was that if the atmosphere was a simple (i.e. physical) mixture of
components, then one would expect that the various gases would settle out according to their
weights, with the heaviest closest to the surface and the lightest on top. Since this is not what
was found, it seemed logical that air was a chemical compound.

Dalton believed that the atmosphere was a physical mixture based upon his belief that water
vapor could not be combined chemically with the gases in the air. Dalton viewed matter as
composed of spherical particles and believed that these particles or atoms contained a shield
of heat around them. This was essential for Dalton to explain why unlike particles tended to
repel each other and thus produce a physical mixture of gases in the atmosphere. The idea of
the shell of heat, or "caloric" as it was called, was incorporated from Lavoisier's model of the
gaseous state and the belief that heat was a material element. Dalton used the term atoms for
these particles in order to show that the original concept had originated in Greek natural
philosophy.

Each atom in nature had its own size, which was a function of the volume and the radius of its
shell of heat. Dalton formulated these ideas between 1801 and 1803, but evidence was lacking.
This was supplied by a close friend of Dalton in Manchester, William Henry (1774-1836). Henry
found that if you kept the temperature of a liquid such as water constant, the amount of a non-
reactive gas that could be dissolved in it would increase as you increased the pressure place
upon it. This led Dalton in 1803 to suspect that it was the weight of the particles of the gases
that was the key determining factor. He measured the relative weights of various gases from
their composition and presented his first table of relative atomic weights for a variety of gases
and other substances.

Up to this point Dalton had shown little interest in chemistry, but by 1804 he realized that if
atoms were considered to be the ultimate particle in nature and that each atom had its own
particular weight, this could explain observations that had been made concerning the
composition of compounds. As methods for the analysis of compounds had been refined, it
was found that a compound always had the same composition—no matter if it was obtained
from natural sources or made synthetically. Thus, if one analyzed rain water against water made
by combining hydrogen and oxygen together in a laboratory, one would find that there would be
11.2% hydrogen and 88.8% oxygen in each case. This became known as the law of definite
proportions, and it was the atomic theory that showed why this was so. If hydrogen and oxygen
combine in a 1:1 ratio, then an atom of oxygen must be eight times heavier than an atom of
hydrogen in order to get the constant composition of water.

IMPACT

The ability of Dalton's atomic theory to explain the law of definite proportions was only the
beginning of its impact on the field of chemistry. Another chemical problem that Dalton was
able to solve using the atomic theory was the observation that a particular element such as
nitrogen, for example, could combine with oxygen and form a series of unique compounds
containing nitrogen and oxygen. Analysis of these compounds showed that there was a regular
relationship between the amount of nitrogen that combined with oxygen. Thus, if you have a
fixed amount of nitrogen, the amount of oxygen combined would stand in a series of whole
numbers—i.e. 1:1,1:2,1:3, and so on. This came to be known as the law of multiple proportions
and was a puzzle until Dalton. He was able to explain multiple proportions by assuming that an
atom of nitrogen could react with one, two, or more atoms of oxygen to form a series of
compounds.

In general, the impact of the atomic theory can be summarized as follows:

1) The definition of an element as being made of atoms, and the idea that each atom has its
own unique properties, led at last to a clear understanding of what an element is.

2) Since there were no limits on the number of different atoms possible in nature, then it
seemed perfectly reasonable that there were elements that had not yet been discovered. This
led to the search for new elements, a search that occupied many chemists during the
nineteenth century and that led to the discovery of numerous elements.

3) Since elements are made of atoms and many different elements seem to have similar
chemical properties, this raised the question of why certain groups of elements were similar in
nature while others differed greatly. This contributed to the development of schemes to classify
elements, an effort that culminated in Dmitri Mendeleyev's (1834-1907) first periodic table of
the elements in 1869.

DEMOCRITUS RESEARCH

DEMOCRITUS (c.460–c.370 B.C.)

Democritus was a Greek philosopher born in Abdera in the north of Greece. Democritus was a
student of Leucippus, who proposed the atomic theory of matter. There is little documentation
on the philosophy of Leucippus; however, it was Democritus, who elaborated extensive works
on his theories on the atomic structure of the physical world, of the universe, and the void of
space. Although Democritus was a philosopher, he is included here among the list of great
pioneers of physics and chemistry of the 19th and 20th centuries, because many of his
teachings on the structure of matter were demonstrated finally by scientists over 2000 years
after his death.

