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HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
Edited by Teresa Donateo
HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLES

Edited by Teresa Donateo

Hybrid Electric Vehicles
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66000
Edited by Teresa Donateo

Contributors
Wei Wu, Julius Partridge, Richard Bucknall, Muhammad Aziz, Nicolae Florin Jurca, Mircea Ruba, Enhua Wang, Fuyuan
Yang, Minggao Ouyang, Aurelio Soma', Yannis L Karnavas, Ioannis Chasiotis

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Contents

Preface VII

Section 1 Applications 1

Chapter 1 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working

Vehicles 3
Aurelio Somà

Chapter 2 Development of Bus Drive Technology towards Zero Emissions:

A Review 33
Julius Partridge, Wei Wu and Richard Bucknall

Section 2 Technologies 61

Chapter 3 Advanced Charging System for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

and Battery Electric Vehicles 63
Muhammad Aziz

Chapter 4 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split

Hybrid Powertrain 83
Enhua Wang, Fuyuan Yang and Minggao Ouyang

Chapter 5 Performance Analysis of an Integrated Starter-Alternator-

Booster for Hybrid Electric Vehicles 105
Florin-Nicolae Jurca and Mircea Ruba

Chapter 6 Design, Optimization and Modelling of High Power Density

Direct-Drive Wheel Motor for Light Hybrid Electric
Vehicles 125
Ioannis D. Chasiotis and Yannis L. Karnavas
Preface

Hybrid electric vehicles are a mature technology for road applications and of increasing in‐
terest in other fields including aircraft. They rely on the use of two different forms of energy
storage (a fuel and a battery) and try to optimize the energy flows between the correspond‐
ing energy converters (electric machines and thermal engines). Several studies in literature
have pointed out the advantages of HEVs versus conventional vehicles in terms of fuel
economy and environmental impact. They are mainly due to the flexibility in the choice of
engine operating point that allows the engine to be run in its high efficiency region and to be
downsized, so obtaining a higher average efficiency. Moreover, the engine can be turned off
when the vehicle is arrested (e.g., at traffic lights) or the power request is very low (reduc‐
tion of the idle losses). Compared with battery electric vehicles (BEVs), they have longer
driving ranges with smaller (and lighter) batteries and the same possibility of grid recharg‐
ing in the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). BEVs, HEVs, and PHEVs have
also the capability of partially recovering energy from brakes by inverting the energy flow
from batteries to wheels through the electric machine.
This book on hybrid electric vehicles brings out six chapters on some of the research activi‐
ties through the wide range of current issues on hybrid electric vehicles: choice of the best
architecture, performance of converters and storage systems, energy management strategies,
effect of specific driving conditions, power electronics, etc. Actually, these aspects can be
hardly separated; in fact, they must be addressed together in order to fully exploit the po‐
tentiality of HEVs. Nevertheless, the contributions to this book have been separated in two
sections. The first section deals with two interesting applications of HEVs, namely, urban
buses and heavy duty working machines. The second one groups papers related to the opti‐
mization of the electricity flows in a hybrid electric vehicle, starting from the optimization of
recharge in PHEVs through advance storage systems, new motor technologies, and integrat‐
ed starter-alternator technologies.
A comprehensive analysis of the technologies used in HEVs is beyond the aim of the book.
However, the content of this volume can be useful to scientists and students to broaden their
knowledge of technologies and application of hybrid electric vehicles.
I would like to thank InTech Publisher for inviting me to be the editor of this volume, Ms.
Martina Usljebrka, and the whole Publishing Process Staff for their help in coordinating the
reviews, editing, and printing of the book.

Teresa Donateo
Associate Professor of Fluid Machinery, Energy Systems, and Power Generation
Università del Salento, Italy
 Section 1

Applications
 Chapter 1

Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty

Working Vehicles

Aurelio Somà

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68296

Abstract
Reducing the environmental impact of ground vehicles is one of the most important
issues in modern society. Construction and agricultural vehicles contribute to pollution
due to their huge power trains, which consume a large amount of petrol and produce
many exhaust emissions. In this study, several recently proposed hybrid electric archi-
tectures of heavy-duty working vehicles are presented and described. Producers have
recently shown considerable attention to similar research, which, however, are still at
the initial stages of development. In addition, despite having some similarities with the
automotive field, the working machine sector has technical features that require specific
studies and the development of specific solutions. In this work, the advantages and dis-
advantages of hybrid electric solutions are pointed out, focusing on the greater electro-
mechanical complexity of the machines and their components. A specific hybridization
factor for working vehicles is introduced, taking into account both the driving and the
loading requirements in order to classify and compare the different hybrid solutions.

Keywords: hybrid, electric driveline, working vehicle, hybridization factor

1. Introduction

Over the past decades, the efficiency of vehicles has become a highly discussed topic due to
pollution regulation requirements. Modern internal combustion engines (ICEs) have already
reached remarkable performances compared with the engines of the early 1990s. However,
they are still unable to consistently reverse the growth trend in pollutant emissions because
the number of vehicles is also constantly increasing [1, 2]. The European Union first intro-
duced mandatory CO2 standards for new passenger cars in 2009 [3] and set a 2020-onward
target average emission of 95 g CO2/km for new car fleets. The automotive industry devotes

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
4 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

considerable research efforts toward reducing emissions and fossil fuel dependency without
sacrificing vehicle performance. Recently, manufacturers developed technologies to reduce
the NOx and particulate emissions of diesel engines, such as selective catalytic reduction and
diesel oxidation catalyst [4, 5]. Moreover, common rail fuel injection has led to higher-effi-
ciency diesel engines [6, 7]. Partial substitution of fossil diesel fuel with biodiesel is an appeal-
ing option to reduce CO2 emissions [8, 9]. In the Brazilian transportation sector, the addition
of biodiesel to fossil diesel fuel has been increasing since 2012 [10].
Heavy-duty construction and agricultural vehicles also have an environmental impact. In
Agricultural Industry Advanced Vehicle Technology: Benchmark Study for Reduction in Petroleum
Use [11], the current trends in increasing diesel efficiency in the farm sector are explored.
Figure 1 shows the diesel demand in the United States, highlighting that in the agricultural
and construction machinery field, the demand has remained relatively constant since 1985,
representing a significant portion of the total fuel consumption. Similarly to the automotive
sector, considerable efforts have been dedicated in recent years toward reducing the energy
consumption of construction and agricultural machines without compromising their func-
tionality and performance, taking into account the restrictions imposed by the recent emission
regulations [12, 13]. Engine calibrations have been optimized to reduce exhaust pollutants
in accordance with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency emissions tiers. This was

Figure 1. Historical diesel consumption in the United States. “Farm” includes agricultural diesel use; “off-highway”
includes forestry, construction, and industrial use [11].
 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles 5
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accomplished through several means, including in-cylinder combustion optimization and

exhaust gas recirculation, without exhaust after-treatment systems for Tiers 1–3. With the
addition of exhaust after-treatment systems for the Tier 4 interim stage, some engines require
diesel exhaust fluid to catalyze pollutants in the system (e.g., urea). Some manufacturers
claim as much as 5% greater fuel efficiency for their Tier 4 interim engines compared with
Tier 3 models [14]; however, these entail increasing complexity, dimensions, and maintenance
costs. Although most construction and agricultural vehicles include a driving mode tractor as
a primary power unit, most modern models provide power for implementing a power takeoff
(PTO) shaft and/or fluid power hydraulics. Moreover, working machine engines can stay idle
for a notable amount of time [15]. Advanced engine controls are being introduced to reduce
fuel consumption by lowering engine idle speeds and even shutting off the engine during
extended idle periods. Examples of these strategies are found in existing patent applications,
which indicate intentions of further development of these strategies [16]. Hybrid electric pro-
pulsion systems allow the combustion engine to operate at maximum efficiency and ensure
both a considerable reduction of pollutant emissions and an appreciable decrease in energy
consumption. Over the last few years, many configurations of hybrid propulsion systems
have been proposed, some of which are also very complex. The fuel efficiency in this operat-
ing mode is greater than in a conventional machine for the following reasons:

• the fuel and energy consumption is limited only to the vehicle work time;
• the electronic control selects the engine speed to minimize fuel consumption depending on
the state of charge of the batteries and the vehicle power demand;
• the power transmission from the electric motor to the gearbox ensures greater energy sav-
ings compared with hydraulic power transmission;

• the electric motor acts as a power unit to charge the batteries, while the vehicle is slowing
down/stopping.

The automotive field has the largest number of studies, published patents, and proposals for
hybrid and electric vehicles. Recently, intensive research has been carried out to find solutions
that will enable the gradual replacement of the conventional engine with a highly integrated
hybrid system. In the construction and agricultural working machines field, the number of
concepts is limited and sporadic, and only recently has the market shown great attention to
these studies. Thus, hybrid architectures allow the development of work machines character-
ized by high versatility and new features. Such machines can be used both indoors and out-
doors because they can operate in both full electric and hybrid modes. The advantages to end
users are reduction of running cost due to greater fuel efficiency and use of electric energy,
and better work conditions due to low noise emissions.

From a system engineering point of view, the different solutions are described by introducing
a specific hybridization factor suitable for work vehicles that include two main functionalities:
driving and loading. The high-voltage electrification of work vehicles is also currently under
development [17, 18]. According to Ponomarev et al. [19], in order to be competitive, manufac-
turers should offer energy-efficient and reliable hybrid vehicles to their customers. Compared
with automobiles, the introduction of electric drives in work vehicles would allow expanded
6 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

functionalities because these machines have a large variety of functional drives [20]. The first
part of this report gives an overview of the components of the electrification solution and
hybrid/electric architectures, discussing the advantages related to the different solutions. The
machines are then schematically described and compared, showing the hybrid architectures
of the proposed solutions. Finally, the introduction of a specific hybridization factor is pro-
posed as a first classification of the main hybrid work vehicles [21, 22].

2. HEV power train configurations

The SAE defines a hybrid vehicle as a system with two or more energy storage devices, which
must provide propulsion power either together or independently [23]. Moreover, an HEV
is defined as a road vehicle that can draw propulsion energy from the following sources of
stored energy: a conventional fuel system and a rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)
that can be recharged by an electric machine (which can work as a generator), an external
electric energy source, or both. The expression “conventional fuel” in the SAE definition con-
strains the term HEV to vehicles with a spark-ignition or a compression-ignition engine as
the primary energy source. However, the United Nations definition of HEV [24] mentions
consumable instead of conventional fuel. On this basis, the primary energy source in an HEV
is not necessarily the engine hydrocarbon fuel, or biofuels but can also be the hydrogen fuel
cell. The term electric-drive vehicle (EDV) is used in Ref. [25] to define any vehicle in which
wheels are driven by an electric motor powered either by a RESS alone or by a RESS in combi-
nation with an engine or a fuel cell. Some types of EDV belong to the subset of plug-in electric
vehicles (PEVs) [25, 26].

Compared with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, HEVs include more elec-
trical components, such as electric machines, power electronics, electronic continuously vari-
able transmissions, and advanced energy storage devices [27]. The number of possible hybrid
topologies is very large, considering the combinations of electric machines, gearboxes, and
clutches, among others. The two main solutions, series and parallel hybrid, can be combined
to obtain more complex and optimized architectures. There is no standard solution for the
optimal size ratio of the internal combustion engine and the electric system, and the best
choice includes complex trade-offs between the power as well as between cost and perfor-
mance [28]. The power train configuration of an HEV can be divided into three types: series,
parallel, and a combination of the two [29].

2.1. Series hybrid electric vehicles

Series hybrid electric vehicles (SHEVs) involve an internal combustion engine (ICE), genera-
tor, battery packs, capacitors and electric motors as shown in Figure 2 [30–32]. SHEVs have no
mechanical connections between the ICE and the wheels. The ICE is turned off when the bat-
tery packs feed the system in urban driving. A significant amount of energy is supplied from
the regenerative braking. Therefore, the engine operates at its maximum efficiency point,
leading to improved fuel efficiency and lesser carbon emission compared with other vehicle
 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles 7
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Figure 2. Schematic of series hybrid electric vehicles (SHEV).

configurations [33]. The series hybrid configuration is mostly used in heavy vehicles, military
vehicles, and buses [34]. An advantage of this topology is that the ICE can be turned off when
the vehicle is driving in a zero-emission zone. Moreover, the ICE and the electric machine
are not mechanically coupled; thus, they can be mounted in different positions on the vehicle
layout drive system [35].

2.2. Parallel hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV)

In a PHEV, mechanical and electrical powers are both connected to the driveline, as shown in
Figure 3. In the case of parallel architectures, good performance during acceleration is possible
because of the combined power from both engines [35]. Different control strategies are used

Figure 3. Schematic of parallel hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).

in a preferred approach. If the power required by the transmission is higher than the output
power of the ICE, the electric motor is turned on so that both engines can supply power to the
transmission. If the power required by the transmission is less than the output power of the
ICE, the remaining power is used to charge the battery packs [36]. Moreover, mechanical and
8 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

electric power could be decoupled, and the system has a high operating flexibility enabling
three modes of operation: purely combustion; purely electric and hybrid. Usually, a PHEVs
are managed in purely electric mode at low speeds, until the battery charge state reaches a
predetermined low threshold, typically 30%.

2.3. Combination of parallel and series HEVs

In the series-parallel hybrid configuration can be highlighted two main power paths. In
mechanical power path, the energy generated by the combustion engine is directly trans-
mitted to the wheels, while the electric path the energy generated by the thermal engine is
converted first into electrical energy by means of the generator and then again converted to
mechanical energy delivered at the wheels. It is possible therefore to have mixed architectures
denominated “power splits” in which the installed power is divided by means of mechanical
couplers. Combination of parallel and series hybrid configurations is further divided into sub-
categories based on how the power is distributed [37]. PHEVs are even more suitable topolo-
gies than HEVs for reducing fuel consumption because, unlike HEVs, they may be charged
from external electric power sources [38]. In all the configurations, regenerative braking can be
used to charge the battery [36]. Moreover to make recharging of batteries easier, some configu-
rations are equipped with an on-board charger and defined Plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) [39].

3. Sub-system components of hybrid vehicles

3.1. Electric motors

The energy efficiency of a vehicle power train depends on, among other features, the size of
its components. The optimization problem of sizing the electric motor, engine, and battery
pack must consider both performance and cost specifications [40, 41]. Among electric motors,
although the permanent magnet synchronous motor is considered as the benchmark, other
types of motors are being explored for use in HEVs. Currently, there is some concern on the
supply and cost of rare-earth permanent magnets.
Considerable research efforts have been made to find alternative electric motor solutions with
the lowest possible use of these materials [42, 43]. For instance, some automotive applications
use induction motors or switched reluctance motors [34]. Figure 4 shows the most conceiv-
able electric motor scenario in forthcoming years. Compared with hydraulics, electric drives
provide better controllability and dynamic response and require less maintenance. Similarly
to electric power, hydraulic power can be distributed quite easily on the implement; however,
hydraulics suffers from poor efficiency in part-load operating conditions [44]. The specific
electric drives for agricultural tractors are listed in Refs. [45, 46].

3.2. Continuous variable transmission (CVT)

Working vehicles drive at low speed, and the energy consumed in accelerating and climb-
ing slopes should be partially recovered at decelerating and descending slopes. Compared
with urban and on-road vehicles, construction and agricultural are used in a lower range of
 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles 9
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68296

Figure 4. Types of electric motors for HEV applications.

velocity. Rolling requirements in construction and agricultural machines are related to the
resistance due to tire deformation combined with resistance due to soil deformation [47, 48].
In the case of work vehicles, continuous variable transmission CVT could be used to determine
the energy flow that reaches the transmission from each energy source (engine, generator, and
motor battery) [49].

3.3. Energy storage devices

The energy efficiency of construction machinery is generally relatively low, and kinetic or
potential energy is lost during operation [50]. Currently, batteries [51], super-capacitors,
hydraulic accumulators, and flywheels are mainly used as energy storage devices in hybrid
construction and agricultural machinery (HCAM), as schematically described in Figure 5.

3.3.1. Batteries

Batteries are the most studied energy storage and are divided into three types: Li-ion [52],
nickel-metal hydride [53, 54], and lead-acid [55]. Li-ion batteries are considered as a highly
prospective technology for vehicle applications [56, 57] because of their larger storage capac-
ity, wide operating temperature range, better material availability, lesser environmental
impact, safety [58–60]. However, despite having the highest energy density, Li-ion batter-
ies a shorter lifetime, higher vulnerability to environmental temperature, and higher cost
compared with other energy storage devices. A comprehensive review examined the elec-
trochemical basis for the deterioration of batteries used in HEV applications and carried out
tests on xEVs, automotive cells, and battery packs [61, 62] regarding their specific energy,
efficiency, self-discharge, charge-discharge cycles, and cost. The results indicated that Li-ion
is currently the best battery solution, surpassing the other technologies in all parameters
except charge speed, in which Pb-acid batteries showed a better performance. Over the last
years, graphene and its applications have become an important factor in improving the per-
formance of batteries [63].
10 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 5. Energy storage for hybrid construction and agricultural machinery.

3.3.2. Supercapacitors

An alternative energy storage device for hybrid power trains could be super-capacitors, which
are designed to achieve fast-charging devices of intermediate specific energy [64]. A super-
capacitor [65, 66] has the advantage of a fast charge-discharge capacity, allowing a higher
regenerative braking energy and supplying power for larger acceleration [67] and can be clas-
sified as a double-layer capacitor or a pseudo-capacitor according to the charge storage mode.
However, the main drawback of a super-capacitor is that it has low energy density, which
leads to a limited energy capacity.

3.3.3. Hydraulic accumulator

The hydraulic storage approach converts the recoverable energy into hydraulic form inside
an accumulator and then releases it by using secondary components or auxiliary cylinders
[68–70]. Compared with an electric hybrid system composed of a battery or super-capacitor,
a hydraulic accumulator device has an advantage in power density over an electric system.
Moreover, hydraulic accumulator energy recovery systems are ideal for cases of frequent and
short start-stop cycles [71, 72]. However, the application of such systems in work vehicles
still presents several defects: The impact of the limited energy density is a design trade-off
between the energy storage capacity and volume or weight [73].

3.3.4. Flywheel energy storage system

The flywheel energy storage system (FESS) has improved considerably in recent years because
of the development of lightweight carbon fiber materials. This system has become one of the
most common mechanical energy storage systems for hybrid vehicles [74, 75]. When in charge
 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles 11
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mode, the electric motor drives the flywheel to rotate and store a large amount of kinetic
energy (mechanical energy); when in discharge mode, the flywheel drives the generator, con-
verting kinetic energy into electric energy [76]. The FESS has the advantages of high energy
density and high power density [77] and works best at low speeds and in frequent stop-start
work conditions. Producing this system could be cheaper than producing batteries; however,
the system has limited storage time, and a significant percentage of the stored capacity is
wasted through self-discharge [78].

4. Hybridization factor

In HEV engineering, the integration of engines, mechanical components, and electric power
trains leads to increased energy efficiency, that is, a reduction in fuel consumption and a
subsequent decrease in CO2 emissions. In the automotive industry, the basic logic of a hybrid
vehicle is to provide a new source of power that intervenes in place of the primary source
(ICE) to improve the overall performance of the system. Moreover, there are possible modes
of operation that are not provided in a conventional vehicle, such as regenerative braking and
electric mode (EV). Below are some of the main advantages of a hybrid configuration over a
vehicle equipped with a combustion engine alone.
• Electric motor can act both as an engine and as a generator, allowing a reversible flow of
power from the battery to the wheels and vice versa.
• During braking, some of the kinetic energy is recovered (regenerative braking).
• The vehicle can be used only in the electric mode (zero emission vehicle—ZEV).
• When the vehicle has to stop temporarily, the combustion engine can be switched off,
therefore ensuring considerable energy saving.
It should first be mentioned that there is actually no real classification for hybrid vehicles,
although a first orientation phase can be identified by defining a significant hybridization fac-
tor (HF) as the ratio between the power of the installed electric motor and the total amount of
power delivered by the combustion engine and electric motor on the vehicle:
P
HF = _______
em
Pem + PICE
(1)

where Pem is the electric motor drive power, and PICE is the internal combustion engine power.
In the case of conventional vehicles, the hybridization factor is clearly equal to zero, whereas
in the case of electric vehicles, the hybridization factor has a unit value. Between these val-
ues, all possible solutions can be obtained. In the automotive engineering field, the definition
of the hybridization factor has been extensively studied for several applications [49, 79, 80],
considering its effect on performance and optimization [81–83]. Furthermore, depending on
the degree of hybridization and the capacity of the hybrid propulsion system to store energy,
three different levels of hybridization are defined.
• Full hybrid is when the electric system alone is able to make the vehicle move on a stan-
dard driving cycle (0.5 < HF < 0.7).
12 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

• Mild hybrid is when the purely electric operation mode is not able to follow a full standard
driving cycle (0.25 < HF < 0.5).
• Minimal hybrid is equipped with a stop and start function, characterized by a decreasing
distance in the purely electric mode (0 < HF < 0.1).

HF = 0 is applicable to a conventional engine vehicle, whereas HF = 1 is applicable to a “pure”

electric vehicle, such as the BEV [43]. Table 1 presents the hybridization factors calculated by
using Eq. (1), taking into account the electrical driveline for automotive applications.

Compared with cars, the introduction of electric drives in tractors would allow expanded func-
tionalities, considering that agricultural machines have a large variety of functional loading and
working drives [20, 84]. The working cycle of a vehicle is strongly correlated with the application.
In the case of a car, the comparison can be carried out by evaluating the extra-urban cycle and the
urban cycle. For example, in the case of the urban cycle, the vehicle recovers energy due to fre-
quent accelerations and stops. Working machines even with repetitive movements, such as exca-
vators, are able to recover the kinetic energy of the arm. For agricultural tractors and machinery,
two tasks [85] have been identified, such as working conditions with steps at which energy recov-
ery is possible: transport and front loading. Telescopic handlers also have a similar duty cycle.
Unlike in hybrid cars, the hybrid propulsion system in heavy-duty machinery can supply power
to the driveline and loading hydraulic circuit [86]. The mechanical power supplied by the ICE
flows to recharge the battery pack, actuate the hydraulic pump, and move the driveline (Table 2).

Although there is no classification for hybrid heavy-duty machines in the literature, a first orien-
tation phase can be determined by defining a hybridization factor for a work vehicle HFWV [87].

4.1. Driveline power

Hybrid architecture in series or in parallel has, in both cases, at least one electric motor (EM1)
for moving the vehicle. In order to generalize the different configurations define (EM1), the
electric motor used for the traction of the vehicle. Therefore, according to the hybridization
factor described in the automotive field, the first term (µ1) of the hybridization factor for
heavy-duty vehicles (HFHDV) is as follows:
Pem
µ1 = _______ 1

Pem + PICE
(2)
1

Vehicle Electric motor (kW) ICE (kW) HF Eq. (1)

Toyota Prius 31 43 0.42

Toyota Prius 3 gen.

rd
50 53 0.49

Honda Insight 10 50 0.17

Honda Civic 10 63 0.07

Table 1. HF comparison among automotive vehicles [80].

 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles 13
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Hybrid architecture

Series Parallel Series-parallel

Driveline powered by ICE No Yes Yes

Driveline powered by EM Yes Yes Yes

Loading devices powered by EM No Yes Yes

Loading devices powered by EG Yes No Yes

Loading devices powered by ICE No Yes Yes

Table 2. Architectures of hybrid construction and agricultural machinery (HCAM).

4.2. Loading power

The driveline architecture in work vehicles can be electrical, hydraulic, and/or mechani-
cal. Moreover, the loading power can be hydraulic or electrohydraulic depending on the
vehicle topology architecture. Many work machines have some hydraulic actuators to be
controlled, a big difference between a passenger car and a heavy-duty vehicle. In a full
hybrid vehicle, for example, the hydraulic power for loading the bucket is supplied by the
hydraulic pump, which can be powered by the ICE or an electric motor (EM2). The second
ratio (µ2) of the hybridization factor for heavy-duty vehicles can therefore be defined as
follows:
Pem
µ2 = _______ 2

Pem + PICE
(3)
2

In the automotive industry, the power of the internal combustion engine is mainly used for
the handling of the vehicle, and other functions (such as air conditioning) may be neglected
in a first order assessment hybridization. In a work machine, the power of the internal com-
bustion engine can be used for both driving operations for loading activities. In particular, it
is observed that the power required to move loads or to carry out excavation work is of the
same order of magnitude of power required to move the vehicle. So, the design of a hybrid
working vehicle must take into account the power requirements of the working cycle with
particular reference to the types of equipment that can be connected to the arm or blade of
the machine. In the present work, in order to define a hybridization factor that allows com-
paring the many hybrid applications in the construction and agricultural machinery sector
is the hypothesis that the power can be conventionally comparable between driving and
loading is used.
According to the previous statement and combining the two ratios expressed in Eqs. (2) and
(3), the hybridization factor for heavy-duty work vehicles can be defined as follows:

H FWV = __12 (µ1 + µ2) (4)

14 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

5. Architecture review of hybrid construction and agricultural machinery

Manufacturers, governments, and researchers have been paying increasing attention to

hybrid power train technology toward decreasing the high fuel consumption rate of con-
struction machinery [17]. Hybrid wheel loaders, excavators, and telehandlers have particu-
larly shown significant progress in this regard [88, 89]. With hybrid work vehicles attracting
more attention, power train configurations, energy management strategies, and energy stor-
age devices have also been increasingly reported in the literature [73, 90–92]. Both research-
ers and manufacturers have approached studies of the hybrid power system applications,
energy regeneration systems, and architectural challenges of construction machinery quali-
tatively but not systematically and quantitatively. A first review of an electric hybrid HCM
was presented in 2010 [107]. More recently, a specific review of a wheel loader and an excava-
tor [108] was carried out, and another work in the field of high-voltage hybrid electric trac-
tors [109] was published. Hitachi successfully launched the first hybrid loader in 2003 [90],
and Komatsu developed the first commercial hybrid excavator in 2008 [93]. Komatsu devel-
oped the HB205-1 and HB215LC-1 hybrid electric excavators, which are capable of recovering
energy during the excavator slewing motion and of storing this energy in ultra-capacitors.
Earth-moving machinery manufacturers have developed some diesel-electric or even hybrid-
electric models . Johnson et al. [96] compared the emissions of a Caterpillar D7E diesel-electric
bulldozer with its conventional counterpart [95]. Over the last years, there has been increas-
ing interest in tractor and agricultural machinery electrification [96–99]. A number of trac-
tor and agricultural machinery manufacturers have developed some diesel-electric or even
hybrid-electric prototypes [20, 49, 100–102]. Recently, the Agricultural Industry Electronics
Foundation started working on a standard for compatible electric power interfacing between
agricultural tractors and implements [103], including, among others, the John Deere 7430/7530
E-Premium and 6210RE electric tractors [104] and the Belarus 3023 diesel-electric tractor [105].
Among telehandler vehicles, the TF 40.7 Hybrid telescopic handler proposed by Merlo [106].
Thus, it is necessary to study the various types of power train configurations of hybrid wheel
loaders and excavators to better understand their construction features. The power require-
ment has different working cycles depending on the applications. Many construction machin-
ery manufacturers and researchers have studied hybrid wheel loaders to effectively use the
braking energy and operate the engine within its high-efficiency range [110–113]. According
to the classification of hybrid vehicles in the automotive field, there are three main design
options for hybrid wheel loader power trains: series, parallel, and series-parallel. In the lit-
erature review, the proposed architecture is mainly described, but no attempt at classification
and comparison is made. It is not easy to find data sheets on the different vehicles because
most of them are still at the prototype level. The comparison first outlines the architectures of
the hybrid work vehicle solutions developed by the main manufacturers, as shown in Table 3.