Democritus taught the theory of atomism, which held the belief that indivisible and
indestructible atoms are the basic components of all matter in the universe. Thus the word
atom is derived from the Greek atomos meaning indivisible. It was not until 20 centuries after
Democritus did Rutherford, Bohr, Soddy, and others demonstrate the atom to be the smallest
unit of an element consisting of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons equal to
the number of protons in the nucleus. Modern science has demonstrated that atoms remain
undivided in matter (in accord with the early philosophical teachings of Democritus) or in
chemical reactions with the exception of a limited removal, exchange, or transfer of electrons.
The atom is also the basic unit of elements and is the source of nuclear energy. The postage
stamp illustrated here was issued by Greece in 1961 to commemorate Democritus' teachings of
atomism and the development of peaceful applications of atomic energy in the world.

Democritus was not alone in the teaching of atomism, but his writings on this philosophy were
most extensive. He held that atoms were the tiniest of particles, too small to be perceived by
the senses, of which all matter was composed, and that the atoms differed in size, shape, and
mass. He also argued that atoms were in constant motion and could coalesce to form the larger
bodies of matter that we can see, feel, and taste. The properties of matter that we can perceive
with the senses such as color, taste, and hardness were the result of the interactions of atoms
that constituted a given substance and the interactions of atoms with our body. For example,
the taste of a substance would be the result of the interactions of atoms with the atoms of our
tongue. Democritus also held to the belief of the existence of the “void” or empty space to
which atoms or matter can move into. He argued that the lights of the Milky Way were the lights
of distant stars, and that there existed other worlds, some with suns and moons, and others
without. Likewise there would be other worlds with animal life, plants, and water and others
without.

Much of Democritus' philosophy of atomism was demonstrated by modern science to be true.

In honor of Democritus the national institution dedicated to research on peaceful applications of
atomic energy for development in Greece is named the Democritus Nuclear Research Center.
For additional reading on one of the greatest philosopher–scientists from antiquity see Taylor's
book The Atomists (1999).

Democritus, (born c. 460 BCE—died c. 370), ancient Greek philosopher, a central figure in the
development of philosophical atomism and of the atomic theory of the universe

Knowledge of Democritus’s life is largely limited to untrustworthy tradition. It seems that he was
a wealthy citizen of Abdera, in Thrace; that he traveled widely in the East; and that he lived to an
advanced age. According to Diogenes Laërtius (flourished 3rd century CE), his works numbered
73; only a few hundred fragments have survived, mostly from his treatises on ethics.

Agathon (centre) greeting guests in Plato's Symposium, oil on canvas by Anselm Feuerbach,
1869; in the Staatliche Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe, Germany.

Britannica Quiz

Philosophy 101

Democritus’s physical and cosmological doctrines were an elaborated and systematized

version of those of his teacher, Leucippus. To account for the world’s changing physical
phenomena, Democritus asserted that space, or the Void, had an equal right with reality, or
Being, to be considered existent. He conceived of the Void as a vacuum, an infinite space in
which moved an infinite number of atoms that made up Being (i.e., the physical world).

These atoms are eternal and indivisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be
diminished (hence the name atomon, or “indivisible”); absolutely full and incompressible, as they
are without pores and entirely fill the space they occupy; and homogeneous, differing only in
shape, arrangement, position, and magnitude. But, while atoms thus differ in quantity,
differences of quality are only apparent, owing to the impressions caused on the senses by
different configurations and combinations of atoms. A thing is hot or cold, sweet or bitter, or
hard or soft only by convention; the only things that exist in reality are atoms and the Void. Thus,
the atoms of water and iron are the same, but those of water, being smooth and round and
therefore unable to hook onto one another, roll over and over like small globes, whereas those
of iron, being rough, jagged, and uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Because all
phenomena are composed of the same eternal atoms, it may be said that nothing comes into
being or perishes in the absolute sense of the words, although the compounds made out of the
atoms are liable to increase and decrease, explaining a thing’s appearance and disappearance,
or “birth” and “death.”

Rosa, Salvator: Democritus in Meditation

Just as the atoms are uncaused and eternal, so too, according to Democritus, is motion.
Democritus posited the fixed and “necessary” laws of a purely mechanical system, in which
there was no room for an intelligent cause working toward an end. He explained the origin of the
universe as follows. The original motion of the atoms was in all directions—it was a sort of
“vibration”; hence there resulted collisions and, in particular, a whirling movement, whereby
similar atoms were brought together and united to form larger bodies and worlds. This
happened not as the result of any purpose or design but rather merely as the result of
“necessity”; i.e., it is the normal manifestation of the nature of the atoms themselves. Atoms
and void being infinite in number and extent, and motion having always existed, there must
always have been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar atoms in various stages
of growth and decay.

Democritus devoted considerable attention to perception and knowledge. He asserted, for

example, that sensations are changes produced in the soul by atoms emitted from other objects
that impinge on it; the atoms of the soul can be affected only by the contact of other atoms.
Butsensations such as sweet and bitter are not as such inherent in the emitted atoms, for they
result from effects caused merely by the size and shape of the atoms; e.g., sweet taste is due to
round and not excessively small atoms. Democritus also was the first to attempt to explain
colour, which he thought was due to the “position” (which he differentiated from shape) of the
constituent atoms of compounds. The sensation of white, for instance, is caused by atoms that
are smooth and flat so as to cast no shadow; the sensation of black is caused by rough, uneven
atoms.

Democritus attributed popular belief in the gods to a desire to explain extraordinary phenomena
(thunder, lightning, earthquakes) by reference to superhuman agency. His ethical system,
founded on a practical basis, posited an ultimate good (“cheerfulness”) that was “a state in
which the soul lives peacefully and tranquilly, undisturbed by fear or superstition or any other
feeling.”
 DEMOCRITUS AND DALTON CONTRIBUTIONS TO ATOMIC THEORY

Democritus first suggested the existence of the atom but it took almost two millennia
before the atom was placed on a solid foothold as a fundamental chemical object by John
Dalton (1766-1844). Although two centuries old, Dalton's atomic theory remains valid in modern
chemical thought.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.

2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties

3) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms.

4) A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.

Modern atomic theory is, of course, a little more involved than Dalton's theory but the essence
of Dalton's theory remains valid. Today we know that atoms can be destroyed via nuclear
reactions but not by chemical reactions. Also, there are different kinds of atoms (differing by
their masses) within an element that are known as "isotopes", but isotopes of an element have
the same chemical properties.

Many heretofore unexplained chemical phenomena were quickly explained by Dalton with his
theory. Dalton's theory quickly became the theoretical foundation in chemistry.

SCHRODINGER 'S ATOMIC MODEL (1926 AD)

Temas: Nobel Prize | Science

It is known as the "Quantum-Wave Model" and was proposed by Erwin Schrödinger, in 1926,
based on the studies of De Broglie, Bohr and Sommerfeld.

His model conceives of electrons as undulations of matter, that is, it describes the wave
behavior of the electron.

Schrödinger suggested that the movement of electrons in the atom corresponded to wave-
particle duality, and consequently electrons could move around the nucleus as standing waves.

This allowed the later formulation of a probabilistic interpretation of the wave function
(magnitude used to describe the probability of finding a particle in space) by Max Born and
meant that the position of an electron or its path could be studied probabilistically. momentum
but not both, due to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

Schrödinger was awarded the Nobel Prize, in 1933, for his contributions to atomic theory, the
development of the equation to calculate the probability that an electron is in a specific position.

Therefore, the characteristics of your model are:

Describe the movement of electrons as standing waves.

Electrons are constantly moving, that is, they do not have a fixed or defined position within the
atom.

It does not predict the location of the electron, nor does it describe the path it takes within the
atom. It only establishes a probability zone to locate the electron.

These probability areas are called atomic orbitals. Orbitals describe a translation movement
around the nucleus of the atom.

These atomic orbitals have different energy levels and sub-levels, and can be defined between
electron clouds.

The model does not contemplate the stability of the nucleus, it only refers to explaining the
quantum mechanics associated with the movement of electrons within the atom.
In the image you can see the electron density that indicates the probability of finding an electron
near the nucleus. The closer it is to the nucleus (purple zone) the more probability there will be,
while it will be less if it is further away from the nucleus (purple zone).

Schrodinger's equation

Schrödinger developed two mathematical models, differentiating what happens depending on

whether the quantum state changes with time or not and, at the end of 1926, published the time-
independent equation that bears his name, which is based on the fact that wave functions
behave like standing waves.

This implies that the wave does not move, its nodes, that is, its equilibrium points, serve as a
pivot for the rest of the structure to move around them, describing a determined frequency and
amplitude.

Schrödinger defined the waves described by electrons as stationary or orbital states, and they
are associated, in turn, with different energy levels.