Figure 6 shows the series hybrid configuration of a wheel loader. As in the configuration of a
hybrid vehicle, classic engine series ICE directly drives the electric generator, the electricity so
generated is used to control the electric motor connected to the driveline. The advantage of a
series hybrid wheel loader is the greater simplicity. In addition the engine ICE, being decou-
pled from the wheels, it can be used at a fixed point in the conditions of greater efficiency.
 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles 15
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68296

Model Type of vehicle Driveline Loading and working system Energy storage
Caterpillar—D7E Dozer Series Conventional None

Volvo—L220F Hybrid Wheel loader Parallel Parallel Battery

Mecalac—12MTX Hybrid Articulated loader Paralell Paralel Battery

John Deere—644K Hybrid Wheel loader Series Parallel None

Merlo—TF 40.7 Hybrid Telehandler Series Parallel Battery

Claas—6030 Hybrid Telehandler Parallel Conventional Battery

Kobelco SK200H Hybrid Excavator Conventional Series Battery/capacitors

Komatsu—HB215 LC-1 Excavator Paralel Parallel Supercapacitors

Table 3. Hybrid working vehicles and their architectures.

In the case of hybrid wheel loaders in series from the transformation of mechanical power
into electrical and drive of the electric motor can also be done with a battery pack reduced but
the generator and the electric motor need to be manufactured in terms of maximum power
demand. The presence of the battery pack can allow to better manage the power demand
peaks without the need to over-dimension the motor ICE [114, 115]. In literature, the hybrid
drive train in the series has been applied mainly in large tonnage hybrid wheel loader.

In 2009, Caterpillar came out with the first electric hybrid bulldozers. The Caterpillar D7E
model is within the range of medium dozers and replaced the traditional model D7R [94].

The company claimed an increase of productivity and a reduction in fuel consumption up to

24% over the conventional model [94]. The driveline architecture is of the series electric hybrid
type, as described in Figure 6, with the electric motors powered directly from the inverter but
having the peculiarity to be directly charged from the ICE without any accumulation system.

Figure 6. Working vehicle with series hybrid configuration.

16 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The hydraulic system has a conventional architecture. Table 4 shows the main parameters
of this work vehicle. A parallel hybrid power train configuration has two separate power
sources that can directly power the loader. The disadvantage of a parallel configuration is
that the engine cannot always be controlled in its high-efficiency operating region because it is
still mechanically coupled to the wheels with an increased efficiency compared with the con-
ventional model and a fuel consumption reduction of 10%[116]. Figure 7 shows a schematic
of the Volvo L220F parallel hybrid electric wheel loader (HEWL). The vehicle has a parallel
hybrid electric architecture for both the driving and the loading system. The basic idea of this
parallel hybrid layout is to supply additional electric power when necessary, regenerating
the machine during normal operations and minimizing the consumption in idle conditions.
The power required by the device can be flexibly provided by using a work pump, which is
driven by the pump motor shows the main parameters of the Volvo L220F. Mecalac proposed
a similar architecture for the 12 MTX hybrid model and claimed to save up to 20% in fuel
consumption [117].

However, the parallel configuration is still on the researching stage, and Liugong has applied
a solution with super-capacitors instead of batteries [118] as schematically shown in Figure 8.

At the CONEXPO International Trade Fair for Construction Machinery (2011), John Deere
presented the first prototype of its hybrid wheel loader, the 944K hybrid. In February 2013,
the entry of the first hybrid wheel loader, the 644K hybrid, in the market was announced
with a reduction in fuel consumption up to 25% [119]. In this smaller model, a single electric
machine provides all the power needed to drive the vehicle. The vehicle driveline has a series
electric hybrid architecture, with the electric motor directly powered by the inverter without
an energy storage system. Figure 9 shows a schematic view of John Deere 644K hybrid wheel
loader [120]. The installed electrical machines are liquid-cooled brushless permanent magnet
motors.

The innovative architecture proposed by Merlo, as shown in Figures 10 and 11, is considered
as a fully series architecture for vehicle traction and as a parallel architecture for the opera-
tion of hydraulic systems. This kind of innovative, patented series-parallel architecture, with
a split input for hydraulic lifting, allows both the electrical and the mechanical components
to be arranged in a way that is compatible with the current layout and performance of Merlo
machines. The main objectives of this hybrid telehandler are an overall improvement in per-
formance, a decrease in daily fuel consumption in ordinary work activities, and a reduction in
noise emissions. Moreover, the proposed configuration is capable of working in full electric,
zero-emission mode for indoor use, such as in cattle sheds, stables, industrial and food pro-
cessing warehouses, and buildings. In Ref. [87], it has been demonstrated a fuel consumption
reduction of 30% with the same level of dynamic performance compared with the conven-
tional telehandler.

Claas proposed a parallel mild hybrid solution for the Scorpion telehandler. The simulation
results reported in Refs. [121, 122] show a reduction in fuel consumption of about 20% and
emissions for this parallel hybrid solution compared with the traditional model. The solution
proposes the use of the electric motor as a power boost to maintain the performance while
using a smaller diesel motor.
Vehicle Vehicle operative Electric driving motor Electric loading motor ICE (kW) HF (Eq. 2) HF (Eq. 3) HFWV (Eq. 4) % of fuel reduc
weight (t) (PEM1) (kW) (PEM2) (kW)
Caterpillar D7E 26 2*60 0 176 0.40 0 0.20 24

Volvo—L220F Hybrid 32 50 50 259 0.16 0.16 0.16 10

Mecalac—12MTX Hybrid 8.3 20 20 51 0.28 0.28 0.28 20

John Deere—644K 19 80 80 171 0.32 0.32 0.32 25

Hybrid

Merlo—TF 40.7 Hybrid 7.5 60 40 56 0.52 0.42 0.47 30

Claas—6030 Hybrid 5.6 15 0 55 0.21 0 0.11 20

Kobelco SK200H Hybrid 20 0 37 114 0 0.24 0.12 40

Komatsu—HB215 LC-1 21 20 90 104 0.16 0.46 0.31 25

Table 4. List of hybrid working vehicles HF and claimed fuel reduction.

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Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles
17
18 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 7. Parallel hybrid configuration of the Volvo L220F hybrid [116].

The excavator is a type of construction machinery with a larger weight and higher energy
consumption [107]. A hybrid excavator can typically recycle two energy types, including the
braking kinetic energy of the swing and the gravitational potential energy of the booms. In the
recent literature, excavators present a wide combination of series, parallel, or series-parallel
hybrid architectures. The change in configuration and the additional costs of electrical com-
ponents make the commercialization of hybrid configurations difficult. Figure 12 shows the

Figure 8. Parallel hybrid configuration with super-capacitors, as applied by Liugong [118].

 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles 19
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Figure 9. Schematic of the John Deere 644K hybrid wheel loader [120].

schematic of the Kobelco series hybrid excavator; the first prototype of this 6-t configuration
was developed in 2007 with a claimed in [123] to cut fuel consumption by 40% or more and
reporting results of the verification test on the efficiency of the hybrid excavator in different
working cycle operations [124, 125].

As showed in Figure 12 in the hybrid solution proposed by Kobelco, each hydraulic is driven
by an electric motor. This solution increases efficiency but the production cost is higher.

Figure 10. Series-parallel hybrid configuration of a Merlo working vehicle [106].

20 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 11. View of Merlo – TF 40.7 hybrid the hybrid telehandler [106].

In the case of parallel hybrid excavator, the internal combustion engine operates the hydraulic
pump and generator. The hydraulic pump drives the hydraulic circuit of the device, in a man-
ner similar to conventional excavators, while the generator transforms the mechanical energy
into electrical power and can operate the electric motor of swing rotation. The hybrid solution
in parallel is simpler; however, the fuel consumption is higher, and the return time for these
working machines is longer [126]. Hitachi, as shown in Figure 13, proposed a parallel hybrid
excavator with the gravitational potential recovery of the boom [113].

Figure 12. Series hybrid configuration of the Kobelco excavator.

 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles 21
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Figure 13. Parallel hybrid configuration for working excavator Hitachi [127].

In the series-parallel hybrid power train configuration of an excavator, the engine drives the gen-
erator directly. The hydraulic pumps are driven by the generator in series, and the swing elec-
tric motor is powered by the generator and the battery or super-capacitor in parallel. Although
series-parallel hybrid excavators have higher production costs compared with parallel and
series structures, they offer the shortest cost recovery time and efficiency with a fuel consump-
tion up to 25% [126]. Series-parallel hybrid excavators are regarded as the most promising solu-
tions, and both Komatsu (Figures 14 and 15) and Doosan use similar configurations [128, 129].

Figure 14. Series-parallel hybrid configuration for working excavator Komatsu [126].
22 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 15. Schematic view of Komatsu—HB215 LC-1 hybrid excavator [126].

The attempt at classification in the present work is based on the specific HF defined in Section
4, taking into account the data sheets of the vehicles. Table 4 shows the hybridization factors
for work machines, calculated by using Eq. (4) [22] and considering the effect of a hybrid elec-
tric driveline and hybrid electric loading/working functions.

6. Trends and conclusions

This study focused on the electrification of work vehicles, such as agricultural machineries,
which is still in the research and development stage. Similarly to HEVs, the main design issue
in HACMs is controlling the energy transfer from the sources to the loads with minimum
loss of energy, which is dependent on the driving and working cycles. Compared with auto-
mobiles, the introduction of electric drives in tractors would allow expanded functionalities
because agricultural machines have a large variety of functional drives.

Main differences in requirements, working cycles, and proposed hybrid architectures between
HEV and HACM were determined along the present study, focusing on a specific hybridiza-
tion factor for working vehicles that consider both the driving and the loading electrification.

The hybridization factor for working vehicles is introduced in order to classify and compare
the different hybrid solutions proposed by main manufactures taking into account differ-
ent architectural choices. Moreover, the claimed increasing of efficiency due to the power
train electrification is reported and listed in terms of fuel consumption reduction. Taking into
account a large variety of architectural hybrid solution, it has been proven a good correlation
between the hybridization factor and the fuel efficiency as a general trend in benefit of hybrid
electrification of working machine.
 Trends and Hybridization Factor for Heavy-Duty Working Vehicles 23
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68296

Because charging a battery pack from the grid is more efficient than charging it from a
tractor engine, it seems logical to hybridize the tractor with high-voltage batteries and pro-
pulsion motors. In this manner, the internal combustion engine could be downsized, and
the traction battery pack could be charged from the grid. Fuel consumption costs would
thus decrease. However, compared with traditional construction machinery, an additional
energy storage device is needed, which increases the initial costs. Moreover, the cost added
by high-voltage equipment needs to be considered in the whole turnover of the hybrid
vehicle conversion. As indicated by several reports and prototypes, hybrid systems have
promising applications in both agricultural and construction machinery, but major draw-
backs are related to the increased cost due to electrification. Hybrid technologies, particu-
larly energy storage devices, are still in the early stages of development, and the trends
in cost reduction could push researchers and manufacturers toward the optimization of
hybrid solutions for HCAM.

Abbreviation

BEV Battery electric vehicle CVT Continuously variable transmission

EDV Electric-drive vehicle FCV Fuel cell vehicle

HEV Hybrid electric vehicle SHEV Series hybrid electric vehicle

PHEV Parallel hybrid electric vehicle HF Hybridization factor

ICE Internal combustion engine PEV Plug-in electric vehicle

ZEV Zero emission vehicle ESS Energy storage system

RESS Rechargeable energy storage system BMS Battery management system

HCAM Hybrid construction and

agricultural machineries

Author details

Aurelio Somà

Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Italy

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 Chapter 2

Development of Bus Drive Technology towards Zero

Emissions: A Review

Julius Partridge, Wei Wu and Richard Bucknall

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/68139

Abstract
This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive review of the latest low emission propul-
sion vehicles, particularly for bus applications. The challenges for city bus applications
and the necessity for low emission technologies for public transportation are addressed.
The review will be focusing on the London bus environment, which represents one of the
busiest bus networks in the world. The low emission bus applications will be analysed
from three main areas: hybrid electric buses, battery electric buses and fuel cell buses.
This summarises the main technologies utilised for low emissions urban transportation
applications. A comprehensive review of these low emission technologies provides the
reader with a general background of the developments in the bus industry and the tech-
nologies utilised to improve the performance in terms of both efficiency and emission
reduction. This will conclude with a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of
the three main technologies and explore the potential opportunity of each.

Keywords: low emission drive, battery bus, hybrid electric bus, fuel cell bus, vehicle
performances

1. Introduction

Over the past 100 years, the bus industry has come to be dominated by diesel powered buses
due to their increasingly low cost and greater maturity of the technology. However, this comes
at an environmental cost, for example, over 600 kt of CO2 was emitted by London’s bus fleet
in 2015 [1]. It is these carbon emissions and their link to climate change that have provided
one of the major drivers in recent years to develop and deploy alternative technologies for bus
propulsion [2]. Other emissions associated with diesel vehicles such as NOx and particulates

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
34 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

have provided a local driver to change due to their detrimental impacts on human health
[3–5]. In 2008, it was estimated over 4000 deaths were brought forward as a result of long-term
exposure to particulates in London [6]. In order to combat these concerns, many cities have
introduced measures such as the ‘low emission zone’ in London and emission control targets
[7]. London is to introduce the first ultra-low emissions zone (ULEZ) in 2020, which, amongst
other targets will aim to replace conventional diesel powered buses with low emissions alter-
natives [8, 9]. Despite this drive for change, it is evident that finding a replacement for diesel
buses is not simple. In addition to the low cost, simplicity, reliability and maturity of the tech-
nology, diesels also offer excellent characteristics to meet the required power demands and
operational needs of city buses. It can be seen from Figure 1, the diesel engine that is a type
of internal combustion engine (ICE) provides high output powers and uses energy dense fuel
making them ideal for both the range and operating times expected of city buses and also for
meeting the high transient power requirements during acceleration.

In order to address the environmental concerns posed by diesel buses, a number of technolo-
gies are being investigated and implemented. The most widespread of these are diesel-hybrid
buses, which make use of an on-board energy storage system to effectively recycle captured
kinetic energy obtained through regenerative braking. Although hybrid buses are capable of
significantly reducing fuel consumption, they are still reliant on diesel as the primary fuel
source and hence do not address the fundamental problems associated with emission that
come from using diesel as a fuel. As such, there has in recent years been an increased focus
on the development of zero emissions buses, with two main competing technologies. These
are battery electric buses and hydrogen fuel cell (FC), both of which exhibit zero operat-
ing emissions, hence eliminates the environmental and health issues associated with diesel
buses [11]. Such technology solutions are less mature and result in significant changes to the

Figure 1. Comparison of various technologies for the power and energy densities (based on Ref. [10]).
 Development of Bus Drive Technology towards Zero Emissions: A Review 35
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propulsion system. Although these technologies have been deployed in operational bus fleets,
there remain a number of barriers to widespread deployment.
London has one of the most comprehensive and busiest public transport networks in the
world, operated by Transport for London (TfL). There are over 9000 buses in operation [12],
which are estimated to account for 21% of the CO2 emissions in London [7], 63% of NOx and
52% of PM10 particulate emissions [13]. It is reported that the TfL bus fleet carries 6 million
passengers each working day, which the number of bus passenger journeys grew by 64%
between 2000 and 2013 and is continuing to increase [14]. The Greater London Authority
(GLA) has introduced a number of strategies in an attempt to reduce emissions from buses,
part of which is the London hybrid bus project which aims to replace the conventional bus
fleet with diesel hybrid buses [7, 15]. This is to be furthered with the introduction of the ultra-
low emissions zone (ULEZ) in 2020, which, amongst other targets will require all 3000 double-
decker buses operating in the ULEZ to be diesel hybrid and all 300 single decker buses to be
zero emissions [8, 9, 16]. Since 2004, a number of technologies have been deployed as part of
the operational bus fleet, as shown in Figure 2, as a means of reducing emissions. London
has been used as a case study throughout this chapter due to both the comprehensive bus
network and the operational deployment of new technologies.
Within this chapter, the development of low emission bus propulsion technologies will be dis-
cussed, through the evolution of diesel to diesel hybrid buses and onto the development and
deployment of battery electric and FC buses. The aim is to outline the benefits of such tech-
nologies and the barriers that exist to their widespread implementation from both a technical
and economic perspective. Part 2 discusses the implementation of diesel electric hybrid buses

Figure 2. Timeline of the milestones for the London low emission bus deployment.
36 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

and their evolution from diesel buses. Parts 3 and 4 consider battery electric buses and fuel
cell buses, respectively, whilst part 5 provides a comparison of these emerging technologies.

2. Diesel hybrid bus

2.1. Basic principles of diesel electric hybrid buses

The principle difference between diesel hybrid buses and diesel buses is the inclusion of an
electrical energy storage system in conjunction with an electrical motor/generator. The pri-
mary source of energy is still the diesel engine; however, the inclusion of the electrical sys-
tem provides a number of advantages such as facilitating regenerative braking and allowing
reduced idling time [17]. The utilisation of a hybrid system results in improvements fuel effi-
ciency and emissions, although these come at the price of additional cost and complexity [17].

The integration of the electrical energy system can be utilised through a number of configura-
tions, with the common options being the series, parallel and series-parallel hybrid configu-
rations, as shown in Figure 3. In a series hybrid drivetrain, the mechanical output from the
diesel engine is converted into electrical power via a generator when operating at its most
efficient loading. This is supplemented with a battery to provide for the electric drive motor

Figure 3. Schematic of the three available layouts for the propulsion system of a diesel/electric hybrid drive train.
 Development of Bus Drive Technology towards Zero Emissions: A Review 37
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requirements. Since the propulsion needs are met by an electric motor, this results in the com-
plete decoupling between the diesel engine and the wheels, meaning that engine control is not
dependent on vehicle speed so offering additional flexibility [18]. This is a major advantage of
series hybrid drivetrains, where the engine can operate at any point on its speed-torque map,
which is impossible for conventional vehicles. Therefore, the engine is capable of constantly
operating at near optimum load, which minimises fuel consumption and emission [19].

The parallel hybrid configuration maintains the direct mechanical link between the diesel
engine and the wheels, using the battery for regenerative braking and supplementing the
peak power demands. The main advantages over the series hybrid are that the additional gen-
erator is no longer needed so has higher efficiency as well as reducing the size of the required
drive motor. The parallel configuration, however, does not decouple the diesel engine from
the wheels and hence operation is directly linked to the vehicle speed hence for low speed
city operation the ICE will often operate at a low efficiency [20]. As a result, the parallel con-
figuration is more appropriate for longer distance and higher speed routes. The series-parallel
hybrid can operate in either the series or parallel configurations and so can utilise the advan-
tages of both systems; however, the additional complexity and capital cost of the system
mean that they are currently not a viable option for transportation applications [19]. The most
popular option for city buses is the series configuration due to the simplicity of a single drive
system as well as higher efficiency during city driving where buses have a start-stop traffic
pattern with generally low speed operation [19].

The benefits offered by the hybridisation of the drive system relate to the increase in fuel
economy and reduction in emissions compared to a diesel bus and can be attributed to the
following points.
• On average buses idles for around 30–44% of urban driving time [21]. By using a hybrid
system, the vehicle can turn off the engine to prevent idling and low loads because it can
use the electrical energy storage and motor for initial acceleration. This can save 5–8% of
fuel consumption [17].

• A significant amount of energy is lost and dissipated by heat due to friction during conven-
tional braking. When a hybrid vehicle is braking, the drive motor can work as generator
to charge the electrical energy storage system and thus recycle some of the energy used to
propel the bus. Typically, 10–20% of the kinetic energy is recovered.
• In a conventional bus, the diesel engine needs to be large enough to provide for all of
the peak transient power demands. A hybrid vehicle is able to use the electrical system
to provide for a portion of these peak demands, and therefore, the engine can be down-
sized [17, 19].
• A diesel engine operates at its lowest efficiency during low load and low speed operation.
The electrical system can drive the electric motor to power the bus during low load and
start-up to avoid this. It is expected that diesel hybrid technology can achieve reductions of
between 24 and 37% CO2 emission [22], 21% to NOx emission and 10% to fuel consumption
compared with conventional diesel buses [7, 15].
38 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

In contrast to these benefits, the hybridisation of the drive system has a number of drawbacks.
These predominately amount to the additional capital cost, where a diesel hybrid typically
costs £300,000, this is £110,000 more than a conventional diesel bus and constitutes an increase
of about 50% [23]. The additional complexity of both the drive system and its control results
in additional maintenance time and cost, where a diesel hybrid typically requires 50% more
maintenance time than a conventional diesel bus [22].

2.2. Case study 1: TFL

Initially a trial consisting of eight diesel hybrid buses was carried out in 2007 and was
found to have very high (96%) customer support [24]. After analysing the trial, the official
deployment of diesel hybrid buses began in central London. The number of diesel hybrid
buses has steadily increased, where in 2015, more than 1200 diesel hybrid buses were in
operation in London, as can be seen in Figure 4, and exceed the target of 1700 in 2016 [12].
This consists of old buses redesigned for hybrid operation and new designs such as the new
Routemaster.

The impact of the deployment of the low emission bus fleets has already begun to have an
impact on emissions in London, as shown in Figure 5. In the last few years, emissions of NOx
and CO2 have begun to drop due to the introduction of diesel hybrid buses into the TfL fleet
and the retrofitting of selective catalytic reduction measures into the existing fleet. The level
of PM100 emissions dropped considerably due to the introduction of PM filters in the early
2000s. It is expected that these will continue to drop as further deployment of diesel hybrid
and zero emissions vehicles continues.

The performance of the diesel hybrid bus fleet in London is very variable, as might be
expected due to differing models and routes. It was claimed that the average Euro V bus

20 2500
Diesel hybrid bus total
Percentage of diesel hybrid

16 2000
bus in London

12 1500
number

8 1000

4 500

0 0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Percentage of hybrid bus

Diesel hybrid bus total number

Figure 4. Total number and percentage of the TfL bus fleet of diesel-hybrid buses in operation. Data from Ref. [12].
 Development of Bus Drive Technology towards Zero Emissions: A Review 39
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Figure 5. Expected reduction in CO2 and NOx emissions from the TFL bus fleet with the deployment of diesel/electric
hybrid buses [1, 15, 25].

achieved a fuel economy of 32.9 l/100 km in London [9]. The reported fuel economy of
diesel hybrid buses operating in London is presented in Table 1. As may be expected, the
type of bus and bus route significantly affects the fuel economy, where a single decker bus
generally exhibits a higher fuel economy than a double-decker bus. It was found that the
introduction of diesel hybrid technology improved the fuel economy on nearly all routes;
however, there were a couple of discrepancies to this, such as on the E8 bus route where the
fuel economy actually decreased. The introduction of the new Routemaster bus appears to
provide a slight improvement over previous diesel hybrid buses; however, there appears
to be significant discrepancies between the recorded and expected performance. Results
released by TfL in 2014 suggest a fuel economy in the range of 38.2–45.6 l/100 km, whereas
it is claimed by the manufacturer that a fuel economy of 24.4 l/100 km was recorded on
the 159 bus route. Unfortunately, the details for these results are not available and so it is
difficult to determine the validity of the results. This discrepancy could be the result of a
number of factors such as the route topology, traffic conditions, driving style and passenger
conditions.
In summary, TfL has successfully introduced a large number of diesel hybrid buses into their
bus fleet. This has resulted in a decrease in the emissions associated with the bus fleet, with
considerable further reductions expected. It provides an example of the successful deploy-
ment of diesel hybrid buses into a large operational bus fleet to achieve reductions in emis-
sions and fuel consumption. However, the increased cost and system complexity remain
problematic.
40 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Bus type Route Diesel Diesel hybrid Year References

Fuel economy (l/100 km) Fuel economy (l/100 km)

Single decker (Euro V) 276 44.8 43.5 2010 [26]

360 36.7 34.9

371 34.1 26.7

E8 35.3 42.2

129 47.1 33.6

Double decker (Euro V) 141 60.1 50.4 2010 [26]

328 65.7 54.3

24 49.6 42.2

482 50.4 34.9

16 50.4 39.2

New routemaster (Euro V) 11 60.1 38.2 2014 [27]

24/390 52.3 38.2

9 72.4 45.6

148 56.5 40.9

10 64.2 43.5

159 Not available 24.4 2013 [28]

Table 1. Available data for diesel hybrid bus fuel economy in London. The values for l/100 km have been converted from
miles per gallon using Litres100 km = (100*4.54609)/(1.609344*mpguk).

3. Battery electric bus

3.1. Overview of electric buses technology

The battery electric bus, often described as a pure electric bus, uses an electric motor for pro-
pulsion and a battery for energy storage [29]. In most cases the battery is the primary energy
source, although for trolley buses power is delivered from overhead cables during operation.
The configuration for electric buses is typically fairly straightforward since it is basically a bat-
tery driving an electric motor to propel the vehicle [30], as shown in Figure 6. During braking it
is also possible to make use of regenerative braking to recharge the battery during braking. The
main battery technologies that have been used in transportation are Ni-MH, Zebra (Na-NiCL2)
and lithium batteries [31]. The most promising of these are the lithium batteries, where three
main categories exist, these being Li-ion, lithium polymer (LiPo) and Lithium-iron-phosphate
(LiFePO4) batteries [32]. Most current buses use lithium-based batteries [33] due to their high
power and energy densities and fast charging capabilities, although their high cost is still prob-
lematic [32]. A problem faced by all battery technologies is their cycle life; typically, these are short
 Development of Bus Drive Technology towards Zero Emissions: A Review 41
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/68139

Figure 6. Battery electric drive bus basic configuration.

and hence require relatively regular replacement [34]. In addition to a battery pack, some buses
utilise supercapacitors in conjunction with a battery as supercapacitors are much more effective
in shielding batteries from high current load and thus increase battery life [35]; however, their
low energy density means they are unsuitable to be used as the primary energy source, as shown
in Figure 1. They do, however, have several key advantages over existing battery technologies,
such as very high power densities and discharge rates as well as very long cycle life [34]. There
is no simple answer to which battery technology is best, as it will depend on the application.
Mahmoud et al. [36] carried out a detailed comparison study of different electric powertrains and
concluded that a single technological choice would not satisfy the varied operational demands of
transit services because electric buses are highly sensitive to the energy profile and operational
demands. Electric buses are zero emission at the point of use and therefore offer great emission
savings particularly in terms of local air pollution when compared to ICE or hybrid buses, as well
as very high efficiency. However, there are a number of barriers to widespread deployment, the
main ones are recharging time, vehicle range, infrastructure and cost [34].

Battery electric buses normally operate in one of two different forms: opportunity and over-
night [32]. Opportunity e-buses have a smaller energy storage capacity that offers limited
range but can be charged much quicker (5–10 minutes); while overnight e-buses have a much
larger energy storage but at the cost of longer charging time (2–4 hour) [36]. These repre-
sent two different approaches for electric buses in the urban environment. The opportunity
approach aims to minimise the weight of the battery pack by utilising frequent and fast
recharging at points along the bus route, such as bus stops or the end of route [32]. This holds
the promise of high efficiency and lower projected bus costs but requires a comprehensive
recharging network [37]. Route flexibility of the bus is, however, limited, as it is required
to follow the assigned bus route to recharge the battery. The overnight method utilises a
large energy storage system to extend the range so that the bus can drive the entire route/day
without recharging [37]. This holds the promise of greater route flexibility and convenience
as well as utilising a centralised recharging infrastructure, but suffers from passenger loss
due to increased battery weight as well as battery lifetime issues [38] and battery cost [34].
An alternative approach is offered by the Trolleybus, which has a small battery but receives
power from overhead cables along the assigned route. This overcomes problems associated
with range and recharging times but is very limited in terms of route flexibility.
42 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The process of recharging a battery electric bus can be completed through plug-in (conductive),
wireless (inductive) or catenary (overhead power lines) charging. Plug-in charging requires a
direct connection through a power cord [39] and is well-suited to overnight bus charging, but
can be used in some instances for opportunity charging. This is popular due to its simplicity
and high efficiency [39]. Wireless charging relies on induction between two coils, this is better
suited to opportunity buses where recharging can take place along the route without the need
for a physical connection [39], such as the PRIMOVE bus where charging is carried out at each
end of the route and at five intermediate stops [40]. This form of charging, however, suffers
from increased charging times and relatively low efficiency [39]. The trolleybus uses overhead
catenary to provide power to the bus [41]. This type of charging exhibits high efficiency but
requires an extensive network of overhead cables.
Table 2 shows a selection of operating pure electric buses in different locations and utilise a
number of battery technologies and operating approaches. In 2015, there were an estimated
150,000 battery electric buses, mostly located in China, with a sixfold increase between 2014
and 2015 [42]. The electric bus market is growing quickly where it had a 6% share of global
bus purchases in 2012 but is forecasted to grow to 15% by 2020 [43]. Battery electric bus devel-
opment has been carried out all over the world with the largest shares in China, Europe and
North America [44]. It is clear that some of the buses listed in Table 2 utilise more than one
mode of operation to provide for the operational power requirements, such as the complete
coach works bus, which uses both overnight and opportunity charging. The differences in

Manufacturer Length Capacity Battery type Battery capacity Type, range Deployment
location
ABB TOSA 18 m 135 Lithium 38 kWh Trolley, on-route Switzerland
titanate oxide

BYD 12 m 40 BYD Iron 324 kWh Overnight, 250 km Worldwide

Phosphate

Complete 12 m 37 Lithium-iron 213 kWh Overnight/ US

Coach Works Phosphate opportunity, 145 km

EBusco 12 m 76 Lithium-iron 242 kWh Overnight, 250 km China, Finland

Phosphate

Hengtong 12 m 70 Lithium 60.9 kWh Opportunity, 39 km China

EBus Titanate

New Flyer 12 m 40 Lithium-Ion 120 kWh Opportunity, 72 km US, Canada

Primove 12 m 44 Lithium-Ion 60 kWh Wireless, on-route Germany

Proterra 10 m 35 Lithium 74 kWh Opportunity, 42 km US

Titanate

Siemens 8m 40 Lithium-iron 96 kWh Trolley, on-route Austria

Phosphate

Sinautec 12 m 41 Ultra-Cap and 5.9 kWh Trolley, on-route China

Battery

Table 2. Selection of operating electric bus models worldwide [40].

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operating regimes are reflected in the sizing of the batteries and as a result the range of the
buses, where they vary from 5.9 kWh for the trolleybus design to >300 kWh for overnight
charging. This will have a significant impact in terms of the bus’s battery costs; however, the
charging infrastructure for overnight charging does not need to be as comprehensive as for
the alternative methods.

3.2. Case study: London electric buses

London has been working on overnight e-bus demonstrations since 2012 and is also investi-
gating the potential of opportunity e-bus technologies. From the overnight e-bus perspective,
TfL has collaborated with BYD, which is one of the largest electric bus manufacturer in China,
to test the potential of battery electric buses in London, starting from 2012 [45]. The first two
battery electric buses were handed over to TfL in 2013 and then entered daily service on two
central London routes, numbers 507 and 521, which were the first battery electric buses in
London. These single-decker 12-metre BYD buses utilise Lithium-Iron-phosphate batteries
and have demonstrated a range in excess of 250 km on a single charge in real world urban
driving conditions [46]. The 507 and 521 bus routes are relatively short commuter service
routes and were chosen so that the bus can start operating in the morning peak alongside the
diesel bus fleet and return to the depot to recharge during the day before resuming service
for the evening peak [34, 47]. The battery takes 4–5 hours to recharge when fully discharged
and has been designed for a cycle life of more than 4000 cycles, meaning a 10-year battery life-
time under normal operating conditions [48]. The trail fleet was extended to six buses in the
summer of 2014. The trail buses in London not only provide a zero emission environmental
benefit but also have shown promising result in terms of both technical and economic perfor-
mance, and hence TfL has taken further steps towards adopting this new clean technology in
the capital. The development timeline and future plans for London electric buses are plotted
in Figure 7.

300
Number of electric buses

250
200
in London

150
100
50
0
2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020
Development timeline Forecast

Figure 7. Number of electric buses in London.

44 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The latest data in 2016 showed that there are currently 22 battery electric buses operating
in London including 17 single-decker battery electric buses and five double-decker bat-
tery electric buses. This is a world first for double-decker battery electric buses, as shown
in Figure 8, and entered service in May 2016. These are 10.2 m buses with a capacity of
81 passengers and a claimed range of 303 km. The battery is a Lithium-Iron-Phosphate
battery with a capacity of 320 kWh [49]. They utilise a combination of both overnight and
opportunity e-bus technology and will operate on route 69 in Central London. They will
use a high powered wireless inductive charging system to top up their battery system
at the beginning and end of this route to keep the bus operating throughout the entire
day [50]. The recent double-decker electric buses have used wireless charging technology
as part of innovative charging technology development. However, this is still far from
a mature technology and requires a massive recharging infrastructure network [51]. The
electric buses in London have shown promising performance on short commuter routes;
however, pure e-buses are still best suited for shorter routes with operational flexibility
and scope to recharge them in inter-peak periods due to the limit of present battery capac-
ity and recharging technology [52].

In 2015, BYD and Alexander Dennis (ADL) announced a partnership to provide 51 further
single-decker buses to route operator Go-Ahead with an expected delivery in late 2016 [53].
BYD will provide the batteries and electric chassis technology, and ADL will provide the bus
body-building technology [54]. The cost of each bus is expected to be £350,000 [55].

In summary, the recent development and deployment of battery electric buses in London
have shown that electric buses are technically feasible. It can be seen that electric buses will
also have an important role to play in the coming ULEZ implementation in 2020. However,
more time is needed to evaluate the actual performance and address the key challenges facing
electric buses such as limitations of battery technology that restricts range.

Figure 8. The first electric double-decker bus in the world (photo from Business Green, 2016).
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4. Hydrogen fuel cell hybrid bus

4.1. Basic theory

Hydrogen fuel cells (FCs) are considered a clean energy source with the main benefits over ICEs
of zero harmful emissions during operation and high efficiency [56]. Although many types of
FCs exist, this paper will only consider the application of FCs in transportation, considering
the operating temperature, start-up time and technology maturity, Proton Exchange Membrane
Fuel Cell (PEMFC) offer most promising solution [57]. Significant research into solid oxide fuel
cells (SOFCs) in transportation has been carried out [58–60], although these have yet to been
applied in real world bus applications. A PEM FC uses hydrogen as the fuel, which, through an
electrochemical reaction with oxygen (usually from air) generates electricity with water as the
only by-product from the chemical process [61]. By replacing the internal combustion engine in
conventional buses, FCs can be used as the primary energy source to power a bus with electri-
cal energy, therefore, achieving zero operating emissions. An additional advantage over ICE’s
comes from the higher efficiencies exhibited by FCs [62, 63]. However, there are a number of
barriers that need to be overcome before widespread deployment can be achieved. These are
primarily cost and infrastructure [64, 65]. FC powered buses cost approximately five times more
than a conventional diesel bus with the similar power output [66], where they typically cost in
excess of £1,000,000 [67], due primarily to the expensive FC stack and the small scale of produc-
tion [68]. In addition, the widespread deployment of FC buses would require a significant invest-
ment in hydrogen refuelling infrastructure [64]. The implementation of FC buses has shown that
the technology is a promising solution for zero emissions buses if these barriers can be overcome.

Figure 9 shows the configuration usually used in FC vehicles. The basic drive train utilises
a FC to power the propulsion motor; however, FCs are not well suited to providing for the
transient power demands associated with city driving buses [69–73]. As such, most FC buses
utilise a form of energy storage in a series configuration to both address this and also to

Figure 9. Simplified architectures of FC drivetrain.

46 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

utilise regenerative braking [74]. An additional benefit of such an approach is that the size
of the expensive fuel cell stack can be reduced [75]. The energy storage implemented is usu-
ally either electrochemical battery technology such as Li-ion or NiCd batteries or electrostatic
supercapacitors (sometimes referred to as ultracapacitors). The choice between these depends
on the particular design and requirements of the system, with batteries offering reasonable
power and energy densities although they have a relatively short cycle life and superca-
pacitors offering poor energy densities but excellent power densities, as shown in Figure 1.
Additionally, supercapacitors have very long lifetimes of up to 40 years [31].

In a series configuration, there are three main modes of operation that can be utilised to pro-
vide for the buses power demands, as shown in Figure 10. Although these are the main modes
of operation, the way these modes are utilised will depend on the control strategy imple-
mented [76].
• Mode 1: The SC discharges to supplement the FC to provide for high transient power de-
mands. This type of operation is expected to occur under heavy loads such as during ac-
celeration or going uphill.

• Mode 2: The FC will both power the load and use excess power to charge the SC. This is
expected to occur under low loads, when the FC power output is higher than the required
load.

• Mode 3: The power from the FC and generated power from regenerative brake will both be
used to charge the SC. This is only expected to occur when the drive motor is operating as
a generator in the regenerative brake mode.

There have been a number of projects aimed at utilising FC technology for bus propulsion
applications. Table 3 lists many of the projects currently in operation along with the FC size
and energy storage used. The projects are split into two main categories depending on the
relative size of the FC and energy storage systems. The majority of the current projects are FC

Figure 10. Modes of operation for a series hybrid FC drive train [77].
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dominant, whereby the FC is expected to provide for the majority of the propulsion needs.
Alternatively there a few examples of battery dominant hybrids, where the battery is the main
source of power with the FC used as a supplementary power source. It was announced in
2017 that the JIVE project is to implement 142 buses across nine European cities with 56 new
FC buses in the UK, which will be the first large scale validation project of FC bus fleets [78].

4.2. Case study: TfL FC bus on the RV1 bus route

London has been involved with the testing and deployment of FC buses, Figure 11 shows
the evolution of FC bus implementation in London. Initially, this was through the EU funded
Clean Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE) project, which aimed at introducing hydrogen FC
buses into European cities, where a test run of three buses were operated on the RV1 bus route
between 2004 and 2006, this was increased to five buses from 2007 to 2009 [83]. London is now
part of Clean Hydrogen in European Cities (CHICs) project with the first deployment in full
service of the next generation of FC bus in 2011 and is expected to continue until 2019. There
are currently eight Hydrogen buses operating in Central London as part of the CHIC project,
fully covering the RV1 bus route, which is 9.7 km in length [83]. It is expected that by 2017 a fur-
ther two buses developed as part of the 3Emotion project will be deployed through Van Hool
[84]. The buses operate for 16–18 hours/day, before returning to the depot for refuelling at the
central depot, which takes <10 minutes [85]. The workshop, which is responsible for routine
maintenances and hydrogen management, was specifically designed and built for hydrogen

Figure 11. London FC hydrogen bus development timeline (bus photos from Citaro, TfL, Van Hool, 2016).
 48

Project Fleet Year Location Length (m) FC size (kW) Battery type Battery size (kWh) Drive type
JHFC 2 2006 Tokoname, Japan 10.5 180 Nickel Metal Hydride Not available FC dominant hybrid
University of Delaware 2 2007 Dewark, US 6.7 40 NiCad 60 Battery dominant hybrid

TriHyBu 1 2009 Neratovice, Czech 12 48 Lithium Ion 26 Battery dominant hybrid

Republic
Hybrid Electric Vehicles

BurbankBus 1 2010 Burbank, US 10.7 32 Lithium Titanate 54 Battery dominant hybrid

HySUT 2 2010 Tokyo, Japan 10.5 180 Nickel Metal Hydride Not available FC dominant hybrid

NFCBP 1 2010 San Francisco, US 12.2 32 Lithium Ion Not available3 FC APU Compound

Toyota FCHV 1 2010 Toyota City, Japan 10.5 180 Nickel Metal Hydride Not available FC dominant hybrid
NFCBP 4 2010 Hartford, US 12.2 120 Lithium Ion 17.43 FC dominant hybrid

CHIC 8 2010 London, UK 12 75 Supercapacitor 0.5 FC dominant hybrid

CHIC 3 2011 Milan, Italy 11.9 120 Lithium Ion 26 FC dominant hybrid

SunLine1 6 2011 Thousand Palms, US 12.2 150 Nanophosphate Li-ion 11 FC dominant hybrid

NFCBP 12 2011 Multi-city, US 12.2 120 Lithium Ion 17.4 FC dominant hybrid
CHIC 4 2011 Cologne, Germany 18.4 150 NiMeH and Supercapacitor 23 and 0.6 FC dominant hybrid

CHIC 5 2011 Aargau, Switzerland 11.9 120 Lithium Ion4 26.94 FC dominant hybrid
CHIC 5 2012 Oslo, Norway 13 150 Lithium Ion 17.5 FC dominant hybrid

NIP, CHIC 6 2012 Hamburg, Germany 12 120 Lithium Ion 26 FC dominant hybrid
CHIC 5 2013 Bolzano, Italy 11.9 120 Lithium Ion 26 FC dominant hybrid
HyTransit, HighVLO 14 2014 Aberdeen, UK 12.2 150 Not available Not available FC dominant hybrid
City
HighVLO City 5 2014 Brussels, Belgium 12.2 150 Not available Not available FC dominant hybrid
NFCBP2 1 2014 Austin, US 10.7 30 Lithium Titanate 54 Battery dominant hybrid
NFCBP2 1 2014 Birmingham, US 9.8 75 Lithium Titanate 54 Battery dominant hybrid
1 2 3 4
Notes: [79], [80], [81], [82].

Table 3. All active fuel cell bus demonstration project in 2016.

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FC buses [86]. The hydrogen has been transported in liquid form to the depot and converted
into gaseous form to refuel buses [83], it is then stored on site in gaseous form at 500 bar [86].

The buses themselves have developed throughout this project, where the first generation
was powered only by a FC. These utilised a 250 kW fuel cell [82] and achieved a hydrogen
economy of 18.4–29.1 kg H2/100 km [87]. The buses deployed as part of the CHIC project
utilised a series hybrid configuration, with a 75 kW PEM FC from Ballard and a 0.5 kWh
Bluways supercapacitor energy storage system [88]. This introduction of the hybrid system
significantly reduced the hydrogen economy to <10 kg H2/100 km [87] and is one of the most
significant results of the CHIC project in London. Figure 12 shows that the fuel economy of
the buses operated as part of the CHIC project showed considerable improvements over those
in the CUTE project. It can also be seen that the London buses performed better than the CHIC
target, exceeding it by nearly 50%. For all of the London FC buses, the hydrogen is stored as a
compressed gas at 350 bar, with the gas cylinders stored on the roof of the bus [82].

Between 2011 and 2016, the FC buses in operation in London have covered over 1.1 million
kilometres [89], and a number of the FC buses have achieved the milestone of 20,000 hours
of operation [90]. This reflects the improvement of availability seen over the course of the
deployment of CHIC’s London fleet. Figure 13 shows the availability from January 2012 until
May 2015. The monthly availability of London FC buses has also significantly increased after

Figure 12. Average fuel consumption of FC buses in CHIC project (figure from FCH JU, 2016) [87].

Figure 13. Availability of London FC buses in CHIC project (figure from FCH JU, 2016) [87].
50 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

the availability upgrade program carried out in 2014. The availability is expected to improve
to over 85% by the end of the CHIC project as operators gain more operational and problem-
solving experience.
Apart from the technical and economic improvements, the London trail buses have also
proven that the technology became more viable because of the full working schedule, direct
diesel replacement, centralised infrastructure and high public acceptance [86]. The trial test of
FC-powered buses projects has provided promising performance as a long-term solution to
zero emission transportation.

5. Comparison study

This part aims at to provide a comparison of the current state of low emission and zero emis-
sion bus systems. Diesel hybrid buses have been developed and deployed as a means of
achieving emissions reductions, where a number of advantages in terms of efficiency, emis-
sions and fuel consumption can be seen over diesel buses. There are, however, a number of
problems associated with their widespread deployment. The first of these is the cost and is
due to the additional components necessary for the electrical system. Second, the inclusion of
the electrical system necessitates a significantly more complicated configuration [19]. Third,
although diesel hybrid buses can offer significant improvements in terms of CO2 and NOx
emissions, the primary energy source is still the ICE. As such, they fail to address the underly-
ing source of emissions and are therefore fundamentally limited in the improvements that can
be achieved. As such, they can only really be considered as a transitional technology to reduce
emissions but are not a viable option for meeting zero emissions targets. In order to meet the
requirements for zero emissions buses, which is the ultimate objective for a clean transporta-
tion network, technologies such as electric and FC buses have been developed as a long term
solution for city bus transportation needs. Therefore, this section will mainly compare the
battery electric bus (opportunity, overnight and trolley) and FC bus technologies as the two
most promising zero emission solutions in terms of the operational requirements and is sum-
marised in Table 4. The rankings are based on the authors’ opinions with reasoning given in
the paragraphs below.

Range: Opportunity e-buses have a smaller energy storage that requires frequent recharging,
which equates to poor performance in terms of daily range. Overnight e-buses utilise a much
larger battery, which increases the range with reported values of over 300 km per charge.
Trolley e-buses are continuously powered with electricity by overhead lines along the route
which effectively gives unlimited range. FC buses use hydrogen cylinders as the fuel tanks,
which allow the range to be greatly extended (up to 450 km) for as much as hydrogen fuel
cylinder weight and size allows [91].
Route flexibility: Opportunity and trolley e-buses require recharging infrastructures along the
route which greatly limits their route flexibility. This is somewhat dependant on the size of
the on-board battery and will likely be more acute for trolley e-buses. The overnight e-buses
and FC buses are expected to be able to operate for an entire day’s service without recharging
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Zero emission option Opportunity E-bus Overnight E-bus Trolley E-bus Fuel cell bus
Daily range 4 3 1 2

Route flexibility 3 1 4 1

Refuelling time 2 3 Not available 1

Infrastructure 3 2 4 1

Fuel availability 1 1 1 4

Clean source 1 1 1 4

Cost 3 1 2 4

Notes: 1, best; 4, worst.

Table 4. High level comparison of operational performance of zero emission bus concepts.

or refuelling. As such this allows for much greater route flexibility. This appears to be eas-
ily achieved for FC buses, however for overnight e-buses this is not always the case and will
again be dependent on the size of the battery.
Refuelling time: Opportunity e-buses require frequent recharging throughout the entire route.
Although each recharges for the opportunity e-bus only takes up to 15 minutes, it is still
considered as a drawback due to the requirement for regular recharging. Overnight e-buses
require a longer recharging time (average >4 hours) after each operation due to the increased
battery capacity. The recharging time is heavily dependent on the charging power. Trolley
e-buses are charged through overhead wires so that they require no refuelling time. FC buses
are refuelled with gaseous hydrogen, which can be completed quickly (<10 minutes) [91].

Infrastructure: Opportunity e-buses and trolley buses require corresponding infrastructure

along the route and each end of the routes. Therefore, opportunity e-buses and trolley buses
require a comprehensive infrastructure network. Overnight e-buses and FC buses both require
infrastructure to recharge/refuel at the end of daily operation. This can, however, be central-
ised at the service depot and hence does not need to be as comprehensive. It appears, however,
that the current recharging times for overnight e-buses presents a problem since it is likely that
a significant number of recharging points and a massive recharging power would be needed
to recharge the batteries of a large fleet in time for the next day’s service. This could potentially
be an issue for the electrical grid infrastructure if the number of buses grows significantly,
while this would not be a problem for FC buses because of their short refuelling time.

Fuel availability: All three battery electric bus technologies use electricity to recharge their
batteries. This electricity could be central managed and distributed locally through the local
electricity grids; however, widespread electric bus deployment could significantly stress this
infrastructure. FC buses will likely require the development of a comprehensive distribu-
tion network for hydrogen, although on-site hydrogen production has been demonstrated.
Additionally, hydrogen fuel storage would also create additional cost.
Clean source: Real zero emissions bus technology needs to be clean throughout the manu-
facturing process, fuel production and bus operation. Currently, battery electric and FC bus
52 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

technologies can achieve zero operating emission but the lifetime emissions are much harder
to quantify. It is hard to forecast how the emissions from new technology manufacturing will
change, but the fuel production method can be roughly estimated. In the UK, the GHG emis-
sions for electrical energy were 0.44932 kgCO2/kWh in 2014 [92]. This is likely to change as the
UK’s energy mix changes, where in 2015, 24.6% of electricity was generated from renewable
energy sources [93]. Similarly, for FC buses, the source of hydrogen is critical in determin-
ing the overall emissions. Currently, about 96% of hydrogen is derived from fossil fuels [94]
which results in 13.7 kgCO2/kgH2 [95]. Despite this, investigations into the use of renewable
energy for hydrogen production through the process of electrolysis have been carried out
offering potential for a low carbon source of hydrogen. Currently, electricity for battery elec-
tric buses is a cleaner fuel than hydrogen for FC buses.

Cost: Both electric and FC buses have higher capital costs than a conventional diesel bus; how-
ever, FC buses are currently far more expensive than electric buses. The capital cost of electric
buses is somewhat dependant on the type of operation expected, where overnight buses will
have higher costs than opportunity and trolley buses due to the increased battery capacity.
This does, however, need to be weighed up against the cost of infrastructure, where opportu-
nity and trolley buses require a comprehensive and expensive charging network. Overnight
electric and FC buses on the other hand can make use of a centralised recharging/refuelling
infrastructure.

Throughout this chapter, the main technologies being implemented to meet the low emissions
requirements have been presented. The most promising for these in terms of zero emissions
are electric and FC buses; however, it is clear that there are still significant barriers to their
widespread implementation. Following on from the challenges identified in the comparison
section a number of challenges for future developments have been identified.
For electric buses, it is clear that further improvements to battery technology are required in
terms of their energy densities and lifetime as well as the development of an effective charg-
ing infrastructure. The challenges are somewhat dependant on whether the bus is intended
to use the overnight or opportunity charging schemes. For overnight charging, the charging
infrastructure can be centralised; however, this necessitates very large power requirements
for the charging infrastructure, additionally the range of the buses needs to be addressed
through battery developments. The opportunity charging schemes a comprehensive and dis-
tributed charging network. In most cases, this requires the development of high efficiency and
power wireless charging technologies.

The future development of FC buses requires development in a broader range of areas. This
includes further work on individual components such as the FC stack and hydrogen storage.
The FC stack is still the most expensive component of the FC bus. The further development of
the control strategies for hybridised buses held significant promise in reducing the size of the
required FC stack and improving the fuel economy. Hydrogen storage is a key area for future
research for bus applications, where technologies such as solid state storage offer potential to
improve the storage density of hydrogen. For widespread implementation, the development
of the hydrogen infrastructure is vital. This includes the production of hydrogen, particularly
from clean sources, the distribution of hydrogen or on-site production and purification.
 Development of Bus Drive Technology towards Zero Emissions: A Review 53
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Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) who have
funded the HyFCap (Reducing the cost and prolonging the durability of hydrogen fuel cell
systems by in-situ hydrogen purification and technology hybridisation) (grant number: EP/
K021192/1) jointly carried out by University College London and University of Sheffield.

Author details

Julius Partridge, Wei Wu* and Richard Bucknall

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

University College London, London, UK

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 Section 2

Technologies
 Chapter 3

Advanced Charging System for Plug-in Hybrid Electric

Vehicles and Battery Electric Vehicles

Muhammad Aziz

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68287

Abstract
The increase of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles
(BEVs) results in higher electricity demand for their charging. In addition, the uncon-
trolled and timely concentrated charging is potential to decrease the quality of electricity.
This condition has encouraged the development of advanced charging system, which
is able to facilitate quick charging with minimum impacts on the electrical grid. This
chapter explains some issues related to charging of PHEVs and BEVs including some
available charging systems, charging behaviour and developed charging system employ-
ing battery for assistance during charging. In analysis of charging behaviour, the effect
of ambient temperature to charging rate is clarified. Higher ambient temperature, such
as during summer, leads to higher charging rate compared to one during winter. As
advanced charging system, a battery-assisted charging system for PHEVs and BEVs is
also described. The evaluation results in terms of their performance to facilitate a quick,
simultaneous charging as well as reduce the stress of electrical grid due to massively
uncontrolled charging are also provided. This system is considered as one of the appro-
priate solutions that can be adopted in the near future to avoid problems on electrical grid
due to massive charging of PHEVs and BEVs.

Keywords: simultaneous charging, battery assistance, charging behaviour, charging rate

1. Introduction

Electric vehicles (EVs) have received an intensive attention during the last decade due to their
characteristics as vehicles as well as other additional benefits that cannot be offered by conven-
tional vehicles. A massive deployment of electric vehicles can reduce the total consumption
of fossil fuel, therefore, cuts down the greenhouse gas emission [1]. In addition, as they have

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
64 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

higher energy efficiency, lower running cost can be achieved than conventional internal com-
bustion-engine vehicles. Recently, value-added utilization of electric vehicles also has been
proposed and developed including the ancillary services for the electrical grid and electricity
support to certain energy management system [2–5]. Therefore, the economic performance of
the electric vehicles can be significantly improved.

Some literatures have proposed and described well the grid integration, especially the introduc-
tion of renewable energy, and electric vehicles [6]. The fluctuating renewable energy sources,
such as wind and solar, require a fast-response energy buffer to cover their intermittency as
well as and to store the surplus electricity due to higher supply side than demand side. Electric
vehicles are considered as the appropriate resource to balance and store these kinds of renew-
able energy sources [7]. The battery owned by the electric vehicles can absorb and release the
electricity from and to the electrical grid, respectively, to balance the electrical grid promptly.
In general, there are four types of electric vehicles currently running and developed: (i) con-
ventional hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), (ii) plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), (iii) battery
electric vehicle (BEV) and (iv) fuel-cell electric vehicle (FCEV). HEV combines electric motor
and internal combustion engine; hence, it is also fitted with a battery to power the motor as
well as store the electricity. The energy to power the motor comes from the engine and regen-
erative breaking. However, recently, many HEVs have been redeveloped and shifted to PHEV
due to the excellent characteristics and higher flexibility of PHEV than HEV. Like HEV, PHEV
also owns electric motor and internal combustion engine.

According to IEEE standards, PHEV is HEV having following additional specifications: bat-
tery storage of larger than 4 kWh, charging system from external energy source and capabil-
ity to run longer than 16 km [8]. Furthermore, BEV is generally defined as the vehicle driven
solely by electric motors and the source of electricity is stored and converted from chemi-
cal energy in the battery. Therefore, BEV relies on external charging and its driving range
depends strongly on its battery capacity. As the battery capacity of BEV is significantly larger
than HEV and PHEV, battery makes up a substantial cost of BEV. Advanced development of
battery and decrease of its price is highly expected in the near future; hence, more massive
deployment of PHEVs and BEVs can be realized.

On the other hand, FCEV uses only electric motor like BEV. However, it utilizes hydrogen
as the main fuel that is stored in the tank. The oxidation of hydrogen produces electricity to
power the electric motor and if there is any surplus it is stored in the battery. In practice, as
the hydrogen refuelling can be performed in a very short time, almost similar to one of the
gasoline refuelling, FCEV basically facilitates no charging from the external charger.
Although it varies, the battery capacity of PHEV is generally larger than HEV. According to
survey conducted by Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), about 50% of drivers in US drive
less than 60 km on weekdays [9]. Therefore, many available PHEVs can hold for a weekday
commuting without additional charging outside. In addition, although its battery capacity is
lower than BEV, PHEV has higher flexibility on driving range as the power can be supplied
by the engine once the battery capacity drops to certain low value. Both PHEV and BEV are
believed will dominate the share of vehicles in the future. In addition, according to Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI), around 62% of vehicles will encompass of PHEVs [10].
 Advanced Charging System for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Battery Electric Vehicles 65
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68287

High share of PHEV and BEV results in high demand of electricity due to charging; hence, it
strongly correlates to the supply and balancing of electrical grid.

Unmanaged charging of PHEVs and BEVs potentially results in several grid problems includ-
ing over and under voltage and frequency in distribution networks, especially when individ-
ual charging of PHEVs and BEVs takes place in large number and capacity [11]. Some methods
to minimize the impact of unmanaged charging of PHEVs and BEVs have been proposed and
developed by some researcher. They include coordinated charging [12], demand response
[13], battery-assisted charging [14] and appropriate charger distribution [15]. In addition, an
integrated vehicle to grid (V2G) is also potential to avoid the concentrated charging, as well
as facilitate the other services [16].

In the coordinated charging, the charging behaviour of PHEVs and BEVs are controlled by
certain entities; therefore, the electrical grid can be maintained stable and balance. Further, this
charging behaviour control is then correlated strongly with the V2G services, especially for
load-shifting or valley filling strategy [17]. However, the algorithm for valley filling under large-
scale vehicles deployment is very sophisticated; hence, computational complexity becomes a
very crucial factor [18].

Demand response encourages the users or drivers of PHEVs and BEVs to manage their
charging demand during peak-load hours or when the electrical grid system is at risk [19].
Therefore, it is usually divided into two types: time-based and incentive-based. The former
deals strongly with the real-time pricing and critical peak pricing. On the other hand, the lat-
ter is related to the incentive due to utilization of PHEVs and BEVs for frequency regulation
and spinning reserve [20]. Pricing system in the electrical grid requires accurate prediction
on both supply and demand sides. Therefore, the uncertainties clarification and their impacts
minimization become the major concern in demand response.

Although they are promising methods, both coordinated charging and demand response require
further theoretical developments and demonstrations on to ensure the system and standard in
a relatively massive control system. On the other hand, the battery-assisted charging is consid-
ered simple and applicable, due to its simplicities and convenience in structure and control.

This chapter discusses the charging system for both PHEV and BEV including the recently
developed battery-assisted charger. At the beginning, available charging levels and systems
for PHEVs and BEVs are explained initially in terms of charging rate and standards. In addi-
tion, the charging behaviour of the PHEV and BEV in different ambient temperature (seasons)
are also described, clarifying the effect of ambient temperature to the charging rate. At the last,
an advanced charging system with battery assistance is also explained including their quick-
charging performance during simultaneous charging of electric vehicles.

2. Charging system for PHEV and BEV

Charging of PHEVs and BEVs correlates strongly with some parameters including charging
devices, cost, charging rate, location, time and grid condition. Therefore, relevant selection
66 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

and distribution of chargers are very crucial to be able to accommodate those parameters
appropriately. PHEV and BEV basically share the same charging standards; therefore, there
is no peculiar charger features or requirements for each vehicle. Charger is designed to be
able to communicate with the vehicle to ensure the safety and appropriate electricity flow. In
addition, charger also monitors the earth leakage at the surrounding ground.

On the other hand, battery management system (BMS) is installed in the vehicle as a very vital
component, which is performing a thermal management, cell balancing and monitoring of
over-charge and discharge of the battery pack. The battery pack consists of many individual
cells having certain safe low working voltage. Therefore, it is very crucial to ensure that they
are operating within the permitted range to avoid shorter battery life and battery failures,
including fire.

Chargers can be installed on-board and off-board. The on-board charger limits its electricity
flow because of some constraints, such as weight and space. It can be performed though con-
ductive (direct contact through charging connector and cable) and inductive ways (using the
electromagnetic field). On the other hand, the off-board charger is installed externally; there-
fore, there is no limitation related to size and weight. The electricity flow from the charger to
vehicle is a DC flow; hence, high charging rate can be achieved.

The direction of electricity between charger and vehicle can be classified into unidirectional
and bidirectional flows. The former only facilitates a single direction charging from external
charger to the vehicle (battery). The latter provides the possibility of charging and discharg-
ing the electricity to and from the vehicle. Through bidirectional charging the utilization of
PHEVs and BEVs is greatly widen.

Correlated to the charging rate, chargers or electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSEs) can be
classified by its maximum amount of electricity possibly charged to the battery of PHEV or
BEV, as follows:

a. Level-1 charging

Level-1 charging utilizes the on-board charger and is compatible with the household elec-
trical socket and power, which generally has voltage of 100 or 200 V (AC) depending on
the region. This level of charging can facilitate charging rate up to about 4 kW. This level of
charging is suitable for the overnight charging at the ordinary household without the need
of additional device installation.

b. Level-2 charging

This level of charging has the purpose of improving the charging rate by using the dedi-
cated mounted-box. This level-2 charging can supply power of 4−20 kW, with a maximum
voltage of 400 V (AC three phase), depending on the available capacity of local supply.
Generally, this kind of chargers is installed at dedicated charging facilities including resi-
dential areas or public spaces. The charging connectors for both level-1 and level-2 char-
gers vary across the countries and manufactures.
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c. Level-3 charging

Different to the above levels of charging, level-3 charging is performed in DC system. DC

electricity is supplied by the charger, bypassing the on-board charger. Therefore, very high
charging rate, higher than 50 kW, can be achieved. Currently, there is no single standard
for this kind of fast charging which is accepted by all vehicle manufactures. The charg-
ing plug (including EV socket) and the communication protocol between the charger and
vehicles are different between the standards, although the basic principles are similar.

Currently, there are three major standards of charger, especially for quick charging: CHAdeMO,
combined charging system (CCS) and Tesla Supercharger. The detailed specifications of each
charging standard are shown in Table 1.

CHAdeMO was the first, DC fast charging standard originally developed by Japanese com-
panies including Tokyo Electric Power Companies (TEPCO), Fuji Heavy Industries, Nissan,
Mitsubishi Motors and Toyota, which are organized by CHAdeMO Association. CHAdeMO
standard also complies with international standard of IEC 62196-3. This standard is designed
only for DC fast charging. According to the development roadmap [21], high power CHAdeMO
is also developed with which is able to charge with 100 kW continuous power and 150–200 kW
peak power (350 A, 500 V). In addition, further higher power CHAdeMO is also planned in
future (2020) which can charge with charging rate of 350–400 kW (350–400 A, 1 kV). Currently,
CHAdeMO has the largest global coverage, including Japan (about 7000 chargers), Europe
(about 4000 chargers) and USA (about 2000 chargers).

Properties CHAdeMO Combo 1 (CCS) Combo 2 (CCS) Tesla supercharger

DC charging

Max. voltage (V) 500 600 850 480

Max. current (A) 125 150 200

Connector CHAdeMO Combo 1 Combo 2 Special

(IEC 62196-3/SAE J1772) (IEC 62196-3)

Max. power (kW) 50 90 170 120

AC charging

Voltage (V) 250 400 (3 phase)

230 (1 phase)

Current (A) 32 63 (3 phase)

70 (1 phase)

Max. power (kW) 13 44

Others

Charging signal CAN PLC

Charging protocol CHAdeMO HomePlug Green Phy Special

Table 1. Specification of charging standards for DC fast charging.

68 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

On the other hand, CCS standards, including Combo 1 and 2, are capable to facilitate both
AC charging, including level-1 and level-2 charging, and DC charging. It was developed by
several European and US car manufactures in around 2012. Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) and European Automobile Manufacturer’s Association (ACEA) strongly supported this
initiative with the main purpose of facilitating both AC and DC charging with only single
charging inlet in the vehicle. CCS is able to facilitate AC charging at maximum charging rate
of 43 kW and DC charging at maximum charging rate of 200 kW with the future perspective
of up to 350 kW [22]. CCS chargers are currently installed mainly in Europe and the USA with
approximate numbers of 2500 and 1000, respectively.

Tesla Supercharger uses its own charging standard. Currently, Tesla Supercharger includes
multiple chargers that are working in parallel and able to deliver up to 120 kW of DC charg-
ing [23]. Tesla Superchargers are currently installed in about 800 stations, having about 5000
superchargers in total.

Other charging method for PHEV and BEV includes inductive charging, which is conducted
wirelessly. The electromagnetic induction is created by the induction coil, which is charged
with high-frequency AC. The generated magnetic field will induce the vehicle-side inductive
power receiver; thus, the electricity can be transferred to the vehicle. Inductive charging uses
the family of IEC/TS 61980 standards. The application of inductive charging is potential to
eliminate the range anxiety, as well as reduce the size of battery pack. However, there are
some technical barriers in its application, especially related to lower efficiency, slower charg-
ing rate, interoperability and safety.

3. General charging behaviour of electric vehicles

In general, PHEVs and BEVs adopt lithium-ion battery for energy storage due to high energy
density, longer charging and discharging cycles, lower environmental impacts and more sta-
ble electrochemical properties [24]. In general, charging and discharging of lithium-ion batter-
ies are greatly influenced by the temperature. According to literatures [25, 26], lower rates of
charging and discharging occur under relatively lower temperature. This is due to the change
of interface properties of electrolyte and electrode such as viscosity, density, dielectric strength
and ion diffusion [27]. Furthermore, the transfer resistance also increases, which could be
higher than the bulk and solid-state interface resistances, as the temperature decreases [28].

Aziz et al. [14] have performed a study to clarify the influence of ambient temperature or
season to charging rate of PHEV and BEV. The study was performed during both winter and
summer, using CHAdeMO DC quick charger having rated power output of 50 kW. In addi-
tion, Nissan Leaf having battery capacity of 24 kWh was used as the vehicle. The results of
their study are explained below.

Figure 1 shows the obtained charging rate and battery state of charge (SOC) under differ-
ent seasons. Although the rated output capacity of the quick charger is 50 kW, the realized
charging rate to vehicle is lower, especially during winter. Charging during summer (higher
ambient temperature) leads to higher charging rate; therefore, shorter charging time can be
 Advanced Charging System for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Battery Electric Vehicles 69
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Figure 1. Charging rate and SOC change of battery in different season of charging: (a) winter, (b) summer.

achieved. To charge to battery SOC of 80% from about SOC of 30%, the required charging
durations in both winter and summer are 35 and 20 min, respectively. During summer, a
relatively high charging rate (about 40 kW) can be achieved up to an SOC of about 50%.
However, the charging rate decreases moderately in accordance with the increase of battery
70 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

SOC. The charging rate at battery SOC of 80% is about 16 kW. On the other hand, during win-
ter, the charging rate reaches about 35 kW instantaneously in relatively short duration and
then decreases following the increase of battery SOC. In addition, the charging rate at battery
SOC of 80% is about 10 kW.

Figure 2 shows both current and voltage changes during charging under different seasons.
The curves of charging current are almost similar to charging rates in Figure 1. Lithium-ion

Figure 2. Current and voltage during charging in different seasons: (a) winter, (b) summer.
 Advanced Charging System for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Battery Electric Vehicles 71
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batteries are generally charged with a constant current (CC)–constant voltage (CV) method
[22]. Charging under lower temperature leads to a gradual decrease in the charging current
with charging time or increase in battery SOC. In contrast, charging under relatively warmer
conditions resulted in a higher charging current, especially at low battery SOCs. Higher CC of
about 105 A is obtained at the initial charging of 5–10 min (battery SOC of up to about 50%).
With regard to charging voltage, although there is no significant difference between charging
in both conditions, charging in a relatively higher temperature (summer) results in a higher
initial charging voltage before it is settling down to a certain constant value. Therefore, the CV
condition can be reached faster.

It is clear that the ambient temperature affects significantly the charging behaviour of PHEVs
and BEVs. Charging under relatively high ambient temperature (such as summer) facilitates
a higher charging rate, especially because of higher charging current and faster increase in the
charging voltage. Hence, a shorter charging time can be achieved.

When the vehicles are near to empty, the electricity can flow at a high rate and it starts to pace
down when the battery SOC is higher than 50%. In addition, it gets really slower when SOC
is higher than 80%. This phenomenon is generally called as tapering.

4. Advanced charging system

The widespread deployment of PHEV and BEV charging, especially fast charging, has some
critical impacts on the electrical grid including the quality deterioration of the grid and grid
overload. Therefore, it is very crucial to schedule and control the charging of PHEVs and
BEVs. One strategic method to charge the vehicles with minimum impact on the electric grid
is to adopt a battery to assist the charging. Aziz et al. [14] have proposed and studied the
battery-assisted charger (BAC) for PHEV and BEV. The battery is embedded inside the char-
ger with the aims of improving the quick-charging performance and minimizing the concen-
trated load to the grid.

The developed BAC is able to limit the received power from electrical grid, as well as control
the charging rate to the vehicles. It is important to manage the received power from the grid
in order to avoid the electricity demand larger than the contracted capacity and also optimize
the electricity demand following the grid conditions. In future, as the share of renewable
energy increases, the electrical grid also faces some problems including intermittency. This
leads to the requirements of energy storage and demand control.

BAC manages the electricity distribution inside the system, such as electricity received from
the grid, battery and chargers, to realize the optimum performance. Therefore, BAC is able
to satisfy both supply side (minimizing the grid load through load shifting and reduction of
electricity cost) and demand side (fascinating the vehicle owners through quick charging,
although during peak hours).
The purposes of BAC covers: (1) reducing the contracted power capacity from the electrical
grid, (2) avoiding the high electricity demand during peak hours due to PHEV and BEV charg-
ing, (3) shortening the charging time, as well as the waiting/queueing time, (4) facilitating a
72 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

possible participation to the grid-ancillary programs such as spinning reserve and frequency
regulations, (5) facilitating as storage for surplus electricity in the electrical grid due to high
generated power by renewable energy and excess power and (6) providing an emergency
back-up to the surrounding community in which it is installed.
Figure 3 represents the schematic diagram of the proposed BAC (solid and dashed lines serve
both electricity and information streams, respectively). A community energy management
system (CEMS) correlates to the whole management of energy throughout the community,
covering supply, demand and storage. It monitors and controls the energy inside the com-
munity to ensure the comfort and security of community members as well as minimize the
environmental influences and social cost. Concretely, CEMS communicates with other EMSs
under its authority including electricity price and supply and demand forecast. In addition,
it also negotiates with other CEMS or utilities outside the community to achieve the largest
benefits for the whole community.
In the electricity stream, there are three main components that are connected by high-capacity
DC lines: 1) AC/DC inverter, 2) stationary battery for storage and buffer and 3) quick charger
for vehicles. The AC/DC inverter receives the electricity from electrical grid and converts it to

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of BAC system for PHEV and BEV.

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relatively high voltage DC, which is about 400 V. In addition, the server/controller monitors,
calculates and controls the amount of electricity received from the electrical grid based on
some data, including electricity price and grid condition. Furthermore, the server manages
the electricity to and from the battery and the charging rate from a quick charger to the con-
nected vehicles. In the battery unit, a bidirectional DC/DC converter and battery management
unit (BMU) are introduced to facilitate controllable charging and discharging behaviours
according to the control values from the server. In the quick charger, a DC/DC converter and
a charging control unit (CCU) are introduced to facilitate active management during vehicle
charging. The number of quick chargers can be more than one, depending on the conditions.
The battery is adopted to store the electricity in case of the presence of remaining contracted
power capacity and lower electricity price (during off-peak hours). In addition, the battery dis-
charges its stored electricity in case of high electricity price due to high demand for charging
or peak hours. The stationary battery having relatively large capacity is generally employed
to sufficiently facilitate simultaneous charging of multiple vehicles. Therefore, the charging
service can be maintained with high quality.
According to the charging and discharging behaviours of the employed stationary battery
and the source of electricity for charging, quick-charging modes of the BAC are classified as
follows:

a. Battery discharging mode

Stationary battery releases its electricity to assist the charging. Therefore, vehicle charging
is conducted using electricity received from the electrical grid and discharged from the
stationary battery. This mode is introduced when a simultaneous quick charging of mul-
tiple vehicles occurs, especially in case of high electricity price. Electricity in the battery
discharging mode can be shown as follows:
Pgrid + Pbat = PQC1 + PQC2 + Ploss (1)
where Pgrid, Pbatt, Pqc and Ploss are electricity received from electrical grid, charged (negative
value) or discharged (positive value) electricity from stationary battery, discharged elec-
tricity for quick charging of vehicles and electricity loss, respectively.
b. Battery charging mode
When there is remaining electricity (margin between the contracted power capacity and
the used electricity) or the electricity prices is getting down (because of surplus electricity
in the grid, night time, etc.), the stationary battery is charged to store electricity. The flow
in this mode is expressed as Eq. (2).
Pgrid − Pbat = PQC1 + PQC2 + Ploss. (2)

c. Battery idling mode

Stationary battery might be in the idling (stand-by) mode in case of several conditions:
(a) contracted power capacity can sufficiently cover the electricity demand for simultane-
ous charging of vehicles (low charging demand), (b) stationary battery is empty or under
74 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

certain threshold value due to high and continuous charging of vehicles (stationary battery
is not able to supply the electricity unless being recharged). In the latter, BAC manages the
charging rate of each charger to corresponding vehicle; hence, the contracted power capac-
ity can be maintained avoiding any penalty. Electricity flow in the battery idling mode can
be represented as follows:

Pgrid = PQC1 + PQC2 + Ploss. (3)

BAC always maintains that the value of Pgrid must be lower than or maximally equal to the
contracted power capacity. Furthermore, Ploss is the total power loss in the system due to some
factors, such as AC/DC and DC/DC conversions and internally consumed electricity the sys-
tem. Therefore, the value of Ploss in each quick-charging mode might be different.

Table 2 shows the specification of the developed BAC system and the used vehicles during
experiments. Nissan Leaf having battery capacity of 24 kWh is used as the vehicle. Figure 4
shows the results of simultaneous quick charging of two vehicles during winter conducted
using conventional quick charger and BAC under contracted power capacity of 50 kW. The
electricity received from the grid is kept at 50 kW or below. In case of charging using the
conventional charging system, the first connected vehicle is charged with higher charging
rate than the vehicles connected later. This is due to the limit on contracted power capacity
as well as the available power for charging. The charging rate of the second connected vehi-
cle increases gradually as the charging rate of the first connected vehicle starts to decrease;
therefore, the total electricity can be maintained to be lower or equal to the contracted power

Component Property Value

Installed battery in the charger Battery type Li-ion
Total capacity 64.2 kWh
Nominal voltage 364.8 V
Maximum charging voltage 393.6 V
Cut-off voltage during discharge 336.0 V
Maximum current during discharge 176 A
SOC threshold during charge 90%
SOC threshold during discharge 10%

Quick charger Number 2 units

Standard CHAdeMO
Output voltage DC 50–500 V
Output current 0–125 A
Rated output power 50 kW

Vehicle Vehicle type Nissan Leaf

Battery type Laminated li-ion
Total battery capacity 24 kWh
Maximum voltage 403.2 V
Nominal voltage 360 V
Cell rated capacity 33.1 Ah (0.3 C)
Cell average voltage 3.8 V
Cell maximum voltage 4.2 V

Table 2. Specifications of the developed BACS.

 Advanced Charging System for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Battery Electric Vehicles 75
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Figure 4. Charging of two BEVs during winter with different charger: (a) conventional charger, (b) developed BAC.

capacity. In addition, when the charging rate of both the connected vehicles decreases due to
an increase of battery SOC, the total electricity purchased from the electrical grid decreases.
The first and second vehicles are charged to SOC of 80% after charging for 40 and 50 min,
respectively.
76 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

In contrast, in case of charging using the BAC, the first and second vehicles can enjoy almost
the same charging rate, and both vehicles reach battery SOC of 80% in almost the same time
(about 35 min). Furthermore, the electricity from electrical grid can be kept below the con-
tracted power capacity, although the total charging rate for both vehicles is larger than the
contracted power capacity. This is because the battery assisting the system was discharged to
supply electricity. Hence, compared to a conventional charging system, BAC is able to achieve
high-quality charging with higher charging rate during simultaneous charging.

Figure 5 shows the results of simultaneous charging of two vehicles during summer per-
formed using conventional charging system and BAC. A same tendency with charging during

Figure 5. Charging of two BEVs during summer with different charger: (a) conventional charger, (b) developed BAC.
 Advanced Charging System for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Battery Electric Vehicles 77
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winter, in the conventional charging system, the first connected vehicle enjoys a higher charg-
ing rate, while the second vehicle must contend with significantly lower charging rate because
of limited contracted power capacity. The first and second vehicles reach battery SOC of 80%
after charging of about 20 and 30 min, respectively.
When charging with BAC, similar to the case in winter, both vehicles could be charged almost at
the same charging rate while maintaining the contracted power capacity. Both vehicles could be
charged in a relatively short time of about 20 min. The stationary battery discharges its electricity
until the total charging rate of two vehicles is equal or lower than the contracted power capacity.
It is clear that BAC improves the charging quality, especially during simultaneous charging
of multiple vehicles. In addition, from the point of view of the electricity grid, application and
deployment of BAC can reduce the stress on the grid because of the high demand for vehicle
charging.

5. Simultaneous charging with developed BAC system

Figure 6 shows the demonstration test results during winter and summer under the con-
tracted power capacity of 30 kW. Simultaneous charging of eight vehicles during summer can
be conducted quicker than one during winter because of higher charging rate. However, the
SOC of the stationary battery decreases considerably. It is because of the high discharging rate
of the stationary battery to assist the quick chargers as well as cover the electricity demand
due to limit of the contracted power capacity. In addition, the stationary battery cannot be
charged because of no available marginal electricity from the electrical grid.
On the other hand, the discharging rate of the stationary battery is significantly lower during
winter due to slower charging rate to the vehicles. Hence, the total charging rate of two quick
chargers can be maintained to be lower than the contracted power capacity. It results in the
marginal electricity that can be utilized to charge the stationary battery. Therefore, the SOC of
the stationary battery in winter does not largely decrease compared to one during summer.
Figure 7 shows the simultaneous charging of eight vehicles during summer under a con-
tracted power capacity of 15 kW. Compared to Figure 6, there is almost no significant change
in the charging rate of vehicles, except that of the last connected vehicle. However, the dis-
charging rate of the stationary battery is very high, resulting in significant decrease in its SOC.
The SOC of stationary battery drops rapidly and reaches 10% during charging of the last two
vehicles. As the result, the last connected vehicle is charged only using the electricity received
from the electrical grid, with no assistance from the stationary battery. As the contracted
power capacity is very low, the very last connected vehicle is not charged until the vehicle
before it is charged completely. The stationary battery cannot be charged during simultane-
ous charging because of the lack of marginal electricity and the high charging rate of vehicles.
Based on the results of the demonstration test, the application of BAC is potential to improve
significantly the charging performance of quick chargers, especially during the simultaneous
charging of multiple vehicles. The balance among vehicle charging rate, contracted power
capacity and stationary battery SOC seems to be very important. Therefore, PHEVs and BEVs
charging demand must be forecast initially.
78 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 6. Simultaneous charging of eight vehicles using BAC under contracted capacity of 30 kW: (a) winter, (b) summer.

Figure 7. Simultaneous charging experiments of eight vehicles using developed BAC under contracted capacity of 15
kW during summer.
 Advanced Charging System for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Battery Electric Vehicles 79
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6. Conclusion

As the number of PHEVs and BEVs is massively increasing, their charging becomes a very
important issue due to fluctuating and high demand of electricity. Therefore, it is very impor-
tant to manage their charging through coordinated charging, battery-assisted charging and
demand respond. Among these three methods, coordinated charging and demand respond
require advanced theoretical development, massive demonstration and coordination in
the electrical grid, therefore, they need couple of years in the future for realization. On the
other hand, battery-assisted charging is considered very applicable in terms of economy and
technology.

Charging behaviour of PHEV and BEV is strongly influenced by ambient temperature.

Charging under relatively high ambient temperature (summer) leads to higher charging rate;
therefore, shorter charging time can be realized. In addition, battery-assisted charger (BAC)
has been developed especially to facilitate simultaneous charging of multiple vehicles under
certain limited contracted power capacity. The demonstration test of BAC proves that it can
facilitate high quality of charging, while minimizing the electrical grid stress due to massive
and concentrated charging of PHEVs and BEVs.

Author details

Muhammad Aziz

Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

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2004;49:4857-4863. DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2004.05.038

[26] Ping P, Wang Q, Huang P, Sun J, Chen C. Thermal behaviour analysis of lithium-
ion battery at elevated temperature using deconvolution method. Applied Energy.
2014;129:261-273. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.04.092

[27] Jansen AN, Dees DW, Abraham DP, Amine K, Henriksen GL. Low-temperature study
of lithium-ion cells using a LiySn micro-reference electrode. Journal of Power Sources.
2007;174:373-379. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.06.235

[28] Liao L, Zuo P, Ma Y, Chen X, An Y, Gao Y, Yin G. Effects of temperature on charge/dis-

charge behaviors of LiFePO4 cathode for Li-ion batteries. Electrochimica Acta. 2012;60:
269-273. DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.11.041
 Chapter 4

A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-

Split Hybrid Powertrain

Enhua Wang, Fuyuan Yang and Minggao Ouyang

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/67756

Abstract
A hybrid energy storage system (HESS) consisting of batteries and supercapacitors can
be used to reduce battery stress and recover braking energy efficiently. In this paper, the
performance of a novel coaxial power-split hybrid transit bus with an HESS is studied.
The coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain consists of a diesel engine, a generator, a
clutch, and a motor, whose axles are arranged in a line. A mathematical model of the
coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS is established and the parameters
are configured using experimental data. Subsequently, to estimate the system perfor-
mance, a program is designed based on Matlab and Advisor. A rule-based control
strategy is designed and finely tuned for the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain.
Then, using the Chinese Transit Bus City Driving Cycle (CTBCDC), the system charac-
teristics and energy efficiencies of the designed coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain
with an HESS are analysed. The results indicate that the proposed coaxial power-split
hybrid powertrain with an HESS can fulfil the drivability requirement of transit bus and
enhance the energy efficiency significantly compared with a conventional powertrain
bus as well as reduce the battery stress simultaneously. Using an HESS is a good
solution for the coaxial power-split hybrid transit bus.

Keywords: coaxial power-split hybrid electric bus, hybrid energy storage system,
supercapacitor, lithium-ion battery, performance simulation

1. Introduction

Energy conservation and emission reduction are two important tasks for a sustainable develop-
ment of our industrial society. In terms of automotive industry, applications of hybrid electric

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
84 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

vehicle (HEV), electric vehicle (EV), and fuel cell vehicle (FCV) are effective technical approaches
for energy conservation and emission reduction [1, 2]. Currently, EV and HEV cannot compre-
hensively fulfill the requirements of transit buses due to their poor durability and high cost.
However, HEV is a feasible solution with high reliability and relatively low cost.
There are two kinds of power source for an HEV: one is internal combustion engine, and the
other is electric energy storage system (ESS). An ESS can discharge electric power to propel the
vehicle or absorb electric power during the regenerative braking process. Generally, the archi-
tecture of an HEV powertrain can be classified as series hybrid, parallel hybrid, and power-
split hybrid [3]. Taking into account the heavy-duty hybrid powertrain for transit buses, series
hybrid and parallel hybrid are widely adopted presently. For instance, Orion VII and Man Lion
use series hybrid powertrain for their transit buses. Volvo and Eaton designed two types of
parallel hybrid powertrain for heavy-duty applications.
With the progress of technology, the battery used for the ESS of an HEV has been gradually
shifted from lead-acid, NiCad, and Ni-MH to lithium-ion battery. Lithium-ion batteries will be
used widely as the ESS for various vehicles because of their high-energy density, good safety, and
long durability [4]. Currently, the materials of lithium-ion batteries are mainly lithium iron
phosphate and nickel-cobalt-manganese ternary composite [5]. An HEV transit bus undergoes
frequent acceleration and deceleration during its working time and requires large working cur-
rents of the ESS for these processes. Because the discharge and charge rates of lithium-ion battery
are limited, if the ESS consists of only lithium-ion batteries, a large capacity of lithium-ion batteries
is required, which will increase the cost and weight of an HEV greatly. To overcome this problem,
hybrid energy storage system (HESS) composed of lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors is
employed. In contrast to a lithium-ion battery, a supercapacitor can charge or discharge with very
large instantaneous currents. This characteristic can provide sufficient electric power during the
acceleration process and store electric energy during the regenerative braking process. Because
supercapacitors use a porous carbon-based electrode material, a very high effective surface area
can be obtained by this porous structure compared to a conventional plate structure.
Supercapacitors also have a minimal distance between the electrodes, which result in a very high
capacitance compared to a conventional electrolytic capacitor [6, 7]. Apart from the fast charge/
discharge rates and the high-power density, supercapacitors have much longer lifetimes (>100,000
cycles) compared to lithium-ion batteries [8–10]. However, supercapacitors normally have a much
smaller energy capacity compared with lithium-ion batteries. Therefore, using an HESS can fully
utilize the advantages of these two kinds of energy storage devices and avoid their disadvantages.
Figure 1 shows four primary topologies of an HESS, which encompass passive hybrid topology,
supercapacitor semi-active hybrid topology, battery semi-active hybrid topology, and parallel
active hybrid topology [11, 12]. The passive hybrid topology is the simplest to combine battery
and supercapacitor together. The advantage of this topology is that no power electronic converters
are needed. Because the voltage of the DC bus is stabilized by the battery, the stored energy of the
supercapacitor cannot be utilized sufficiently. In the supercapacitor semi-active topology, the
battery is connected to the DC bus directly, while the supercapacitor uses a bidirectional DC/DC
converter to interface the DC bus. As a result, the voltage of the DC bus equals the output voltage of
the battery so that it cannot be varied too much. But the voltage of the supercapacitor can be
changed in a wide range. The disadvantage of this topology is that a large size of DC/DC converter
 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split Hybrid Powertrain 85
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Figure 1. Topologies of hybrid energy storage system for vehicle application: (a) passive hybrid topology, (b) supercapacitor
semi-active hybrid topology, (c) battery semi-active hybrid topology, and (d) parallel active hybrid topology.

is required. In the battery semi-active topology, the supercapacitor is connected to the DC bus
directly, while the battery uses a bidirectional DC/DC converter to interface the DC bus. The
advantage is the battery current can be maintained at a near constant value, thus the lifetime and
energy efficiency of the battery can be improved significantly. The main shortcoming of this
topology is that the voltage of the DC bus will vary during the charging/discharging process of
the supercapacitor. The parallel hybrid topology is an optimal choice that can solve all the prob-
lems of the above topologies. The disadvantage is that two DC/DC converters are needed which
will increase complexity, cost, and additional losses of the system. Three different topologies of
HESS using supercapacitors as the main energy storage device for EV application were analyzed
by Song et al. [13]. Rothgang et al. studied the performance of an active hybrid topology [14].
Among these various architectures, the supercapacitor semi-active hybrid topology using lithium-
ion batteries as the main storage device is considered as a good solution for HEVapplication due to
its high-power density and low cost.

Most of investigations about HESS focus on EV applications. Hung and Wu designed a rule-based
control strategy for the HESS of an EV and estimated the system performance [15]. Vulturescu
et al. tested the performance of an HESS consisting of NiCad batteries and supercapacitors [16].
Song et al. compared three different control strategies for an HESS, which included a rule-based
control, a model predictive control, and a fuzzy logic control [17]. An HESS can also be used
with a fuel cell and successfully satisfy the requirements of an FCV [18–20]. However, few
investigations are concentrated on the application of an HESS for an HEV at present because they
are more complicated than those for an EV. Masih-Tehrani et al. studied the energy management
86 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

strategy of an HESS for a series hybrid powertrain [21] and Nguyen et al. investigated the
performance of a belt-driven starter generator (BSG)-type parallel hybrid system with an HESS
[22]. All these studies give the HESS an advantage over the ESS with only batteries.
The control strategy of an HESS for an EV is easier than that for an HEV or an FCV because it
only needs to consider the power distribution between the batteries and supercapacitors. By
contrast, the control strategy of an HEV with an HESS must assign the power demand of
vehicle among the ICE, the batteries, and the supercapacitors, thus it is more complicated.
Currently, few researches about the HESS for a power-split HEV are reported. In this study, a
coaxial power-split HEV with an HESS for heavy-duty transit bus application is evaluated. The
HESS uses lithium-ion batteries as the main energy storage device. The performance of the
hybrid transit bus is analyzed using the Chinese Transit Bus City Driving Cycle (CTBCDC).

2. System description

Figure 2 shows the architecture of the designed coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain for a
transit bus with a supercapacitor semi-active hybrid energy storage system. The auxiliary power
unit (APU) consists of a diesel engine and a permanent magnetic synchronous generator (PMSG)

Figure 2. Architecture of the designed coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with a hybrid energy storage system for
transit bus where a CNG engine, a generator, a clutch, and a motor are arranged sequentially in a line.
 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split Hybrid Powertrain 87
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whose shafts are connected directly. This shaft is also associated with the input axle of the clutch.
The output axle of the clutch is linked to a permanent magnetic synchronous motor (PMSM)
whose shaft is also connected to the final drive. Besides the diesel engine, an HESS composed of
lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors as well as a bidirectional DC/DC converter is used to
provide electric power to the PMSM. A high-voltage power line is connected to the PMSG, the
PMSM, the battery pack, and the DC/DC converter. The supercapacitor pack exchanges electric
power with the high-voltage power line via the controllable bidirectional DC/DC converter.
The main technical parameters of the designed coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an
HESS are listed in Table 1. The internal combustion engine is a 6.5 L YC6J220 diesel engine
manufactured by Yuchai Machinery Co., Ltd. The supercapacitor pack is composed serially of
12 units of Maxwell 48-V module. The battery pack consists of nine paralleled groups and each

Component Parameter Value Unit

Engine Type YC6J220 diesel engine –

Rated power 162 kW
Rated speed 2500 r/min
Maximum torque 760 N·m
Peak efficiency 41.9 %

Supercapacitors Type Maxwell 48-V module –

Number of modules 12 –
Energy capacity 0.651 kWh
Rated voltage 576 V
Voltage range 172–570 V

Batteries Type A123 26650 LiFePO4 cell –

Number of modules 1701 –

Energy capacity 14 kWh

Rated voltage 604 V

Voltage range 570–591 V

Motor Type Jing-Jin Electric PMSM –
Rated power 150 kW
Rated speed 3000 r/min
Maximum torque 2100 Nm

Peak efficiency 93.5 %

Generator Type Jing-Jin Electric PMSG –

Rated power 135 kW

Rated speed 3000 r/min

Maximum torque 850 Nm

Peak efficiency 94.5 %

Table 1. Technical specifications of the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain.

88 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

group is serially connected by 189 cells of the A123 nanophosphate lithium-ion ANR26650M1-
B cell. The energy capacity of the battery pack is decided by the all-electric driving range, and
its c-rate is defined by the average output power. In this design, the energy capacity of the
battery pack is 14 kWh. Both the PMSG and the PMSM are low-speed high-power electric
machines developed by Jing-Jin Electric Technologies Co., Ltd.

3. Mathematical model

A mathematical model of the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS is established
to analyze the system performance. According to the working principle of the entire system, a
lumped-parameter model is used.

3.1. Vehicle dynamics

Since the rear axle is used to drive the hybrid transit bus, the tractive force of the rear axle is
determined according to the longitudinal vehicle dynamics [23].

1 dv
F ¼ Fr þ Fa þ Fi þ Fj ¼ mg cos αðf 1 þ f 2 vÞ þ ρACD v2r þ mg sin α þ δm (1)
2 dt

Therefore, the tractive force F can be calculated according to the practical driving conditions.

The loads of the front and rear axles can be calculated based on the vehicle parameters. Then,
the friction factor and the slip of the tires can be determined due to the required tractive force
and the axle load. Moreover, the rotating speed and the driving torque of the tires can be
obtained. If the vehicle is braking, the braking force imposed on the rear axle can be computed
according to the braking force distribution equation. Then, the braking torque and speed of the
rear tires can be determined. Subsequently, the model of the final drive determines the rotating
speed ωm and the torque Tm taking into account the friction loss Tl0 and the rotating inertia J0.

Tw dω
Tm ¼ þ T l0 þ i0 J0 (2)
i0 dt

ωm ¼ i 0 ω (3)

The PMSM model accounts for the requested torque Tmr and the input power Pm calculated by
a two-dimensional (2D) lookup table measured from a motor test bench [24].

In the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain, a clutch is used to control the operation mode
that is either the series or the parallel mode. The mathematical model of the clutch is a simple
friction model [25], which is used to determine the clutch state among the engaged, the
slipping, and the disengaged states. The torque and speed transmitted through the clutch are
also determined.
 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split Hybrid Powertrain 89
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3.2. Auxiliary power unit

Normally, an auxiliary power unit is a combination of the engine and the generator. The diesel
engine model accounts for the requested torque Ter according to the engine output torque Te
and the engine speed ωe.
dωe
Ter ¼ Te þ Je (4)
dt

Subsequently, the fuel consumption Me is calculated using the density of diesel fuel ρf for the
diesel engine.
ð tc
me dt
Me ¼ 0ð tc (5)
ρf vdt
0

where tc is the final time of the driving cycle. The mathematical model of the generator is
similar with the motor. The requested torque Tgr is determined according to the input torque of
the generator Tg and the inertia Jg. The output power Pg is a function of the generator speed ωg
and torque Tgr defined by a 2D lookup table.

dωg
Tgr ¼ Tg þ Jg (6)
dt
Pg ¼ f ðωg , T gr Þ (7)

3.3. Hybrid energy storage system

The model of lithium-ion batteries of the designed HESS is a Rint model [24]. If the output
power of the battery pack is Pbat, the energy equilibrium of this circuit can be expressed as

Rbat i2bat � Ubat ibat þ Pbat ¼ 0 (8)

Then, the current of the battery is calculated by

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Ubat � U 2bat � 4Rbat Pbat
ibat ¼ (9)
2Rbat

The SOC of the lithium-ion batteries at time k is defined as

ðk
SOCbat, k ¼ SOCbat, 0 þ ibat ðtÞdt (10)
t¼0

The internal resistance Rbat and capacitance Cbat are calculated via looking up two 2D maps.
The data of these maps are obtained according to the references [26, 27] for A123 system’s
ANR26650M1-B lithium-ion battery.
90 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The supercapacitors of the designed HESS use an RC model [24]. Given the output power of
the supercapacitors Psc, the energy equation of the supercapacitor circuit is expressed as

Rsc i2sc � Usc isc þ Psc ¼ 0 (11)

Then, the current of the supercapacitors is obtained by

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
U sc � U2sc � 4Rsc Psc
isc ¼ (12)
2Rsc

The SOC of the supercapacitors at time k is calculated as

U sc ðk � 1Þ � Ciscscðk�1Þ
ðk�1Þ
SOCsc ðkÞ ¼ (13)
U sc, max

To make sure the supercapacitors can recover the regenerative braking energy efficiently, the SOC
of the supercapacitors is corrected according to the vehicle velocity during the driving process.
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!�
u �
u
t U 2sc, min vðkÞ 2
SOC�sc ðkÞ ¼ SOCsc, max 1 � 1 � 2 (14)
U sc, max vmax

where SOC*sc is the corrected SOC, SOCsc,max is the maximum SOC, Usc,max and Usc,min are the
maximum and minimum voltages of the supercapacitors, respectively, and vmax is the maxi-
mum vehicle velocity. The designed supercapacitor pack consists of Maxwell’s 48-V module
and the detailed parameters are obtained from a laboratory test.
The DC/DC model of the HESS uses a 2D map to determine the energy efficiency based on the
input power and the voltage ratio, which can provide a good precision and a fast calculation speed.

4. Energy management strategy design

The control strategy of a coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain only using supercapacitors as
energy storage system was designed by Ouyang et al. previously, which involves series hybrid
mode, parallel hybrid mode, and the mode transition logic [28]. For the coaxial power-split
hybrid powertrain with an HESS, one more task must be designed—the energy management
strategy of the HESS. The thermostatic control, the power follower control, and the optimal
control [29] are the three main control strategies for the series hybrid mode while the parallel
electric assist control, the adaptive control, and the fuzzy logic control are normally used for
the parallel hybrid mode. Currently, the rule-based control, the filter control, the model pre-
dictive control, and the fuzzy logic control are the four main control strategies of an HESS to
distribute the power demand between the batteries and the supercapacitors.
Investigations indicate that the performance of rule-based control strategy can approach to that
of the optimal control after optimization of the parameters of the rule-based control [30].
 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split Hybrid Powertrain 91
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Therefore, in this study, a rule-based control strategy for the coaxial power-split hybrid
powertrain is designed and is shown in Figure 3. The entire rule-based control strategy is
composed of a series mode control and a parallel mode control as well as an HESS control. The
series mode control strategy uses a power follower control method shown in Figure 3. If the
driving power demand of the vehicle is lower than a certain value, the system enters the series
mode control. First, the required power of the motor Pd is computed according to the system
mathematical model. Then, the output power of the engine is determined based on the generator
efficiency map. The modified discharging/charging power is calculated according to the differ-
ence between the present SOC and the target one. Subsequently, the requested power of the
diesel engine is determined according to the defined optimal operation line (OOL) of the series
mode control [31]. Meanwhile, the engine on/off state is decided due to the required power Pd
and the current SOC. If the engine state is on, the final required engine torque and speed are
computed according to the requested power of the engine and the defined OOL.

Figure 3. Control strategy for the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS composed of a series mode control
and a parallel mode control as well as an HESS control strategy.
92 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

If the vehicle velocity is greater than the set value, the system changes to the parallel mode
control. A parallel electric assist control strategy is used in this research and is shown in Figure 3.
First, the demanded speed and torque of the auxiliary power unit are determined by the clutch
model according to the power demand of the motor Pd. In the clutch model, the decision logic of
the clutch state sets the working state of the clutch. When the clutch is engaged at the parallel
mode control, the requested torque of the APU, which equals the output torque of the engine, is
the summation of the driving torque directly transferred to the final drive and the charge torque
that is transmitted to the generator. The motor provides the remaining driving torque simulta-
neously. Subsequently, the control parameters of the parallel mode are optimized across the
overall engine’s working region. Same as the series mode control, the modified discharging/
charging power is calculated. Then, engine on/off state is decided by the clutch state and the
SOC as well as the requested vehicle velocity. At last, the requested torque and speed of the
engine are determined based on the engine state and the power demand.
The requested power of the diesel engine is obtained by the series or parallel control strategy.
Then, the power demand of the HESS Phess can be calculated as the difference between the power
demand of the motor and the request power of the diesel engine. The HESS energy management
strategy is in charge of the distribution of the power demand between the lithium-ion batteries
and the supercapacitors. The detailed strategy shown in Figure 3 is a combination of the rule-
based control and the filter control. If Phess is positive, the HESS should output electric power to
the power line. First, an algorithm estimates the mean discharge power during the driving cycle
and a low-pass filter outputs a filtered discharge power of the batteries. Then, the discharging
power decision block calculates the output powers of the batteries and the supercapacitors based
on the designed threshold values of SOC and the mean discharge power. If Phess is negative, the
motor outputs electric power to charge the HESS. Thereby, the control strategy is similar with the
positive situation. Meanwhile, an SOC correction algorithm of the supercapacitors is employed
based on the vehicle velocity for the discharging process.

5. Results and discussion

A program was developed using Matlab and Advisor according to the mathematical model of
the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS. The designed simulation model
combines the backward- and forward-facing methods and can evaluate the drivability and
economy of the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain system. In this research, a hybrid transit
bus with a total mass of 15 ton manufactured by Higer Bus Company Limited is applied. The
detailed parameters of the hybrid transit bus are listed in Table 2.
Using the CTBCDC driving cycle, the performance of the designed coaxial power-split hybrid
powertrain with an HESS is evaluated, and the results are shown in Figure 4. The target and
available values of the vehicle speed are compared in Figure 4a. The target vehicle speed is
defined by the CTBCDC driving cycle. The available vehicle speed is determined using the
established program and can follow the target one perfectly, which means the coaxial power-
split hybrid powertrain with an HESS can satisfy the requirements of the drivability
completely. The evaluated power demand of the motor is shown as the solid profile of
Figure 4b. As a contrast, the output power of the diesel engine is given as the dashed line.
 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split Hybrid Powertrain 93
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Parameter Value Unit

Vehicle mass excluding pack 12,930 kg

Cargo mass 2070 kg

Dimensions 12  2.55  3 mmm

Rolling resistance coefficient 0.0094 –

Aerodynamic drag coefficient 0.70 –

Vehicle frontal area 7.65 m2

Wheel radius 0.506 m

Final gear 5.833 –

Table 2. Parameters of the transit bus.

The designed coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS can recover the braking
energy efficiently during the regenerative braking. When the vehicle is driving, the power
demand of the motor increases with the vehicle velocity and the diesel engine will start and
provide part of the driving energy if the driving power demand of the vehicle is greater than
the specified value of the series mode control or the parallel mode control.

The system operation state is shown in Figure 4c, where 0 represents the EV mode, 1 means
the series control mode, and 2 denotes the parallel control mode. If the vehicle driving power is
greater than 110 kW, the operation mode switches from the series mode to the parallel mode.
Meanwhile, the EV mode can be changed from both the series control mode and the parallel
control mode. The output speed and torque of the diesel engine are shown in Figure 4d and e,
respectively. Because the power follower control is used for the series control mode and the
engine speed is proportional to the vehicle velocity at the parallel mode, the engine speed
varied from 1494 to 1842 r/min during the working process. Furthermore, the engine output
torque maintains at a high level of 550.4–761.6 Nm when the engine is running.
The performance of the HESS for the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain is displayed in
Figure 5. The output power of the HESS is given in Figure 5a. The output powers of each of the
energy storage devices are given in Figure 5b, where the dashed line is used for the lithium-ion
batteries, and the dash dotted line is used for the supercapacitors. In Figure 5, positive values
represent discharging process and negative is used for charging. The output power of the HESS
varies with the power demand of the motor. The maximum and minimum output powers
achieve 104.8 and 112.9 kW, respectively. The output power of the lithium-ion batteries changes
from 50 to 50 kW during the driving cycle, which means the output current of the batteries can
be significantly decreased. The supercapacitors discharge or charge with large powers for the
high-power working conditions to compensate the power difference between Phess and Pbat. The
SOC profiles for the lithium-ion batteries and the supercapacitors are shown in Figure 6c. During
the charge sustain mode, the SOC of the batteries manifests a very small variation during the
cycle. As a contrast, the SOC of the supercapacitors varies within a wide range from 0.395 to 0.99.
The reason is that the capacity of the lithium-ion batteries is much greater than that of the
supercapacitors and the output power of the lithium-ion batteries is constrained to a small range.
The output voltages of the batteries and the supercapacitors are shown in Figure 5d. The output
voltage of the lithium-ion batteries, which equals the power line voltage, changes in a very small
94 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 4. Analysis results of the system performance of the designed coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an
HESS using the Chinese Transit Bus City Driving Cycle: (a) comparison of the target and estimated vehicle speeds, (b) the
driving power requested by the transit bus Pd and the requested power provided by the engine Pe, (c) the system
operation mode where 0 means pure electric vehicle mode and 1 represents series hybrid mode and 2 is parallel hybrid
mode, (d) the engine speed, and (e) the engine requested torque.

range from 559.1 to 584.9 V. The stable voltage characteristic will be beneficial for the operations
of the motor and the generator. Although the output voltage of the supercapacitors varies in a
large scope, it is still within the allowable voltage ratio of the DC/DC module. The currents of the
batteries and the supercapacitors are displayed in Figure 5e. The current of the supercapacitors
increases while the current of the batteries is much smaller and the discharging/charging rate of
the batteries is less than 4C, which is very helpful for the life extension of the batteries.
 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split Hybrid Powertrain 95
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Figure 5. Analysis results for the performance of the HESS system: (a) the electric power output by the HESS, (b) the
power outputs of the batteries Pbat and the supercapacitors Psc, (c) SOCs of the batteries SOCbat and the supercapacitors
SOCsc, (d) output voltages of the batteries Ubat and the supercapacitors Usc, (e) output currents of the batteries ibat and the
supercapacitors isc where positive values denote discharging process and negative for charging.

Figure 6 gives the performances of the motor and the generator of the coaxial power-split hybrid
powertrain with an HESS. The input power of the motor generally follows the vehicle driving
power during the cycle, which means only a small part of the mechanical power of the diesel
engine is used to propel the vehicle directly. Although the current of the motor varies in a wide
range from �193.6 to 215.9 A, it does not exceed the maximum operation current of the motor.
96 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The generator operates only a small part of the time and its output power changes mainly from
24.38 to 104.8 kW. The current of the generator varies with the output power because the power
line voltage is stable.
To evaluate the potential of fuel saving for the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an
HESS, 12 prototypes of hybrid transit bus were built and applied to a practical city routes in
Ningbo, Zhejiang Province. A total mileage of over 40,000 km for each hybrid transit bus was
achieved, and the average fuel consumption is approximately 24.53 L/100 km, which is listed in
Table 3. Using the established mathematical model and the analysis program, the estimated fuel
consumption of the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS is 24.43 L/100 km,
which is also listed in Table 3. The SOC difference of the lithium-ion batteries between the start
and end points is 0.0034. The practical driving routes in Ningbo are different with the CTBCDC
driving cycle. The start/stop frequency is decreased compared with the CTBCDC driving cycle.
Therefore, the improvement of fuel efficiency is a bit lower. On the other hand, the ambient
temperature and the total vehicle weight varying during the practical driving conditions also

Figure 6. Results of the motor and the generator: (a) the input power of the motor (a positive value is used for driving
process and a negative one is for regenerative braking), (b) the output current of the motor, (c) the requested power of the
generator, and (d) the output current of the generator.
 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split Hybrid Powertrain 97
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have a great influence on the fuel consumption. Herein, the experimental result only gives a very
coarse and average evaluation of the fuel efficiency. Moreover, the fuel consumption of a con-
ventional powertrain using a YC6G270 diesel engine and a five-gear manual transmission is
computed based on the same vehicle parameters as the hybrid transit bus. The total mass of the
bus with the conventional powertrain is 15,000 kg, which is the same as that of the coaxial
power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS. The result is 36.33 L/100 km. Compared with the
results of the conventional powertrain, the fuel consumption of the coaxial power-split hybrid
powertrain with an HESS can be decreased significantly by about 32.5%.

From the viewpoint of energy efficiency, the reason for such a great fuel reduction can be explained.
Figure 7 shows the effective thermal efficiency map of the YC6J220 diesel engine obtained on an
engine test bench. The engine’s working points estimated by the analysis program are also
displayed. The OOL line of the series control mode is represented by the thick solid line in Figure 7.
As a contrast, the effective thermal efficiency map of the YC6G270 diesel engine for the conven-
tional powertrain and the corresponding working points are given in Figure 8. It can be seen that
the engine working points of the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS are very
close to the region having the peak efficiency and their thermal efficiencies are greater than 40%.
However, the working points of the conventional powertrain shown in Figure 8 will change with
the vehicle velocity, resulting in a very wide distribution from the idle speed to the full load.
Therefore, many working points of the conventional powertrain locate in the low-efficiency
regions, leading to a low efficiency of the entire powertrain system.

The energy efficiency map of the PMSM obtained on a motor test bench and the relative
working points for the CTBCDC driving cycle are given in Figure 9. A large part of the
working points situates close to the peak-efficiency region. The efficiencies of most of the
working points are higher than 93.4% except for the low-speed and small-load regions. The
energy-weighted average efficiency of the motor during the CTBCDC driving cycle is
91.92%. Because the motor is connected to the final drive without a transmission, a particular
design of the PMSM can ensure that the motor efficiency is high enough for low-speed
working conditions. The energy efficiency map of the PMSG measured on a motor test bench
and the corresponding working points for the CTBCDC driving cycle are displayed in
Figure 10. The efficiencies of the PMSG are found to be between 92 and 93% during the
CTBCDC driving cycle, and the energy-weighted average efficiency is 92.55%, which
approaches the peak efficiency of the PMSG

Powertrain Fuel consumption (l/100 km) Energy reductiona (%)

Conventional powertrain bus 36.33

Coaxial power-split hybrid bus 24.43b 32.76
24.53c 32.48

a
Relative to the conventional bus equipped with a YC6G270 diesel engine.
b
Analysis result of the hybrid transit bus equipped with a YC6J220 diesel engine.
c
Test result of the hybrid transit bus equipped with a YC6J220 diesel engine.

Table 3. Results of fuel consumption.

98 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 7. Energy efficiency map of the YC6J220 diesel engine measured on a test bench where the points denote the
operation conditions of the diesel engine for the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS.

Figure 8. Analysis results of the conventional powertrain using a YC6G270 diesel engine and a five-gear transmission.
 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split Hybrid Powertrain 99
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Figure 9. Energy efficiency map of the motor measured on a motor test bench where the points denote operation points of
the motor for the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS.

Figure 10. Energy efficiency map of the generator measured on a motor test bench where the points denote operation
points of the generator for the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS.
100 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

6. Conclusions

In this study, the system performance of a coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with an HESS
for transit bus application was investigated. First, a system topology was designed. Then, a
mathematical model was established and an energy management strategy was developed.
Finally, the energy efficiency of the hybrid powertrain system was evaluated by Matlab and
Advisor. The main conclusions are summarized as follows:

1. Compared with the results of a coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with supercapacitors
as energy storage device, the equivalent fuel consumption of the designed coaxial power-
split hybrid powertrain with an HESS is a bit higher (24.43 vs. 20.46 L/100 km). The reason is
that the energy capacity of the supercapacitors in this study is much smaller than that of the
hybrid powertrain with only supercapacitors. Thus, the amount of the recovered regenera-
tive energy is smaller than that of the hybrid powertrain with only supercapacitors. On the
other hand, the DC/DC converter and the battery pack also have some losses during the
working processes. As a result, the energy efficiency of the coaxial power-split hybrid
powertrain with an HESS is lower than that of the hybrid powertrain with supercapacitors.
Because we have no data about the coaxial power-split hybrid powertrain with only batte-
ries, a quantitative comparison cannot be given here. Generally, if only batteries are used for
the energy storage system, a large size will be used and the cost will increase a lot. The
energy efficiency of such a system will be a trade-off between cost and lifetime of the
batteries. Nevertheless, the results of this study show that the coaxial power-split hybrid
powertrain with an HESS has a very good energy efficiency compared with a conventional
powertrain of the same level.
2. Because the designed HESS has a smaller size and weight and lower price than that with
only supercapacitors, and the lithium-ion batteries of the HESS can operate at an averaged
current and thus have a longer life cycle, the HESS is more suitable for hybrid transit bus
application.
3. The power line voltage of the HESS is more stable than that with only supercapacitors.
This will be beneficial for the operation of the accessories such as the air conditioner or the
in-vehicle infotainment system during the driving process.

Nomenclature

A vehicle frontal area (m2)

C capacitance (F)
CD aerodynamic drag coefficient
F tractive force (N)
f rolling resistance coefficient
g standard gravitational acceleration (9.8067 m/s2)
i current (A)
J inertia (kgm2)
 A Hybrid Energy Storage System for a Coaxial Power-Split Hybrid Powertrain 101
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M fuel consumption (L/100 km)

m vehicle mass (kg)
P power (W)
R resistance (Ω)
T torque (Nm)
t time (s)
U voltage (V)
v vehicle velocity (m/s)

Greek letters

α road angle ( )
δ mass factor
ρ air density (kg/m3)
ω angular speed of a tire

Subscript

0 final drive
a aerodynamic
b braking
bat battery
e engine
f fuel
g generator
i grade resistance
j acceleration
l loss
m motor
r rolling, rear, reduced
sc supercapacitor
w wheel

Acronyms

APU auxiliary power unit

CTBCDC Chinese Transit Bus City Driving Cycle
ESS energy storage system
EV electric vehicle
FCV fuel cell vehicle
HESS hybrid energy storage system
102 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

HEV hybrid electric vehicle

ICE internal combustion engine
OOL optimal operation line
PMSG permanent magnetic synchronous generator
PMSM permanent magnetic synchronous motor
SOC state of charge

Author details

Enhua Wang1, Fuyuan Yang2 and Minggao Ouyang2*

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China

2 State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

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 Chapter 5

Performance Analysis of an Integrated Starter-

Alternator-Booster for Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Florin-Nicolae Jurca and Mircea Ruba

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68861

Abstract

The chapter aims to investigate the reduction of the fuel consumption of conventional
vehicles using mild-hybridization and considering the New European Driving Cycle
(NEDC), using two topologies of electrical machines dedicated to integrated starter-alter-
nator-booster (ISAB) applications: directly connected to the crankshaft (called ‘normal
ISAB’) and indirectly through the belt system (called BSAB), respectively. The behaviour
of ISAB and BSAB of a hybrid electric vehicle has been investigated with a multi-domain
simulation software developed in Advanced Modelling Environment for performing
Simulation (AMESim).

Keywords: electrification, hybrid electric vehicle, integrated starter-alternator-booster,

electrical machine

1. Introduction

As the electrification of vehicle propulsion at low (e-bikes) and high power (buses) continues
to extend, the current research efforts on this topic are focused especially on increasing the
autonomy of vehicles due to the accumulation of electricity. Due to the lack of charging sta-
tion and low autonomy in terms of maintaining a reduced weight of the battery, the electrical
vehicle is momently limited to urban trails. In this context, the hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
were considered initially as a transition between conventional vehicles (internal combustion
engine (ICE)) and the electric ones, and now they still remain a viable solution that is gaining
ground by combining the advantages of both types of vehicles [1–4].
The trend in all types of vehicles (conventional, electrical, or hybrid vehicles) for the next years
is to increase the equipment with different types of electrical subsystems. These can be related

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
106 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

to the safety (direction, breaking, lights, distance sensors, mirrors etc.) or to the comfort (seats,
HAVC, audio, navigation display etc.). At the same time, a lot of traditional mechanically
driven loads are replaced with electrical driven ones (water pumps, servo steering, ventilation
fan, etc.). This demand of electrical energy, of around 10 kW [5], requires increasing generator
power and a certain level of efficiency (normally situated at 40–55%) [6]. A common alternator
in a car is relatively cheap and with low efficiency, but with the expected increase of power,
it exceeds the capability of the Lundell generator (claw pole synchronous machine). In this
context, the replacement of classical alternator with a high efficiency machine is mandatory.
Besides this, the operating mode of the conventional starter (around 1 s for each start) is used
only for the start of the ICE and after it becomes an extra weight in the vehicle. The easy (costs
and implementation) solution of this problem is to replace both machines (starter and alterna-
tor) with a single electrical machine.

The initial concept of the integrated starter-alternator (ISA) system was developed in order
to gain more space for the powertrain system and to reduce the weight of the vehicle by
combining the starter with the alternator. This system ensures the start/stop of the internal
combustion engine and the supply with electricity of all the auxiliary subsystems (safety
or comfort).

Especially in parallel configuration of HEV, the ISA is used for starting the internal combus-
tion and supply the electrical load. A second electrical machine is necessary for the electric
propulsion. The method for the simplification of this structure involves the use of a single
electric machine comprising three operating modes: starter-alternator and booster. In this
case, the integrated starter-alternator-booster (ISAB) system will be able initially to start the
ICE, then, when it is turned on, it will reverse to generator mode and will supply electricity
to consumers and the storage system. By adopting adequate control strategies, the electrical
machine is capable of moving quickly from generator to motor (booster) and back in order
to help the international combustion engine for a short period of time (maximum 2–3 min), if
more power is necessary (overruns, ramp, curbs, etc.) [7]. This operating mode of the machine
is generically called integrated starter-alternator-booster (ISAB). Using ISAB in parallel HEV
is generically called Mild-HEV. In this configuration, the full electric propulsion of the vehicle
is not possible, but the production costs necessary for the implementation of the hybridization
in conventional vehicles are lowest compared to other variants of HEV.

According to Ref. [8], where the influence of fuel consumption for a small car equipped with
ISAB is investigated and considering the European standard (1999/100 EC), the fuel consump-
tion is reduced to about 12% in total.

The increase in the number of electric components within the vehicles boosts the market for
electrical motors for hybrid and electric vehicles. A Frost & Sullivan market research finds that
the market earned revenues of about 55 million Euros in 2010, which are expected to reach
$1.6 billion by the end of 2017 [9].

The required characteristics of the ISAB in the starter mode and alternator (generator) mode
are very restrictive for a conventional electrical machine [10]:
 Performance Analysis of an Integrated Starter-Alternator-Booster for Hybrid Electric Vehicles 107
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• High value of electromagnetic torque for starting ICE (120–300 Nm).

• High efficiency at wide speed range (600–6000 rpm).

• Reliability at high vibrations and over 250,000 start/stop cycles (during 10 years).

• Operation at temperatures between −30 and 130°C.

• Easy maintenance and low cost and so on.

Usually, the ISAB can be connected with a gasoline or diesel engine, either directly through
the crankshaft (see Figure 1) or indirectly through the belt system (see Figure 2); based on
that, the systems are called belt-driven starter-alternator-booster (BSAB) and conventional
ISAB, respectively.

The size of the electrical machine is very important for BSAB application in order to keep
the overall size low (the same dimensions like the ones of a conventional alternator) but for
a given maximum torque, the systems usually have a recommended gear ratio 3:1 to the ICE
crankshaft, according to Ref. [8]. The BSAB runs with a speed three times higher than the ICE.
For the ISAB, the speed range is usually synchronized with combustion engine.

Figure 1. The ISAB system.

Figure 2. The BSAB system.

108 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

2. Electrical drive used for ISAB applications

2.1. Electrical machines

In the last decade, the development of power electronics (inverter/convertor) made the alter-
native current (AC) machines the best solution for ISAB applications, especially due to their
high power density. These are synchronous reluctance machine (SynRM), induction machine
and permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSM) in both supplying variants: with
sinusoidal and trapezoidal current.
The detailed investigation of SRM and induction machine is presented in Refs. [11, 12]. In
these studies, the complicated electronics needed for SRM and the difficult control of the
induction machine (influence of slip in performance of the machine) are highlighted. In this
context, the SynRM and PMSM are the best candidates for ISAB applications.

The electrical machines used for conventional ISAB applications are exposed at high tem-
peratures generated by ICE. This makes impossible the use of the PMSM in high efficiency
and low-cost conditions (only with a special method for cooling or using expensive SmCo
magnet). Therefore, the SynRM without permanent magnets is the best solution for the direct
connection to the crankshaft of ICE (ISAB) and PMSM machine for BSAB.

2.1.1. PMSM machine for BSAB applications

The main advantage of the PMSM compared with other types of electrical machine is their
high efficiency due to the absence of the field coil losses. The stator is constructed from three-
phase windings and steel sheets (the same as the induction machine), but due to the absence
of iron losses, the rotor is built from massive steel and permanent magnets. The position of the
permanent magnets can be categorized as surface-mounted type and interior type. This posi-
tion can have a significant effect on the mechanical and electrical characteristics, especially on
the synchronous inductance [13]. Because the permeability value of rare earth magnet (such
as NdFeB) is very close to that of the air, the air gap of the machine with mounted surface PM
effectively becomes larger in this case. This makes the machine d-axis inductance value very
low, with a significant effect on the ability of overloading the machine and operation at flux
weakening. Because the maximum torque is inverse proportional with the d-inductance, this
becomes very large. But the low value of d-inductance reduces the possibility to operate at
flux weakening. This is caused by the need to use a high value of the demagnetization com-
ponent of the stator current in order to decrease the flux value in the air gap. Therefore, the
remained current on the q axis will be insufficient to produce torque.

In the case of the interior magnets, it is possible to obtain a sinusoidal distribution of the air-
gap flux by using simple rectangular magnets. A sinusoidal flux distribution reduces consid-
erably the cogging torque, in particular in the case of the machine with a large number of pole
pairs and a small number of slots per pole and phase [14]. For these structures, it is also pos-
sible to increase the flux density in the air gap beyond the value of the remnant flux density of
the magnets by using the flux concentrators. Because in this case the d-inductance is usually
higher than with that of the surface magnets topologies, the overload capacity of the machine
will be reduced and the performance in flux weakening conditions will be higher.
 Performance Analysis of an Integrated Starter-Alternator-Booster for Hybrid Electric Vehicles 109
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The PMSM with outer rotor (PMSMOR) (see Figure 3) is one of the special topologies of
PMSM, with some advantages for BSAB applications:
• Belt mounted directly on the outer rotor, without using pulley.
• Easy mounting of permanent magnets, the centrifugal forces do not influence their me-
chanical stability.
• High torque capabilities.
• Convenience of cooling, etc.
The development cycle of PMSM (inner or outer rotor) topologies includes analytical proce-
dure, magnetic field analysis and optimization procedure connected to previous design steps.
The analytical procedure is presented in detail in Refs. [13, 14] and includes the following top-
ics: analysis of the specifications, selection of the topology, the active and passive materials,
sizing the machine, choice of the manufacturing technologies and information about prelimi-
nary cost evaluation. In the dimensioning procedure, classical formulas or dedicated software
platforms like SPEED software can be used.

The electromagnetic flux analysis is realized with dedicated programs (like Flux 2D/3D, Jmag
2D/3D, Maxwell 2D/3D, ANSYS, Opera, open-source programs, etc.) based on the finite ele-
ment method (FEM). The FEM is a widely used method for obtaining a numerical approxi-
mate solution for a given mathematical model of the machine. The obtained results are related
to the voltage/current waveform, map of flux density, electromagnetic torque, losses (iron and
Joule), and the efficiency value or map of it.

The optimization of electric machine is a multivariable, nonlinear problem with constraints. In

order to treat problems with constraints, it is necessary to transform them into unconstrained
ones. This can be done, for instance, by embedding the constraints in the objective function.

Figure 3. PMSMOR type.

110 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The most used optimization algorithms in design of all types of electrical machines are as
follows: genetics algorithms (GA), differential evolution algorithm (DEA), estimation of dis-
tribution algorithms (EDAs), particle swarm optimization (PSO) and multi-objective genetic
algorithms (MOGA, Pareto, etc.) [15].

A comprehensive evaluation of optimization algorithms was performed in Refs. [16–18]. The

authors of these studies state that any such classification of different optimization algorithms
is not truly appropriate since the performance is an objective closely related to the specifics
of each application. Nevertheless, in the optimization of the electrical machine, the authors
mostly agree that DEA achieves the best fitness values, i.e. the minimum objective function
value, usually with a smaller number of evaluation steps.

Considering the important step in the development of cycle of PMSM presented above, a
general design procedure of PMSMOR for BSAB applications is proposed and presented in
Figure 4.

2.1.2. SynRM machine for ISAB applications

Variable reluctance synchronous machines have received little attention in various comparative
studies approaching the selection of the most appropriate electric-propulsion system for either
HEV or EV. Malan [19, 20] showed that the SynRM drive has major advantages in electrical

Figure 4. General design procedure of PMSMOR.

 Performance Analysis of an Integrated Starter-Alternator-Booster for Hybrid Electric Vehicles 111
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propulsion. SynRM’s performance strongly depends on the saliency ratio, but increasing the
saliency complicates the rotor construction and drastically increases the motor cost. Interesting
results concerning the influence of the saliency ratio on the SynRM steady-state performances,
mainly on power factor and efficiency, are given in Ref. [21], while the effect of rotor dimen-
sions on d- and q-axis inductances in the case of a SynRM with flux barrier rotor is discussed in
Ref. [22]. Thus, the number of rotor flux barrier for the SynRM recommended in the literature
is four. Above this value, the technology of the rotor is too complicated, while for a value lower
than 4, the value of the torque ripple is too high. Regarding the rotor construction, there are
three main different types, given in Ref. [23], presented in Figure 5.
• With salient rotor poles (see Figure 5a): require low technological effort and are obtained
by removing the iron material from each rotor pole in the transversal region.
• With axially laminated rotor (ALA) (see Figure 5b): the rotor core is made of axial steel
sheets that are insulated from each other using electrically and magnetically insulation
(passive material).

• Transversally laminated anisotropic rotor (TLA) (see Figure 5c): the so-called ribs are ob-
tained by punching and then the various rotor segments are connected to each other by
these ribs.
The SynRM has a larger torque density compared with that of IM. This comes from the absence
of rotor cage and related losses. A different dynamic behaviour is expected from SynRM due
to the specific relationships between currents and fluxes. Because SynRM does not have a
traditional cage (especially used for starting), it is necessary to use the modern inverter tech-
nology. Therefore, most of the literature on SynRM drives has concentrated mainly on the
design and control of the machine with the goal of improving control, efficiency and torque
production, drive flexibility and cost [24].
The main drawback of SynRM is related to structural behaviour at high speeds (over 10,000
rpm) because the specific geometry of the rotor involves thin layers of steel and large cut-off
areas.

Figure 5. Rotor topologies for a SynRM: (a) simple salient pole, (b) axially laminated anisotropy rotor, and (c) transversally
laminated anisotropic rotor. Source: [23].
112 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Based on advantages and disadvantages of the SynRM and the specific applications of ISAB
(rated speed up to 10,000 rpm), SynRM is one of the most suitable candidates for direct con-
nection to crankshaft. The major advantages are high torque, thermal behaviour (absence of
permanent magnets and low average value of iron losses), high value of efficiency at entire
drive cycle of functioning, vibro-acoustic behaviour (low noise), etc.

In the development cycle of SynRM presented below, the most important step is related to the
rotor geometry and the structural behaviour (see Figure 6).

2.2. Power electronics

The electrical equipment installed on the vehicles operates at a nominal voltage of 14 V. In the
early 1990s, a new standard (PowerNET) for automotive electrical systems has been proposed
by a consortium of automotive manufacturers (Daimler-Benz and General Motors). Following a
proposal by the PowerNET, the voltage level increases for the electrical installation to 42 V [25].
The goal was to reduce the section of the conductors and gain the possibility to increase the total

Figure 6. General design procedure of SynRM.

 Performance Analysis of an Integrated Starter-Alternator-Booster for Hybrid Electric Vehicles 113
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power installed in the new generation of vehicle. The standard did not become very popular
because of its high implementation costs, which would require the redesign of all electrical and
electronical subsystems [26]. Instead, most producers were oriented on systems with two volt-
age levels: high voltage for propulsion and low voltage for auxiliary and electronic subsystems.

A starter-alternator system involves the use of a static frequency converter for the driving of
the electrical machine. The convertor will operate in both the inverter and rectifier regimes.
In the rectifier operating mode, it is indicated to adopt a control strategy of the converter
with the purpose of reducing losses and the harmonic content of the output currents of the
machine. The techniques for the control of the converter for these two modes are the same,
only the current reverses its sense depending on the operating mode.

The input voltage of the static frequency converter is a DC voltage, the value of which must
be kept constant in order to function optimally. The regulation of the input voltage of the
converter can be done by using a bidirectional DC/DC converter with a closed loop control.
An alternative to the use a DC/DC stage converter and another DC/AC converter is to use a
Z-Source Converter [27]. The Z-Source Converter is more capable compared with the classical
converter to operate both as a boost and buck converter due to the input impedances that give
it particular operating properties.

2.2.1. Power electronics of SynRM and PMSM

For the control of PMSM machine, the current of the q axis is maintained maximum in order to
produce high value of the torque and zero for d axis current, respectively. Instead, for SynRM,
the control strategies mean to keep the equal value of the q axis current with the d axis. In the
case of PMSM with interior magnets, this control strategy does not provide maximum torque
due to the additional reluctant torque [28] component that appears in expression:

T = __32 ⋅ p ⋅ [Ψ PM ⋅ iq − (Lq − Ld ) ⋅ id ⋅ iq] (1)

where T is the electromagnetic torque, p is a pair pole number, ΨPM is the permanent magnet
flux, iq is q axis current, id is d axis current, and Lq , Ld are q axis and d axis inductances.

The reluctant component of the torque has a maximum value for id ≠ 0 and the stator current
equal with π/4.

Usually, the implemented control method for the PMSM and SynRM for automotive applica-
tion is an indirect method, which is based on measuring the stator currents and calculating
the rotor flux phasor magnitude and position using these currents and the rotor position.
Thus, the flux transducer or flux estimators that are usually used in the vector control method
with direct measurement of flux are eliminated. This method has a disadvantage due to the
fact that the accurate determination of rotor flux phasor position requires a precise mea-
surement of rotor position. Thus, the practical implementation using speed measurement
for obtaining the integration of the rotor angle is not recommended. Hence, an incremental
encoder position or a resolver, which has a higher cost while providing the precision required
of a vector control with a good dynamic response in applications is used. In addition to this
vector control method that uses position sensors for determining the rotor angle control,
114 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

other methods where these transducers are eliminated (sensorless) exist. In these cases, the
rotor position is estimated by using complex algorithms, using as input the measurement
values of voltages and currents [29].
The general diagram control presented in Figure 7, usually used for PMSM and SynRM, can
be divided into power and control components. The power circuit consists of the electrical
machine (PMSM/SynRM), DC/DC converter, inverter, while the control loop consists of speed
transducer, current transducers, PWM signal generation block, transformation of coordinate
systems blocks and computing block of references current.

The control strategies considered for the SynRM are:

• Maximum torque control per ampere control (MPTAC)
The model of control is based on imposing the same currents for the d and q axes of the
machine as current references for the vector control of the machine. These currents are calcu-
lated from the torque equation like
_________

√
Tref
id = iq = _________
p ⋅ (L − L
(2)
d q)

• Maximum rate of change of torque control (MRCTC)

The control strategy is implemented in order to obtain fast machine response at sudden torque
steps of the load. The idea here is to compute the d and q current component functions of some
machine parameters and to use these components as input of the vector control scheme. The
detailed control strategy is presented in Ref. [30].

• Maximum power factor control (MPFC)

The aim of this method is to maximize the power factor of the machine. For this, the d and q
current components are computed as follows:

Iqimposed = Tref ⋅ __1p ⋅ _____

1
L −L I
1
⋅ ___________ (3)
d q d (from the machine)

Figure 7. Block diagram of vector control system for PMSM and SynRM.
 Performance Analysis of an Integrated Starter-Alternator-Booster for Hybrid Electric Vehicles 115
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cos (θ)
Idimposed = Iqimposed ⋅ ______
sin (θ)
(4)
For the ideal machine, θ is in the range 0–90° and gives best performance at 45°. For a real
machine, it has to be computed by varying its value and observing the performance of the
machine for each angle step.

3. Simulation of a hybrid electric vehicle with the ISAB system

In order to study the electrical machines in ISAB applications, the electric drive model
can be introduced and simulated in the Advanced Modelling Environment for perform-
ing Simulation (AMESim). AMESim is a multi-domain simulation software for the model-
ling and analysis of one-dimensional (1D) systems. In this program, each component or
physical phenomenon is described by differential equations, type formulation in which the
major variable is the time [31]. This approach is different from the partial derivate equa-
tions formulation, which formalizes the notion of the distribution of system properties in
space. The representation of a dynamic system starting from the notion of “multiport”
consists of highlighting the energy exchanges between a component and its environment
through the connecting ports. The connection of two or more components through the port
allows port exchange power (electrical, mechanical, etc.) according to the adopted sign
convention.

For automotive applications, the program comprises discrete components of the ICE, gear-
box, control system, electric loads, electrical machine and power inverter, connected together
to form a global model of a hybrid electric vehicle.

The geometrical and electrical parameters of electrical machine considered for ISAB (SynRM)
and BSAB (PMSMOR) application are presented in Table 1. The configuration of PMSMOR is
a three-phase machine with 36 slots and 15 poles, and the SynRM topology is a three-phase
machine with 27 slots and 4 poles. The dimension of PMSMOR has been imposed according
to Ref. [32] (data chosen for belt brushless alternator).
The simulation of the BSAB and ISAB is carried out on a New European Driving Cycle
(NEDC). A driving cycle is a series of points defining a speed profile that the studied vehicle
must follow [33]. The defined speed profile simulates most common operating modes of an
automobile (frequent acceleration and deceleration, load variations and speed variations) and
corresponds to both urban and extra-urban environments. The parameters and the profile of
NEDC are presented in Table 2 and Figure 8, respectively.

The model takes into account the most complex thermodynamic phenomena occurring in a
heat engine. In the initial implementation, the starter and alternator were a DC permanent
magnets machine and the Lundell generator, respectively. The model has been replaced by
the studied model and is shown earlier (PMSMOR/SynR). The motors are powered from a
battery through the converter DC/DC that will operate in this case as a boost converter.
The evaluation of the performance of PMSMOR and SynRM was started from a demonstration
model in AMESim of a compact car category (see Figures 9 and 10) with a compression-ignition
116 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Parameter PMSMOR SynRM

Output power (W) 6500 10,000

Rated speed (rpm) 400 800

Phase voltage (V) 72 100

Number of phases (–) 3 3

Number of pole pairs (–) 15 2

Number of slots 39 30

Stator outer diameter (mm) 176 260

Stack length (mm) 150 150

Rotor outer diameter (mm) 210 210

Tooth width (mm) 5 6

Permanent magnet height (mm) 8 –

Residual flux density—NdFeB-N48 1.4 –

(T)

Coercive force—NdFeB-N48 (kA/m) 796 –

Stator and rotor (only for SynRM) M270-35A

lamination type

Rated current (A) 72 72

Current density (A/mm ) 2

7 6

Iron losses (W) 212 623

Torque (N m) 150 150

Power factor 0.9 0.85

Efficiency (%) 90 87

Saliency ratio – 4.1

Table 1. Geometrical and electrical parameters of PMSMOR and SynRM.

Time (s) Distance Max speed Average speed Max Max Idle Stops
(km) (km/h) (km/h) acceleration deceleration functioning
(m/s2) (m/s2) (s)
1184 10.93 120 33.21 1.06 -1.39 298 12

Table 2. NEDC parameters.

combustion engine. The imposed weight of the vehicle was 1200 kg (usually between 1134 and
1360 kg, according to Ref. [34]) without any extra weight or passengers.

In order to have comparative results regarding the fuel consumption, in the first simulation, the
conventional vehicle functioning during the NEDC cycle was tested. In the next simulations,
 Performance Analysis of an Integrated Starter-Alternator-Booster for Hybrid Electric Vehicles 117
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Figure 8. NEDC profile.

Figure 9. Structural diagram of the vehicle.

the ISAB regime with considered electrical machines was established. The behaviour of the
starter and alternator in the vehicle model was supposed to be the same as in a conventional
car. For the booster regime, a set-up to help ICE for 15 min/h was added and this works in the
booster regime only when the battery was fully charged (up to 95%). The time limit for each
118 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 10. Vehicle model [35].

booster regime was set at 2 min in order to avoid the complete discharging of the battery (but
no less than 20%). The parameters of the ICE considered are presented in Table 3.
The control of the electrical machines in the starter operating mode involves a maximum
torque value (150 N m) until the ICE reaches 350 rpm. Torque command is provided by a
bi-positional regulator with hysteresis. It is active when the command of ICE is active and its
speed is less than 200 rpm, and it is off when the speed exceeds 400 rpm. When the ICE speed
exceeds 300 rpm, the process of fuel injection into the cylinders starts and the ICE accelerates
to idle speed. By applying the necessary torque to start the ICE, this is accelerated rapidly at
the speed of 400 rpm in about 0.35 s.
When ICE exceeds the speed of 400 rpm, the bi-positional controller becomes inactive and
the combustion engine continues to spin out due to its inertia. If the pistons do not reach the
maximum compression point, they will not be able to inject fuel to start the combustion pro-
cess; consequently, the speed drops below 200 rpm and now the controller output is active.
Therefore, the starter is controlled again and the combustion engine is brought to a speed of 400

Type Turbo diesel Compression ratio 2:1

Number of cylinders 4 Maximum torque 365 N m at 2000 rpm

Cubic capacity 1994 cm3

Maximum power 120 kW at 3750 rpm

Table 3. ICE parameters.

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rpm. At the start of the combustion engine process, ICE is accelerated to the idle speed, where it
is maintained by the electronic control unit. The entire process of starting the engine (in normal
condition), from the beginning until stable operation at idle speed, lasts 0.8 s. In the winter, this
process may take 1.5 s. The speed profile of starting the ICE is presented in Figure 11.
For the alternator mode, the nominal value of the electrical loads is considered in the model.
Some electrical loads are intermittently connected (fan, electrical window, heating systems,
etc.). Other loads are dependent on ICE speed (fuel pump and injectors) or the speed of the
vehicle.

When the entire driving cycle is considered, the fuel consumption in the vehicle is reduced to
878.63 ml for the BSAB system and 941 ml for the ISAB system. These values represent a fuel
economy of around 16% for BSAB and 17.3% for ISAB of total consumption compared with a
classical vehicle with a dedicated alternator and starter (without booster option) system. The
difference in fuel consumption is due to the value of nominal power of electrical machines
(see Table 1). But, the performances of SynRM are limited by the battery (which uses 75 Ah)
capacities. If it uses a stronger battery, the total fuel economy can be increased with 2 or 4%
(especially due to the booster mode).

In the mechanical evaluation of electrical machines for automotive applications, the varia-
tion of electromagnetic torque is one of the most important parameters, because this varia-
tion (torque ripple) can become a source of noise and vibration in vehicles. Thus, for a better
visualization of the torque profile of PMSMOR and SynRM, a new scenario for all three
regimes was considered. For better comparative results (variation of axis torque) between
IASB and BSAB, the BSAB system is taken into account through directly coupling (using ratio
1:1 between ICE and BSAB speed) at ICE. The starter and generator regime has been set for
1.5 and 20 s, respectively. The variation of the axis torque in the generator mode has been
obtained by intermittent connection of the electrical loads (lights, HVAC, media, etc.). For the
booster mode, the speed of the vehicle is increased from 70 to 120 km/h in 17 s, necessary to
overtake other vehicles. In this case, the battery is considered fully charged.
Figures 12 and 13 show the variation of the axis torque versus time for all operating modes,
respectively. Due to the proper windings-slot combination, the torque ripple values are below

Figure 11. Speed profile at starting ICE.

120 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 12. BSAB torque profile.

Figure 13. ISAB torque profile.

10%. In fact, the ratio of the torque ripple is 7.1% for PMSMOR and 6.2% for SynRM. In the
booster mode, the rated torque value of the 10 kW SynRM machine used for ISAB is obviously
bigger than that of the 6.5 kW PMSMOR.

4. Conclusions

The chapter presents the main steps to be followed in the development of a specific electric
drive system dedicated to automotive domain, such as integrated starter-alternator-booster
applications. Replacing the starter and alternator in a conventional vehicle with extended
possibility to work in booster mode represents the first step of vehicles’ hybridization, called
Mild-HEV. In this way, two variants in mounting the ISAB had been identified in the lit-
erature: one, directly driven generic called ISAB and another belt-driven called BSAB. In
this chapter, the approach contains the major elements that need to be discussed for two
type of electrical machine (PMSMOR and SynRM) suitable for BSAB and ISAB, respectively.
The general design procedure is presented for these two electrical machines by taking into
account the typical constraints of the applications and the behaviour of the machine (thermal,
structural, and noise, vibrations and harshness particularities). Also, the control aspects of
both electrical machines are presented.
 Performance Analysis of an Integrated Starter-Alternator-Booster for Hybrid Electric Vehicles 121
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In order to demonstrate the capability of this vehicle hybridization method, two electri-
cal machines have been designed and the equations model was developed and imple-
mented in the general 1D model of conventional vehicle performed in AMESim software.
The influence of fuel consumption on the entire drive cycling (NEDC) was investigated.
Based on the obtained results, the ISAB system gives a greater value of the reduction of
fuel consumption, but the coupling of the electrical machine directly to the crankshaft
involves complicated manufacturing techniques (higher cost) compared with the BSAB
system procedure.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by a grant of Strengthening the Research potential of CAREESD in
the field of Electromechanical Systems and Power Electronics for Sustainable Applications,
ESPESA, 692224/2015 H2020 TWINNing-2015 and ALNEMAD (PCCA 181/2012).

Author details

Florin-Nicolae Jurca* and Mircea Ruba

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

Department of Electrical Machines and Drives, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-

Napoca, Romania

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 Chapter 6

Design, Optimization and Modelling of High Power

Density Direct-Drive Wheel Motor for Light Hybrid
Electric Vehicles

Ioannis D. Chasiotis and Yannis L. Karnavas

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68455

Abstract

Throughout the last few years, permanent magnet synchronous motors have been proven
suitable candidates for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Among them, the outer rotor
topology with surface mounted magnets and concentrated windings seems to be very
promising and has not been extensively investigated in literature. In this study, an over-
all optimization and modelling procedure is proposed for the design and operational
assessment of high-power density direct-drive in-wheel motors, targeted towards a light
HEV application. The analytical model of an HEV’s subsystems is then implemented for
a more accurate evaluation of overall powertrain performance. Furthermore, a simple but
effective cooling system configuration, which is taking into account the specific problem
requirements, is also proposed.

Keywords: hybrid electric vehicle, high power density, in-wheel motor, optimization,
permanent magnet motor, dynamic modelling, electrical machines design

1. Introduction

Recent environmental concerns due to global warming and air pollution motivated many
countries around the world to legislate fuel economy and emission regulations for ground
vehicles [1]. Furthermore, the necessity of developing alternative methods to generate energy
for vehicles owing to depletion of conventional resources was greater than ever [2]. These
features encouraged the introduction of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), electric vehicles (EVs) and
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) as suitable candidates for the replacement of the conventional
internal combustion engine counterparts. Since the performance of EVs and FCVs is still far
behind the requirements, HEVs are considered as the most reliable and preferred choice
among similar technologies by manufacturers, governments and consumers [3, 4]. Comparing

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
126 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

to those technologies, HEVs are advantageous, as they exhibit high fuel economy, lower emis-
sions, lower operating cost and noise, higher resale price, smaller engine size, longer operat-
ing life and longer driving range [5]. The world HEVs market has been rapidly growing and
existing hybrid powertrains include passenger cars, small, medium and heavy trucks, buses,
vehicles used in construction domain (e.g. forklifts, excavators), etc.
Despite HEV’s high performance, their design and control strategies are not trivial. Multiple
hybrid electric architectures have been developed and incorporated so far into commercially
available vehicles in order to find acceptable design solutions with respect to various objec-
tives and constraints [6]. Each configuration presents particular characteristics and the archi-
tecture selection depends on the application requirements and vehicle’s type. For instance,
series configuration is mainly used in heavy vehicles, whereas parallel-series one is preferable
in small and medium automobiles, such as passenger cars and smaller buses, notwithstand-
ing its more complex structure [7]. The specific topology combines the advantages of both
series and parallel HEVs and has a greater potential in improving fuel economy and effi-
ciency of the overall powertrain [8]. The HEV performance is even more enhanced when new
design methodologies are implemented in order to find optimal configurations for power
split devices, whereas at the same time, a single planetary gear is used [1].
However, the performance of an HEV is strictly dependent on the individual characteristics
of its components (i.e. the internal combustion engine, the electrical motor and generator,
the electronic equipment, the batteries, etc.). There is a strong “connection” among them and
their collaboration interacts with the performance of the vehicle [9]. Several techniques, pre-
sented in [10], can be applied in order to achieve the optimal design and energy management
of an HEV. According to [11], multi-objective optimization procedure and decision-making
approach are necessary since there is a great amount of variables and goals to be taken into
account. Moreover, among the most crucial decisions in the design of a HEV is the selection
of the electric motor’s type and its topology. A large amount of requirements such as (a) high
power and torque density, (b) flux-weakening capability, (c) high efficiency over a wide range
of speed, (d) high fault tolerance and overload capability, (e) high reliability and robustness,
(f) low acoustic noise during operation and (g) low cost have to be met if a motor is to be con-
sidered as a suitable one for such an application [4].
Nowadays, various structures have been tested by HEV manufacturers and even more have
been investigated in recent studies, e.g. [12]. Some of them, such as switched-reluctance
motors (SRMs), despite their important advantages (high fault tolerance, simple construction,
outstanding torque-speed characteristics and low cost) are currently not widely used for HEV
applications. This is associated with the fact that they exhibit high acoustic noise, high torque
ripple and low power factor [13]. Among the most popular topologies for this kind of traction
system are induction and permanent magnet synchronous motors [14]. These two types are
thoroughly examined and compared to each other [15] and their specific features are quite
well known so far [16].
In order to meet the continuously increasing power density and efficiency requirements, PMSMs
have become the dominant topology for light duty HEVs [14]. PMSMs with one or multiple
layers of interior magnets fulfil the aforementioned characteristics and are commonly used in
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several commercial HEVs. Their typical output power varies from 30 to 70 kW for full hybrid
passengers cars and can exceed 120 kW in the case of sport utility vehicles (SUVs). Recently,
it has been found that surface-mounted permanent magnet synchronous motors (SPMSMs),
especially when they are combined with concentrated windings instead of distributed ones,
are also promising candidates for HEV propulsion [16]. They present high efficiency, satisfac-
tory flux-weakening capability, low cogging torque and facile manufacturing procedure [17].
Honda Insight was one of the first commercial HEVs that incorporated this specific motor con-
figuration. Since then, there has been increasing research interest for this topology.

That research effort though was carried out mainly for inner rotor topologies, in which the
propulsion is provided by a single traction motor coupled with a gearbox and a differential.
Thus, the perspective of mounting a motor with outer rotor to the wheel of a vehicle is very
interesting and may present plenty of advantages. In this case, much lower flux density and
respectively less magnet mass is required for the achievement of the same maximum torque.
Copper as well as mechanical losses can be significantly lower than the corresponding ones
of inner rotor topology. The manufacturing cost is lower, whereas at the same time, the total
structure is lighter and can be constructed more easily [18]. Numerous in-wheel concepts for
HEVs have been developed in the last years, mainly by Protean Electric and Mitsubishi.

The design procedure of direct-drive SPMSMs for an HEV presents increased complexity.
There is a large number of variables and geometrical parameters that have to be estimated,
while simultaneously numerous problem constraints have to be satisfied. The applied con-
straints refer to the maximum acceptable value of current density, the maximum value
of dc-link voltage, the motor’s volume and weight due to the limited available space, etc.
Additionally, SPMSMs have to exhibit low-current harmonic content, non-saturable opera-
tion, low torque ripple and cogging torque. The determination of motor’s thermal behaviour
during different operating conditions and the implementation of the suitable cooling system
are also of great importance. The adequate temperature alleviation can ensure the high driving
performance, the motor’s durability and the elimination of magnets demagnetization risk [19].

Based on the above, this chapter aims to investigate, optimize, compare and propose suitable
high-power density in-wheel SPMSMs for a light HEV application. For this purpose, a design,
optimization and modelling methodology for in-wheel motors is analytically presented in
Section 2. According to this approach, the specifications of the derived topology are incor-
porated to an analytical HEV’s model, which has been developed in Matlab/Simulink. In this
way, the better approximation of the dynamic behaviour of the entire system is allowed. The
performance estimation of each single subsystem and the calculation of parameters, such as
the fuel consumption during different driving cycles, are also far more accurate. This meth-
odology is compared to so far commonly used techniques, which are reviewed here too. Next,
the proposed approach is applied to the case of two 15.3 kW in-wheel motors, which are
going to be part of the driving system of a hybrid passenger car with series-parallel configura-
tion. The derived results are given in Section 3 and relevant discussion is made regarding the
motor and overall HEV system performance. Moreover, motors thermal behaviour is studied
and a simple and effective cooling system for this kind of traction system is proposed. Finally,
Section 4 summarizes and concludes the work.
128 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

2. High-power density direct-drive in-wheel motors

2.1. Requirements overview

The development of a direct-drive SPMSM, which will exhibit desirable performance, requires
a large amount of problem variables, constants and constraints to be taken into account
according to [20]. Moreover, meta-heuristic optimization techniques can be applied along
with the classical design theory and the analytical equations. In this case, the multi-objective
SPMSM optimization has to be modelled and performed carefully, especially when certain
quantities are of primary concern [21]. The problem complexity is increased if an in-wheel
PMSM is supposed to be incorporated into the powertrain of an HEV, whereas its operating
point varies almost ceaselessly. Thus, the study of motor performance in the rated operat-
ing point or in the point of maximum provided torque, using finite element method (FEM)
or fixed permeability method (FPM) has been proven inefficient enough [22]. Consequently,
various design approaches and optimization methodologies have been revealed so far and
each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

In classical HEV design process motor’s efficiency map or torque-speed curve is a convenient
way to represent drive system’s performance. The determination of efficiency, torque and
speed for different operating points permits the preliminary estimation of motor’s charac-
teristics in agreement with vehicle’s attribute. Also, different topologies that are investigated
as possible candidates for the same application can be easily compared to each other [23].
However, by using efficiency maps the motor is considered as a black box, which responds to
certain inputs (voltage and current). These two variables are assumed to be optimal in order
to achieve the highest efficiency at a specific torque and speed output. Furthermore, a map
scaling factor model (MSFM), based again on the knowledge of an efficiency map, is generally
used for the selection of motor’s output power rating and specifications. The efficiency and
torque are scaled using a linear dependency on the rated power. At the same time, few HEV’s
subsystems, such as the internal combustion engine, wheels, batteries and control scheme, can
also be modelled constructing the appropriate equations and then a joint optimization of all
the subsystems using dynamic programming can be performed [24].

Although the aforementioned procedure permits a better interaction between the electric
motor/s and the other vehicle’s subsystems, the approximation of the dynamic behaviour of
the entire system is not satisfactory enough. It lacks accuracy concerning energy management
estimation and fuel consumption calculation. Additionally, there is no association between
motor’s performance and its geometrical parameters. A compromise between FEA and MSFM
method is introduced in [9], in which the detailed magnetic circuit model is incorporated
in the optimization process. Starting from a preliminary topology, the final configuration
can be derived when the user’s requirements are met. The drawback of this approach is that
only a restricted number of variables can be treated simultaneously. Thus, some geometrical
parameters, such as motor’s diameter and length, should be specified by the designer and
this method should be applied only for the optimization of magnets and windings modula-
tion. A fast magnetostatic FEA is proposed in [25] in order to address the specific problem.
The derived results are now more precise and the computational time and complexity are
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significantly reduced. The final proposed PMSM configuration is developed studying motor’s
torque behaviour and minimizing stator flux linkage for the efficiency enhancement.

Another important requirement for the optimal HEV’s operation is the minimization of
motor’s losses during different driving cycles or the overall profile of the HEV [26]. It is
evident that design parameters that are optimized for one average assumed drive cycle are
not necessarily optimal when an alternative use of the vehicle is carried out [27]. At least
twelve characteristics points of representative driving cycles should be used for the analysis
of motor’s performance according to [28]. These points have to include acceleration, cruis-
ing and regenerative modes for more accurate fuel consumption calculation. A methodology
based upon the overall driving cycle efficiency of the traction drive, which also takes into
account the inverter losses, cooling system specifications and energy consumption of other
subsystems, is presented in [29]. The implementation of the appropriate cooling system and
the determination of its specifications are also of great importance as stated in [30].

2.2. Description of proposed methodology

The complex problem of the development of high-power density direct-drive SPMSMs for a
light HEV can be solved by using a knowledge-based system (KBS), similar to that analyti-
cally described in [31]. The proposed architecture scheme (depicted in Figure 1) involves a
number of knowledge sources (KS) and several layers that interact with each other, in order
to ensure that the final solution is acceptable from technical, economical and manufacturing
point of view. The first two layers (layer 0 and 1) incorporate the provided information about

Figure 1. Structure of the developed knowledge-based system software.

130 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

the properties of high quality steels, soft magnetic conductors and insulation materials, while
at the same time user’s demands, machine’s specifications, design variables and problem con-
straints are also determined. At the next level, the appropriate objective functions, taking into
account the aforementioned, are constructed and an optimization method (e.g. genetic algo-
rithm) is applied. At layer 3, an analytical evaluation of all the alternative derived solutions is
conducted through FEA and post-processing analysis. Finally, the optimal motor configura-
tion is selected (layer 4) and its application in HEV industry is thoroughly investigated.

The above approach was enhanced and finally an overall PMSM design and HEV performance
assessment procedure is introduced in order to be a useful tool in the HEV design industrial
process. This methodology is based upon the efficient design of the in-wheel motors and
the determination of their average driving cycle efficiency. Furthermore, an analytical HEV’s
model, which has been developed in Matlab/Simulink, incorporates all the necessary subsys-
tems of the vehicle. The internal combustion engine, the two identical SPMSMs coupled in
the front wheels, the batteries pack, the dc-dc converter, the three-phase inverter, the power-
split device and the control strategy are implemented in this model in order to permit a more
realistic study of HEV’s behaviour. For instance, the batteries model would make it possible to
define the maximum provided voltage dynamically, while the state of their charge, the effect
of their internal resistance, the effect of the prevailing temperature and working conditions
can also be studied. Thus, a more appropriate selection of each single subsystem can be made
resulting to an optimal energy management and performance.

The first step of the proposed methodology, which is presented in flowchart form in Figure 2, is
the determination of motor’s rated parameters, such as output power, speed and torque. These
features are defined based on vehicle’s speed and grade-ability along with the collaboration
of in-wheel motors with the internal combustion engine. The outer motor diameter is fixed by
the size of the wheel and the maximum dc-link voltage is also estimated by the battery pack
and converter specifications. For the design of the SPMSMs a combination of classical design
theory and meta-heuristic optimization techniques can be applied. The designer can choose
among popular techniques based on swarm intelligence, such as genetic algorithm (GA), par-
ticle swarm optimization (PSO), ant colony optimization (ACO), etc. In [32], it is outlined that
another new method called“Grey Wolf Optimizer” (GWO) exhibits acceptable and satisfactory
performance when implemented in similar machine design problems. Based on the results
of authors’ previous works (i.e. [20, 21]), where different optimization methods were applied
and compared, it was found out that all the adopted algorithms succeeded to converge to a
(sub)-optimum design solution. Despite the fact that GA presents higher computational cost
and complexity than PSO, fmincon and pattern search, its solutions have been proven the most
attractive among others. The same conclusion was validated for all the examined case studies,
in which different performance quantities were also of primary concern. Additionally, the main
advantages of GA are its capacity of parallelism detection between different agents and its elit-
ist selection. The first characteristic is crucial for the computation of Pareto solutions, whereas
the latter one ensures that the best solutions are passed to the next iterative step without major
changes. Following these, GA has been finally chosen for the specific optimization problem.
Design, Optimization and Modelling of High Power Density Direct-Drive Wheel Motor for Light Hybrid Electric Vehicles 131
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Figure 2. Proposed overall PMSM design and HEV performance assessment procedure.

Afterwards, the initialization of motor’s length and poles number is following. The first
parameter is specified by the size of the tire and the latter should be chosen carefully as it is
of great importance for the overall motor performance [33]. The proper poles and slots com-
bination can eliminate the presence of higher order harmonics in the air gap flux distribution,
which results in lower iron losses and torque ripple. The motor must be capable of provid-
ing high torque when the vehicle accelerates while its losses should be as low as possible.
Moreover, concentrated winding configuration is preferable for this traction system, since
it presents shorter end windings and higher slot fill factor compared to the corresponding
ones of distributed windings, and contributes to a smaller motor volume and lower copper
losses, respectively. High power and torque density are very essential characteristics for such
an application since there is restricted space inside the wheel. Furthermore, a high efficiency
should be achieved over a wide speed range. Thus, the minimization of motor’s volume simul-
taneously with the enhancement of efficiency will be of great concern during the construction
of the objective functions. A weighted linear scalarization function is proposed—as a cost
132 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

function—in order to“translate” the original multi-objective problem into a single-objective

one which can be solved more easily. This function presents simplicity and thus the overall
optimization complexity is reduced. Let the general form be CFj = βi⋅Qi, where βi is a 1 × i row
matrix which contains the weight coefficients of the cost function and Qi is an i × 1 column
matrix, which contains the values of any motor’s quantities under optimization. Numerous
cost functions can be produced in this way by altering the weights and/or quantities according
to the problem specifications and user’s requirements. Normally, a semi-exhaustive search
has to be done first in order to explore weights search space for linear scalarization and, con-
sequently, to identify efficient weight combinations. In the case examined here, we consider
the motors’ weight (Mtot) and efficiency (η) as equally important quantities for optimization,
thus the above cost function is formulated as CF = 0.5 Mtot + 0.5 (1 − η).

Next, the optimization procedure is applied for the determination of numerous variables,
such as stator slot configurations, the number of turns per phase, the thickness and the width
of permanent magnets, etc. At each step of the proposed approach, a large amount of con-
straints have to be met. Some of them are imposed in order to ensure the acceptable electro-
magnetic behaviour of the motor. For example, the motor’s rotor yoke should be sufficient
enough in order to ensure that no saturation will occur on this part of the machine. Likewise,
the maximum acceptable flux density at other parts of the motor will also be set as prob-
lem constraints. The estimation of various electromechanical quantities using FEM analysis
is indispensable in order to find out if any of these constraints is violated. If this happens, the
adopted variables and geometrical parameters of the investigated topology have to be modi-
fied and the procedure returns to its initial step.

Another significant constraint is the maximum allowable value of the current density. For a
totally enclosed in-wheel motor this value cannot exceed 10 A/mm2 because there is no physi-
cal air circulation and temperature alleviation. Thus, the determination of this parameter and
motor’s thermal behaviour is essential in order to ensure high driving performance even under
overload conditions, reduce the risk of magnets demagnetization and enhance the durabil-
ity of insulation materials. Also, the implementation of a liquid cooling system for the motor
is required. The research in recent literature revealed that the commonly used cooling sys-
tem configurations are not suitable enough for this application. The oil-spray cooling method,
which uses a radiator, is very energy consuming and increases the manufacturing complexity
and the installation cost [34]. The implementation of ducting system and slot water jackets is
difficult due to the limited space [35]. For the same reason, circumferential and axial water
jackets are difficult to be applied, since the length of the motor is very short. Consequently, a
more appropriate cooling system topology, which is effective enough despite the small cooling
system surface, is developed and described thoroughly in the next Section. For each derived
motor configuration, its thermal model and the thermal model of the proposed cooling system
are constructed, the heat sources and the materials properties are specified, and the boundaries
conditions and the temperature coefficients are determined. Finally, the temperature distribu-
tion and the overall performance of the cooling system are estimated. Its parameters are calcu-
lated by taking into account the optimal energy management of the HEV and the fact that the
system’s energy consumption must be kept as low as possible. The aim of the incorporation
of motor’s thermal analysis in the proposed methodology is to guarantee that motor designs
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which gather efficient performance and meet the specific problem requirements will not be
excluded at this step of the design procedure due to over temperatures and high value of cur-
rent density.

After applying all the eliminatory criteria, only optimal topologies are selected. Their geomet-
rical parameters and specifications, such as stator phase resistance, inductance in d- and q-axis,
flux linkage established by magnets, number of pole pairs, efficiency at rated power, source
frequency, shaft inertia and damping coefficient, are then imported in Matlab/Simulink HEV
model. This model, as mentioned before, involves all the necessary HEV subsystems and it
will be used in order to assess the overall system performance. The final HEV configuration
and motor topology will be chosen according to the optimal energy management and efficient
collaboration of the subsystems. For this purpose, HEV performance can be estimated during
one single or several different driving cycles. The designer should carefully choose the appro-
priate driving cycle, which fulfil his own requirements and the use of the vehicle. The urban
driving cycle (ECE 15) and the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) have been extensively
employed by manufacturers for vehicle energy consumption and emission testing, as they
represent the typical use of light duty vehicles in Europe.

Summarizing, the methodology proposed here seems to be very promising compared to other
common practices, since it permits the detail implementation of motor’s characteristics in
HEV model and the interaction between its geometrical parameters with vehicle’s perfor-
mance. Additionally, the user can thoroughly compare to each other several candidate topol-
ogies before making his final choice, by examining aspects, such as the fuel consumption,
the state of charge of the batteries, the compatibility of inverter’s specifications with motor’s
requirements, etc. The large amount of constraints, the determination of motor’s tempera-
ture distribution and electromechanical performance can ensure that the in-wheel motor will
exhibit the desirable operation even under adverse working conditions. The relatively high
simulation time that is required for running Matlab/Simulink model could be considered as
the main disadvantage of the proposed here design procedure.

3. Case studies, results and discussion

In this Section the problem of the design and optimization of a light duty HEV’s traction
system is examined. The HEV under consideration incorporates the series-parallel configura-
tion, using an internal combustion engine (ICE) and two SPMSMs for propulsion. The electric
motors are implemented around each of the driving wheels to directly deliver power to them.
Series-parallel architecture enables the engine and electric motors to provide power inde-
pendently or in conjunction with one another. At lower vehicle’s speeds the system operates
more as series vehicle, whereas at high speeds, where the series drive train is less efficient, the
engine takes over and energy loss is minimized. The engine is going to be able to produce 115
Nm torque at 4200 rpm, whereas its output power and its maximum speed will be 57 kW and
5000 rpm, respectively. The output power of each in-wheel motor will be equal to 15.3 kW
and a torque of 170 Nm at 850 rpm will be provided. Moreover, the engine is going to drive a
salient pole synchronous permanent magnet generator, which will either charge the batteries
134 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

or provide power directly to the electric motors depending on vehicle’s mode. A planetary
gear is used in order to split power among the engine, the generator and the differential. The
nominal voltage of the battery pack is 201.6 V comprising 168 nickel-metal hydride (NiMh)
cells, and its nominal capacity is 6.5 Ah. The battery pack voltage is raised by a boost converter
leading to a 400 V dc-link voltage. Finally, each in-wheel motor is fed through a three-phase
inverter (Figure 3) and is individually controlled using vector control method. For the assess-
ment of the overall system performance, a HEV model, which is available in Matlab/Simulink
version R2016a (Figure 4) has been modified properly in order to meet the specific problem
requirements. This model permits the study of vehicle’s dynamic behaviour, as the aerody-
namical and frictional phenomena are included. The vehicle’s and its component specifica-
tions of the case study are presented in Table 1.

Figure 3. Typical in-wheel motors drive topology.

Figure 4. Matlab/Simulink HEV’s model.

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Component Parameter Value

Vehicle Mass (kg) 1200
Frontal area (m2) 2.16
Tire radius (m) 0.30

Total wheel inertia (kg m2) 0.10

Aerodynamic drag coefficient 0.26

Transmission inertia (kg m ) 2

0.50

Transmission friction coefficient 0.001

Engine to wheel gear ratio 1.30

In-wheel motor (×2) Rated power (kW) 15.3

Rated speed (rpm) 850

Rated torque (Nm) 170

Rated power (kW) 57

Internal combustion engine Maximum speed (rpm) 5000

Torque (Nm) @ 4200 rpm 115

Table 1. HEVs under study main components specifications.

The design of a high-power density in-wheel motor is a complex optimization problem which
will conclude to the most suitable candidates according to some criteria. There are several
requirements that have to be met. Some of them are related to the motor’s placement and physi-
cal constraints, such as its outer rotor radius and active length, whereas others are imposed by
the motor’s desired operation. The efficiency, for example, is of great importance considering
the energy consumption. Efficiency higher than 90% will be an appropriate choice. Despite
that, since the motor is mounted inside the wheel, as depicted in Figure 5a, its weight must
be as low as possible in order to reduce unsprung mass and eliminate vibrations. Recently
in-wheel motors with power-mass ratio of approximately 1 kW/kg have been implemented in
commercially available HEVs. In this study, it will be investigated if this value can be exceeded.
Thus, the objective function chosen for the case study is a compromise of motor’s weight and
power losses minimization. The desired SPMSMs characteristics are given in Table 2.

Furthermore, there are more than 15 design variables that have to be optimized simultaneously
(under certain constraints) by the applied algorithm. Apart from the geometrical parameters
that are presented in Figure 5b, variables such as the number of poles (2p), the number of slots
per pole per phase (q) and the number of conductors per slot (nc) are also involved. Table 3 sum-
marizes the upper and lower bounds of all these quantities that will be considered as problem
constraints. At this point, it must be mentioned that for sake of space, the analytical equations
that describe the electromechanical and magnetic behaviour of the specific machine are not
given here. The reader can refer to [18, 36] for more details. Concerning the materials used for
different motor’s parts, a high quality silicon steel (M19-24G) has been selected both for stator
and rotor, according to NEMA’s instructions for super premium efficiency motors. Moreover,
high energy NdFeB magnets have been chosen, as they have been proven efficient and reliable
136 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 5. Representations of the design problem considered: (a) cross section of an in-wheel motor assembly and (b)
detailed geometry of the SPMSM used here.

enough for this kind of application [37]. The values of materials properties will be regarded as
constants during optimization problem and they are presented in Table 4.
Following the methodology proposed here, a set of optimization results are presented
in Table 5, in which the design variables of four final solution topologies are given.
Let us denote“Motor A” up to “Motor D” the derived in-wheel configurations. Their
electromechanical performance has been validated through 2D and 3D FEM and considered
acceptable and satisfactory enough. The obtained results are summarized in Table 6.
Moreover, the overall HEV’s system behaviour assessment has been conducted by examin-

Variable Symbol Value

Rated output power Pout 15.3 kW
Rated output torque Tout 170 Nm
Rated speed ns 850 rpm
Max. dc-link Vdc 400 V
Inverter’s module ratio ma 0.7
Axial length L 30 mm
Outer rotor radius rout 216 mm

Table 2. In-wheel motor’s desired characteristics.

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Variable Symbol Value

Motor efficiency η ≥90%

Magnets mass Mm ≤30 mm

Motor total mass Mtot ≤15 kg

Slot base width bss2 (0.15 hss– 0.5 hss) mm

Slot opening width bs0 ≥2.0 mm

Stator tooth width bst ≥2.5 mm

Magnet height hm ≤10 mm

Stator yoke height hsy ≥(hss/3) mm

Rotor yoke height hry ≥9.0 mm

Air gap length δ (1–3) mm

Flux density in stator yoke Bsy ≤1.8 T

Flux density in stator teeth Bst ≤1.8 T

Flux density in rotor yoke Bry ≤1.8 T

Flux density in airgap Bδ ≤1.0 T

Table 3. Optimization problem constraints.

ing vehicle’s subsystems collaboration and calculating fuel consumption during four differ-
ent driving cycles, which are depicted in Figure 6. Among the applied driving cycles are (a)
European Driving Cycle ECE 15, (b) Extra Urban Driving Cycle (EUDC), (c) Supplemental
Federal Test Procedure (SFTP-75) and (d) Japanese 10-15 mode driving cycle (JP 10-15).
During ECE 15 cycle the vehicle covers a distance of 0.9941 km in 195 sec. The average
and the maximum vehicle’s speed are equal to 25.93 km/h and 50 km/h, respectively and
its maximum acceleration is 1.042 m/sec2. EUDC represents a more aggressive and high
speed driving mode. The maximum developed and average speeds are equal to 120 km/h

Constant Symbol Value

Magnet density ρm 7400 kg/m3

Remanence flux density Br 1.24 T

Magnet relative permeability μr 1.09

Copper density ρCu 8930 kg/m3

Copper resistivity rCu 1.72 × 10−8 Ωm

Steel density ρs 7650 kg/m3

Steel resistivity rs 5.1 × 10−8 Ωm

Steel relative permeability μs 4000

Table 4. Optimization problem constants.

138 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Variable Symbol Motor A Motor B Motor C Motor D

Stator inner rshaft 159 159 162.47 155
radius

Airgap radius rδ 199 199.12 200.84 199.12

Airgap length δ 2 2 2.50 2.12

Number of poles 2p 28 34 48 60

Number of slots Qs 30 36 54 63

Slot opening bs0 18.50 13.95 12.05 9

width

Slot top width bss1 18.61 13.96 15 9.01

Slot base width bss2 18.62 13.97 12.46 9.02

Stator tooth bst 22.42 20.25 7.96 10.53

width

Slot height hss 25 27 25.92 29

Stator tooth tip hsw 1 1 1 1

height

Thickness of hsy 13 11.12 9.95 13

stator back

Thickness of hry 14.5 14.38 11.66 14.38

rotor back

Magnet height hm 2.5 2.50 3.50 2.50

Pole arc/pole α 0.79 0.78 0.60 0.90

pitch ratio

Slot fill factor sf 0.6 0.6 0.60 0.60

Number of nc 34 26 16 14
conductor per
slot

Number of wires nw 1 1 1 1
per conductor

Wire diameter dw 2.906 2.906 3.665 3.264

Number of layers nl 2 2 2 2

Winding factor kw 0.951 0.952 0.945 0.953

Table 5. Optimization design variables results and model comparison (all dimensions in mm).

and 69.36 km/h, respectively. SFTP-75 is commonly used for emission certification and fuel
economy testing for light duty vehicles in United States. This cycle involves both driving
in urban areas and high speed road. In this case study, only the second part of this cycle is
incorporated. The duration of JP 10-15 is 660 sec and its average speed is 22.7 km/h. A fuel
consumption lower than 5.0 l/100 km has been considered acceptable and each topology that
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Quantity Symbol Motor A Motor B Motor C Motor D

Motor efficiency η 94.41 94.31 94.97 95.41
(%)

Phase current (A) Iph 62.49 69.16 92.41 70.44

Current density Jc 9.42 9.68 8.76 8.41

(A/mm2)

Copper losses(W) Pcu 839.81 864.75 722.06 604.61

Core losses (W) Pcore 66.93 69.16 87.75 132.44

Motor total mass Mtot 14.82 14.36 12.49 14.77

(kg)

Magnets mass Mm 713.16 545.09 593.45 628.85

(gr)

Cogging torque Tcog 41.07 50.96 31.05 23.15

(mNm)

Torque ripple (%) Trip 2.1 2.4 3.3 2.4

Torque angle (°) Tang 44.79 45.38 26.62 37.61

Nominal f 198.3 240.8 340 425

frequency (Hz)

Power density Pd 1.03 1.06 1.22 1.03

(kW/kg)

Table 6. Electromechanical quantities results (at rated condition).

did not meet the specific requirement has been excluded from the next step of the proposed
methodology. The optimization procedure was terminated when for an investigated con-
figuration the target was achieved for all the examined driving cycles. The relative results
are presented in Table 7. From Tables 5–7, it is initially clear that the proposed approach
succeeded in finding optimum and feasible design solutions satisfying all the existing con-
straints. Analytically the following can be observed:

Figure 6. The four driving cycles used during the proposed optimization procedure.
140 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

(I) The optimization procedure provided solutions over the examined range of poles number
and the final topologies are investigated and compared to each other from several aspects.
The designer has the opportunity to evaluate the derived results from many points of
view (i.e. technical, economical, etc.) and finally select the appropriate in-wheel SPMSM
topology.

(II) The motors efficiency has been found high enough, as it varies from 94 to 95.5%. This
feature, especially when is combined with the lowest possible current, is of great im-
portance for HEV’s energy management. Concerning this, Motor A seems to be a more
suitable choice for the case study.

(III) All topologies exhibit high power to mass ratio over 1 kW/kg, since their mass range is
from 12.5 to 14.8 kg. In the case of Motor C, the ratio is increased by 22%. Thus, if mo-
tor’s total mass is the primary objective, this motor prevails. Despite their relatively low
weight, all configurations present durability and do not suffer from mechanical stresses.

(IV) The volume of NdFeB magnets is small, which will lead to a reasonable motor’s cost.

(V) The current density constraint has been fulfilled. However, concerning the short axial
length of the machine (30 mm) and its placement into a totally enclosed environment
the implementation of a cooling system, which has been also proposed and optimized
here, is more than essential. More details about the cooling system’s characteristics and
its performance are going to be provided later in this chapter.

(VI) During the adopted design approach, a large amount of motor features were also de-
termined, as they significantly affect its operation. Some of great importance estimated
quantities are airgap flux density, torque and phase-back emf curve’s shape, as well as
their corresponding harmonics, cogging torque, torque angle and magnetic field distri-
bution. For completeness purposes, these quantities are depicted in Figures 7–11, indica-
tively for Motor C and Motor D. As it can be seen from Figure 7, the values of flux densi-
ty developed over the different parts of both configurations are found within acceptable
limits. Despite the low volume and especially active length of the motor, non-saturable
operation has been detected for all the finally proposed topologies. Moreover, the airgap
flux density and the phase-back emf, as depicted in Figures 8 and 9, respectively, pres-
ent low harmonic content. The proper selection of windings configurations along with
the specification of permanent magnets parameters through the proposed approach
contribute to this feature. The airgap flux is of great importance of the torque pulsation.
The small amplitude of its third, fifth and seventh harmonic in both cases resulted in the
low value of motors torque ripple. The torque ripple for Motor C was found equal to
3.3%, while the same parameter for Motor D was equal to 2.4%. The above can also be
validated by the observation of Figure 10, in which the torque and its harmonic content
is presented. A very low cogging torque and relatively torque angle is also achieved, as
it can be seen from Figure 11. These parameters are essential for this kind of traction
application, as their low value can ensure a high quality and safe driving performance.

(VII) The calculation of crucial HEV’s parameters, such as fuel consumption, permits a better ap-
proximation of the optimal configuration. For example, Motor A seems to have a significant
Design, Optimization and Modelling of High Power Density Direct-Drive Wheel Motor for Light Hybrid Electric Vehicles 141
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advantage compared to the other motors over all examined driving cycles, when the aspect
of fuel consumption is examined. This may not be so clear if only the motor’s rated perfor-
mance characteristics were taken into account.

At this point, Motor C, which exhibit the higher nominal current compared to other topolo-
gies, is going to be used as a case study for the description of the applied cooling system. It
must be outlined that a suitable cooling topology for this kind of motor should gather the
following features: (a) be easily implemented in the restricted surface of the motor and (b)
be close as much as possible to the part of the machine, which is the main heat source (i.e.
stator copper windings). Taking these into account, the attachment of a cooling channel into
the inner yoke circumference is proposed. This configuration, which looks like a ring, permits
the circulation of a coolant through a pipe with rectangular cross section and the removal of
the heat from the inner stator surface. A pump combined with a heat exchanger/compressor

Driving cycle Quantity Motor A Motor B Motor C Motor D

Fuel 3.83 4.19 4.76 4.27
consumption
(l/100 km)

ECE 15 Fuel 26.11 23.86 21.00 23.41

consumption
(km/l)

Total fuel used (l) 0.0381 0.0417 0.0473 0.0424

Fuel 2.68 2.81 3.42 2.99

consumption
(l/100 km)

EUDC Fuel 37.31 35.59 29.24 33.44

consumption
(km/l)

Total fuel used (l) 0.2064 0.2164 0.2634 0.2302

Fuel 2.04 2.14 2.58 2.20

consumption
(l/100 km)

SFTP-75 Fuel 49.02 46.73 38.76 45.46

consumption
(km/l)

Total fuel used (l) 0.1176 0.1234 0.1488 0.1274

Fuel 3.39 3.50 3.94 3.46

consumption
(l/100 km)

JP 10-15 Fuel 29.49 28.54 25.41 28.94

consumption
(km/l)

Total fuel used (l) 0.1180 0.1221 0.1371 0.1204

Table 7. Comparison of HEV fuel consumption using the designed in-wheel motors for different driving cycles.
142 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 7. Flux density distribution in running conditions: (a) Motor C (48 poles/54 slots) and (b) Motor D (60 poles/63
slots).

for the alleviation of coolant’s temperature will consist of the overall cooling system. The
accurate position of the cooling channel is shown in Figure 12, in which the shell, the rim and
the tire are also presented. All these will be parts of the developed thermal model in order
to have a more accurate temperature determination. Moreover, during thermal analysis the
temperature and the pressure inside the rim will be taken into account. Compared to other
cooling system schemes, the proposed here topology enables a larger contact area between
the stator and the coolant, simpler manufacturing and installation procedure and lower cost.

The design procedure of the proposed here cooling system requires the incorporation of an
optimization method along with the conduction of motor’s thermal analysis through FEM

Figure 8. Comparison of (a) airgap flux density and (b) its corresponding harmonics for Motor C (left) and Motor D
(right).
Design, Optimization and Modelling of High Power Density Direct-Drive Wheel Motor for Light Hybrid Electric Vehicles 143
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68455

Figure 9. Comparison of (a) phase-back emf and (b) its corresponding harmonics for Motor C (left) and Motor D (right).

Figure 10. Comparison of (a) torque and (b) its corresponding harmonics for Motor C (left) and Motor D (right).

Figure 11. Comparison of electromechanical quantities for Motor C and D: (a) cogging torque and (b) airgap-developed
power.
144 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 12. Cross section of the in-wheel motor topology, in which the accurate position of cooling channel is depicted.

under different operating conditions. The specifications of its parameters, such as the cool-
ant’s flow rate and coolant’s inlet temperature are of great importance for system’s efficiency
and they will be calculated through the applied optimization algorithm. Since these param-
eters have essential effect on HEV’s energy management, their values have to be carefully
selected. For example, a high value for coolant’s flow rate will conclude to increased energy
consumption by the pump in order to circulate the liquid. Likewise, the heat exchanger
should be capable of restoring coolant’s temperature while its capacity will remain as low
as possible. During this procedure, cooling channel’s dimensions will be considered as vari-
ables. An aluminium alloy (6060-T6) with good mechanical properties has been selected for
the channel, while ethylene-glycol mixed with water (50-50 volumetric proportion) has been
chosen as coolant. The applied methodology involves the following the steps: (a) the deter-
mination of the thermal properties of all involved materials (including the shell, the tire and
the insulation materials), (b) the specification of motor’s heat resources and the ambient tem-
perature, (c) the calculation of the boundary conditions in the air gap and other motor’s parts
and (d) the modification of the 2D thermal modelling according to the prevailing conditions.
Design, Optimization and Modelling of High Power Density Direct-Drive Wheel Motor for Light Hybrid Electric Vehicles 145
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Reader can refer to [38–40] in order to find more details about the classical theory govern-
ing the thermal analysis and the development of the motor’s and cooling system’s thermal
model.

In Figure 13, the influence of coolant’s inlet temperature and flow rate in temperature distri-
bution over different in-wheel motor parts is presented. Based on these results and the afore-
mentioned considerations, the inlet temperature of 30oC along with a flow rate of 4 l/min has
been chosen as the optimal combination. Moreover, the channel’s length, width and breadth
have been specified to 30 mm, 10 mm and 1.5 mm, respectively. The derived requirements
for heat exchanger, pump and pipe can be easily fulfilled by commercially available models.
Figure 14 shows the maximum observed temperatures of motor’s parts for the same operating
conditions without and with the application of the proposed cooling system. It can be easily
observed that a significant temperature drop is achieved with the implementation of the cool-
ing system at all the different loading conditions and the cooling system is considered efficient

Figure 13. The influence of coolant’s flow rate and inlet temperature on the temperature developed at different in-wheel
motor parts.

Figure 14. Comparison of in-wheel motor’s temperature distribution: (a) without and (b) with the proposed here cooling
system.
146 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

enough. The maximum heat removal is occurred in stator yoke and the copper windings. The
maximum observed temperature in stator slots is far from the insulation materials limits. The
temperature developed in air gap and especially near the magnets is relatively low and there
is no risk of magnets demagnetization.

4. Conclusions

In this chapter, the perspective of direct-drive traction systems for HEVs, which lately con-
centrates on increasing interest among researchers and manufacturers but is not adequately
investigated in the literature, is examined. A design and optimization methodology for the devel-
opment of high-power density in-wheel motors and the corresponding beneficial assessment of
the overall HEV’s system performance is derived and discussed thoroughly. This approach is
enhanced with the incorporation of a simple though efficient cooling system and the interaction
of motor’s geometrical parameters and performance with the vehicle’s subsystems by using
a dynamic HEV model. Through a case study, the particular problem requirements and con-
straints, the eliminatory criteria and the motor’s topology selection strategy are illustrated and
commented. Based on the overall results, the introduced methodology seems very promising
and could be of great aid to designers in order to conclude to the optimal motor configuration.

Author details

Ioannis D. Chasiotis and Yannis L. Karnavas*

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Electrical Machines Laboratory,

Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Hellas, Greece

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 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Edited by Teresa Donateo

Teresa Donateo is an associate professor of Fluid Machinery, En-

ergy Systems, and Power Generation at the University of Salento
since 2014, teaching courses on Fluid Machinery and Hybrid-Elec-
tric Power Trains. She attended the School of Material Engineer-
ing at the University of Lecce (Italy) and graduated in 1999. In November 2001, she
joined the Faculty of Engineering at the University of Salento as an assistant profes-
sor and in July 2003 received her PhD degree from ISUFI in the field of combustion
and energy conversion. She has been collaborating since 2005 with the Ohio State
University, Columbus, OH, and since 2001 with major automotive and aircraft in-
dustrial partners. Her research topics are simulation, design and optimization of
internal combustion engines, and hybrid-electric power trains.

This book on hybrid electric vehicles brings out six chapters on some of the research
activities through the wide range of current issues on hybrid electric vehicles. The
first section deals with two interesting applications of HEVs, namely, urban buses
and heavy duty working machines. The second one groups papers related to the
optimization of the electricity flows in a hybrid electric vehicle, starting from the
optimization of recharge in PHEVs through advance storage systems, new motor
technologies, and integrated starter-alternator technologies. A comprehensive
analysis of the technologies used in HEVs is beyond the aim of the book. However,
the content of this volume can be useful to scientists and students to broaden their
knowledge of technologies and application of hybrid electric vehicles.

ISBN 978-953-51-3297-4
© iStock / denisklimov

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