The time-independent Schrödinger equation is as follows:

Ecuación de Schrödinger

Where:

E: constant of proportionality.

Ψ: wave function of the quantum system.

Η̂ : Hamiltonian operator.
Applied to the Schrödinger atomic model, if the electron moves in a defined space, there are
discrete energy values, and if the electron moves freely in space, there are continuous energy
intervals.

From the mathematical point of view, there are several solutions for the Schrödinger equation,
each solution implies a different value for the constant of proportionality E.

Applying the postulates of the Schrödinger atomic model to this equation, we have:

Electrons behave like standing waves that are distributed in space according to the wave
function Ψ.

Electrons move within the atom in describing orbitals. These are areas where the probability of
finding an electron is considerably higher. The referred probability is proportional to the square
of the wave function Ψ2.

The electronic configuration of the Schrödinguer atomic model explains the periodic properties
of atoms and the bonds they form.

However, Schrödinger's atomic model does not take into account the spin of electrons, nor does
it take into account variations in the behavior of fast electrons due to relativistic effects.

SCHRODINGER'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE ATOMIC MODEL

Schrödinger’s Contribution to the Current Model of the Atom

Schrödinger used de Broglie’s matter wave theory to develop a probabilistic model of the atom.

In Schrödinger's model, electrons do not follow sharply defined orbits (like in Bohr's model), but
rather are found in orbitals. In addition, Schrödinger's atomic model is based on the quantum
mechanical and wave nature of electrons, both of which are described in equations called wave
functions.

Orbitals are regions in which an electrons can be found. Inside an orbital, the probability of
finding an electron is described by mathematical equations proposed by Schrödinger.

Unlike orbits, orbitals are visual models of the probability density of electrons in an atom. While
'orbits' and 'orbitals' seem to share similarities, they are very different concepts.

Different types of orbitals have different shapes and therefore electron density patterns.

Quantum Numbers

Quantum numbers describe the quantum state of an electron. There are four quantum numbers,
each providing information on a different aspect of an electron's quantum state.

Principal quantum number (n) determines the size and energy of orbital an electron resides in.
The energy of an orbital increases the further it is from the nucleus.

For example, the energy and size of s orbitals increase as the principal quantum number
increases. 2s orbital has greater energy and is further from the nucleus than 1s orbital.

Orbitals of various energies are separated by nodes where electrons are forbidden. This
feature of the model is consistent with the quantum mechanical nature of electrons as they
must belong to orbitals of specific energiesThe square of an electron's wave function provides
an equation describing its probability density for a given orbital. When the square of the wave
function is plotted against the distance from the nucleus, it gives rise to the graph above.

Angular quantum number determines the shape of the orbital an electron is found in. Orbitals of
different shapes are denoted by different letters: s, p, d and f.

Magnetic quantum number determines the orientation of each orbital in three dimensional
space. For example, the p orbital can be orientated in three ways (shown above).

Spin quantum number determines whether an electron has a up or down spin. Electrons in each
specific orbital must have opposing spins.

Pauli's Exclusion Principle

Pauli's exclusion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can share the same set of
four quantum numbers. In other words, an electron must have its own unique combination of
quantum numbers

Erwin Schrödinger

Quantum Numbers (Erwin Schrödinger)

A powerful model of the atom was developed by Erwin Schrödinger in 1926. Schrödinger
combined the equations for the behavior of waves with the de Broglie equation to generate a
mathematical model for the distribution of electrons in an atom. The advantage of this model is
that it consists of mathematical equations known as wave functions that satisfy the
requirements placed on the behavior of electrons. The disadvantage is that it is difficult to
imagine a physical model of electrons as waves.

The Schrödinger model assumes that the electron is a wave and tries to describe the regions in
space, or orbitals, where electrons are most likely to be found. Instead of trying to tell us where
the electron is at any time, the Schrödinger model describes the probability that an electron can
be found in a given region of space at a given time. This model no longer tells us where the
electron is; it only tells us where it might be.

The Bohr model was a one-dimensional model that used one quantum number to describe the
distribution of electrons in the atom. The only information that was important was the size of
the orbit, which was described by the n quantum number. Schrödinger's model allowed the
electron to occupy three-dimensional space. It therefore required three coordinates, or three
quantum numbers, to describe the orbitals in which electrons can be found.

The three coordinates that come from Schrödinger's wave equations are the principal (n),
angular (l), and magnetic (m) quantum numbers. These quantum numbers describe the size,
shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom.