the

V.T.V.M.
• how it works
• how to use it

by RHYS SAMUEL

published by gernsback library, ine.

new york, new york
 First Printing—January, 1956
Second Printing—April, 1957
Third Printing—October, 1958
Fourth Printing—May. 1959
Fifth Printing—August, I960

© 1956 Gernsbach Library, Inc.

All rights reserved under Universal,
International, and Pan-American
Copyright Conventions.

Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 55-11946

cover design by muneef alwan
chapter
contents
page

Instrument characteristics
Low circuit loading in voltage measurements. Input capacitance and
a.c. resistance of the v.t.v.m. Wide-range frequency response on
a.c. measurements. High sensitivity. Burnout-resistant meter circuit.
Resistance readings over wide ranges. Accuracy.

How the v.t.v.m. works

The bridge circuit. Cathode-metered bridge circuit operation. D.c.
voltage-divider network. Resistance-measurement network. A.c. volt­
age measurements. Frequency response. A.c. voltage measurements
and contact potential. Direct-current measurements.
15

Meter scales
Typical meter scales. Multiplication factor. Scale divisions. Scale
subdivisions. Scale units. How to read scales. Linear and nonlinear
scales. Scale compression. Zero-center scales. Types of zero-center
scales. Decibel scales.
37

Probes and cables

Advantages of probes and cables. Probe construction. Direct probes
and cables. Isolating probes. Rectifying probes. Types of rectifying
probes. Vacuum tube and crystal probes. Peak-to-peak probes. Mul­
tiplier probes. Grounding the probe. Limitations of the v.t.v.m.
45

Using the v.t.v.m.

Front-panel controls. Function and range controls. Zero adjust and
ohms adjust. Scales and multipliers. How to take measurements.
Measuring d.c. voltage, a.c. voltage, ohms. Direct-current measure­
ments. Null indications. Measurement tips.
65

TV troubleshooting
Analyzing TV receivers. Tube troubles. A.g.c. circuit troubles.
Troubleshooting components, tuners, picture and sound i.f. ampli­
fiers. Intermittents. Plotting a bandpass curve. Trap alignment.
Troubleshooting in the video amplifier. Checking picture tubes, sync
and deflection circuits.
79
chapter page

B AM-FM alignment and repair

AM broadcast receivers. Tube failures. Component failures. Signal
tracing. Voltage measurements. Checking power supplies. Hum.
Intermittents. R.f. and i.f. alignment. The test setup. FM receivers.
Discriminator detectors. Ratio detectors.

Servicing audio amplifiers

Troubleshooting and signal tracing. Making amplifier
Eliminating hum. Frequency-response measurements.
considerations. Frequency-response checks. Frequency
103

adjustments.
Preliminary
test records.
Checking phonograph equalizers. Determining input and output
impedances.
123

The v.t.v.m. in the ham shack

The amateur transmitter. Checking oscillator, amplifier, and multi­
plier stages. Measurement of screen voltages. Checking grid bias.
Adjustment of high-power amplifiers. Measuring high voltage. The
v.t.v.m. as a neutralizing indicator an*d field-strength meter.
141

fl Miscellaneous applications
Calibrating generator and oscillator output. Power-supply measure­
ments. Checking battery voltages, bias cells, transformers, tubes,
potentiometers. Scope calibration. Null indications. Checking selen-
ium-rectifier circuits, TV antennas, transmission lines, reactance,
impedance. Q and inductance measurements. Direct db readings.
Checking r.f,-amplifier gain. V.t.v.m. preamplifier.
157

fl Troubleshooting the v.t.v.m.

Preventive maintenance. Ohms battery. General troubleshooting.
Switches. Replacement parts. Tube replacement. Measurement
accuracy. Mechanical zero setting of the meter. Analyzing and
localizing trouble. Description and analysis of two commercial
v.t.v.m.’s.
195

Index 219
 introduction

his is a working man’s book because the vacuum-tube volt­

T meter is a working man’s instrument. Of the many types of
instruments designed to make the electronic worker’s job easier,
none is so valuable or more used than the vacuum-tube voltmeter.
This highly versatile instrument has long been a familiar device
on hundreds of factory production lines, in thousands of service
shops, and on experimenters’ and engineers’ work benches all over
the world. The popularity of this relatively inexpensive instru­
ment is well earned because the vacuum-tube voltmeter is a trust­
worthy and highly versatile measuring instrument, capable of use
in hundreds of known and yet-to-be-discovered applications.
Successful servicing with the v.t.v.m. requires both a good in­
strument and proper techniques. A service procedure consisting
of 90 percent instrument and 10 percent technique is not nearly
as effective as the procedure which uses a 90 percent technique
and 10 percent instrument. Expert service technique comes from
knowing the capabilities and limitations of the test instrument.
Knowing how the instrument functions is important to knowing
where and when to use it.
Such important measurement considerations as circuit imped­
ance, frequency response, and loading factor are often overlooked,
resulting in misleading measurement indications. Without an
adequate knowledge of the equipment under test and without
familiarity of the capabilities and limitations of the v.tv.m.,
speedy and reliable test results cannot be obtained by the techni­
cian.
It is the purpose of this book to describe how the v.t.v.m. works
and how to use it. Because the v.t.v.m. is basically simple in
design, it should present no special problems in either application
or repair. With a good understanding of the few basic features
of the v.t.v.m., the technician should be able to use it without
hesitation or error in nearly all his service applications.
 With the practical nature of the subject in mind, discussion of
circuit theory and instrument design has been restricted to
material which helps explain directly the types and functions of
conventional v.t.v.m. circuits. Representative basic circuits em­
ployed in different service-type v.t.v.m.’s are discussed and exam­
ined in relation to measurement applications. Analysis of design
theory and laboratory-type instruments has been omitted. Empha­
sis is placed on how, when, and where to use the v.t.v.m., which is
of primary importance to the service technician.
Many manufacturers, engineers and technicians have been es­
pecially helpful in providing technical data and suggestions:
Electronic Instrument Co., Inc.; Forrest H. Frantz, Sr.; Hector E.
French; Heath Co.; Hickok Electrical Instrument Corp.; Jackson
Electrical Instrument Co.; Robert G. Middleton; Precision Ap­
paratus Co., Inc.; QST; Radio City Products Co.; Radio Corpora­
tion of America; Simpson Electric Co.; Sylvania Electric Products
Co., Inc.; and Triplett Electric Instrument Co. Special thanks is
due Mort Bernstein, Saul Koren, and John Meagher of the Tube
Division, Radio Corporation of America, for their expert assis­
tance in offering suggestions and editorial comment.

Rhys Samuel

6
 chaptei

instrument characteristics

ervice technicians use a wide variety of test instruments to

S check the operation of antennas, lead-ins, front ends, i.f. ampli­
fiers, video amplifiers, sync circuits, sweep circuits, high-voltage
circuits, AM and FM receivers, and over-all receiver performance.
The minimum requirements of a one-man shop include a v.t.v.m,
signal generator, oscilloscope, and sweep generator; most techni­
cians also have a tube tester. Many shops regard as essential addi­
tional instruments — audio oscillators, square-wave generators,
frequency meters, field-strength meters, pattern generators, grid­
dip meters, capacitor checker^, sensitivity checkers, etc. Neverthe­
less, the v.t.v.m. is the key instrument in the layout.
Vacuum-tube voltmeters have undergone considerable develop­
ment during the past several years. Copper-oxide rectifiers which
are applicable only at low frequencies in low-impedance circuits,
and which can measure only r.m.s. values, have given way to diode
peak-to-peak indicating arrangements. D.c. scale ranges now ex­
tend from 1 to 30,000 volts, full scale.
In a sense, the term v.t.v.m. is a misnomer because it indicates
only one of the functions of the instrument. The service type
v.t.v.m., which is the subject of this book, may be used to
measure resistance as well as a.c. and d.c. voltages, while some
others may also be used to measure direct current and capaci­
tance. The design engineer, production worker, service tech­
nician and experimenter, all must make voltage and resistance
measurements in their daily work. The y.t.v.m. has become, in
fact, as important to the modern electronics worker as the sold­
ering iron.
7
 Troubleshooting of any defective electronic equipment consists
mainly of isolating the defective section of the unit and determin­
ing exactly the stage or circuit in which the trouble exists. Be­
cause a faulty circuit is usually revealed by improper voltage or
abnormal resistance readings, the troubleshooting process itself
may consist almost exclusively of voltage measurements, followed
by resistance measurements or a combination of both.
The v.t.v.m. is able to make such measurements with speed,
accuracy and convenience. The vacuum-tube type of voltmeter
is also able to make these measurements better than nonelectronic
meters for a number of reasons. (In many types of industrial elec­
tronic equipment as well as in TV and audio units, the v.t.v.m. is
the only instrument which can make these checks accurately.) The
following features of the v.t.v.m. show why:
1. Low circuit loading in voltage measurements.
2. Wide-range frequency response on a.c. measurements.
3. High sensitivity.
4. Burnout-resistant meter circuit.
5. Resistance readings over wide ranges.
6. Accuracy.
7. Dependability.

Low circuit loading in voltage measurements

Circuit loading is one of the most critical factors in electrical
measurements. All commercial types of measuring instruments,
when connected to a test circuit, must draw some power to make
their measurements. Some circuits, however, are more susceptible
to circuit loading than others. Circuits which are characterized
by very high d.c. resistance (the kinescope supply in a TV re­
ceiver), high a.c. impedance (an r.f. or i.f. amplifier) or low-cur-
rent characteristics (automatic gain-control circuits) can be
seriously disrupted in operation if any substantial load is placed
on them. These considerations have an important and direct ef­
fect upon the usefulness of the voltage reading.
In both a.c. and d.c. voltage measurements, the voltmeter is con­
nected in parallel across the resistance or impedance of the volt­
age source. The loading effect, then, is simply a matter of Ohm’s
or Kirchhoff’s law. The loading effect of an ordinary 20,000-ohms-
per-volt instrument is demonstrated in Fig. 101. On the 100-volt
range, the meter has a total resistance of 2 megohms (2,000,000
ohms). When the voltmeter is placed across one of the 1-meg­
ohm resistors in the voltage divider network of the circuit shown,
8
the combined resistance of the voltmeter and half the bleeder
resistance is 666,666 ohms. This causes the voltage to change
from 100 at the center of the divider to 80, a change of 20%. Thus,
when a voltmeter is connected across a source of d.c. voltage, the
voltage which will be read by the voltmeter will not be the origi­
nal operating voltage but a lower value, depending upon the re­
sistance of the voltmeter and the regulation and current charac­
teristics of the circuit.
The higher the resistance of the voltmeter, the less will be the
loading effect on the test circuit. An accurately calibrated volt­
meter can be depended upon to indicate the voltage across which
it is connected. In the example, shown in Fig. 101, 80 volts is the

Fig. 10I-a,-b. In the illustration at the left (a) the loading effect of the meter is
such that it reduces the voltage across the lower resistor from 100 to 80. The
equivalent circuit at the right (b) shows that the low impedance of the meter
upsets the voltage distribution in the network.
voltage which actually appears at the center point of the network
when the low-resistance voltmeter is connected. The voltage will
rise, however, as soon as the shunt resistance of the voltmeter is
removed. A high input resistance is desirable in a d.c. voltmeter,
therefore, to minimize loading effects and provide a more accu­
rate indication of circuit operating voltages. The d.c. input re­
sistances of service type vacuum-tube voltmeters range from ap­
proximately 10 megohms to as high as 50 megohms.
When d.c. voltage measurements are made in circuits contain­
ing a.c., such as in the plate circuit of an amplifier stage, capaci­
tance loading may cause serious disruption of circuit operation
unless the input capacitance of the voltmeter is kept low. Re­
duced a.c. loading in d.c. voltage measurements is achieved in
most vacuum-tube voltmeters by use of an isolating resistor in
the d.c. voltage probe. This resistor acts to reduce the effective
input capacitance of the instrument to a few micromicrofarads
(see Chapter 4). Low input capacitance and high resistance,
which increase the overall a.c. input impedance of the voltmeter,
are desirable to prevent excessive loading and detuning of high-
impedance circuits and to insure dependable a.c. voltage measure­
ments. Commercial vacuum-tube voltmeters using a vacuum-tube

9
signal rectifier usually have an input capacitance of less than 50
p[if and an a.c. resistance of approximately 1 megohm or higher.
There are some vacuum-tube voltmeters, however, which em­
ploy a copper-oxide or selenium type signal rectifier, have much
lower input impedance characteristics. Consequently, their a.c.
loading effect is much higher and their frequency response is usu­
ally limited to power-line frequencies or a few kilocycles at best.
The majority of vacuum-tube voltmeters contain voltage di­
vider networks and bridge circuits which make possible input
resistances of several megohms on d.c. voltage scales and generally
high input impedances on a.c. measurements. Because circuit
loading is greatly reduced, more accurate indications of actual
circuit operating voltages are possible.

Wide-range frequency response in a.c. measurements

The same characteristics which govern a.c. circuit loading have
an effect upon the frequency response characteristics of the instru­
ment. With the exception of metallic rectifier types, commercial
vacuum-tube voltmeters employ tubes, usually single or twin
diodes, as either half-wave or full-wave a.c. signal rectifiers. With
proper circuit design, the high-impedance characteristics of the
vacuum tube can be utilized to extend the frequency response of
the v.t.v.m. well into the megacycle region.
High-frequency response is achieved in different ways, depend­
ing upon the type of v.t.v.m. Special crystal and diode type probes
are available for use with many instruments and can extend the
working range to 200 me and beyond. Important, also, is response
at lower frequencies. A v.t.v.m. should be able to measure a.c.
voltages accurately at 60 c.p.s. and it is desirable that the instru­
ment indicate accurately down to 30 c.p.s., a useful feature in
checking low-frequency performance of high-quality audio equip­
ment. High-frequency response is desirable in such applications
as television signal tracing, running frequency response curves on
wide-range audio amplifiers and checking r.f. and i.f. amplifiers.
In TV troubleshooting, good high-frequency response is a major
requirement for an a.c. voltmeter. And the only voltmeter which
has this feature is the v.t.v.m.

High sensitivity
The v.t.v.m. is a high-sensitivity instrument primarily because
it employs vacuum tubes, which are highly sensitive amplifiers.
10
The signal voltage obtained from the circuit under test is applied,
in part, to one grid of a triode bridge circuit. Because of the
amplifying action in the vacuum tube, this relatively small voltage
can control a large amount of plate-current flow.
The sensitivity of a properly designed vacuum-tube bridge cir­
cuit can be made so high that an indicating meter of relatively
low sensitivity may be used. This high sensitivity permits use of
a more economical and more rugged meter movement which is
better able to stand the rigors of daily service work. Meters hav­
ing a basic sensitivity of 200 pa to 1 ma are ordinarily used in
v.t.v.m. circuits.

Burnout-resistant meter circuit

The meter movement of the v.t.v.m. is connected across a sen­
sitive bridge circuit. (Bridge circuits are described in the next
chapter.) When voltage or resistance measurements are made, the
input signal is first of all applied to a resistance voltage divider
which, in turn, applies only part of the input signal to the bal­
anced bridge circuit. With this type of design, to be described
fully in Chapter 2, it is impossible for the input signal to be
applied directly to the meter movement. Because of the limiting
action of the vacuum tubes and associated circuitry in the bridge
circuit, the amount of current which can flow through the meter
is restricted, regardless of the amount of signal voltage applied to
the input of the v.t.v.m. Consequently, ordinary overloads do
not seriously endanger the meter movement.
This highly desirable feature does not mean, however, that
the v.t.v.m. may be used without some precautions. Although ex­
cessive and repeated overloads may not result in burnout of the
meter coil, the delicate meter pointer may be bent or the move­
ment damaged to the extent that accuracy is seriously impaired.
Also, excessive input signal may result in a change in value of
the precision resistors in the divider networks or cause burnout
of low-value resistors.
While meter resistance to burnout is not a guarantee that volt­
age overloads, improper settings of controls and use of incorrect
probes and cables can be ignored, the v.t.v.m. provides a more
than adequate margin of safety against routine and understand­
able mistakes which could cause serious trouble in other types of
meters.
Protection against meter burnout is not always present, how­
ever. Many types of vacuum-tube voltmeters which can be used to
11
measure direct current employ only the meter movement and
special shunt resistances; the vacuum-tube bridge is not used.
In these instruments, the current in the circuit under test flows
directly through the input circuits of the instrument, and only part
of the current is shunted around the meter by the shunting resist­
ors. In instruments of this type, protection against overload is not
assured for current measurements.

Resistance readings over wide ranges

Nearly all commercial vacuum-tube voltmeters are capable of
resistance measurements up to 1,000 megohms. Few nonelectronic
meters are capable of resistance measurements above 50 meg­
ohms. The v.t.v.m. usually requires only one or two small flash­
light cells (1^2 volts each) for all values of resistance measure­
ments. Conventional nonelectronic meters may employ as many
as four or five batteries, with voltages up to 90, to enable them to
make resistance measurements of these high values. Use of low
battery voltages in the v.t.v.m. is made possible, in part, by the
high sensitivity of the instrument.
Most vacuum-tube voltmeters are factory-checked for accuracy
of resistance measurements at the center-scale points. This method
is convenient because of the difficulty which would be present in
attempting to check accuracy at the full-scale point, which is the
infinity mark, or at the zero-resistance point, a short circuit. On
these instruments, then, greatest accuracy on resistance measure­
ments will be obtained at the center-scale points. Therefore, the
highest resistance which can be measured with maximum assur­
ance of accuracy is the resistance shown at center scale on the
highest resistance range. With the v.t.v.m., this center point is
usually the 10-megohm mark. Because few nonelectronic meters
are capable of measurements above 50 megohms, this center-scale
point may be as low as 1 megohm or less.
An ohmmeter which is limited to measurement of low values of
resistance can be a handicap when it comes to general trouble­
shooting and checking capacitors for leakage. Television receiv­
ers and many other types of electronic equipment, for example,
contain resistors having a value of several megohms. A leakage
resistance of a few hundred megohms can make some capacitors
useless. The wide range of resistance measurements offered by the
v.t.v.m. makes these checks much easier. A method for using the
v.t.v.m. to measure resistances higher than 1,000 megohms is de­
scribed on p. 90.
12
Accuracy
The v.t.v.m. can be designed to give readings of very high accu­
racy. Its construction also permits use of indicating meters hav­
ing expanded scales which can be subdivided into relatively small
units of voltage, current and resistance. These are primarily
mechanical features but they make it possible to read the meter
indications with greater precision. Internal calibrating adjust­
ments are also provided for voltage and current scales to allow
compensation for any slight shifts in calibration which might
occur over periods of time. Aging of tubes and components, cli­
mate and other factors can effect slight electrical changes in pre­
cision circuitry. When internal calibrating controls are provided,
it is a relatively simple matter to correct for deviations.

Dependability
The v.t.v.m. is a dependable instrument principally because it
is a simple instrument. Its principles of operation, circuit design
and construction are straightforward, requiring only that the user
be familiar with the circuitry he is testing and that he know a few
fundamentals important to electrical measurements. When prop­
erly used, the v.t.v.m. can be expected to give long, trouble-free
operation. Design of these instruments is usually conservative.
Operating voltages on bridge tubes and power rectifiers are usually
well below maximum ratings, which greatly extends the life ex­
pectancy of tubes, components and the instrument in general.
The v.t.v.m. also has some miscellaneous features which help
make it a good all-around instrument. These include the ability
to measure a.c. voltages in d.c. circuits and the ability to measure
the d.c. component of a.c. signals; a wide range of voltage meas­
urements from approximately 0.1 to 1,000 or 1,500 volts both a.c.
and d.c.; resistance measurements from a few tenths of an ohm
to 1,000 megohms; good stability over a range of line-voltage con­
ditions; light weight and portability and adaptability to numer­
ous other measurements through the use of external accessories.
For example, high-voltage probes are available for extending the
d.c. voltage measurement ranges of the v.t.v.m. up to 30,000 volts
and higher. These relatively inexpensive probes contain a special
precision resistor which drops the high voltage to a value which
can be measured with the v.t.v.m. Well insulated, the probes can
be attached directly to the d.c. voltage input connector of the
v.t.v.m. No modification of the v.t.v.m. is required. High-fre­

13
quency probes which either slip on or connect to the probes sup­
plied with the v.t.v.m. (or which attach to the front-panel con­
nector of the instrument) can be used to extend the high-frequency
measurement range of the v.t.v.m. well into the megacycle region.
These accessories and their principles of operation are discussed
in Chapter 4.
These, then, are the major features and advantages of the
v.t.v.m. Altogether, they make the v.t.v.m. one of the most ver­
satile and reliable of all measuring instruments. When it is rea­
lized that a single instrument incorporating all of these features
is within the price range of nearly everyone engaged in servicing,
experimenting or electronic construction, the v.t.v.m. has an even
greater attraction.

14
 chapter

how the v.tv.m. works

ne of the best reasons for understanding how the v.t.v.m.

O operates is that a good working knowledge of the instrument
and its accessories can eliminate many servicing errors and sim­
plify many problems. Some typical questions are: Where is the
best point in the circuit to make the measurement? What cable
and probe should be used? Is the reading on the meter
dependable?
Because of the great variety of electronic equipment, it is im­
possible to anticipate all the measurement problems which can
arise. If the technician knows how his instrument works, he will
know more about its capabilities and limitations. Consequently,
he will be able to solve his own measurement problems without
trouble. An adequate knowledge of thcf instrument is also im­
portant when it comes to troubleshooting the v.t.v.m. And, a
knowledge of v.t.v.m. circuits and principles of operation can be
applied to many other types of equipment using circuits which
function on similar principles.
Basically, the v.t.v.m. is a simple instrument. It uses standard
circuits, familiar components and conventional vacuum tubes.
To technicians familiar with the much more complicated cir­
cuitry of a television receiver, the most involved part of the
v.t.v.m. is the switching arrangement. And even the switching
networks can be easily understood if a schematic diagram is
available.
When stripped of its switches, the v.t.v.m. consists simply of

15
a vacuum-tube bridge circuit, a.c. signal rectifier, voltage divider
networks, power supply and, on some instruments, a compensat­
ing section for contact potential in the a.c. signal detector, a spec­
ial problem discussed further on in this chapter. A v.t.v.m. (the
RCA WV-77A Junior VoltOhmyst) may employ as few as two
tubes or as many as five (the Sylvania 221Z and 134A), including
the rectifier in the diode probe. The tubes are often dual-section
types, however, and may be used to perform more than one
function. In the case of the Junior VoltOhmyst, four-tube per­

formance is achieved with two tubes, effecting economy of design

without sacrificing accuracy or versatility.
The service type v.t.v.m., with which we are exclusively con­
cerned here, employs one or two tubes in the bridge circuit, one
tube in the power supply and one in the a.c. signal-detector sec­
tion. The Sylvania instruments employ an additional twin tri­
ode, which functions as a cathode-coupled amplifier stage, ahead
of the bridge circuit. Battery-operated units, however, such as the
G-E AA-2 and RCA WV-65A VoltOhmyst, do not employ a vac­
uum-tube signal detector or vacuum-tube power rectifier, but use
a metallic type signal detector.
If we borrow a little from each of the current types of instru­
ments, a typical block diagram of the v.t.v.m. will look like that
shown in Fig. 201. There are exceptions, of course, but the excep­
tions do not alter our basic description. A check of the schematic
diagram for individual instruments will quickly show any
deviations.
The v.t.v.m. is built around the vacuum-tube bridge circuit and
indicating meter. The functions of the a.c. signal rectifier and
the divider networks for a.c. and d.c. volts and ohms are to supply
16
a fixed proportion of the a.c. or d.c. input signal to the bridge cir­
cuit. In operation, a d.c. voltage is fed to the bridge from one of
these three sections. On resistance measurements, the resistance
divider network in series with an internal battery furnishes a value
of d.c. voltage which depends upon the value of the unknown
shunt resistance placed across the network. On d.c. voltage checks,
the voltage under measurement is applied across the d.c. voltage
divider network which, in turn, apply a proportionate part of the
test voltage to the bridge.
In a.c. voltage tests, however, the signal is rectified first and the
resultant d.c. voltage is then applied to the bridge circuit. The

input divider networks for the three functions are designed so that
only a small part of the input voltage (1.5 to 3 volts maximum)
reaches the bridge circuit.
The power supply provides the heater and plate voltages for
the bridge tube and heater voltages for the a.c. signal rectifier
and contact-potential bucking tube, if one is used. Voltage for
ohms measurements is obtained from an internal low-voltage dry
cell. The compensating circuit for contact potential is used
when the v.t.v.m. is switched to a.c. measurements. An explana­
tion of this circuit will be given later.

The bridge circuit

The majority of vacuum-tube voltmeters now being manufac­
tured or currently in use have a great deal in common. The
bridge circuits, especially, are similar in operation. In fact, two
basic bridge circuits with only slight modifications can be used to
17
demonstrate the operation of these circuits in almost all service
type vacuum-tube voltmeters.
The first of these bridge circuits is shown in Fig. 202. This is
a push-pull circuit in which the indicating meter is connected
between the plates of the two triodes. The tubes employed may
also be pentodes, although the use of pentodes increases power­
supply problems and requires additional components. For these
reasons, plus the fact that pentodes have no great advantages over
triodes in a v.t.v.m. bridge circuit, pentodes are seldom employed.
The practice is to use twin-section triodes having separate
cathodes.
The circuit shown in Fig. 202 is degenerative, an important fea­
ture in increasing general stability and immunity from effects of
line-voltage variations. Degeneration (negative or inverse feed­
back) also aids in increasing the overall linearity of the circuit. In
this circuit cathode resistors Rki and Rk2 are connected to a com­
mon resistor Rb. Rli and RX2 are the plate load resistors. Total cur­
rent for both tubes must flow through Rb. Rki and Rk2, which
affect bridge-circuit sensitivity, are usually made relatively small
in value with respect to Rb.
If a positive voltage is applied to the grid of VI, the current
flowing through the left side of the bridge is increased, causing
the voltage at the plate of this section to decrease. This current
also flows through the common cathode resistor Rb, causing an
increase in the voltage drop across it. The cathodes of both VI
and V2 will appear more positive. Because the grid of V2 is
grounded, however, the bias is increased and current flow through
V2 is less than that through VI, the voltage drop across RL2 is
decreased and the voltage at the plate of V2 is increased. The
resulting difference in potential between the plates causes current
to flow through the meter from the plate of VI to the plate of V2.
The meter may be calibrated in units of voltage or resistance. The
ratios between the values of the plate-load resistors and the resist­
ors in the cathode circuit are important because they determine
the operating characteristics of the bridge circuit. In the Hickok
model 215, for example, RM and RL2 are 39,000 and 36,000 ohms,
respectively. Rw and Rk2 are 1,800 ohms and Rb is 47,000 ohms.
A 12AU7 is used as the bridge tube. These values are represen­
tative of those used in other instruments which employ this
circuit.
Perfect electrical balance between the two halves of the bridge
is an ideal condition which, however, is difficult if not impossible
18
to achieve in practice. Such an ideal condition would require two
tubes which are electrically identical and resistors matched to per­
fection. Also, tube and component aging would have to be of
such a nature that circuit equilibrium would be unaffected over
long periods of time. Such a condition is impractical to achieve,
of course, and unnecessary if means are provided for compensat­
ing for slight electrical differences between tubes and components.
Under static conditions, the bridge is adjusted by means of Rz so
the indicating meter reads zero and the currents flowing through
both sides of the bridge are apparently equal.
In the circuit of Fig. 202, a fair degree of static circuit balance
may be achieved by use of tubes with similar characteristics and

Fig. 203. This bridge is similar to that of Fig.

202. Note that in this case, however, the indicat­
ing meter is in the cathode circuit.

components having approximately equal values. Rz permits pre­

cise overall adjustment of the bridge. Calibration of the v.t.v.m.
bridge is accomplished by adjustment of Rc, the calibrating
potentiometer. With no input voltage applied, the bridge is
first adjusted for zero reading on the meter by means of Rz, the
zero-adjust control. A positive voltage of exact known value is
then applied to the input terminals and Rc is adjusted until the
meter pointer reads this exact value on the meter scale. The
calibrating voltage is usually the value of the full-scale point on
a lower voltage range. Once the v.t.v.m. has been calibrated on
the required d.c. voltage range, the instrument should main­
tain its accuracy on the remaining d.c. voltage ranges. A sep­
arate calibrating control is usually provided for each function of
the instrument. The RCA WV-87A Master VoltOhmyst, for ex­
ample, has a separate calibrating potentiometer for +d.c. volts,
-d.c. volts, direct current and resistance. On other instru­
ments, however, one control may serve for both +d.c. and -d.c.
volts. The resistance adjustment on service type vacuum-tube

19
voltmeters is the familiar ohms control, located on the front
panel. This control usually requires adjustment whenever the
instrument is used. Other calibrating controls, however, are lo­
cated inside the instrument case and are adjusted at the factory.

Cathode-metered bridge circuit operation

Another commonly used bridge circuit of slightly different
design is shown in Fig. 203. This cathode-metered bridge is used
widely and with considerable variations in component values and
arrangement. (In Eico, Heath, Triplett and Simpson instruments,
for example, the zero-adjust control is located at the junction of
Rki and Rk2, with the arm of the control connected to the nega­
tive side of the voltage supply.)
If a positive voltage is applied to the grid of VI, current flow is
increased and the positive voltage appearing at the cathode of VI
is increased. Part of the increased voltage at the cathode of VI is
also applied to the cathode of V2 through the relatively low
resistance of the meter and calibrating resistor Rc and through
Rkl and Rk2. Because the voltage at the cathode of V2 is raised
and the grid of V2 is grounded, the bias on V2 becomes more
negative. The current flow through V2, then, is decreased with
a resultant decrease in potential at the cathode of V2. Since the
cathode of VI is more positive than the cathode of V2, current
flows through the meter from the cathode of V2 to the cathode of
VI. Note that the direction of current flow is opposite to that in
the push-pull type bridge circuit.

D.c. voltage-divider network

The purpose of the d.c. voltage divider network is to provide a
resistance path to ground across which the voltage to be measured
can be developed and applied in a small, fixed proportion to the
bridge circuit. The network is tapped at various points, depend­
ing upon the number and ranges of d.c. voltage scales on the
v.t.v.m.
The network shown in Fig. 204 is typical of those used in serv­
ice type vacuum-tube voltmeters. The values and taps shown are
those used in the divider network of the RCA WV-97A Senior
VoltOhmyst. Other units may employ a different number of
ranges and different values of resistances in their networks, but the
principle of operation is the same.
The external d.c. voltage is applied across the full resistance

20
network, whether the instrument is to measure 1,500 or 1.5 volts.
On the WV-97A, approximately 1.35 volts is required at the grid
of the bridge input tube for full-scale meter deflection on all
ranges and functions. The d.c. voltage divider and other divider
networks are designed accordingly. It can be seen from Fig. 204
that as the voltage range increases, a smaller amount of the
applied voltage is tapped off for application to the bridge tube.
With 1,500 volts applied to the instrument, only about .09% or

Fig. 204. Voltage-divider network at the d.c. input to a v.t.v.m. The input
resistance, including the resistance of the external probe, is 11 megohms.
Some v.t.v.m.’s have an input rated at 25 megohms.
1.35 volts of the input voltage will be tapped off. The relation­
ship of the individual resistances which make up the series net­
work is such that when the maximum rated voltage for any par­
ticular range is applied, the voltage developed between the cor­
responding range tap and ground is always approximately 1.35.
Generally, commercial vacuum-tube voltmeters require between 1
and 3 volts at the grid of the input bridge tube for full-scale
deflection.
The input resistance of a v.t.v.m. on d.c.-voltage measurements
is calculated simply by adding the values of all the resistors in
series from the d.c. voltage input terminal to ground, plus the
value of the isolating resistor in the d.c. probe. The input resist­
ance is constant for all d.c. voltage ranges. The purpose of the
isolating resistor (one megohm d.c. probe) is described in Chapter
4.
The values shown in Fig. 204 total 11 megohms (including 1
21
megohm in the probe) which is the input resistance and resist­
ance-loading factor of the Senior VoltOhmyst. Current drain from
the circuit under test is about 100 pa on the 1,500-volt range and
only 0.14 pa on the 1.5-volt range! Circuit loading, therefore, is
not a serious problem.
The d.c. input resistance can be made higher, of course, by
employing a divider network made up of higher resistances. This
is not usually done, however, for two reasons. The first is that a
very high input resistance creates problems of stability. Leakage
resistance of switch wafers, wiring insulation and probes and
cables, all of which are affected by temperature, humidity and
dust, act to shunt the high-resistance divider network and change
its effective resistance. The second reason involves bridge circuit
design and vacuum-tube characteristics. It is highly desirable and
necessary to keep grid current as close to zero as possible. A direct
current as small as 1 pa flowing through a grid-to-ground resist­
ance of 1 megohm can generate 1-volt d.c. Such a voltage is more
than enough to cause serious trouble in bridge-circuit action. If
a d.c. input resistance of 30 or 40 megohms is employed, extreme
care must be taken to restrict leakage resistance and to keep grid
current at a very low level. These measures require the most
careful circuit design and the use of especially high-quality com­
ponents. However, these are expensive measures which experi­
ence has shown are unnecessary in a service type v.t.v.m.
In Fig. 204, Rx and Cx comprise a simple filter network designed
to keep any high-frequency a.c. voltage picked up in the grid cir­
cuit from being rectified by the input bridge tube and thereby
affecting meter indications. Rx also acts as a limiting resistor to
prevent overload voltages from driving the grid of the tube too
far in a positive direction. This filter network is part of the grid
circuit of the input bridge tube and is, therefore, in operation on
all functions. Similar networks are used on all commercial vac­
uum-tube voltmeters.
The precision of the resistors used in the d.c. divider network
have a great influence on the accuracy of the voltage reading.
Wirewound or deposited carbon-film resistors having a tolerance
of ±1% or better are generally used since a change in value of
any resistor in the network can affect the accuracy of the voltage
reading on all ranges. Consequently, the resistance divider net­
work is one of the first circuits to check when the v.t.v.m. starts to
give haywire d.c. voltage readings.
An important feature provided in most vacuum-tube voltmeters

22
is polarity switching on d.c. voltage measurements. The function
switch, which has positions marked -(-d.c. and -d.c., provides a
means of reversing connections of the meter terminals between
the two bridge tubes. By merely resetting the front-panel switch,
upscale deflection can be obtained on either positive or negative
d.c. voltage measurements. This convenient feature eliminates the
necessity of reversing test leads when changing the polarity of
measurement.

Resistance-measurement network
Two types of arrangements are used in the “ohms” measurement
section of the v.t.v.m. Both work on the same principle: the value
of the unknown resistance is compared with the value of a precis­
ion standard resistor in the v.t.v.m. The answer is read directly in

~ JUV
o
—RLTER NETWORK

Fig. 205. Resistance measuring circuit of a v.t.v.m. Some v.t.v.m.fs use 1.5 volts
as the voltage source for resistance tests; others use 3 volts (see Fig. 206).
ohms from a v.t.v.m. scale specially calibrated in units of
resistance.
The comparison works on a principle in which the external
resistance is connected in series, by means of the ohms probe and
cable and the ground cable, with the standard resistor and the
internal battery. The most common arrangement is shown in
Fig. 205. The circuit is that used in the Eico model 214, which
has five resistance ranges for measuring values up to 1,000
megohms.
A 1.5-volt battery is used as the voltage source. When the range
switch is set to any of the five positions, one of the standard resist­
ors is connected in series with the battery and the ohms probe. If
no external resistance is connected across the circuit, no direct-
current path will exist in the battery circuit, no current will be
drawn from the battery and a maximum amount of voltage will
be present at point A. This will cause the tube to conduct and,
in turn, cause the meter pointer to swing to the full-scale point.
The full-scale point, then, indicates an infinite amount of
resistance.
23
 When an external resistance, shown as Rx, is connected across
the circuit, the d.c. path from the positive terminal of the bat­
tery is completed through the standard resistor, Rx, the ohms
probe and cable and the ground cable. Current will flow, pro­
ducing a voltage drop across both resistors. The ratio between
the values of the two resistances will determine the voltage avail­
able at point A. This voltage will always be less than the full
battery voltage, causing a corresponding reduction in the voltage
reaching the grid and a smaller excursion of the meter pointer.

Fig. 206. Fundamentally this circuit is identical with that of Fig.

2,05. Note, however, that here all the resistors connected to the range
switch are in series.
Because the amount of pointer deflection depends directly on the
value of the external resistance, the scale may be marked in units
of resistance.
If an external resistance equal to the normal resistance of the
grid circuit is connected, the ratio between the two resistances and
the divided voltages will be 1 to 1; only half the battery voltage
will appear at point A, and the pointer will deflect to half scale.
This point, which is basically determined by a voltage value, is
also the point which corresponds to the value of the standard
resistor. In practice, the mid-scale point is 10 ohms or a multiple
of 10. External resistances larger than the resistance of the grid
circuit will cause deflection in the top half of the ohms scale;
smaller resistances will cause the pointer to indicate in the lower
half of the scale. Positions of all other points on the ohms scale

24
may be determined easily. (Typical ohms scales are shown in
Chapter 3.)
The circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 206 works in the same
manner as that shown in Fig. 205 except that, as the resistance
range is increased, the effective value of the standard resistor is
made up of two or more resistances connected in series. The dif­
ferences in the merits of each arrangement are of no great impor­
tance and both systems are used with good results in many vac­
uum-tube voltmeters.
Most commercial units employ a single 1.5-volt flashlight cell as
the voltage source for ohms measurements. Some vacuum-tube
voltmeters, however, employ two batteries in series to give 3 volts.

Fig. 207. This drawing indicates the relation­

ship between the values of a sine wave. If the
peak is 1 volt, then the peak-to-peak is
2 volts, and r.mjs. is 0.707 volt.
The battery voltage required for full-scale deflection depends on
design of the bridge circuit and its operating characteristics. A
low battery voltage has the advantage of permitting measurements
in very low-resistance low-wattage circuits which might be dam­
aged by application of a higher voltage. Resistances of thermo­
couples, battery-tube filaments and other low-power devices
should be measured only after making sure the ohms-measure-
ment voltage of the v.t.v.m. will not cause burnout of the resist­
ance being measured.
A.c. voltage measurements
The a.c. voltage measurement too often is a problem, especially
in TV servicing where much confusion could be avoided by a
better understanding of how the v.t.v.m. works, what waveforms it
is designed to measure and what type reading (r.m.s., peak, or peak-
to-peak) is provided by the meter. If the technician has this
knowledge firmly in mind, he should be able to use his v.t.v.m.
without hesitation. He will know exactly the reliability of the
reading and whether he is attempting to measure a waveform or
trying to obtain a type of reading which his instrument was not
designed to handle.

25
 Reliable a.c. voltage measurements can be assured if the tech-
nican is aware of these basic facts:
1. All vacuum-tube voltmeters are designed to provide a spe­
cific type of a.c. voltage reading—either r.m.s., peak, or peak-to-
peak.
2. The shape and repetition rate of the waveform being meas­
ured have a direct effect on the accuracy of the meter indication.
3. The v.t.v.m. is designed to measure a.c. signals over a fre­
quency range defined by the manufacturer. Th« frequency re­
sponse of the v.t.v.m. is not unlimited.
Service type vacuum-tube voltmeters are designed to indicate
directly eithers r.m.s. or peak-to-peak values of a.c. voltages. The
a.c. signal rectifier used in most r.m.s. indicating instruments is a
half-wave peak rectifier: the meter scales, however, are calibrated
TABLE 1
CONVERSION TABLE FOR SINE WAVES ONLY

MULTIPLY to get:
R.M.S. BY PEAK BY P-P BY
— 0.707 0.353 R.M.S.
1.414 — 0.5 PEAK
2.83 2.0 — PEAK-TO-PEAK

in r.m.s. values (0.707 of the peak value) of the rectified voltage.

The relationships between r.m.s., peak and peak-to-peak por­
tions of a sine wave are shown in Fig. 207. The portion of the
waveform rectified by the v.t.v.m. depends on the type of a.c.
signal rectifier used. Half-wave diode rectifiers are used in peak
rectifying instruments; a full-wave voltage doubler circuit, similar
to the rectifier circuits employed in many a.c.-d.c. radio receivers,
is used in peak-to-peak reading instruments.
In measurement of pure sine waves, a fixed mathematical rela­
tionship exists between these three portions of the waveform. It is
important to remember that these values, which are shown in
Table 1, hold only for sine waves. They cannot be applied to any
other waveshape. If this point is ignored, trouble may result.
Each type of waveform has its own mathematical relationships.
The r.m.s. value of the pulse shown in Fig. 208 may be only 10
or 20% of its peak value, depending upon the width of the pulse,
the repetition rate and the reference level. If we try to measure
26
the r.m.s. value of the pulse on a v.t.v.m. designed to indicate the
r.m.s. value of a sine wave, the large error will make the reading
meaningless.
If we restrict our a.c. voltage measurements to pure sine waves,
it is possible to calibrate the meter scales to indicate the r.m.s.,
peak and peak-to-peak values simultaneously, because all sine
waves, regardless of their voltage value, have a fixed relationship
between these portions. Some commercial vacuum-tube volt­
meters are calibrated to indicate simultaneously the r.m.s. and
peak-to-peak values of sine waves. Other instruments are designed
to indicate directly, not only the r.m.s. and peak-to-peak values of
YWbA/V

SINE WAVE SQUAREWAVE SYMMETRICAL COMPLEX WAVE

4Ht -Jdc
^symmetrical complex wave pulse
Fig. 208. Types of waveforms that you will encounter in radio and
TV servicing. Many v.t.v.m/s are designed for sine-wave measure­
ments only.
sine waves, but the values of complex wave shapes as well. These
instruments employ special rectifier circuits however.
It is necessary, therefore, that the technician understand exactly
the types of waveforms his v.t.v.m. is designed to measure. This
information should be provided by the manufacturer in his pub­
lished specifications for the instrument. In cases where no infor­
mation is given regarding waveshape, it is safer to assume that on
a.c. the instrument is designed to measure sine waves only.

Frequency response
The frequency response, or the range of frequencies over which
the v.t.v.m. will provide accurate a.c. voltage readings, depends
upon the a.c. circuit and input characteristics of the instrument.
Mainly, the input resistance and capacitance are the governing
factors. These characteristics may be uniform throughout all the
voltage ranges of the instrument or they may vary from range to
range. All vacuum-tube voltmeters are limited to a certain range
of frequencies; the range may run from a few cycles per second
to several megacycles. Special high-frequency probes are often
available for extending the response into higher frequencies.

27
 The input capacitance should be kept low and the resistance
made as high as possible to enable the v.t.v.m. to work at the
higher frequencies. The shunting capacitance may have a rela­
tively high reactance at audio frequencies, but at radio frequen­
cies the reactance may be low enough to attenuate the input sig­
nal seriously. The meter reading, then, will be lower than the
normal value of the source voltage. The v.t.v.m. should be used
only for frequencies within its response range.
Fig. 209 shows a half-wave rectifier circuit which is similar in

Fig. 209. A.c. measuring circuit of a v.t.v.m. Unless otherwise

indicated, the v.t.v.m. will read the r.mj. value of the input a.c.
uiaveforjn^
operation to those used in other r.m.s. indicating units. This cir­
cuit, part of the RCA WV-77A Junior VoltOhmyst, employs a
single diode section of a 12AL5 miniature twin-diode. The other
diode section is the a.c. power rectifier. Circuit operation is as
follows:
When an a.c. signal is applied between the a.c. probe and
ground, the negative half of the cycle charges capacitor Cl through
the diode to the negative peak value of the input voltage. When
the voltage starts to swing in the positive direction, the diode be­
comes nonconductive and Cl can discharge only through resist­
ors R4 and R5. The time constant of Cl, R4 and R5 is relatively
long, however, and the voltage charge on Cl and the voltage
across R4 and R5 remain at essentially the peak value. Any
charge which may leak off capacitor Cl will be replenished dur­
ing each succeeding cycle of the a.c. input voltage. Resistors R4
and R5 form a precision voltage divider to supply the voltage
divider network and vacuum-tube bridge with a d.c. voltage pro­
portional to the peak value of the wave being measured. Meter
scales are calibrated in r.m.s. values.
28
 Because at low voltage levels the I2AL5 goes into nonlinear
operation, correction is necessary to insure accurate voltage read­
ings. Correction is made by providing a separate scale for the 3-
volt a.c. range. This scale should always be used for measurement
of a.c. voltages up to 3 volts.
Note that a.c. attenuation is provided for in two sections of
this circuit. A.c. voltages up to 60 are fed directly to the diode

Fig. 210. A.c. measuring circuit of a peak-to-peak type of v.t.v.m. This circuit
enables the instrument to measure the peak-to-peak values of complex waveforms.
beyond R4, R5. On the 300- and 1,200-volt ranges, however, at­
tenuation occurs in the network made up of RI, R2 and R3 before
the voltage reaches the rectifier. This arrangement prevents the
inverse peak voltage rating of the tube from being exceeded.
Another advantage of this circuit arrangement is that a common
voltage divider network may be used on some a.c. and d.c. voltage
measurements.
A peak-to-peak rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 210. This cir­
cuit, which is used in the RCA WV-97A Senior VoltOhmyst, is
capable of rectifying sine waves and a variety of pulses and other
nonsymmetrical complex waves. The d.c. output voltage is pro­
portional to the peak-to-peak value of the waveform.
Seven voltage ranges are provided. Measurement of peak-to-
peak values of waveforms other than sine waves is made possible
by the use of component values which give the rectifier circuit a
long time constant. When the applied a.c. signal swings negative,
C3 is charged through the bottom diode section to the negative

29
peak value of the applied voltage. As the voltage starts to swing
in a positive direction, this diode section becomes nonconducting
and the charge on C3 is prevented from discharging.
As the a.c. signal swings positive, the positive peak is added in
series with the charge on C3 and is applied to the plate of the
other diode section. C4 is then charged to a value equal to the
sum of the positive and negative peaks. Because of the relatively
long time constant of the circuit, the voltage across C4 will be
maintained at the peak-to-peak value of the applied a.c. voltage.
This charge is then applied as a d.c. voltage to the a.c. voltage
divider and the bridge tube.
RI, R2 and R3 are a voltage divider which limits the voltage
applied to the 6AL5 and prevents damage on the high-voltage
ranges. Cl is a blocking capacitor which prevents any d.c. volt­
age in the test circuit from reaching the divider networks and
diodes. C2 is a frequency-compensating capacitor which is ad­
justed at the factory to maintain a frequency response essentially
flat up to 3 me on all ranges up to and including the 500-voIt
range. Response may be extended to 250 me when an accessory
crystal rectifying probe is used. The crystal probe, however, does
not provide for peak-to-peak readings, and meter indications are
in r.m.s. values.

A.c. voltage measurements and contact potential

When a vacuum-tube diode is used as an a.c. signal rectifier in
a v.t.v.m., special allowance must be made for the effect of con­
tact potential. Contact potential is a d.c. voltage generated within
the tube itself, even when no external voltage is applied to the
plate. Basically, contact potential is caused by (1) the difference
in characteristics of the metals used within the tube envelope and
(2) the velocity with which electrons leave the cathode. If the
cathode is hot enough to emit electrons, a few electrons will be
propelled to the plate due to thermal energy, even with no applied
plate voltage. In most receiving tubes, contact potential increases
as the temperature difference increases between the tube metals.
In the simple diode circuit shown in Fig. 211, for example, the
contact potential which exists between the cathode and plate will
cause a small amount of current to flow in the external circuit.
This current may be extremely small, less than 1 microampere.
Suppose R in Fig. 211 is 10 megohms, which corresponds in
value to the resistance of a typical v.t.v.m. voltage divider. If the
diode contact potential causes a current of only 0.1 microampere
30
to flow, the external voltage developed will be 1 volt. All or part
of this voltage will then appear at the grid of the bridge input
tube, depending on the setting of the range switch, and cause the
meter pointer to deflect off zero, the direction of deflection being
dependent on how the diode is connected in the circuit. The
zero-adjust control must then be readjusted to bring the meter
pointer back to zero. As the range switch is changed to different
taps along the network (see Fig. 210), a different fraction of the
voltage will be tapped off and the meter pointer will shift accord­
ingly. The pointer will also shift off zero when the v.t.v.m is
switched from a.c. to d.c. or vice versa.
If the meter pointer is not set to zero once again, the voltage
reading will probably be inaccurate. If the pointer has to be

Fig. 211. Contact potential, pro­

duced by a minute current flowing
through R, is serious when measur­
ing small voltages.
returned to zero whenever the range is changed, the practice be­
comes a nuisance.
This operating inconvenience can be overcome in the design of
the instrument by incorporating a circuit which will either pro­
vide a counteracting or balancing-out voltage of opposite polarity
to buck out the contact potential or which will automatically bal­
ance the bridge circuit when the v.t.v.m. is switched to a.c. When
the bucking or compensating circuit is properly adjusted, the
range switch may be set to any position without materially affect­
ing the zero setting of the pointer.
Three types of circuits are commonly used to overcome the
effects of contact potential. The first circuit, shown in Fig. 212,
uses a small voltage tapped from the power supply to buck out the
contact-potential voltage. The figure shows a v.t.v.m. which em­
ploys a half-wave signal rectifier, VI. The detector circuit is con­
nected to the bridge only when the function switch is set to a.c.
Compensation is not required on other functions.
On a.c.j contact potential in the diode VI will cause a positive
voltage to appear at the cathode of the diode and also at the grid
of the input bridge tube. This positive voltage, which will pro­
duce off-zero deflection of the meter pointer, is neutralized by
tapping a corresponding voltage of negative polarity off the power

31
supply voltage divider. R is a variable resistor, usually a poten­
tiometer, which is set correctly at the factory. In some instru­
ments, the diode detector may be connected differently, causing a
negative voltage to be applied to the bridge. In these cases, a posi­
tive bucking voltage is tapped from the power supply. The
method described in Fig. 212 is employed in the RCA WV-77A
Junior VoltOhmyst.
Another circuit arrangement is shown in Fig. 213. This a.c.
circuit is a full-wave peak-to-peak rectifier. The diode V2 is used

Fig. 212. Contact potential will cause the meter needle

to swing off scale when the range switch is set to read
low voltages. Potentiometer R can be properly posi­
tioned to counteract contact potential and to provide
a zero reading on the scale before making low-voltage
measurements.
to generate a contact-potential voltage which is applied to the
grid of V4 to offset the effect of the negative voltage applied to the
grid of V3 due to contact potential in VI. RI is adjusted to give
the correct amount of counterbalancing voltage. As the range
switch is changed, a voltage which is proportional to the amount
of contact potential voltage appearing at the grid of V3 is tapped
off the network R2, R3 and R4 to keep the bridge in balance.
This method is used in the RCA WV-87A and WV-97A Volt-
Ohmysts and several other commercial vacuum-tube voltmeters.
A third method of counteracting contact potential is shown in
the simplified diagram in Fig. 214. The functioning of this circuit
is similar to that of a bridge. The a.c.-balance potentiometer R
is adjusted for zero output with no signal applied to the input
terminals. VI is the signal rectifier and V2 acts to balance out the
contact potential of VI.
32
Direct-current measurements
Not all commercial vacuum-tube voltmeters provide current­
measurement facilities because there is little need for current
measurements in radio and TV servicing. This feature is useful,

Fig. 213. Circuit of a full-wave, peak-to-peak rectifier. Diode V2 produces a

bucking potential to counteract the contact potential of VI. Zero adjustment
on the low-voltage scale is obtained by proper setting of RI.
however, in checking current drain of auto radios, d.c. balance of
push-pull amplifiers and general measurements in amplifiers and
other d.c. devices. The circuit shown in Fig. 215 is typical of

Fig. 214. In this circuit V2 produces a voltage in opposition to contact

potential. Potentiometer R is adjusted until the meter needle is at the
zero point.
those employed in commercial instruments. This circuit, used in
the Sylvania 221Z, 301 and 302 Polymeters, will measure direct
current from 3 ma to 10 amperes (full-scale values). The circuit
consists simply of a d.c. meter movement (1-ma full-scale deflec­
tion), a series dropping and calibrating resistor Rc and seven cur­
rent-shunting resistors.
Shunt-resistor values and taps are arranged so that, with correct

33
use, current flow through the meter is restricted to a maximum
of approximately 1 ma. The switch is connected in series with
the meter rather than in shunt so that the contact resistance will
not change the accuracy of the meter reading. The meter shunt
circuit is never broken so that no overload current surges will
occur when ranges are changed. The series resistance increases
on the higher current ranges and gives the meter some degree of
protection against current surges.
Instruments which use this type of circuit do not utilize the
bridge circuit and vacuum-tube functions of the instrument and

Fig. 215. Current measuring circuit used in some

v.t.v.m. s.

do not require connection to the power line. The instrument is

connected directly in series with the circuit in which current is
to be measured. Note that current will flow directly through the
shunting resistors and the meter; no vacuum-tube protection is
provided against meter burnout, on this function.
For currents up to 1 ampere, the terminals marked ma and
common are used. The range switch is set to the range setting
which will include the current to be measured. For currents be­
tween 1 and 10 amperes, the positive current cable is moved from
the ma terminal and inserted in the 10 amp terminal.
As the current range and the series resistance of the meter are
increased, a larger amount of current will flow through the
shunting network. On the 10-ampere range, only the .015-ohm
resistor is in shunt, permitting nearly all of the total current to
bypass the meter. When the instrument is used properly, no more
34
than 1 ma will flow through the meter movement itself. Operation
of this circuit is similar to that of the Hickok models 125, 209 and
209A, Jackson model 645 and RCA model, WV-65A and WV-87A
VoltOhmysts.

Power supply

The power supply for the v.t.v.m. is about as simple as can be

devised, as reference to Fig. 216 will show. This power supply,
which is representative of those used in cither vacuum-tube volt­

Fig. 216. Power supply for the v.t.v.m. is small, uses selenium
rectifier and simple R-C filter. A vacuum-tube rectifier is
sometimes used in place of the selenium unit.

meters as well, is employed in the Hickok model 215. This supply

uses a resistance-capacitance filter section. The supply provides a
B plus voltage for the bridge tubes, a B minus voltage for the cath­
ode circuit of the bridge and a small bucking voltage to nullify
effects of contact potential in the a.c. signal rectifier when the
instrument is switched to a.c. voltage measurements. The 6.3-volt
winding furnishes heater voltage for a 12AU7
* bridge tube and a
6AL5 a.c. signal rectifier. The selenium power rectifier does not
require any heater voltage.
V.t.v.m. power supplies employ a half-wave rectifier; either a
vacuum tube or selenium type. A small power transformer, one
or two filter capacitors, a filter resistor, and a resistance divider
network complete the supply. In many instruments a twin diode,
such as a 6AL5 or a 12AL5, is employed. One of the diode sections
of the tube is used as the power rectifier and the other diode
section works as the a.c.-signal rectifier (when the v.t.v.m. is set
up for a.c.-voltage measurements). In some peak-to-peak reading
v.t.v.m/s, one diode section may be used as the line voltage power
rectifier while the other section is employed in a contact-potential
*The filament of the 12AU7 can be connected for either 6.3- or 12.6-volt operation.

35
correcting circuit. Most power supplies are required to furnish
only the B+ and filament voltages. A resistance divider network
is used where it is necessary to furnish bias voltages or a contact­
potential bucking voltage.
Commercial vacuum-tube voltmeters have simple power re­
quirements; both the tube-heater and B-supply demands are
extremely small. Because the bridge circuit and a.c. signal recti­
fier are required to furnish little power, B plus current drain is
usually limited to a few milliamperes. To minimize grid current
flow in the bridge tubes, a critical factor which was discussed on
page 22, some of the heaters are run at reduced voltages, often as
low as 5.8 for heaters which would normally be operated at 6.3
volts. Total power consumption of the v.t.v.m. is in the order of
5 to 10 watts.

36
 chapter

meter scales

eter scales used on different makes of service type vacuum­

M tube voltmeters are very much alike in design, and the
methods of reading them are essentially the same. If a few simple

Fig. 301. In this illustration we have the dial scales of a modern v.t.v.m.
The use of a number of scales having various ranges gives the instrument
considerable versatility, extends its usefulness.

facts are understood, it is possible to read the scales of any com­

mercial v.t.v.m. without hesitation or error.
37
 Fig. 301 shows the dial scales which appear on the face of a typ­
ical service type v.t.v.m., the RCA Master VoltOhmyst. Because
of the number of different functions (volts, ohms and current)
provided on this instrument and the different ranges (0-1.5, 0-5,
R X 1, R X 10, etc.) for each function, the VoltOhmyst will pro­
vide measurements over 37 different ranges. The scales are pro­
vided for resistance, positive and negative d.c. voltages, r.m.s. and
peak-to-peak a.c. voltages and direct current. It is possible, how­
ever, for one scale to serve for the measurement of several different
functions. For example, a single scale on the meter may be used to
measure a.c. or d.c. voltages up to 5 volts or direct current up to 5
milliamperes. By the use of such combinations, the total number
of scales required on the Master VoltOhmyst was reduced to nine.
In addition, two scales may be plotted on the same base line as
shown in Fig. 302 (see Figs. 302-d, e) by the use of different cali­
brations above and below the base line. The doubling up of
scales in this manner makes it possible to print all the required
meter scales on only five base lines.
Scale sharing is conventional practice on all vacuum-tube volt­
meters. Upon initial examination, such an arrangement might
appear complex. But, try to picture a meter having 37 separate
scales! This simplified arrangement is made possible in large
part by the multiplication factors of the range-switch circuits
which are discussed in Chapter 5.
Each meter scale has a distinct purpose, and the scale to be
used for a particular measurement depends upon three factors:
1. The type of measurement (a.c. or d.c. volts, current or resist­
ance) being made. The scale used for each of these measurements
is determined by the setting of the function selector on the
instrument.
2. The quantity to be measured; that is, the estimated voltage,
resistance or current.
3. The setting of the range switch. This is especially impor­
tant because it is frequently overlooked and results in incorrect
readings.
Factors 2 and 3 are specified separately because it is often pos­
sible to use two different scales for the same measurement.
When the v.t.v.m. has been set up correctly, the reading is made
by noting the exact setting of the meter pointer on the appropriate
scale and multiplying the setting by the multiplier factor indicated
on the range switch. The multiplier factor is usually 10 or a
multiple of 10. This procedure is simple but requires that the user
38
be able to read the meter scales correctly and know how to apply
the multiplier factors of the range switch.

Scale divisions
Examples of the methods used to subdivide scales are shown in
Fig. 302. The simplified scale shown in Fig. 302-a has 10 major
divisions. Because no minor divisions are used, the operator must
mentally subdivide the scale. Fortunately, high precision is not

Fig. 302-a to e. Scales can be subdivided in a number of different ways. The technique
in reading a scale is the same as that used in reading a ruler.
required in most service measurements. The scale provides ade­
quate spacing between divisions, however, and can be read without
difficulty to a half and a quarter of a division.
The division of meter scales may be compared to the methods
used to divide an ordinary ruler. As shown in Figs. 301 and 302,
scales are divided into major and minor divisions. The scales
of a v.t.v.m. are calibrated from left to right, with the full-
scale points on the right-hand end. On some units, however, the
“ohms” scale is reversed, with the zero or short-circuit point at the
right. This practice is conventional on many non-electronic
ohmmeters.
The scale shown in Fig. 302-b includes subdivision marks. Note
that these subdivision marks are shorter than the major division
39
marks and divide the major sections into five equal parts. Each
subdivision, therefore, represents one-fifth or 0.2 of a major
division. For example, the third subdivision mark to the right of
zero would represent 3 X 0.2, or 0.6. The second subdivision
mark to the right of 8 represents the setting for 8.4. Because it is
convenient to subdivide the scale mentally even further, it is pos­
sible to read an indication between subdivisions. For example,
3.5 is located between the second and third subdivision marks to
the right of 3.
The scales on different makes of vacuum-tube voltmeters are not
always marked in the same units. Some scales have major divi­
sions marked off in units of 10. Others may be calibrated with
decimal fractions or combinations of odd and even whole numbers
and decimal fractions. The subdivisions may be based on units of
one, tenths, quarters or other convenient fractional units. In all
cases, it is possible to determine easily the exact value of each
subdivision. This is done simply by dividing the quantity repre­
sented by a major unit by the number of subdivisions between
major division points. For example, the scale shown in Fig. 302-c
has three types of division marks. Each major division mark repre­
sents a step of 0.2. Because there are four subdivisions (formed by
three subdivision marks) between each numbered point, the sub­
divisions represent steps of .05 (0.2 4- 4 = .05). The 1.7 point,
for example, is half-way distant between 1.6 and 1.8; the 0.65 point
is denoted by the first .05 mark to the right of 0.6.
Frequently, one scale base serves for two different types of scale
calibration. Examples of this type scale base are shown in Fig.
302-d and Fig. 302-e. In Fig. 302-d, one scale base serves for the
0 to 2.5 scale, with subdivision marks representing units of .05
(0.25 -r- 5 = .05). The other scale is calibrated from 0 to 50, with
minor division marks representing steps of 1. The scale in use is
determined by the setting of the range switch. When the 2.5 scale
is used, the third subdivision mark to the right of zero represents
3 X -05, or 0.15. This same point represents 3 on the 50 scale.
Points equally distant between subdivision marks would represent
steps of .025 on the 2.5 scale, and steps of 0.5 on the 50 scale.
Another method of sharing a scale base is shown in Fig. 302-e.
This type of scale is often found on units which read both the r.m.s.
and peak-to-peak value of a.c. waveforms. Because the peak-to-
peak value of a sine wave is always equal to 2.83 times the r.m.s.
value, it is possible to calibrate the same scale base in both r.m.s.
and peak-to-peak units so that both types of readings may be had
40
simultaneously. The scales are usually distinguished by different
colors.
Linear and nonlinear scales
All the scales shown in Fig. 302 have a common feature: the
calibration points are evenly spaced throughout the scale. These
are linear type scales. It is often necessary, however, to calibrate a

Fig. 303-a, -b. Typical resistance scales shown above are nonlinear. The right­
hand end of such scales is so crowded that it is often difficult to read. It is
easier to make an error reading these than when reading voltage or current
scales.
scale in units which have nonuniform spacing between them.
These are called nonlinear scales. The ohms scale is always non­
linear. Two representative ohms scales are shown in Fig. 303.
The calibration of the scale in Fig. 303-a, which is from the Syl­
vania model 301 Polymeter, is representative of those used on the
majority of vacuum-tube voltmeters. The scale shown in Fig.
303-b is patterned after that used on the Hickok model 209A.
The most notable feature of these scales is the compression at
the high end. For example, in the scale in Fig. 303-a, the interval
between major division points becomes narrower as the scale
progresses. From 10 to 1,000 the scale intervals narrow down so
much that different calibration units must be used. From 0 to 10,
the major calibration unit is 1 with subdivisions at 0.5 intervals.
From 10 to 20, the major unit is 5, with subdivisions representing
steps of 2.5. As the scale continues toward the full-scale point, the
intervals become so narrow that all remaining major divisions are

41
marked off in progressively larger units of 50, 200, 500 and 1,000.
Subdivision marks in this upper region of the scale also represent
larger steps.
Although the scale shown in Fig. 303-b is calibrated differently
from that in Fig. 302-a, the nonlinear spacing between units can
be seen. On both these scales it is important to remember that
subdivision marks between major calibration points represent
different quantities at different points along the scale. Therefore,
it is important that each subdivision mark be understood if cor­
rect readings are to be obtained.
The last mark on the scale does not have a number. This is the

Fig. >304. Some low a.c. voltage scales are also nonlinear, a situation caused
by the nonlinearity characteristic of the rectifying diode (used in the
v.t.v.m.) at low a.c. signal levels.

point of infinite resistance and is usually labeled inf or “qo,” the

mathematical symbol for infinity. When the meter is properly
adjusted, the meter pointer will normally deflect to the infinity
mark when the ohms probes are not connected to a circuit because
of the infinite resistance across an open circuit. The letters K and
M which appear on some ohms scales signify XL000 and
X 1,000,000 respectively.
Nonlinear calibration is sometimes found on low a.c. voltage
scales. Two scales of this type are shown in Fig. 304. Note that the
divisions on the top of the base line are linear above the 0.8 mark.
Below 0.8, however, the scale intervals narrow. This scale, which
is representative of the low a.c. voltage scale used on the Triplett
model 650, should be used only for measurement of voltages up to
2.8 volts peak-to-peak (equivalent to 1 volt r.m.s.). On many
instruments, this scale is labeled low a.c. and should not be used
for any other measurement because of the possibility of error.
The nonlinearity at the bottom end of the low-voltage a.c.
scales is due to the operating characteristics of the vacuum-tube
diodes used in the a.c. signal rectifiers of vacuum-tube voltmeters.
42
At extremely low signal levels, the diodes operate on the nonlinear
portion of their plate-current curves and special scale compensa­
tion must be made for this factor.

Zero-center scales
In many cases, the zero-adjust control of a v.t.v.m. has suffi­
cient range to permit setting the meter pointer in the center of the
scale. When this is possible, the v.t.v.m. can be used as a null
indicator for making alignment checks on FM discriminators and

b C
Fig. 305-a, -b, -c. Typical zero-center scales used in some v.t.v.mfs. Some scales
are calibrated, others simply have a center marker and a plus-minus indica­
tion. Calibrated scales are helpful in the alignment of circuits such as FM
detectors.
indicating circuit balance in bridge measurements. Many instru­
ments have separate zero-center scales. These scales may be cali­
brated directly in volts or be provided with reference markers to
indicate the degree of positive or negative unbalance in the cir­
cuit. Applications which use the zero-center feature are discussed
in Chapter 7.
Some representative zero-center scales are shown in Fig. 305.
The scales shown in Fig. 305-a are used on the Jackson model 709
Tele-Volter. For the use of these scales, the v.t.v.m. must be set up
for +dc voltage measurements. The meter pointer is set to the
center 0 by means of the zero-adjust control. The d.c. voltage
range used should cover the overall voltage swing, from maximum
positive to minimum negative. For example, a circuit which can
be adjusted to provide a voltage ranging from -25 to +25 would

43
require that the 50-volt range be used. In most null-indicating
applications, however, voltages are low, often in the order of 2 or 3,
and a low-voltage d.c. range is employed. Two scales employ the
same base on this instrument.
An example of a zero-center scale which employs uncalibrated
reference marks is shown in Fig. 305-b. The scale shown in Fig.
305-c indicates only the polarity of the unbalance. In ordinary
applications, these types of scales are used where only a null indica­
tion is required.

Decibel scales
A few commercial v.t.v.m.’s are equipped with special scales for
use in audio troubleshooting and measurement. These scales may
be calibrated in units of db, dbm, or VU, depending upon the
type of load with which the v.t.v.m. is used. In some v.tv.m.’s,
this load may be built into the instrument; in others it must be
set up externally. Because load characteristics are important in

interpreting the scale readings, application of the v.t.v.m. in these

measurements is discussed in Chapter 8.
A representative db scale is shown in Fig. 306. It should be
noted that the zero point is centered on the scale, providing for
direct reading of units above or below the reference level. The
nonlinear calibration of this scale is due to the fact that the decibel
system employs a logarithmic progression and conventional
v.tv.m.’s are designed for linear operation.
If the technician desires, he may add his own db or dbm scale
to the v.t.v.m. This modification is discussed in detail in Chapter
10. A description of decibel measurements is also given on page
136.

44
 chapter

probes and cables

v.t.v.m. is often called upon to make measurements of d.c.

A voltages from less than 1 to as high as 25,000 volts; to meas­
ure resistances from less than 1 ohm to several thousand megohms;
to measure r.f. and i.f. voltages from a fraction of a volt to 25 or
30 volts; to measure the peak-to-peak voltages of complex video,
sync, and sweep waveforms; and to measure direct current through­
out the milliampere range. To meet this wide range of require­
ments, the v.t.v.m. is used with various external probes.
Familiarity with the functions and applications of various types
of probes and cables is essential for the most effective use of the
v.t.v.m. Fortunately, these accessories are relatively simple devices,
and it is not difficult to learn to use them properly. The design and
operation of probes is discussed in this section; application is
described in later chapters.
Modern probes and cables provide the v.tv.m. with four worth­
while advantages:
1. Probes and cables increase the usefulness of the v.t.v.m. For
example, high-voltage probes permit the measurement of voltages
much higher than those for which the v.t.v.m. was designed. Other
types of probes make possible a.c. voltage measurements over a
wider frequency range than is possible with the v.t.v.m. itself.
2. Problems often arise in servicing where a v.t.v.m. cannot be
applied directly to the circuit under test because of high frequen­
cies, high voltages or loading difficulties. Correctly designed probes
and cables, however, provide an efficient, practical means for con­
necting the v.tv.m. into the circuit.
45
 3. Probes and cables simplify the basic design of the v.t.v.m.
“Slip-on” type probes, for example, reduce the number of cables
required. High-frequency probes limit the complexity of circuits
used in the v.t.v.m.
4. Efficient probes and cables speed troubleshooting by giving
the v.t.v.m. increased flexibility. For the service technician, es­
pecially, this is a profitable advantage.
The basic purpose of probes and cables is to transfer the re­
quired electrical information from the test circuit in a form that
can be utilized most efficiently by the v.t.v.m. At the same time,
it is necessary that connection of equipment to the test circuit

CABLE
ADAPTER

PROBE BODY

Fig. 401-a, -b. Direct probe (a) shields the test lead almost up to the probe tip.
The lower illustration (b) shows slide-on type probes.
cause a minimum of disturbance to circuit operation. This re­
quirement is met by means of different types of probes and cables,
which can be classified in this manner:
1. Direct probes and cables
2. Isolating probes
3. Rectifying probes
4. Multiplier (divider) probes

Direct probes and cables

Direct probes and cables are the simplest accessories used with
the v.t.v.m. The direct probe and cable consists primarily of a
length of flexible wire lead terminated in a probe, prod or tip.
The probe is an insulated plastic handle which does not contain
any electrical components. The purpose of the direct type is to

46
transfer electrical information from the test circuit directly to the
v.t.v.m. without attenuation or modification.
On most instruments, the direct probe and cable is used for
measurements of resistance, and low-frequency a.c. voltage. Some
vacuum-tube voltmeters also employ a direct probe and cable for
d.c. voltage measurements. On these instruments, the components
normally housed in the isolating probe or a.c. probe are placed
inside the instrument.
Fig. 401 shows two types of direct probes which are representa­
tive of those used on all vacuum-tube voltmeters. That in Fig.
401-a is an insulated wire lead which has a needle point on the
probe end. The connector at the meter end of the cable may be a
phone tip, pin plug, spade lug or bare wire, depending on the
PROBE TIP METAL SHIELD

a.
Fig. 402-a, -b. Cutaway view of isolating probe (a) and its equivalent circuit (b).
v.t.v.m. The probe in Fig. 401-b is equipped with a length of
coaxial cable and a microphone type connector on the meter end.
The probe is designed to accommodate additional “slip-on” type
probes, such as a d.c. isolating probe, a switch probe, or a high-
frequency probe. The principal advantages of this type are the
shielding of the inner conductor from the probe tip to the con­
nector and the fact that it is not necessary to change cables when
using different types of probes.
Isolating probes
Isolating probes are used for the measurement of d.c. voltages.
For example, d.c. voltage measurements from 0 to 1,000 are made
with a shielded cable terminated with an isolating resistor, as
shown in Fig. 402-a. The shielded cable eliminates the pickup of
any stray magnetic fields about the test bench, which might other­
wise result in an inaccurate indication by the vacuum-tube volt­
meter. The isolating probe resistance prevents the shielded cable
from acting as a capacitive shunt across tuned and high-imped­
ance circuits, such as the local-oscillator in a receiver. If it were
not for the isolating effect of the resistance, connection of the
v.t.v.m. test leads might detune the test circuit so greatly that cir­
cuit operation might cease altogether.

47
 The equivalent circuit in Fig. 402-b shows that the cable capaci­
tance C is isolated from the probe tip by the 1-megohm resistor,
which cuts down the effective value of C to approximately 1 or
2 p|if. This is a large reduction, as compared with the approxi­
mately 75 pipf of cable capacitance. Hence, the d.c. probe can be
applied across a local-oscillator circuit to measure the self-bias on
the oscillator grid without disturbing circuit operation.
The equivalent circuit is also a low-pass filter. This is an essen­
tial feature, since d.c. voltages at the grids and plates of tubes often
must be measured in the presence of large a.c. voltages. If the
a.c. signal is passed along to the bridge circuit, it might be rectified
and cause an erroneous d.c. reading. Most vXv.m.’s include an-

Fig. 403. Exploded view of a d.c. (or isolating) probe. The resistor, R, most often has
a value of one megohm. The probe, held together by a single screw and hex nut, can
easily be taken apart when repairs are needed.

other low-pass filter at the grid of the v.t.v.m. tube to make certain
that no a.c. voltage reaches the grid.
These probes consist of plastic housings containing the isolating
resistor in series with the probe tip and the output end of^the
probe. While the value of the resistor used depends upon the d.c.
input resistance of the v.t.v.m., a 1-megohm resistor having a 1^- or
1-watt rating is most generally employed. An exploded-view draw­
ing of a d.c. probe is shown in Fig. 403.
The d.c. isolating probe should always be used for measure­
ments of d.c. voltages because d.c. voltage scales are calibrated on
the basis of the d.c. input resistance. The isolating resistor in the
probe is in series with the voltage divider networks in the v.t.v.m.
and is part of the d.c. input resistance of the instrument. If the
48
isolating probe is not used, a considerable degree of error might
result.
The switch type probe, which combines the functions of direct
and isolating probes, is finding increased popularity among v.t.v.m.
manufacturers. An exploded-view drawing of one of these probes
is shown in Fig. 404. When set to the forward or direct position,
the sliding switch shorts the 1-megohm resistor so that the probe
can be used for ohms and a.c. measurements. When set to the rear
or d.c. position, the short is removed and the resistor is placed in
series with the test lead. This switch probe is similar in operation

Fig. 404. Exploded view of a direct and isolating probe.

This has the advantage of combining two probes into one.
to those used on several makes of commercial vacuum-tube volt­
meters.
A switch probe of slightly different construction is shown in
Fig. 405. This probe has a rotating-sleeve switch at the pointed
end. The rotating sleeve is set to dcv for d.c. voltage measure­
ments or rotated to the ohms position for resistance measurements.
A separate probe is provided for a.c. voltage measurements.
Switch probes of these types avoid the necessity of changing to
different probes and cables when various types of measurements
are made. This is an especially convenient feature on a cluttered
workbench where time is often lost in looking for misplaced
accessories.

Rectifying probes
Rectifying probes include probes which have several different
names, such as a.c., crystal-diode, demodulator, detector, high-fre­
quency, r.f. and vacuum-tube probes. Because there is no pre­

49
scribed standard of classification, probes which are almost iden­
tical in electrical design and application may have different names.
All have a common purpose and that is to detect and rectify the
a.c. voltage at its source in the test circuit and to provide the
v.t.v.m. with a proportional d.c. voltage. All these probes contain
diode type rectifiers and filter circuits.
Although many rectifying probes employ similar designs, they
are not generally interchangeable. A rectifying probe is usually
designed for a specific v.t.v.m. by the instrument manufacturer.
Probe design depends upon a number of factors, including the
type of voltage reading required (peak, peak-to-peak or r.m.s.),
the frequency range over which measurements are to be made, the

voltage ranges on the v.t.v.m. and the input circuit characteristics

of the instrument.
Some rectifying probes are designed to handle all the a.c. meas­
urements of the v.t.v.m. Probes of this type contain all the elec­
trical components required to detect and filter a.c. signals over the
entire specified frequency range of the instrument. Other types
are designed to supplement the a.c. circuits built into the v.t.v.m.
and serve primarily to extend the frequency measurement range
of the instrument.
Rectifying probes are valuable accessories because they permit
the critical part of the v.t.v.m. measurement circuit to be placed
right at the test point. This consideration is important because it
lessens the loading effect of the test instrument, helps to preserve
circuit stability, minimizes tendencies toward regeneration and
greatly reduces hum, noise pickup, and radiation from the probe
or its connecting cable; effects which can create serious measure­
ment difficulties. These considerations are not usually serious at
audio and very low radio frequencies, but they become increas­
ingly important as the frequency increases. With properly de­
signed rectifying probes, for example, it is possible to make a.c.
measurements directly in sensitive circuits, such as i.f. amplifiers.
Most i.f. amplifiers would cease operation if loaded down by
lengthy test cables and low-impedance measurement circuits. How­
ever, sufficient voltage must be present at the test point to give an
indication on the meter.
50
 The rectifiers used in these probes may be either vacuum-tube
diodes or crystal diodes. Vacuum-tube diodes have an outstanding
advantage: they can handle much higher a.c. voltages than can be
applied to crystal diodes. This advantage, however, is slowly being
overcome by the progress in semi-conductor development. At pres­
ent, the vacuum-tube is also a more reliable rectifier over extended
periods of operation because it is more stable under conditions of
changing temperature. With vacuum-tube rectifiers, it is also pos­
sible to design probe circuits with higher overall input imped-
ances.
The vacuum-tube probe has several noticeable drawbacks, how­
ever. It is comparatively large and bulky, even when miniature

Fig. 406. Circuit of a vacuum-tube rectifying

probe.
tubes are used. The vacuum-tube probe also requires heater
power, which increases the complexity of cables and circuitry.
Transit time (the time it takes electrons to travel from the cathode
to the plate) and lead length, both in the tube and in the circuits,
impose limits on the high-frequency range of vacuum-tube probes.
Of even greater importance is the difficulty created by contact
potential within the diode. The additional components required
to counteract this effect increase the complexity of the circuit and
add to the bulkiness of the probe.
Fig. 406 shows a tube type rectifier probe, which will handle
moderately high voltages, and provide negative-peak voltage indi­
cation. The 0.01-p.f capacitor charges up to the negative-peak value
of the applied a.c. waveform. R is an isolating and calibrating re­
sistor; in its absence the cable capacitance would shunt down the
diode and bypass the a.c. signal. The value of R must be properly
selected to provide the desired scale indication—usually to indicate
the r.m.s. voltage of a sine wave. The 10-megohm resistor is a
bleeder, and is used to avoid undue lag in return of the meter
pointer to zero. If very low frequencies are to be accommodated,
the value of the .01-p.f capacitor must be increased correspond­
ingly.
A crystal-diode type of v.t.v.m. rectifier probe is illustrated in
Fig 407; such a probe is commonly rated to approximately 20 volts,
51
and provides peak indication. The input impedance may not
always be sufficiently high to avoid throwing i.f. stages into oscilla­
tion. However, various expedients can often be used in case of
difficulty.
It might be supposed that a rectifier probe and a v.t.v.m. could
be used to signal-trace the i.f. circuits of a TV receiver, but the low
signal level in the early stages limits this. The full gain of a 3-stage
i.f. amplifier is about 5,000; so with a 2 volt peak-to-peak input to
the video detector, the corresponding input to the first i.f. grid will
be 0.0004 volts peak-to-peak. Since a v.t.v.m. does not satisfactor­
ily indicate voltages below approximately 0.1, a serious signal­
tracing limitation is imposed. To overcome this, see page 177.
Crystal diodes, such as the 1N34-A, have the advantage of ex­

Fig. 407. Crystal-diode probe. The ground clip should be fastened as close to the
test point as possible.
tremely small size (permitting compact probe design) and very
short lead lengths. Consequently, crystal diodes are especially well
suited to measurements above 50 me. Contact-potential difficulties
do not exist in these devices; probe cables and circuitry are sim­
plified because no heater voltage is required. Crystal diodes have
very low input capacitances (which is desirable) but, conversely,
have a lower shunt resistance than vacuum-tube diodes, a factor
which lowers their overall input impedance.
Two differerit vacuum-tube rectifying probes are shown in Fig.
408. Note the metal enclosure which shields the tube and com­
ponents. Because lead length is critical at high radio frequencies,
grounds must be made as near as possible to the test point. Ope
probe is equipped with an alligator type ground clip welded
directly to the metal probe housing. A short extension lead with
an attached alligator clip can be screwed onto the front end of the
probe for use in applications at lower frequencies.
R.f. voltages up to 300 can be measured in circuits containing

52
up to 500 volts d.c. with this probe. Because the output from this
probe is the rectified input signal, readings are indicated on the
d.c. voltage scales. For r.f. voltages from 0 to 3, however, a special
r.f. scale is provided because of the nonlinearity in tube perform-

Fig. 408-a, b. The vacuum-tube probe shown at the top uses a ground clip fastened
to the probe housing. The probe at the bottom uses a grounding pin.
ance at low signal voltages. The probe has an input resistance of
2.3 megohms and an input capacitance of only 3 upf. A special
subminiature tube, type 1247, is used as the rectifier.
Of particular interest is the vacuum-tube probe shown in Fig.
408-b. This is similar in application to that shown in Fig. 408-a
but has these important differences: The former is a peak-reading
probe which provides a d.c. output voltage substantially equal to

53
the positive peak value of the applied a.c. voltage. The polarity of
the output voltage from this probe, however, is negative. Because
the rectified peak voltage can be maintained at full value only
across an infinitely high d.c. input resistance, the output voltage
is slightly less than the peak value. The instruments for which this
probe is designed have a d.c. input resistance of 13.5 megohms on
all d.c. voltage ranges. While this input resistance is sufficiently
high to prevent excessive circuit loading, it presents a load to the
rectifying probe and causes a slight drop in the peak output volt­
age. This voltage drop is small enough, however, to permit calibra­
tion on the basis of the true peak voltage. For almost all conven­

Fig. 409-a to d. Four different types of vacuum-tube probes. Those shown in a and
b are single diodes. The probe at the lower left (c) is a peak-to-peak (voltage
doubler) type. Although the probe shown at the bottom right (d) uses a triode,
it is actually worked as a diode with the plate grounded and the control grid
operating as the anode.
tional service applications, the readings are adequate. In the few
applications which may require a high degree of accuracy, a cor­
rection chart is provided.
When the probe is connected to the v.t.v.m., contact potential
causes a slight deflection of the meter pointer. The contact poten­
tial is counteracted on the low a.c. ranges by setting the zero­
adjust control to zero the meter pointer. Little or no adjustment
is required to counteract the contact potential on ranges above
12 volts.
Schematic diagrams of four vacuum-tube probes are shown in
Fig. 409-a, -b, -c, -d.
Construction of a typical crystal-diode type probe, together with
the schematic diagram, is shown in Fig. 410. This probe can be
54
used for measurement of r.f. voltages from 50 kc to 250 me. The
probe requires no heater voltage, is compact and slips onto the
front end of the direct probe and cable shown in Fig. 401-b. Note
how the resistors are soldered in close to the terminals and how
the 1N34-A crystal is provided with a special clip type holder.
These features make for short lead lengths, especially important
above 30 me. A ground clip is attached directly to the probe to
provide a short r.f. return path to the test circuit.
The design and construction of other makes of crystal-diode
probes are similar. Most of these probes are equipped with a

Fig. 410. Internal construction of a crystal rectifier probe. The ground lead is an
important part of the crystal probe circuit.
special ground lead which should be used in conjunction with the
regular ground lead provided with the instrument.
Although probes of this type are peak rectifiers, design of the
R-C filter circuits and the v.t.v.m. input circuits result in a d.c.
output voltage equal to the r.m.s. value of a sine wave. The peak
value of the r.f. signal may be obtained by multiplying the meter
reading by 1.41.

Peak-to-peak probes
The peak-to-peak type of probe used to measure peak-to-peak
voltages of complex a.c. waveforms, is shown in Fig. 411. Tubes
and crystal diodes are used commercially, with the same general
considerations as have been noted for the half-wave type of probe.
The tube will withstand much higher voltages than the crystal
diode.
55
 In some cases, the peak-to-peak indicating arrangement is built
into the v.t.v.m. This raises the input capacitance, but also pro­
vides a much greater voltage-handling capability, since a compen­
sated multiplier then precedes the rectifying tubes, and will usually
raise the top range of peak-to-peak voltage measurement to 1,000.
Such a range will accommodate the majority of complex a.c. wave­
forms encountered in a TV chassis.

Fig. 411. Crystal and vacuum-tube diode types of voltage

doubler probes. The 12-megohm resistor (upper illustration) is
inserted when the v.t.v.m. has an input resistance of 25 meg­
ohms, is shorted for v.t.v.m.’s with an 11 -megohm input. RI and
R2 (lower illustration) are the diode load. The arrows indicate
direction of rectified current flow.

Multiplier probes
Multiplier probes are designed to extend the d.c. voltage ranges
of the v.t.v.m. to 30,000-50,000 volts. These probes are especial­
ly useful in the measurement of high voltages in television re­
ceivers, X-ray equipment, transmitters and similar electronic
equipment. The probes make possible such measurements with
complete safety for the operator.
Multiplier probes are also known as high-voltage probes and
divider probes. Although the terms “multiply” and “divide” have
opposite meanings, it is possible to justify the differences in
description if the functions of the probes are understood. Because
the majority of manufacturers prefer to call these accessories high-
voltage probes, this terminology will be used here. The ways in
which these probes “divide” and “multiply” are explained further
on.
Several high-voltage probes, designed for use with service type
vacuum-tube voltmeters are shown in Fig. 412- All these probes
56
are basically similar; they provide a well-insulated housing for a
multiplier resistor which serves as a series voltage divider.
One typical example of this type has a molded polystyrene body,
a tapered and rounded probe point to reduce corona and a series
of five anti-arc baffles which serve to increase the length of the
insulated path along the body of the probe. The heavy molded
flange on the front of the handle is equipped with a metal ground

Fig. 412. Two types of high-voltage probes. These are used to extend the d.c. range
of the v.t.v.m., should not be used for the measurement of a.c. voltages.
ring on the probe side to provide a protective barrier between the
point of voltage contact and the handle. The multiplier resistor
is completely enclosed and is suspended within the probe by its
57
ends only. Note that the probe is equipped with a separate ground
lead. The ground lead is connected to the outer shield of the high-
voltage cable and provides additional safety in event of a short
circuit in the cable.
The divider resistors used in high-voltage probes are of special
construction to reduce the possibility of voltage breakdown. They
are usually spiral-wound of metallic or carbon-film ribbon and
encased in a plastic having a high dielectric. Because these resistors
may have values of several hundred megohms, they must be care­
fully constructed to resist the effects of temperature and humidity
changes. Resistors for typical high-voltage probes are shown in
Fig. 413.
The method by which the probe “multiplies” or “divides” can
be seen in Fig. 414. All measurements are made with the v.t.v.m.
set to one of the positive d.c. ranges. As shown on the simplified

. ...... -x_ ... r! n-*/' 1 , 4* '........ f..... %

Fig. 413. Multiplier resistors used in high-voltage probes.

schematic diagram, the resistance of the high-voltage probe RHv

is in series with the d.c. voltage divider network. The high voltage
is applied across the combined resistance of the probe and the net­
work. Because the probe resistance is 100 times the resistance of
the divider network, the ratio of the voltage drop across the probe
and the network will be 99 to 1. If 10,000 volts are applied across
the input to the instrument, 9,900 volts will be dropped across
the probe resistance and 100 volts across the divider network. If
the values of the probe and divider-network resistances are chosen
carefully, measurements at very high voltages can be made with a
considerable degree of accuracy. Thus the high-voltage probe
serves to multiply the voltage range of the v.t.v.m. and also acts
as an additional voltage divider. Hence we have the terms “mul­
tiplier” probe and “divider” probe.
As previously stated, 100 volts will be dropped across the voltage
divider network of the v.t.v.m. The amount of voltage applied to
the meter depends upon the setting of the range switch. Because
the input to the divider network will be 100 volts, only the 300-
volt and 1,200-volt ranges should be used. To obtain the high-

58
voltage measurement, multiply the voltage reading on the v.t.v.m.
by the ratio, or multiplier factor, of the probe resistance. On
either the 300- or 1,200-voIt range, the meter will indicate 100
volts. Thus, 100 X 100 = 10,000 volts.
Multiplier probes may be used with almost any type of volt­
meter to measure very high voltages. The value of the high-voltage
multiplier resistor required is computed as follows:

Rhv - May - (Rin - RJ (1)

where RHv is the resistance in ohms of the multiplier resistor of
the high-voltage probe, M is the scale factor described in formula
(2), Rin is the input resistance in ohms of the v.t.v.m. (this in-
RPROBE

1000 MEG
Rhv

HIGH VOLTAGE

Fig. 414. The resistor in the high-voltage probe is in series with

the voltage-divider network in the v.t.v.m. Most of the high volt­
age is dropped across the probe resistor, thus reducing the
v.tw.m. voltage input to a safe value.
eludes the value of the resistor used in the d.c.-isolating probe),
Rc is the .value in ohms of the isolating resistor used in the d.c.
isolating probe.
For example, assume that a high-voltage probe is needed to
extend the d.c. voltage ranges of a v.t.v.m. which has an input
resistance of 11 megohms, including the 1-megohm isolating re­
sistor. A scale factor of 100 times is desired to enable the instru­
ment to read 30,000 volts on the 300-volt scale. Using formula (1)
and substituting values, we get
Rhv - 100(11,000,000) - (11,000,000 - 1,000,000)
= 1,090 megohms
On some vacuum-tube voltmeters, solution of the formula will
show that the multiplier resistor has an odd value of resistance
not readily obtainable. Here, it will be necessary to use a resistor
which has a different value. In these cases, a new scale factor

59
 (multiplier M) must be computed on the basis of the input resis­
tance of the meter and the resistance value of the multiplier
resistor. A new scale factor is computed as follows:
M = RiS Z (2)
“in
For example, assume that a v.t.v.m. has an input resistance of
16 megohms, including the 1-megohm d.c. isolating resistor, and
is to be used with a multiplier-probe resistor of 500 megohms.
The new scale factor, computed by substituting values in (2), is:
16.000.000 - 1.000.000 + 500.000.000
16,000,000
- . 32 (approx.)
16,000,000
When this combination of probe and v.t.v.m. is used, all voltage
readings taken with the high-voltage probe are multiplied by 32
to obtain the correct high-voltage reading. Although numbers
which are not multiples of 10 do not lend themselves to quick
multiplication, they can still be used to obtain accurate readings.
The measurement of high d.c. voltages, such as the second anode
voltage of a picture tube, with a v.t.v.m. and high-voltage d.c.
probe are rather well understood. Less understood is the measure­
ment of relatively low d.c. voltages in the presence of high a.c.
pulse voltages, such as are found at the plate of the horizontal­
output tube. Receiver manufacturers commonly insert a technical
note in their service data, warning against attempts to measure the
d.c. plate voltage of the horizontal output tube. This is because the
approximately 350 volts d.c. is accompanied by an approximately
6,000 volt kickback pulse. If this high-voltage a.c. pulse is applied
to the precision input circuit of the v.t.v.m., serious damage to
the v.t.v.m. can result.
Because the high-voltage d.c. probe provides a high degree of
lowpass filter action, it is possible to use the v.t.v.m. in conjunction
with the high-voltage probe for measurements in these circuits.
For example, the v.t.v.m. can be set to its 6-volt range, and when
used with a high-voltage d.c. probe having a 100-to-l attenuation
factor will indicate the 350 volts d.c. at approximately half-scale of
the v.t.v.m.; at the same time, the low-pass filter action of the high-
voltage d.c. probe effectively protects the v.t.v.m. against the
6,000 volt a.c. pulse.
Grounding the probe
Technicians sometimes overlook the fact that the ground lead
60
or ground connection on a probe is part of the measuring circuit,
and an important part at that. The significance of a ground con­
nection depends upon just what it is you are measuring. When
measuring d.c. volts in a low-impedance circuit, the ground con­
nection is not critical. When measuring voltage at a high-fre­
quency point, not only does the ground connection become im­
portant, but the length of the ground lead itself must be consid­
ered. To keep the ground lead short, some probes have a ground­
ing button or clip right near the tip end of the probe.

Limitations of the v.t.v.m.

Although the v.t.v.m. is one of the most reliable of all testing
instruments, it has definite limitations. Some measurement restric­
tions can be overcome through the use of the accessory probes
described in this chapter. Other limitations may be avoided by
auxiliary measurements in different parts of the test circuit. When
difficulty is encountered in making a voltage or resistance check,
the technician should re-examine his measurement technique to
determine whether the v.t.v.m. is being used properly.
Here are listed some of the general limitations and capabilities
of the v.Lv.m. Some specific applications which require special
consideration are given in Table 2.

D.c. voltage measurements

1. D.c. voltage too low to read on lowest v.t.v.m. range.
2. Circuit impedance is too high; d.c. probe introduces too
much loading.
3. Circuit contains high amount of circulating r.f. signal. Sig­
nal cannot be kept out of v.t.v.m. on d.c. measurements and causes
erratic operation.
4. Circuit resistance is very high; v.t.v.m. causes d.c. loading,
even with high input resistance.

A.c. voltage measurements

1. Frequency of a.c. signal is too high or too low to be meas­
ured by v.t.v.m.
2. V.t.v.m. is loading down circuit. Note: Even with a vacuum­
tube signal rectifier, the v.t.v.m. has an input resistance in the
order of 1 megohm shunted by approximately 50 to 75 jipf capaci­
tance on a.c. measurements.
3. Waveshape of a.c. signal is different than that which the

61
 TABLE 2—V.T.V.M. APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
Feature Applications J-----------------------------
Misapplications
-------------------------------|
D.c. voltage measure­ Checking values of 5 Attempted measure- |
ment, with high input plate, screen, and grid i ment of plate voltage of j
impedance, even on the voltages; tracing prog- > horizontal-output tube; !
low-voltage ranges. ress of signal by meas- ' high-voltage a.c. pulse
(Measurements made urement of self-bias ; damages v.t.v.m. At-
• using shielded cable ter- (only in circuits using i. tempted measurement
i minated with 1-megohm overdrive grid bias); ;' of grid bias in vertical
1 isolating resistor.) checking local-oscillator i; blocking oscillator cir­
operation by measure­ cuit when grid leak has
ment of self-bias; check­ very high resistance;
ing for amplifier distor­ v.t.v.m. will load circuit
tion in terms of shift seriously. Attempted
of operating point with measurement of pulsat­
applied a.c. signal;mea­ ing d.c. voltage values;
surement of voltage in v.t.v.m. indicates only
high resistance circuits the average value.
such as a.g.c. systems,
etc.

A.c. voltage measure­ Checking peak-to-peak Attempted signal trac­

ment, in peak-to-peak voltages of most of the ing in tuned circuits;
values, using built in complex a.c. waveforms relatively high input
peak-to-peak indicating found in the sync and capacitance of v.t.v.m.
circuit and low-capaci­ sweep sections of the seriously disturbs cir­
tance a.c. test cable.* TV chassis. Also, check­ cuit operation, and
ing line voltage and voltages less than 0.1
power-transformer volt­ volt cannot be measured
ages, being certain to with certainty. At­
convert from peak-to- tempted conclusions con­
peak to r.m.s. values of cerning waveshapes or
sine waves. Checking frequency components of
most a.f. voltages. complex a.c. waveforms,
no information of this
sort is provided by a
peak-to-peak v.t.v.m.

A.c. voltage measure­ Checking line voltages Attempted checking of

ments, in r.m.s. values, and power-transformer complex waveform volt­
with instruments using voltages, and checking ages in sync and sweep
built-in copper-oxide the lower audio-frequen­ circuits with v.t.v.m.
contact rectifier. Fre­ cy voltages in relatively which will measure sine
quency limitations are low-impedance circuits. waveforms only. At­
same as v.o.m. with sim­ Checking heater volt­ tempted signal tracing
ilar rectifier. ages. in tuned circuits; no in­
dication obtained.
*Note: The high-voltage d.c. probe which is usually available for use with
service v.t.v.m/s, is unsuitable for use on the a.c. voltage ranges of the
v.t.v.m. Attempted use of the probe to measure high a.c. voltage values, such
as the pulse voltage at the plate of the horizontal output tube results only
in failure.

62
 Feature Applications Misapplications
—......... - . ...... p . .. ’----------———. II""—.......
|
( A.c. voltage measure- Cheeking peak voltages ' Attempted checking of
; ments, in peak values, of some oscillator cir­ complex waveform volt-
i using external diode cuits. Checking sine­ ! ages in sync and sweep
। probe. wave audio-frequency circuits with v.t.v.m.
voltages. Checking line which will measure sine
voltages, power-trans­ waveforms only. At-
former, and heater volt­ 1 tempted measurement
ages, being certain to | of voltage values ex­
convert from peak to ceeding input rating of
r.m.s. values of sine probe. Attempted r.f.
waves. or i.f. signal tracing.
A.c. voltage measure­ Checking of peak-to- Attempted measure­
ments, in peak-to-peak peak values of many of ment of a.c. voltage val­
values, using external the complex a.c. wave­ ues exceeding input rat­
peak-to-peak diode forms encountered in ing of probe. Attempted
probe. (Provides higher the sync and sweep sec­ measurements in high-
input impedance than tions of the TV chassis. impedance circuits, such
built-in peak-to-peak in­ Checking a.f. voltages. as ratio-detector cir­
dicating circuit, but in­ Checking line voltages, cuits. Attempted signal
put voltage rating is power-transformer, and tracing of r.f. and i.f.
usually less.) heater voltages, being tuned circuits.
certain to convert from
peak-to-peak to r.m.s.
values.
Resistance measure­ Measurement of for­ Attempted measure­
ments, when internal ward and back resis­ ment of high resistance
ohmmeter battery volt­ tance, and front-to-back values, such as the leak­
age is other than 1.5. ratios of all crystal di­ age resistance of paper
(Some ohmmeters pro­ odes, including u.h.f. or mica capacitors (un­
vide a low driving volt­ mixer crystals. Meas­ less high driving volt­
age on the low-resist­ urement of most resis­ age is provided on the
ance ranges, and a high tance values encoun­ high-resistance ranges).
driving voltage on the tered in TV chassis. Attempted measure­
high-resistance ranges.) ment of resistance
values in hot circuits,
or in circuits with capa­
citors retaining residual
charge.
Resistance measure­ Measurement of for­ Attempted measure­
ments, when internal ward and back resis­ ment of the filament re­
ohmmeter battery volt­ tance of picture-detec­ sistance of small bat­
age is higher than 1.5 tor crystals, but not of tery-operated tubes. At­
(on low ranges). u.h.f. crystals (except tempted measurement
on higher ranges, to of the internal resist­
limit terminal voltage ance of meter move­
to 1.5). Measurement of ments. Attempted meas­
all resistances found in urement of resistance
TV chassis, with excep­ values in hot circuits,
tion of leakage resist­ or in circuits with capa­
ance of small capaci­ citors retaining residual
tors. charge.

63
v.t.v.m. was designed to measure. Unless manufacturer has speci­
fied the type of waveshapes which can be measured with the
v.t.v.m., it should be assumed that the instrument can be used
only to measure sine waves.
4. On low a.c. measurements, questionable readings can be
obtained if the special “low a.c.” scale is not used.
5. A.c. voltage is too low to be read on v.t.v.m. This situation
is especially common in signal-tracing work in low-level r.f. and
i.f. amplifiers.

Resistance measurements
1. Measurement of same resistance on two different scales gives
two readings of considerable difference. Use resistance scale which
gives reading nearest the center-scale point.
2. Highly erratic action of meter pointer on resistance meas­
urements. Be sure to remove power from circuit under test or to
discharge all capacitors before making ohms measurements.
3. Ohms measurement or components installed in circuit does
not give satisfactory indications. Shunting resistances of other
resistors and capacitors can be causing misleading reading. Dis­
connect one or both ends of component from circuit.

64
 thi'ihht

using the v.t.v.m.

ront-panel controls on nearly all service-type v.t.v.m/s are the

F same in purpose. They may differ only in design, number of
switch positions, and placement on the panel. The four controls
found on all v.t.v.m.’s are: (1) function selector, (2) range,
(3) zero adjust and (4) ohms adjust. The connectors and termin­
als used will depend upon the number and types of probes and
cables employed.

Front-panel controls
The function control is the front-panel switch used to select
the type of measurement to be made. Although this control is
labeled selector and circuit on some instruments, the purpose
is the same. The range control is the front-panel switch used to
select the voltage, current or resistance range on which the meas­
urement is to be made. On some instruments a single switch which
has a large number of positions combines the duties of both the
function and range controls.
The zero-adjust control is used to set the meter pointer at the
left-hand zero mark on all functions after power is applied to the
instrument. The ohms-adjust control is used to set the meter
pointer to the infinity mark on the ohms scale after the selector
is set to the ohms position.
These four basic controls — range, selector, zero adj and
ohms adj — are provided on the RCA WV-87A Master Volt-
Ohmyst. Because operation of this v.t.v.m. is straightforward and
similar to other commercial units, it is an excellent example for

65
Fig. 501. The modern v.t.v.m. is one of the most useful and versatile test instruments in the service shop.
demonstration. The operating techniques and precautions for this
instrument apply, in general, to all vacuum-tube voltmeters.
The v.t.v.m. is equipped with a switch type probe and cable for
a.c. and d.c. voltage measurements, an ohms probe and cable, a
ground cable and two test leads for direct-current measurements.
A slip-on type switch probe is also provided for use with the direct
probe and cable to permit a.c. and d.c. voltage measurements with
a single probe and cable. The ground cable is used for all voltage
and resistance measurements.
The first two positions on the selector switch are for negative
and positive d.c. volts. When the switch is set to —volts, a nega­
tive d.c. voltage applied to the d.c. probe tip will produce upscale
deflection of the meter pointer. When the switch is set to -(-volts,
the pointer will deflect upscale when a positive voltage is applied
to the d.c. probe. This polarity-reversal feature avoids the neces­
sity for reversing the ground lead and d.c. probe when changing
the polarity of d.c. voltage measurements.
The v.t.v.m. will measure both negative and positive voltages
to 1,500, a.c. voltages to 1,500 r.m.s. or 4,200 peak-to-peak, resis­
tance to 1,000 megohms and direct current to 15 amperes.

Scales and multipliers

The number markings on the different positions of the range
switch indicate which meter scale is used for a particular measure­
ment. These numbers always correspond to the maximum limit or
full-scale value of the range selected.
Fig. 501 shows that the lowest range for all types of measure­
ments is the extreme left-hand position on the range switch. The
range positions increase in value as the switch is rotated clockwise.
The lowest position, marked 1.5 v-R X 1--5 ma indicates that the
full-scale value of the scale used is 1.5 volts for a.c. or d.c. voltages,
that a multiplier of 1 is used on the ohms scale and the full-scale
value for direct current is 0.5 ma.
Table 3 is helpful in showing the use of multipliers and the
selection of scales. For demonstration, let’s use the instrument for
a series of d.c. voltage measurements. Suppose we wish to measure
the cathode bias developed in a TV i.f. amplifier stage. This voltage
is estimated to be -j-1.4. After setting up the instrument (as de­
scribed in the next section of this chapter) and adjusting theFUNC-
tion selector to 4-volts, the range switch is set to 1.5 v because this
range includes the estimated value of the voltage to be measured
and also is the range which will give a reading nearest to the full-

67
 TABLE 3
5 Range- Meter Meter-
Function Quantity To be Switch Scale Scale
Measured Setting To Use Multiplier
D.C. VOLTS 0 - 1.5 v 1.5 V A 1
(use d.c. direct probe; 1.5 - 5 ” 5 ” C 1
set switch to D.C.) 5 - 15 ” 15 ” A 10
15 - 50 ” 50 ” C 10
50 - 150 ” 150 ” A 100
150 - 500 ” 500 ” C 100
500 - 1,500 ” 1,500 ” A 1,000

OHMS 0-30 Rx 1 R 1
(use ohms probe and 30 - 300 RX 10 R 10
cable) 300 - 3,000 RX 100 R 100
3,000 - 30,000 RX 1,000 R 1,000
30,000 - 300,000 RX 10,000 R 10,000
300,000 - 3 Meg RX 100,000 R 100,000
3 Meg - 1,000 Meg RX 1 Meg R 1,000,000

A.C. VOLTS: R.M.S. 0 — 1.5 v 1.5 v G 1

(use d.c. direct probe; 1.5- 5 ” 5 ” E 1
set switch to DI- 5- 15 ” 15 ” A 10
RE CT and read on 15 - 50 ” 50 ” C 10
black scales) 50 - 150 ” 150 ” A 100
150- 500 ” 500 ” C 100
500 - 1,500 ” 1,500 ” A 1,000

A.C. VOLTS: 0— 4v 1.5 v H 1

PEAK-TO-PEAK 4- 14” 5 ” F 1
(use d.c. direct probe; 14 - 42 ” 15 ” B 10
set switch to DI­ 42 - 140 ” 50 ” D 10
RECT and read on 140- 420” 150 ” B 100
red scales) 420 -1,400 ” 500 ” D 100
1,400 - 4,200 ” 1,500 ” B 1,000

DIRECT CURRENT 0 - 0.5 ma 0.5 ma C 0.1

(use special red and .5 - 1.5 ” 1.5 ” A 1
black current cables) 1.5 - 5 ” 5 ” C 10
5 - 15 ” 15 ” A 10
15 - 50 ” 50 ” C 100
50 - 150 ” 150 ” A 1
.15 - 1.5 a * A 10
1.5 - 15 a * A

NULL INDICA­ — .75 - + .75v 1.5 v Z

TIONS; D.C. VOLTS — 2.5 - 4- 2.5 ” 5 ” Z
(use d.c. direct probe; __7.5_ + 7.5 ” 15 ” z
z
C
W

IQ 40

set switch to D.C.)

Nb-W

50 ”
++++
<
1 t-1 no
Illi
1

z
w o IQ

150 ”
z
05 t-
o Wo
77

500 ”
z
o

1,500 ”

68
scale point where accuracy is greatest. Referring to Table 3, we
see that meter scale A (Fig. 501) is the scale on which the reading
should be made. When the probe is connected to the cathode pin
of the amplifier tube, the meter pointer should swing up to the
1.4 mark on scale A if our voltage is correct.
Suppose we wTish next to check the operation of the horizontal
oscillator stage. A reliable indication of whether the stage is oscil­
lating properly may be had by checking the developed grid bias
voltage. In our particular receiver, this voltage should be approxi­
mately —9. The function switch, therefore, should be set to
—volts. Table 3 shows that scale A is used for this measurement
also, but the range switch should be set to the 15 v position to
provide for a reading of 9 volts. (Remember that the 1.5 mark
now corresponds to 15, and all readings on this scale must be mul­
tiplied by 10 to obtain a correct reading.) This same procedure
applies to other scales and ranges. If the range switch is set to
150 v, for example, and 130 volts are applied to the test probes, the
meter pointer will rest at 1.3 on the 1.5 scale. The scale reading
should be multiplied by 100, therefore, to obtain the correct value.
The use of multipliers on the 5 v scale is the same. If, for ex­
ample, the range switch is set to 500 v and a B-|- voltage of 240
is measured, the meter pointer will rest at the first division mark
to the left of 2.5 on scale C (Fig. 501). A multiplier factor of 100
must be used to obtain a correct reading.
The scales marked lo-a.c. (shown as scales E, F, G and H in Fig.
501) are used only for a.c. voltage measurements. Scale G is used
only for a.c. voltages (r.m.s.) from 0.1 to 1.5; scale E only for
a.c. voltages (r.m.s.) between 0.1 and 5. On this v.t.v.m., scales
B, D, F and H are printed in red and are used only for peak-to-
peak a.c. voltage readings. These scales are used simultaneously
with the black scales immediately above them. For example, an
r.m.s. voltage of 1.4 is read on the black scale G; the corresponding
peak-to-peak voltage of approximately 3.9 is indicated simultan­
eously on scale H. An r.m.s. voltage of 14 is read on scale A; the
corresponding peak-to-peak voltage of approximately 39 is read
on scale B.
This same procedure applies to direct current and resistance
measurements. The use of multipliers is simple if it is remembered
the full-scale marking of the scale in use corresponds to the num­
ber indicated on the range switch. A chart similar to that in
Table 3 can be made up easily for other types of v.t.v.m.’s and
may be extremely helpful in acquainting the technician with a
new instrument.
M
How to take measurements

In this section, the procedures for making different types of

measurements with the v.t.v.m. are described. Important points,
which are helpful in obtaining more accurate and faster readings,
are also included.
D.c. voltage
1. Connect the power cord to an a.c. outlet which supplies
from 105 to 125 volts, 50 to 60 c.p.s.
2. Turn the selector switch clockwise from the off position
to the ¿-volts position. Allow a minute or two for the operating
voltages to stabilize.
3. Connect the ground cable to the gnd jack and connect the
direct probe and cable (Fig. 401-b) to the volts a.c.-d.c. con­
nector. Slip the d.c. direct probe (switch probe shown in Fig. 403)
onto the front end of the direct probe. Set the sliding switch in
the probe to the d.c. position.
4. Rotate the zero adj control, if necessary, to bring the meter
pointer into exact alignment with the zero points on the left-hand
end of the meter scales.
5. Estimate the value of the d.c. voltage to be measured. Set
the range switch to the position which includes the estimated
voltage. (See Table 3 for the correct range settings.)
6. Connect the clip of the ground cable to the chassis of the
equipment under test. (If transformerless or a.c.-d.c. equipment
is to be tested, refer to the listing of special precautions under
“Measurement Tips.”) Apply power to the equipment that is to be
checked.
7. Connect the tip of the d.c. probe to the positive test point.
Do not touch the metal part of the tip with the fingers. The meter
pointer should deflect to the right but should not go past the last
calibration mark on the scale. If the pointer swings off scale, the
range switch should be set to a higher scale which will provide an
on-scale reading.
8. Read the d.c. voltage from the scale indicated in Table 3.
9. If a negative polarity d.c. voltage is to be measured, this
same procedure is valid (steps 1-8) with the exception that the
selector switch must be set to —volts. This will allow the meter
needle to read directly, moving up from left to right. If polarity
settings of the selector switch are disregarded, possible damage to
the meter needle can result.

70
Ohms
Here is the procedure for making ohms measurements:
1. Connect the ohms probe and cable to the ohms jack on the
front panel. The ground cable should be connected to the gnd
jack.
2. Estimate the value of the resistance to be measured and set
the range switch to the setting which includes this value. (See
Table 3 for the correct range setting.)
3. Turn the selector switch to ohms. The meter pointer should
deflect fully to the right. This is the normal setting for the pointer
when the v.t.v.m. is set up for ohms measurements and no load is
connected across the ohms probes. If the pointer does not rest
exactly at the full-scale infinity mark, set the ohms adj control for
the proper setting.
4. Short the ohms probe and the ground cable together. The
meter pointer should swing over to the left-hand zero point (zero
resistance). Adjust the zero adj control, if necessary, to bring the
pointer into exact alignment with the zero mark. Unshort the
probes and recheck the infinity setting of the pointer. Reset the
ohms adj control, if necessary.
5. Connect the ground clip to one side of the unknown resis­
tance and the ohms probe to the other side. If the resistance is
connected into a circuit, it may be necessary to disconnect one end
from the circuit to prevent shunt resistances from affecting the
meter reading. CAUTION: Never attempt to make resistance
measurements in circuits which have power applied. Failure to
observe this precaution may result in burnout of the precision
resistors in the ohms-measurement network of the v.t.v.m.
6. Read the resistance from the top scale of the v.t.v.m.
A.c. voltage
1. With the power cord connected to an a.c. outlet, turn the
selector control to the A.c. volts position.
2. All a.c. voltage measurements are made with the ground
cable and the direct probe and cable. If the switch probe is used,
the sliding switch should be set to the direct position. Connect
these probes and cables, if necessary.
3. Estimate the value of the a.c. voltage to be measured and
set the range switch to the position which includes this value.
Table 3 lists the correct range settings. (If transformerless or
a.c.-d.c. equipment is involved, refer to the listing of special pre­
cautions under “Measurement Tips.”) Make sure the frequency

71
and waveshape of the a.c. signal to be measured are within the
measurement capabilities of the v.tv.m.
4. Short the ground cable and direct probe together and zero
the meter pointer with the zero adj control, if necessary. The
probe switch should be set to direct.
5. Connect the clip of the ground cable to the chassis or
ground bus of the equipment under test. Connect the direct probe
tip to the test point. Do not touch the metal part of the tip with
the fingers.
6. Read the r.m.s. value of the a.c. voltage from the black scale
(indicated in Table 3). Read the peak-to-peak value from the
red scale.

Direct-current measurements
Current measurements* require several precautions not usually
necessary for other measurements. These precautions are recom­
mended to protect the meter from burnout and to protect the
technician from electrical shock. They may be summarized briefly
as follows:
A. Take special care in setting up the instrument and the test
circuit because the meter is not protected against burnout
on current measurements.
B. Do not attempt to measure current in circuits containing
more than 1,500 volts d.c. Do not attempt to measure alter­
nating current.
C. Always remove power from equipment under test before
connecting test leads. Discharge all capacitors in the test
circuit.
Current measurements are made as follows:
1. Turn the selector switch to the current position. (It is not
necessary that the instrument be connected to the power line for
direct current measurements.)
2. Connect the “negative” current cable (black) to the —cur­
rent jack. Connect the “positive” current cable (red) to one of
the three -(-current jacks. The jack used depends upon the esti­
mated value of the current to be measured. To protect the meter
against possible damage, the range selected for the initial measure­
ment should be able to handle a current of at least twice the value
of the estimated current. The range switch is connected in the

♦Most v.t.v.m.’s measure resistance and voltage only, and do not have provisions
for measuring current.

72
circuit only when currents of 500 ma or less are measured. When
the +1.5 amp and +15 amp jacks are used, the setting of the range
switch may be ignored.
3. Remove power from the equipment under test. Short all
filter capacitors to prevent accidental shock.
4. Break the circuit wiring at the desired measurement point
and connect the two current cables in series with the circuit. The
black cable should be connected to the negative lead or terminal
of the opened circuit or to the point of lower potential, and the
red cable should be connected to the positive lead or terminal.
5. Apply poiver to the equipment and observe the meter read­
ing. If necessary, readjust the range control or change connection
of the red cable at the v.t.v.m. to give a reading on a scale which is
nearest to full-scale deflection of the meter pointer (see Table 3).
6. Remove power from equipment and short the filter capaci­
tors before disconnecting the cables.

Null indications:
The test procedure used in making null measurements varies
with the application. Null indications in bridge circuits, for exam­
ple, may require that probes and cables be connected differently
than in other applications, such as FM discriminator tests. For
correct connection of probes and cables, the technician should
refer to the manufacturer's service notes or equipment instruc­
tions. In general, the procedure is as follows:
1. Connect the power cord to an a.c. outlet and set the selector
control to + volts.
2. Connect the ground cable to the gnd jack and connect the
direct probe and cable, with the d.c. direct probe attached, to the
volts a.c.-d.c. connector. Set the sliding switch on the probe to
the d.c. position.
3. Rotate the zero adj control to position the meter pointer
exactly at center scale, as indicated by scale Z in Fig. 501.
4. Estimate the maximum voltage swing in the null-indicating
circuit. The maximum swTing is measured by adding the maximum
negative voltage to the maximum positive voltage. For the correct
range setting, see Table 3.
5. Remove power from the circuit under test. The ground
cable and d.c. probe should be connected as recommended by the
manufacturer of the equipment under test. Usually, the probe tip
is connected to a point which is positive with respect to the point
to which the ground cable is connected. If the meter pointer

73
swings off scale in either direction, switch the range control to a
higher range which gives on-scale deflection. Make circuit adjust­
ments as required to center the pointer on the center-scale zero
mark.
6. Remove power from the test circuit and disconnect the test
leads.

Measurement tips
Here are some practical suggestions that will help you get the
most out of your v.t.v.m.
Ohms measurements
Because accuracy is the first consideration in any measurement,
keep the following suggestions in mind when resistance measure­
ments are made.
As pointed out previously, nearly all ohmmeters are designed
to provide most accurate readings at the center-scale point. This
factor should be remembered when measurements are taken. Most
manufacturers, while specifying accuracy percentages for the a.c.
and d.c. voltage functions of their instruments, do not specify an
accuracy figure for resistance measurements. While this practice
may seem questionable, remember that resistance measurements
of high accuracy are not required in general service work. The
tolerance of most resistors used in conventional TV and radio
receivers is in the order of ±10 and ±20%. If the receiver can
tolerate deviations of these magnitudes, it is not necessary to read
the values to a close tolerance. Resistance measurements at very
tight tolerances should be made with calibrated resistance bridges
designed especially for such applications.
The value of the battery voltage used in the ohms section of the
v.tv.m. should be known and remembered by the technician.
Some sensitive devices, such as low-voltage low-wattage tube fila­
ments, meter multipliers and thermocouples may be burned out
if too high an ohms test voltage is applied.
When resistance measurements are made in electronic circuits,
the shunt resistance may be very difficult to estimate. In these
cases, it is usually best to unsolder individual components or to
break up a complicated circuit by disconnecting major leads and
buses and checking resistances of parts and simple circuits indi­
vidually. Some manufacturers provide resistance measurement
tables in addition to voltage tables in their service notes. Usually,
however, the technician has to work without this assistance.
74
 In some circuits, especially those which contain large value capa­
citors, several seconds may be required for the meter pointer to
reach its maximum position. This slow pointer swing is usually
most apparent on the high-resistance scales and is more pro­
nounced in test circuits which contain both a large capacitance
and high resistance. This effect, caused by the charging of the
capacitor by the battery voltage in the v.t.v.m., is due to the fact
that the current must flow through the v.t.v.m. resistance in series
with the battery. This resistance is highest on the highest ohms
range and the charging time of the test-circuit capacitance, there­
fore, is increased. Charging time may often be greatly reduced by
setting the range switch to the lowest ohms setting, where the
series resistance is least, and then switching up to the desired range.
V.t.v.m. ohms circuits are designed to provide extremely long
battery life. Aside from a minute leakage current, no battery cur­
rent is drawn when the ohms probes or leads are disconnected.
If the v.t.v.m. is used over an extended operating period, the ohms
test leads should not be left connected in a shorted position.
A weak ohms battery is usually indicated when the meter
pointer will not deflect to the infinity mark on the ohms scale.
Batteries in this condition should never be left in the instrument.
The chemical action in an exhausted battery produces a highly
corrosive residue which quickly attacks such critical metal parts
as the switch contacts and solder joints. A badly corroded switch
section may require complete replacement of the switch and asso­
ciated components. Units which require flashlight type batteries
should use steel-encased batteries to reduce effects of corrosion.
Voltage measurements:
A few tips on safety are of first importance in taking both a.c.
and d.c. voltage measurements. It is always best to work with one
hand in a pocket when a hot circuit is being worked on. The
ground cable of the v.t.v.m. should be connected first. If the probe
is connected first and the technician picks up the ground clip, he
is in series with the v.t.v.m., the voltage source and ground.
Special care should be taken when working with a.c.-d.c. or
transformerless equipment because the chassis, ground or B—
buses are usually tied to one side of the power line. If the ground
cable of the v.t.v.m. is connected to any of these points, the metal
case of the instrument will be at the same potential as the common
point in the test circuit. In some applications, the v.t.v.m. case
will be hot to the full value of the line voltage.
A situation of this type is shown in simplified form in Fig. 502.

75
When the line cords are connected to the outlets, one chassis will
be hot. Because the chassis are connected to different sides of the
line, a dead short across the line would result if the chassis should
touch or if they should be tied together through the ground cir­
cuit of the v.t.v.m. Such a condition is, obviously, an extreme
shock hazard as well as a possible source of damage to expensive
test equipment. This common danger can be eliminated by use
of an isolation transformer which provides isolation from the
power line for a.c.-d.c. receivers.
When working with equipment carrying high B-j- voltages, a
shorting lead or screwdriver should be used to discharge capaci­
tors after power has been removed. Large electrolytic capacitors
may store a charge for several minutes after power is shut off. Mica
capacitors, used in TV high-voltage supplies, may store a charge
for many hours.
One of the most common d.c. voltage measurement problems
arises in high-resistance high-impedance circuits which are sensi­
tive to resistive and capacitive loading. The high input resistance
of the v.t.v.m. helps greately in overcoming the d.c. loading effects.
The isolating resistor in the d.c. probe aids in reducing the capaci­
tive loading. This probe should always be used for d.c. voltage
measurements.
Greatest accuracy on both a.c. and d.c. voltage measurements is
usually obtained in the upper third of each scale. Overall v.t.v.m.
accuracy depends primarily upon two factors: (1) the accuracy
rating of the meter movement used and (2) the accuracy of the
resistors used in the voltage divider networks of the v.t.v.m. In the
case of the RCA Master VoltOhmyst, for example, the meter
movement is designed to provide a reading at the full-scale points
of within ±2% of the true voltage. The precision carbon-film
resistors used in the voltage divider networks have a tolerance of
±1%. The maximum combined reading error possible, therefore,
is ±3%. If a high-voltage multiplying probe is used, the possible
error is increased by the percentage tolerance of the high-voltage
multiplier resistor. Since the error is cumulative, with a high-volt­
age probe having a resistance tolerance of ±2%, a maximum error
of ±5% is possible.
When measurements are made on scale points below full scale,
“tracking” error may be introduced. While a meter may be de­
signed to have a high degree of accuracy at the full-scale point,
the amount of error may increase as readings are made elsewhere
on the scale. This effect is most noticeable in the lower quarter of

76
the scale. Vacuum-tube and meter movement nonlinearity and
meter-bearing friction often make readings in very low sections of
the scale untrustworthy. The degree of tracking error is seldom
specified by the v.t.v.m. manufacturer.
Probably the greatest source of error in a.c. signal measurements
is due to application of the v.t.v.m. The a.c. loading characteristics
of these instruments often are not as good as could be desired,
although they are vastly better than the a.c. loading characteristics
of nonelectronic meters. In TV signal circuits, for example, it is
often desirable to measure the a.c. signal drive supplied to the
grid circuit of a stage. Signal circuits are usually characterized by
a resistance of 1 megohm or better and usually have relatively low
shunt capacitance. Input characteristics of most vacuum-tube volt­
meters are in the order of 0.75 to 1 megohm with from 50- to
100-quf capacitance. The effect of this added load upon the test

Fig. 502. If both a.c.-d.c. chassis arc plugged into the power line, as
shown, a connecting link between the two chassis (or if the two are tied
together through the v.t.v.m.) would result in a short circuit.
signal depends upon the impedance of the test circuit, the fre­
quency and type of a.c. waveshape and the voltage value of the
signal. A good check of the loading effect of the v.t.v.m. may be
had by setting up a TV receiver in good operating condition and
tuning in a picture and accompanying sound signal. The a.c.
probe can be applied to different stages in the receiver and the
effect on picture and sound performance noted.
The discussion in Chapter 2 of the a.c. signal rectifiers used in
commercial vacuum-tube voltmeters demonstrates the importance
of frequency and waveshape upon the reading obtained with the
v.t.v.m. If measurements are made in TV circuits where special
types of waveforms are encountered, the meter should be able to
respond to the peak-to-peak value of the a.c. signal. Waveforms
which are narrow in shape and have a low repetition rate usually
cannot be measured accurately. Attempts to measure a.c. signals
77
 which have higher frequencies than those the v.t.v.m. was designed
to handle may also lead to erroneous readings. The instrument
manufacturer usually states the frequency limits of his v.t.v.m.
and often specifies the type of waveform the instrument will meas­
ure.
Poorly shielded instruments and cables may often lead to some
weird effects, especially when the instrument is used in a strong a.c.
field. Hum, noise and stray-field pickup may cause the meter
pointer to deflect regardless of how probes are connected. In high-
frequency circuits, especially where the v.t.v.m. is used on a low-
voltage range, good shielding and grounding are essential. When
r.f. circuits are involved, the ground cable should be connected as
closely as possible to the voltage test point. Probes and cables
should be shielded throughout to prevent the test leads from pick­
ing up stray energy and feeding it to the meter circuit.
Most units which can be used for current measurement do not
require connection to the power line. The meter, together with its
associated shunting and dropping resistances, is inserted directly in
series with the test circuit. Three precautions are necessary in
these current-measurement applications. They are: (1) Use a
range setting considerably higher than the estimated value of the
current to be measured to avoid the possibility of meter burnout.
(2) Take extreme care if the meter case is connected to the minus
side of the current circuit because the case will then be at the
same voltage potential as the test circuit. (3) Be careful to connect
the current cables to the points of correct polarity in the circuit.
Because the meter must be connected in series with the test circuit,
all power should be removed and capacitors discharged before the
meter is connected.
The considerations discussed here apply in general to v.t.v.m
applications. The next few chapters, which deal with specific
applications, will point out some additional tips and considera­
tions which can be used to advantage.

78
 H
tv troubleshooting

n no service application can the v.t.v.m. be put to greater use

I than in the troubleshooting of television receivers. Voltage and
resistance measurements are still two of the best ways of locating
a faulty stage and finding a defective component quickly. The
high d.c. input resistance and wide resistance measurement ranges
of the v.t.v.m. are well suited to the circuits found in TV receivers.
Because of these basic advantages, the v.tv.m. will find even
greater use in servicing color sets.

Analyzing the defective tv receiver

In any type of servicing, remember that a test instrument is not
a substitute for expert technique. It is merely a servicing aid which
helps make the job quicker and easier. Intelligent analysis of
receiver performance is a necessary first step in determining which
section of the receiver is defective. Unless you make a careful
examination of the symptoms, hours or even days can be wasted in
checking voltages, resistances and components which have nothing
to do with the defective section of the circuit.
When a defective receiver is first approached by the service tech­
nician, it is important that the operation of all controls be checked
and noted. Careful examination of the picture raster and sound
performance must be made as the first step in determining what
the defects are. Too often a hurried check results in the techni­
cian’s overlooking an important symptom which indicates that the
trouble exists in an unsuspected section. In intercarrier type re­
79
ceivers, for example, lack of both picture and sound may indicate
trouble in the tuner or picture i.f. amplifier, although a.g.c. circuit
defects may sometimes also affect both picture and sound. A help­
ful check in locating sync troubles is to note whether the sync bars
have the proper blackness level as the picture is rolled vertically
or tilted horizontally. The effects obtained by varying the bright­
ness and contrast controls, the hold, fine-tuning and a.g.c. controls
should always be noted carefully. A few extra minutes spent at
this stage of the job can save hours of fruitless hunting later on.
Illustrated servicing booklets, which show the effects of circuit
faults on the picture, are helpful in demonstrating methods of
checking and analyzing symptoms of defective receivers.

Tube troubles
After the technician has checked operation and symptoms, he
should have a good indication of what section of the receiver is
defective. Tube failure, the most common difficulty, may be
checked easily by substituting new tubes in the appropriate sock­
ets of the suspected section. Tubes should be substituted one at a
time. If it is necessary to remove several tubes of the same type,
they should be marked in some way so they can be replaced in
their original sockets. This is often important in the tuner section
where interchanging of the oscillator tube with the mixer tube
may require resetting of the oscillator channel adjustments.
Series-string receivers, which are rapidly gaining in popularity,
present a special problem because a single tube with an open
heater can remove power from all tubes in the string. Finding the
open tube can be time-consuming. The v.t.v.m. is an excellent
instrument for checking heater continuity. The “ohms” section
of the v.t.v.m. is used and the ohms probe and ground cable are
connected to the heater pins of individual tubes.
Often the technician will discover a set which has repeated
failure of one particular tube. While it may be a temptation
simply to install another tube, the careful technician will check
further for trouble. Persistent failures can usually be traced to a
defective component. For example, a common cause of repeated
failure of amplifier tubes may be traced to a leaky coupling capaci­
tor, which causes the tube to draw an excessive amount of current.
The change in value of this capacitor may not be immediately
apparent in receiver performance but the tube may be consider­
ably overloaded as a result. Similarly, changed-value resistors may
cause tube failure. Operation of the receiver may or may not be

80
seriously affected. Troubles of this type may be discovered quickly
by means of resistance measurements.
Surprisingly, repeated tube failures may sometimes be traced to
improper receiver design, although the technician should be ex­
tremely careful in his diagnosis and troubleshooting before he
reaches this conclusion. Excessive line voltage, a condition which
can be checked quickly with the v.t.v.m., can cause circuit voltages
to exceed their proper values. Faulty oscillator operation and com­
ponent breakdown may result from too low or too high a line
voltage. In such cases, the remedy may be an adjustable line-volt­
age transformer which can step up or step down the line voltage
applied to the receiver. In a few cases, it is possible to substitute
tubes having higher ratings, although the technician should be
cautious in making any changes not specifically recommended by
the receiver manufacturer.
If tube substitution fails to correct the difficulty, the chassis
must be removed for troubleshooting. Always disconnect the a.c.
power cord and short the high-voltage output terminal to the
chassis before pulling the set. Modern receivers may store a high-
voltage charge for several days. While this charge may not be
lethal, a shock may result in dropping of the chassis or cuts and
bruises. A flexible wire, 18 inches long, equipped with alligator
clips on both ends is a good shorting device. Always clip the wire
to the chassis before clipping it to the high-voltage terminal.
If the suspected component cannot be located immediately, a
voltage check should be made. Whenever possible, the chassis
should be operated with the picture tube, yoke and focus coil con­
nected. Receivers which have the tube and deflecting components
mounted on the chassis usually present no special problem because
the complete chassis can be removed and placed on its side on the
workbench. Other sets, however, have the picture tube and neces­
sary components mounted in the cabinet separate from the chassis.
On many of these sets, the leads connecting to the chassis are
equipped with plugs which permit quick disconnection. Because
these leads are usually short, the technician requires a set of exten­
sion leads or a “harness” to permit complete operation of the
receiver with the chassis removed. Pin connections for different
kinescopes are similar. Connection for the yoke, focus coil, high-
voltage lead and speaker vary with different manufacturers, and a
separate harness is required for each make. Ready-made harnesses
for Du Mont, Philco, RCA and others can be purchased from most
parts distributors or made up by the technician.
The correct circuit operating voltages are usually shown on the

81
 manufacturer’s schematic design. In some service notes, a separate
voltage chart is provided which shows the correct d.c. voltage at
each tube pin in the set. These voltages are usually obtained at a
working line voltage of 117. A variation of ±20% from the manu­
facturer’s voltage specifications is acceptable. A v.t.v.m. is almost
always used in making these tests because of its high input resis­
tance. Before measurements are made, the antenna should be dis­
connected and a shorting wire connected across the tuner input
Terminals to prevent any incoming signal from making voltage
changes in the receiver. On some receivers, the manufacturer will
specify that certain controls, such as brightness, contrast or a.g.c.,
be turned to a certain position.
Most d.c. voltages are measured with respect to the receiver
chassis, which serves as a common ground, and when this is the
case the ground cable of the v.t.v.m. should be clipped to the
chassis. Bias voltages and other negative d.c. voltages are also
ordinarily measured with respect to ground; it is necessary only
to set the function switch to —volts to switch polarity on the
v.t.v.m. probes. CAUTION: Remember that the chassis of trans­
formerless or a.c.-d.c. type receivers may be hot. In some receivers,
the chassis is tied directly to one side of the a.c. line. In other sets,
the chassis may be connected to one side of the line through a
resistor. If the v.t.v.m. ground cable is clipped to the chassis, the
case of the v.t.v.m. will also be hot and there is danger of a severe
shock or short circuit. It is always best to use an isolation trans­
former on receivers of this type.
With receiver cables properly connected and if the test precau­
tions just described are complied with, the technician is ready to
take voltage measurements. The B plus voltage at the output from
the power supply should be checked first. This voltage will range
from about 120 to approximately 300, depending upon the type of
power supply. If B plus is considerably lower than it should be,
rectifiers and filter circuits should be checked for faulty operation.
If B plus voltage is excessively high, a bleeder resistor may be open
or a defective component elsewhere in the receiver may have
reduced the load on the power supply and caused a corresponding
increase in the supply voltage available.
Because of the complexity of TV receiver circuitry, several
B plus voltage buses may be used. The highest voltages are used
in the sweep and audio circuits; the lowest voltages in the tuner
and i.f. amplifier sections. D.c. operating voltages throughout the
receiver will generally vary with the value of the B plus voltage.
If a serious defect exists, it can cause radical changes in plate,
82
screen, grid and cathode voltages on most tubes in the receiver.
Because of this, voltage measurements throughout a defective re­
ceiver may show that operating voltages are out of tolerance in
several stages which appear to have no direct relationship wTith
each other. A problem set of this type is best handled by breaking
up the B plus buses and checking them one at a time.
After the B plus supply voltage is checked, the operating volt­
ages in the suspect section or stage of the receiver should be meas­
ured. In most defective receivers, these measurements should bring
the technician very close to the source of trouble. Low voltage in a
section or stage may indicate a leaky or shorted capacitor. Too high
a voltage can point to an open resistor or defective tube. There
are many possible causes, of course, but these are the most com­
mon.

Troubleshooting defective components

After the technician has analyzed the defective receiver and sub­
stituted new tubes in the suspect section without success, he can
conclude that one or more components are defective. The capaci­
tors, resistors, coils or other components may be checked in differ­
ent ways. This section will point out the best ways of checking
components. The principles discussed here apply also to these same
components when they are used in radio receivers, amplifiers and
other types of electronic equipment.
Capacitors
Faulty capacitors are a common source of trouble. Sometimes,
as in the case of a sync circuit, the faulty capacitor may be rela­
tively easy to locate. Often, however, considerable unsoldering and
checking may be necessary. The v.tv.m is extremely helpful in this
type of troubleshooting.
Capacitor troubles can be divided into three categories: (1)
shorted, (2) leaky and (3) open. The technician is often at a
disadvantage because the defective capacitor usually shows no out­
ward sign of being faulty. Shorted and leaky capacitors can usually
be detected easily by resistance measurements. An open capacitor
is usually best discovered by substitution of a new capacitor in
place of, or across, the suspected part.
Shorted capacitors are usually the easiest to detect. A short may
reduce the internal resistance to zero or to a few hundred or a few
thousand ohms at most. Where a short is suspected, the v.t.v.m.
may be connected directly into the circuit without requiring dis­

83
connection of the capacitor from other parts of the circuit. A leaky
capacitor requires disconnection from the circuit before a positive
indication may be had. Disconnection is usually necessary because
other capacitors and resistors in the same circuit provide shunt
resistance around the capacitor being measured. A positive check
can be made by disconnecting one or both ends and measuring the
resistance across the capacitor.
The shorted capacitor can be detected by voltage measurements
in the associated section of the receiver. In any plate, screen,
cathode or grid-return circuit that uses a bypass capacitor, there is
normally some voltage across the capacitor. If there is not or if the
voltage is considerably lower than normal, the capacitor should be
disconnected from the circuit and its resistance checked. Also, if

Fig. 601. The v.t.v.m. can be used to test for

shorted bypass capacitors.

the circuit voltage returns to normal after the capacitor has been
disconnected, a short in the component is indicated. Fig. 601 is
useful in demonstrating the effect of a faulty capacitor in a typical
amplifier stage. If any of the bypass capacitors are shorted, the
voltage at the circuit end of the capacitor will be zero. A leaky
capacitor will cause the circuit voltage to be lower than normal.
The letters A, B, C and D are typical test points.
When a plate or screen circuit capacitor becomes shorted, it
usually causes excessive current flow through any resistor con­
nected in series between it and the voltage source. Consequently,
the resistor may change value considerably or become open. There­
fore, whenever a shorted capacitor is discovered, it is always wise
to check out adjacent components with the v.t.v.m.
A shorted or leaky coupling capacitor can be detected by d.c.
voltage measurements. For example, a leaky coupling capacitor
will usually result in an abnormal voltage on the grid of the stage
being fed. The voltage may be higher or lower than normal. In
these cases, a new capacitor should be substituted in place of the
old one.
84
 In some cases, a shorted or leaky capacitor may be extremely
difficult to detect because the short or leak may not show up until
after the full circuit voltage is applied across it. For example, a
plate or screen bypass capacitor may show infinite resistance when
checked with a v.t.v.m. which applies only 1.5 or 3 volts on the
ohms test. But, the capacitor may break down quickly when 200
or 300 volts are applied. Defects of this type are best discovered by
monitoring the d.c. voltage across the suspected capacitor with the
v.t.v.m. When the short or leak develops, the voltage read on the
v.t.v.m. should drop noticeably.
No prescribed resistance limits have been established by which

Fig. 602. Quick check for a leaky coupling

capacitor. Remove V2 from its socket, and
test with a d.c. probe, as shown. A d.c. volt­
age reading indicates a defective capacitor.
capacitors may be classified as leaky because the permissible leak­
age depends upon the type of capacitor used and the circuit in
which it is installed. For example, high leakage in a capacitor
connected across a cathode-bias resistor may have very little effect
on circuit operation. If the resistor has a nominal value of 100
ohms and the bypass capacitor has a leakage resistance as low as
1,000 ohms, operation may be virtually unaffected. This same
amount of leakage in a coupling capacitor or plate or screen bypass
capacitor may have serious results.
A leakage resistance of 1 megohm in a plate or cathode bypass
capacitor will probably have a negligible effect on circuit opera­
tion; but the same amount of leakage in a plate-to-grid coupling
capacitor may be equivalent, in effect, to a short circuit. If the grid
circuit has a high value of resistance to ground or cathode, a
coupling capacitor having a leakage as high as 1,000 megohms may
noticeably affect operation.
The best method of detecting a leaky coupling capacitor is by
measuring the d.c. voltage drop across it while the capacitor is
connected in the circuit and the receiver is in operation. The
check may also be made by connecting the d.c. probe of the
v.t.v.m. to the grid pin of the driven stage. See Fig. 602. The driven
tube should be removed from its socket to prevent any grid cur­

85
rent or contact-potential current from developing a voltage at the
measurement point.
Open capacitors are best detected by temporarily connecting a
good capacitor across each of the suspected capacitors while the
receiver is in operation and noting the effect on receiver operation
(Fig. 603). The substituted capacitor should have the same value

1--------- if—
COUPLING CAP

Fig. 603. Technique for checking for

open bypass or coupling capacitors.
as the suspected unit. If connection of the new capacitor restores
the receiver to normal operation, it may be assumed that the orig­
inal capacitor is open.
Capacitor substitution is also a good method for discovering
open, shorted or leaky capacitors when the suspected unit is dis­
connected. Some applications in which this method is useful are
shown in Fig. 604. The “high” end of the capacitor is disconnected
from the circuit.

TUNED CKT CAP COUPLING CAP BTMSS CAP

Fig. 604. When making a capacitor substitution test, one end

of the suspected capacitor must be disconnected from the
circuit.
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and require that the ohms
probe of the v.t.v.m. be connected to the positive terminal and the
ground cable to the metal can or common negative lead. The
polarity of paper, mica and ceramic capacitors is not important.
Electrolytic capacitors will generally show a considerable degree of
leakage. Because these capacitors require a relatively larger form­
ing voltage than1 that supplied by the ohms circuit of the v.t.v.m.,
the leakage resistance should not be considered significant unless
it is in the order of a few thousand ohms or less.
While no set resistance limits can be prescribed for electrolytics
on ohms measurements, some experience in measuring these com­
ponents may be helpful in acquainting the technician with their
resistance characteristics. The tabulations in Table 4 may be of

86
use to the technician in estimating the general condition of var­
ious kinds of capacitors. Charging time depends upon the size of
the capacitor being tested and the input resistance of the v.t.v.m.
on the resistance range in use. The data given under the heading
of ‘"Charging Time” is based on the use of a v.t.v.m. having an
input resistance of approximately 10 megohms on the R X 1 meg­
ohm resistance measurement range.

Resistors
In addition to faulty tubes and capacitors, defective resistors are
common causes of faulty receiver operation. Fixed composition
resistors frequently change value because of excessive current loads
or aging. These factors usually cause the resistor to increase in
TAB LE 4
RESIS­
CAPACI­ TANCE*
TANCE INSULA­ VOLTAGE (Meg­ CHARGING
(/if) TION RATING ohms) SCALE TIME* SCALE
.001 paper 600 >1,000 R X 1 Meg. % Scale Flick R X 1 Meg.
99
.002 mica 600 >1,000 99
% ” ” 99
.006 paper 600 1,000 % ” ”
9» 99 99
.01 600 1,000 % ” ”
99 99
.04 600 >1,000 3 secs.
9V 99
.05 600 >1,000 4 ”
99 99
0.1 600 1.000 8 ”
99 99 99
0.25 400 200 20 ”
99 99
1.0 600 500 60 ”
99 99
1.0 600 500 6 ” R X 100K
99 99
4.0 electrolytic 450 20 25 ”
99
4.0 450 20 5 ” R X 10K
99 99 99
10 450 40 99
10 ** 99
»9
20 99
150 35 20 ”
»9
20 99
25 50 20 ” 99
25 450 10 20 ”
99 99 99
40 50 8 99
30 ”
99 9t
100 50 15 60 ”
99
100 12 15 10 ” R X IK
99
1000 — 3 R X 100K 15 ” R X 100
♦The values given for resistance and charging time are only typical values for the
guidance of the experimenter. They should not be considered as limits or quality end points.
The symbol > in the resistance column means “‘more than.”

value, sometimes to many times its original value. A resistor may

change value or become open without showing any outward indi­
cation, such as discoloration or swelling. Therefore, normal
appearance of the resistor should never be taken as an indication
that the component is satisfactory. The v.t.v.m. should be used to
measure its actual value after one end of the resistor is first dis­
connected from the circuit to prevent shunt resistances from up­
setting the value of the reading.
Intermittent resistors are often encountered and may be difficult
to locate. In these cases, the v.t.v.m. may be used to monitor the
voltage in the circuit, as shown in Fig. 605. The circuit shown here
is a power supply voltage divider network similar to those found in
87
many TV receivers. RI, R2 and R3 are wirewound high-wattage
resistors which provide the required voltages on different buses
in the receiver. If circuit voltages shoxv a marked increase or de­
crease during receiver operation, the trouble may be traced to a
resistor which is changing value or opening up as it becomes
heated. The v.tv.m. is set up for d.c. voltage measurements and
the d.c. probe is clipped to the desired point in the divider net­
work. If all the resistors are functioning correctly, the voltages
should be as indicated. If RI opens, no voltage would be indicated
REG

Fig. 605. The v.t.v.m. and a d.c. probe can be used to test a
power supply. The d.c. voltage should increase as you move
the probe back toward the filament of the rectifier.
on the v.t.v.m. If R3 should open up, the voltages at points B, C
and D should increase noticeably. Any change which would cause
a marked difference in operating voltages is very likely to be
accompanied by a definite change in receiver sound or picture per­
formance. When operation performance is affected, the technician
can check the reading on the v.t.v.m. to ascertain whether the
trouble lies in the power supply section or elsewhere in the re­
ceiver.
The v.t.v.m. can, of course, be used to monitor d.c. supply and
signal voltages in all sections of the receiver. The monitor method
of checking intermittent resistors as well as capacitors has the
advantage of allowing the technician to work on another job while
waiting for trouble to show up.
Series voltage-dropping resistors which become defective should
not be replaced until the technician is satisfied that no other defec­
tive components have caused the trouble. In Fig. 601, for example,
a shorted screen or plate bypass capacitor might cause an excessive
amount of current to flow through the screen and plate dropping
resistors. If one of these is faulty, the capacitors should be checked
for shorts or leakage.
Vertical and horizontal sweep and sync difficulties may often be

88
traced to a defective resistor in the oscillator stages. In multivibra­
tor stages, for example, a changed value resistor may result in
inability to sync the picture.

Coils and transformers

Troubles with these components are: (1) open windings, (2)
shorted turns and (3) shorts and leakage between windings or to
the shell or ground. Unless the trouble is intermittent, open wind­
ings are perhaps the easiest to discover. A permanently open coil
or transformer may be found easily by resistance and voltage
measurements. Often, trouble caused by an apparently open wind­
ing may actually be caused by a broken or loose connection at a
R2

Fig. 606. Possible leakage

paths in a transformer.
terminal on the part which can be repaired easily. Internal opens,
however require replacement of the unit.
A partial or severe short in these components may be detected
by resistance measurements, provided the normal resistance of the
winding is known. Resistance checks with the v.t.v.m. are valu­
able in revealing open windings, shorted coils and shorts across
about 20% or more of the turns. In less severe cases, however, it
may be necessary to employ voltage measurement methocis or to
replace the suspected part with a new unit.
Shorted turns in a coil or transformer may or may not be diffi­
cult to detect, depending upon the normal resistance of the wind­
ings and the function of the part in the circuit. A single shorted
turn in an r.f. or i.f. tuned coil, which may make it impossible to
peak the circuit at the desired frequency, usually cannot be detect­
ed by resistance measurements. A shorted turn in a video peaking
coil may have no noticeable effect on receiver operation.
Fig 606 shows the possible leakage paths in a transformer. RI
represents the leakage path to the core; R2 the leakage path from
one winding to another; R3 the leakage across a winding and R4
leakage from a winding ter ground.

&9
 Shorts and leakage between windings and the core, shell or
ground (chassis) are best discovered by resistance measurements.
The v.t.v.m. is especially useful in these applications because of its
ability to read very high resistances. In many cases of leakage, the
resistance may be several hundred megohms or more. The sus­
pected component should be disconnected from the circuit and
readings taken from each winding to the case, core, chassis and also
to other windings to detect leakage. In cases where suspected leak­
age cannot be detected with the v.t.v.m., a higher test voltage may
be used, as shown in Fig. 607, to break down the leakage resistance.
Where there is reason to suspect leakage or breakdown from the
winding to the core, shell or chassis, a check can also be made by
temporarily insulating the unit from the chassis and checking
operation.
With the exception of leakage across a winding, the test setup
shown in Fig. 607 may be used to detect leakage in many cases.
This setup is especially useful in cases where leakage shows up
only when high voltages are present. These leakages can be greater
than 1,000 megohms, which is the highest resistance which can be
read on the “ohms” scales of the v.t.v.m. The external voltage
source can be any d.c. voltage from 50 to 500 or more. The supply
is connected to one end of the resistance and d.c. voltage readings
are taken with the v.t.v.m. at points A and B. Resistance is com­
puted by Ohm’s law as follows:
R; (volts at A - volts at B)
ri xs . -■ .1 - ■ ............ _■-
x volts at B
where RJN is the input resistance of the v.t.v.m. on d.c. voltage
measurements.
When a power transformer operates hotter than usual, the
trouble may be caused by an overload in the receiver or power
supply circuits or by shorted turns in the transformer itself. Be­
cause leaky or shorted filter capacitors are a frequent source of
trouble, the transformer can be checked by first disconnecting the
rectifier and filter circuits to see if an overload in the B plus cir­
cuits is responsible. If the transformer continues to run in an over­
heated condition, the transformer itself is probably defective. One
side of the filament circuit for all tubes except the power rectifier
is usually grounded to the chassis. Shorts in the filament circuit of
the receiver are best checked by unsoldering the grounded trans­
former lead and taking resistance measurements to chassis.

90
 Power supply filter chokes, vertical deflection output trans­
formers and audio output transformers can be checked by measur­
ing the d.c. resistance of the windings and employing some of the
same tests just mentioned.

A.g.c. circuit troubles

Because of the wide variety of symptoms, troubles in the a.g.c.
circuit may be very difficult to diagnose. This is true because the
a.g.c. stage is usually fed from the second detector or from the
video amplifier and, in keyed a.g.c. systems, a signal is also tapped
off the high-voltage transformer and fed back to the a.g.c. ampli­
fier. The rectified output voltage from the a.g.c. stage is usually
applied through one or two separate buses to the grid of the r.f.
VTVM

EXTERNAL VOLTAGE SUPPLY Rx DC PROBE

—-----h
■=■ RESISTANCE TO BE MEASURED

Fig. 607. If the leakage resistance of a component

is high, an ordinary resistance check is useless.
Use an external voltage supply, set the v.t.v.m
to read voltage, and calculate the resistance.
amplifier in the tuner and to the grids of the first and second pic­
ture i.f. amplifiers. A defective a.g.c. stage can cause difficulty from
two aspects. A shorted or open component can modify the loading
on the second detector or the video amplifier, causing a change in
operating conditions on these stages. Likewise, these defects can
result in a radical change in the a.g.c. output voltage fed to the
i.f. and tuner bias buses. If too much bias is applied, both picture
and sound may be seriously attenuated or cut out altogether. If no
bias is provided, sound and picture operation may be erratic or
cease completely. Some other symptoms of improper a.g.c. action
are:
1. Overloading (loss of picture, raster and possibly sound)
2. Unstable picture, horizontal pulling
3. Excessive picture contrast
4. Insufficient picture contrast
5. Gradual increase or decrease in contrast
6. Critical horizontal hold adjustment
7. Poor sync noise immunity
8. Excessive airplane flutter
9. Snow in picture
10. Buzz in sound
91
 Normal voltage on the a.g.c. buses usually runs from 0.1 volt or
less to several volts. If voltage measurements in the a.g.c. circuit
and on the buses fail to give a positive indication of trouble, an
external bias may be applied. This bias may be obtained from a
small battery which is equipped with a potentiometer for adjust­
ing bias to the exact required value. A simple bias source may be
constructed as shown in Fig. 608. Two clip leads are provided for
connection to the separate tuner and i.f. amplifier buses. The buses
should be disconnected from the a.g.c. stage before the battery is
connected.
With the external bias applied, the v.t.v.m. should be connected
to a point in the circuit which shows an abnormal B voltage. The
receiver should be turned on, a station tuned in and receiver con­
trols set for normal operation. The bias potentiometer should then

Fig. 608. Circuit of an external bias supply.

be adjusted while the technician watches the v.t.v.m. and checks
for effects on picture and sound reproduction. If the a.g.c. system
is faulty, correct external bias should restore the a.g.c.-fed stages
to their proper operating condition and picture and sound per­
formance should be noticeably improved. If the technician is in
luck and performance is restored, it is almost certain that the a.g.c.
system is at fault. If no change in performance is accomplished,
the a.g.c. circuit can probably be eliminated as the source of
trouble.

Troubleshooting tuners
TV tuners are simple devices in principle but can be very com­
plicated in construction. Wafer-switch types of tuners make
troubleshooting especially difficult, particularly if any of the small
components are suspected. Very often improper tuner operation
may result from incorrect supply and a.g.c. voltages being fed from
other parts of the receiver. There are, however, a number of ways
of checking voltages which do not require that the tuner be dis­
mantled.
Most tuners are equipped with a readily accessible terminal
strip to which the filament voltage, a.g.c. voltage and one or more

92
B plus leads are connected. When tuner trouble is encountered,
voltage measurements should first be made at these accessible
terminals. If the voltages are abnormally high or low, these leads
should be disconnected and resistance measurements taken from
the tuner terminal points to ground. Useful voltage and resistance
checks may also be made by removing the tubes from the tuner
and measuring the pin voltages or resistances to ground from the
top of the socket. Remember that with the tube removed, B volt­
ages may read somewhat high and proper allowance should be

Fig. 609. Test points in split-sound and intercarrier type TV receivers.

made. Remember, also, to count pin numbers in a counterclock­
wise direction around the top of the tube socket. Test-point adapt­
ers, which connect between the tube and the socket, provide a
convenient means of checking tube voltages under actual operat­
ing conditions.
In practice, improper tuner operation is usually caused by: (1)
faulty tuner tubes, (2) improper supply voltages and (3) defective
switches and dirty tuner contacts. Dirty contacts, a common source
of tuner trouble on wafer, rotary and Inductuner type tuners, can
usually be cleaned by removing shielding and applying a cleaning
solvent with an artist’s small paint brush. It should seldom be
necessary to dismantle the tuner. If it is, it should not be attempted
unless suitable alignment equipment including a sweep generator,
marker generator and oscilloscope are available, because com­
ponent lead dress and placement can affect r.f. alignment. If it is
necessary to disturb high-frequency r.f. leads, try to put them back
into their original positions.
93
Troubleshooting picture and sound i.f. amplifiers
Fig. 609 shows, in simplified fashion, the test points in the pic­
ture and sound i.f. amplifiers where the v.t.v.m. may be used for
troubleshooting and signal tracing. When trouble is encountered,
d.c. voltage readings should be taken first at points A, B, C and F.
Table 5 identifies the measurements recommended and lists the
type of probe to be used.
The v.t.v.m. can be used with a high-frequency probe to trace
the r.f. signal through the i.f. stages. A high-impedance probe is

TABLE 5
V.T.V.M.
Key Letter To Read Setting Probe Type
in Fig, 609 (Volts)
A A.g.c. bias voltage -D.C. D.c. isolating probe
B D.c. plate voltage 4-D.C. n
C D.c. screen voltage 4-D.C.
D R.f. plate-signal voltage ±0.0.* R.f. or high freq, probe
if
E ■ R.f. grid-signal voltage ±D.C.*
F ; Cathode-bias voltage 4-D.C. D.c. isolating probe
♦Polarity of v.t.v.m. setting depends on the polarity of the output voltage
from the high frequency probe.

necessary to prevent complete detuning of the r.f. circuit. The

probe should be connected directly to the plate or grid circuit and
the short ground clip, which is usually attached to these probes,
should be grounded as near as possible to the r.f. test point. An
extension prod or wire should not be attached to the probe tip
because of possible instability. The rectified r.f. signal is read on
the d.c. voltage scales of the v.t.v.m. In many receivers, only a well
designed r.f. probe can be depended upon to give reliable readings.
Begin by reading the r.f. signal at the plate of the first picture
i.f. amplifier. The probe and its ground clip should then be moved
to the next stage for a reading. With this technique it is possible
to trace the signal through the amplifier, provided the signal is of
sufficient magnitude to operate in the linear portion of the high-
frequency rectifier characteristic.

Intermittent troubles
Intermittent troubles in the sound and picture i.f. amplifier sec­
tions may often be detected by employing the v.t.v.m. as a voltage
monitor, as shown in Fig. 610. When intermittent picture trouble
is-encountered in a split-sound type receiver, the v.t.v.m. should
be set up to measure the d.c. voltage developed by the picture
94
signal across the load resistor of the second detector. If the inter­
mittent is located in the video amplifier, the picture will be
affected, but the d.c.-voltage read on the v.t.v.m. should remain
essentially the same. If the intermittent trouble is located in the
picture i.f. section, both the picture and the reading on the v.t.v.m.
will be affected. This same technique can be applied to the sound
i.f. amplifier and audio sections in either a split-sound or inter-
carrier receiver. The v.t.v.m. should be connected across the dis­
criminator or ratio detector load. If the intermittent affects the
sound from the loudspeaker and the voltage reading on the v.t.v.m.

remains unchanged, look for trouble in the audio section. A

change in sound level accompanied by a change in voltage output
at the FM detector indicates trouble in the sound i.f. amplifier.
Discovery of intermittent troubles in these sections of the receiver
requires that a signal be available to provide output for the loud­
speaker, picture tube and v.tv.m. If a broadcast signal is not avail­
able, it will be necessary to use a modulated signal generator
which can provide output at the sound and picture intermediate
frequencies.

Plotting a bandpass curve

Although a bandpass response curve can be plotted more quick­
ly with sweep alignment equipment, it is possible to plot an accur­
ate curve using only the v.t.v.m. and an r.f. signal generator. The
95
test setup required for this operation is shown in Fig. 611. Proce­
dure is as follows:
1. Disconnect the antenna from the receiver and short the
receiver antenna terminals together.
2. Connect voltage leads from the a.g.c. bias box to the i.f.
amplifier bias bus. Adjust the bias-box potentiometer to provide
1 or 2 volts more bias than can be generated by a strong TV signal.
3. Set up the v.t.v.m. to measure d.c. voltage and connect it
across the load resistor of the picture detector. The polarity of the
output voltage depends upon the type of receiver being tested.
4. Connect the r.f. output cable from the r.f. signal generator
to the mixer stage of the tuner. There are two recommended

Fig. 611. Setup for plotting the bandpass of a TV i.f. amplifier.

methods of injecting the r f. signal into the mixer. One is to raise

the mixer tube shield so that it is not grounded to the chassis and
clip the cable to the shield. The signal will be capacitively coupled
into the mixer circuit. The other way is to clip the r.f. cable onto
the insulated portion of the mixer grid lead.
5. The response may now be measured. The r.f. signal gen­
erator is tuned to deliver an unmodulated output signal at 0.25-mc
intervals throughout the expected bandpass of the amplifier. A
typical response curve obtained by using 0.25-mc intervals is illus­
trated in Fig. 612. This curve was drawn on a receiver using sound
and picture intermediate frequencies of 41.25 me and 45.75 me,
respectively. The generator should be tuned first to the lowest
frequency and adjusted for the required output voltage. Avoid
injecting too much signal voltage into the mixer as too strong a
signal voltage can overload the i.f. amplifier and give an inaccurate
representation of the true response. Unless the generator has essen­
tially uniform voltage output over the entire range of frequencies
used, it will be necessary to measure the generator output voltage
and reset the output attenuator, if necessary, whenever the plot­
ting frequency is changed. Once the output level of the generator
%
has been set, do not change the control setting unless the output
voltage is too high or too low.

Trap alignment
Alignment of the r.f. traps in the TV receiver is usually accom­
plished before bandpass alignment is attempted. The purpose of a
trap is to act as a block to a signal of a specific frequency and keep
the signal out of a particular circuit. Most tuners utilize one or
more traps whose arrangement depends on the tuner design. Some

15

VOLTAGE OUTPUT
AT PIX DETECTOR

ot I ■■ I I I______ I_____ L........ I........... I

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
FREQ-MC

Fig. 612. Response curve of an i.f. amplifier using the technique shown in
Fig. 611.
of the most important traps are found in the i.f. and video sections
of the receiver. The older, split-sound type of receiver used sev­
eral traps to attenuate the adjacent sound and picture carriers and
to block out accompanying sound from the picture i.f. channel.
Some split-sound sets also employ a 4.5-mc trap in the video section
to keep beat interference between accompanying sound and pic­
ture carriers from affecting the reproduced picture.
The adjacent-channel sound and picture carrier traps and ac­
companying sound traps are located in the picture i.f. amplifier
section. The frequencies to which these traps are tuned depends
upon the picture and sound intermediate frequencies used in the
receiver. These differ between different makes of sets.
The v.t.v.m. is the best instrument, when used in conjunction
with a TV signal generator, for indicating alignment. The actual

97
procedure is relatively simple and consists of feeding a signal of
the trap frequency into the tuner mixer stage and adjusting the
trap with an insulated screwdriver. The v.t.v.m. is set up to
measure the d.c. output voltage and is connected across the load
resistor of the second detector. When the resonant trap is tuned to
the exact frequency of the r.f. signal from the generator, the d.c.
output voltage will be minimum. An external bias voltage should
be used to override the normal a.g.c. voltage. Take care to prevent
too much signal from being injected into the mixer. The location
of the various traps in a typical split-sound receiver is shown in
Fig. 613.
TV receivers which use the intercarrier-sound system do not
employ the same traps as those used in the split-sound receiver.
Except for trap circuits in the tuner, the intercarrier set employs
only a 4.5-mc sound trap in the video amplifier. This trap must be
adjusted carefully, especially on sets having wide bandpass, to
reduce the possibility of 4.5-mc beat interference in the video
channel. On some intercarrier receivers, the sound i.f. takeoff point
is located ahead of the last picture i.f. amplifier. In these sets, the
last picture i.f. amplifier may contain a trap which is tuned to the
receiver sound intermediate frequency. The test signal for 4.5-mc
video traps is fed into the first video stage. The test signal for the
sound trap in the picture i.f. amplifier is fed into the grid circuit
of the mixer stage.

Troubleshooting in the video amplifier

Video amplifiers of modern TV receivers may use either one or

two stages and are relatively simple in design. Thè output of the
video amplifier may be fed to either the cathode or grid of the
picture tube. Troubleshooting in the video section of the receiver
consists mostly of voltage measurements at tube-socket terminals,
followed by resistance measurements.
Troubles in the video amplifier can affect other sections of the
receiver, however, and this fact should be kept in mind. In most
intercarrier receivers, the sound takeoff point is located in the
video amplifier stage. A signal for the a.g.c. circuit may also be
tapped off in a circuit associated with the video amplifier. Because
the video amplifier must pass all the video information, these
stages usually contain one or two peaking coils which help increase
the bandpass and, hence, the amount of picture detail. When high-
frequency response is seriously affected, the peaking coils should

98
not be overlooked. They may be checked by voltage and resistance
measurements.

Checking a defective picture tube

A faulty picture tube may often be discovered by visual inspec­
tion of the picture. The most common symptoms are excessive
warmup time, gradually increasing brightness over the operating
period,'lack of proper brightness with full high voltage and a

washed-out picture. A more positive check may be had by checking

the tube with a v.t.v.m. The check is simple and is made as fol­
lows:
1. Turn on the receiver and check to see that the picture tube
filament is lighted. Check adjustment of the ion-trap magnet and
the focus coil or magnet.
2. If the picture tube heater is not lighted, remove the socket
from the tube and check continuity between the heater pins with
the v.t.v.m. Also check the heater-to-cathode resistance. In some
tubes, leakage may not show up until the tube has been operated
for some length of time.
3. Measure the voltages to ground at the kinescope socket
terminals. Vary the setting of the brightness control and note the
effect on the grid and cathode voltage readings. The grid should
always be negative with respect to the cathode.
4. Check for a.c. video voltage at the grid or cathode terminal
of the kinescope socket.
5. Replace the tube socket and measure the high voltage with a
high-voltage probe. Vary the brightness control and note the effect
on the high voltage.
6. If high voltage is lower than normal, measure the B plus
and boosted B plus. If B plus is normal and the boosted B plus is
low, install a new damper tube and notice the effect on the boosted
99
B plus voltage. If this doesn’t help, install new tubes in the hori­
zontal oscillator and horizontal output deflection stages.
7. If B plus and boosted B plus voltages are both normal, in­
stall a new high-voltage rectifier tube.
If none of these tests indicate other possible trouble sources,
then it may be concluded that the picture tube is faulty.

Troubleshooting sync and deflection circuits

Fig. 614 shows a stage-by-stage lineup of the synchronizing and
deflection sections of a representative TV receiver. The vertical

Fig. 614. Block diagram of the various sweep circuits used in a TV receiver.
These circuits can be checked through with a v.t.v.m. by making voltage
and resistance measurements. A.c. voltages are best measured with a peak-
to-peak reading v.t.v.m.
and horizontal sync circuits are among the most critical sections of
the receiver primarily because of their relative complexity and the
values and tolerances of the resistors and capacitors employed.
The integrating and differentiating networks, especially, can be a
perplexing source of trouble when components become defective.
Fortunately, trouble in sync stages is usually easy to diagnose
because of the effect of the sync action of the picture. Trouble in
any stage between the video amplifier and the second sync ampli­
fier, if used, will probably result in loss of both vertical and hori­
zontal sync. Trouble in the integrating network will affect vertical
sync; trouble in the differentiating network will have its greatest
effect on horizontal sync.
Troubles of this type are best attacked with a v.t.v.m. by use of
voltage measurements first and then resistance measurements.
Changes in resistance values or a leaky, changed-value or open
capacitor in any of the sync circuits can cause erratic sync action
or complete loss of sync. Because of the complexity of these cir­
cuits, it is usually best to disconnect one end of the suspected part
100
 from the circuit before taking resistance measurements. Capacitors
are best checked for opens by substituting a new capacitor.
Locating a defective capacitor in a sync circuit is usually a time­
consuming job because of the large number of capacitors used.
Many experienced service technicians have found it more expedi­
ent to clip out and discard several capacitors at once, replacing
.them with new units of the exact required values. The labor saved
is often worth several times the cost of the paper capacitors.
An oscillator stage may be checked for proper oscillation by
measuring the developed d.c. grid voltage. The voltage is negative

Fig. 615. Typical high-voltage circuit for a TV receiver. Various test points are
shown.
and may range from a few volts to 80 or 90. The voltage is usually
specified in the manufacturer’s sendee notes. If the developed volt­
age is lower than normal, look for trouble in the oscillator stage.
Vertical deflection output stages, particularly those used in early
model receivers, may employ a “boosted” B plus voltage taken
from the horizontal output deflection stage. Any trouble in the
horizontal section which lowers the boosted B plus supplied to the
vertical output stage will probably affect the vertical deflection.
The horizontal deflection and high-voltage output stage requires
some special considerations when it comes to taking voltage meas­
urements. A representative horizontal circuit is shown in Fig. 615.
Some of the common symptoms of trouble in this section are:
1. No raster or dim raster
2. Insufficient width
3. Insufficient height
4. Soft picture detail
The reader can see that these symptoms are related directly to

101
picture brightness (a high-voltage function) and to raster dimen­
sions (scanning function). Failure of VI and V2 usually results
in no raster because no high voltage is available. When this
trouble is encountered, these tubes should be checked. Damper
tube failure (V3) may affect brightness and raster size. Sweep may
also be affected by VI and V2. Keystoning of the raster indicates
a defective yoke.
In cases where new tubes fail to clear up the difficulty, the B plus
voltage should be checked first to make sure that power supply
troubles are not responsible. D.c. voltage measurements can then
be made at points A, B, C, D, E, F and G. The voltage is usually
negative at the grid of the horizontal output tube, VI.
A.c. voltage measurements should not be attempted at points X,
Y and Z because of the large impedances or high a.c. or d.c. voltages
in these circuits. The high d.c. output voltage at point H can be
measured with the v.t.v.m. if a high-voltage probe is used.
Design of these circuits will vary with different receiver models
but the circuits are basically the same. Troubleshooting of FM
sound detectors and the audio amplifier sections is described in
Chapter 7.

102
am-fm alignment and repair

he glamour of television has put the radio receiver in second

T place in the minds of many service technicians. But, the radio
repair business offers more profit opportunities than ever before
because more radio receivers are being manufactured and sold
today than at any time in the past. Each of these millions of radios
represent a profit opportunity to the alert service technician be­
cause, sooner or later, each receiver will find its way to the repair
shop. While average radio repair costs are considerably less than
for the TV receiver, there are several advantages for the technician
who is set up to handle radio repairs.

Am broadcast receivers
Radio receiver troubles are usually simple to diagnose and the
average repair can be made quickly. This is especially true with
the popular table-model a.c.-d.c. radio which uses readily available
tubes and standard components. Also, these receivers utilize well
established circuits which are simple in design. From a time­
money standpoint alone, the radio repair can be as profitable as
the TV repair job.
Radio receiver troubles can be classified in this way:
1. Tube failures
2. Component failures
3. Intermittents
4. Misalignment

103
Tube failures
Tube failures, the most common source of trouble, can be dis­
covered by different methods, depending upon the type of re­
ceiver involved. A defective tube in the series-string type receiver
is usually found by tube substitution or with a tube tester. These
two methods are ordinarily employed when the chassis is left in­
stalled in the cabinet. Either of these methods will often reveal a
tube which has an open heater or other defect. This approach has
the disadvantage, however, of requiring that each tube be removed
35W4 50C5 I2BA6 I2BE6 12AV6
«CT woo output ffAim cow oetavc audio amh.

610 BUS CHASSIS GNO

Fig. 701. The v.t.v.m. can be used to check the heater wiring of filament
circuits.
and tested or else replaced by a good tube. These methods can be
time-consuming.
The v.t.v.m. provides a quicker means of finding an “open” tube
because the a.c.-d.c. receiver uses a series hookup for the tube
heaters. Failure of one tube heater will remove power from all
tubes in the string. The defective tube can be located quickly with
the v.t.v.m. if the chassis is removed from the cabinet so that volt­
age measurements can be made. Fig. 701 shows the heater wiring
arrangement of a typical a.c.-d.c. radio receiver employing five
tubes. Suppose the heater in the fourth tube in the string, the
12BE6, should open. With the receiver chassis removed, the
v.t.v.m. can be used to locate the “open” tube quickly. Set up the
v.t.v.m. for a.c. voltage measurements. Connect the ground clip to
the minus B common bus wiring of the receiver. This can usually
be located at the power switch terminals. With the receiver power
switch turned on, voltage readings can be taken from points A
through E. Because of the exceedingly small current drawn by the
v.t.v.m„ the voltage drop through the tube heaters will be negli­
gible and the v.t.v.m. should read the approximate value of die
104
line voltage at all points except E. At E, the reading will be zero
because of the open heater. If voltage is also read at E, it may be
concluded that the 12AV6 is defective.
Tube defects other than open heaters will usually cause a change
in the normal operating voltages at the tube pins. The d.c. bias
voltage developed at the cathode or grid pins is a good indication
of how the stage is functioning. Plate and screen voltages, which
are supplied by the B plus power supply section, will often1 in­
crease or decrease considerably when circuit or tube troubles arise.
The v.t.v.m. may be used to check for a gassy tube which might
otherwise pass with a conventional tube tester. The presence of

Fig. 702. This test is effective for locating gassy tubes and
leaky coupling capacitors.

gas in an output tube or a.v.c.-controlled tube can impair the func­

tion of an entire receiver. In an R-C coupled circuit, a gassy tube
will cause a positive bias to be developed at the grid. Adjust the
v.tv.m. for d.c. voltage measurements on a low range, as shown in
Fig. 702 and measure the tube bias from control grid to ground.
A leaky coupling capacitor can produce the same results. To
determine whether the positive bias is caused by a gassy tube or
by a leaky capacitor, connect the v.t.v.m. across the grid-return
resistor of the suspected tube. Remove the tube from its socket.
If the incorrect bias voltage remains the same, or nearly so, then
the coupling capacitor is defective. Sometimes a gassy tube (hav­
ing a glass envelope) can be checked visually. If the tube glows
blue, or if there is a whitish deposit on the inside of the glass near
the base end, then the tube is defective.
Testing by removal of a tube can be done quite easily when all
filaments are in parallel. In series operated filaments, you can clip

105
O

RFSIGGEH

j^AC PROBE TO POINTS II THRU 15

Fig. 703. Simplified circuit arrangement of an AM broadcast receiver showing the various check points. The high-imped­
ance feature of the v.t.v.m. permits tests to be made without disturbing circuit operation. Note that three different probes
are needed if a complete examination of the set is to be made. With this setup you can trace a signal completely through
from the front end to the speaker, quickly locate the point at which the signal disappears. At the same time this method
of testing helps you determine the effectiveness of operation of each particular stage.
a resistor of the proper value across the filament terminals of the
socket.
Shorts between tube elements can be detected by resistance
measurements with the v.t.v.m. Heater-to-cathode shorts and grid-
to-cathode shorts are the most common types of internal shorts
encountered. Remember, however, that these shorts may have a
very high resistance, often in the order of several hundred meg­
ohms. Also, the shorts may not show up when the tube is cold. It
is sometimes helpful to connect the v.t.v.m. leads to the tube pins
and to tap the tube while watching the meter reading.

Component failures
Failure of capacitors, resistors and other circuit elements are
best discovered by first isolating the defective section or stage in
the receiver. When the trouble has thus been narrowed down, the
component tests discussed in Chapter 6 can be employed to ascer­
tain the condition of individual components.
Because these component checks cannot be made until the faulty
section or stage is first located, it is important that the techniques
for isolating the defective stage be understood. There are several
ways of doing this, the correct way depending upon the type of
receiver trouble.

Signal tracing
Signal tracing with the v.t.v.m. provides a quick means of locat­
ing a defective stage when the cause of trouble is not readily
apparent. An r.f. signal generator is required to feed a signal into
the antenna terminals of the receiver, as shown in Fig. 703. The
generator should be able to deliver approximately 0.1-volt output
and should have an adjustable output attenuator to permit adjust­
ment of the output signal to the desired level. If the receiver uses
a loop antenna, it is usually sufficient to bring the “hot” clip of the
generator cable close to the loop, or to fasten it to the frame of the
loop.
This is the procedure for tracing the signal through the receiver:
1. Disable the a.v.c. circuit by disconnecting the a.v.c. bus at
the second detector stage or by applying an external bias. Since the
control grids of one or more tubes get their ground return through
the a.v.c. bus, disconnection of this line can leave such grids float­
ing. If you do not use an external bias supply you should discon­
nect the bus and ground it. Simply grounding the bus without
107
 checking the a.v.c. circuit first will often result in shorting the
audio signal since in many circuits the volume control is made part
of the a.v.c. line. The word ground means either chassis or B
minus, depending upon the circuit arrangement of the receiver.
2. Connect the r.f. output cable from the generator to the
antenna terminal of the receiver. Connect a ground lead between
the receiver and the generator.
3. Turn the generator modulation switch on. Tune the gen­
erator and the receiver to the same frequency in the broadcast
band. Set the receiver volume control for maximum volume.
4. Set up the v.t.v.m. for r.f. voltage measurements on its low­
est range. In all measurements for the r.f. probe, always connect its
ground clip as near as possible to the test point. Connect the r.f.
probe to point 1 and adjust the receiver tuning for maximum
reading on the v.t.v.m. Use the high output from the generator
and adjust the generator output attenuator as required to obtain
a suitable meter deflection.
5. Move the r.f. probe to point 2. The signal voltage should be
greater at this point if the r.f. amplifier is functioning correctly.
6. Place the r.f. probe at point 3. Put the ground clip of the
probe to a ground point near the converter-tube socket. No signal
at this point indicates trouble in the transformer or in the con­
verter input circuit.
7. Transfer the probe to point 4. Retune the receiver slightly
to obtain maximum reading on the meter. The ratio between the
voltages at this point and at point 3 is the approximate conversion
gain of the stage. The signal at point 4 will be the receiver inter­
mediate frequency. No signal at this point indicates trouble in the
oscillator section of the converter.
8. Check the oscillator section by measuring the oscillator d.c.
bias voltage at point 5. Use a d.c. probe at this point.
9. Move the r.f. probe to point 6 and move the ground clip to
a new point near the socket of the first i.f, amplifier stage. If the
first i.f. transformer and the grid circuit of the stage are function­
ing properly, a meter indication approximately equal to that ob­
tained at point 4 will be read.
10. Transfer the r.f. probe to the plate of the i.f. amplifier
(point 7). The meter reading should increase, indicating ampli­
fication in the stage.
II. Check performance at the grid (point 8) and plate (point
9) of the second i.f. amplifier. A considerable increase in gain
should be noted between these two points. Check r.f. signal at the

108
diode plate of the second detector to make sure the secondary of
the last i.f. transformer is not open or shorted.
12. Remove the r.f. probe and set up the v.t.v.m. for a.c. volt­
age measurements. Connect the ground cable to the receiver
chassis. Connect the probe to the grid of the first audio amplifier
(point 11). Read the output directly from the a.c. voltage scales
on the v.t.v.m.
13. Check the audio signal at point 12 and on the output side
of the coupling capacitor (point 13). Move the probe to point 14.
A considerable increase in signal should be noted.
14. Measure the audio output signal from the receiver by con­
necting the probe to the speaker voice-coil lead at point 15. Con­
nection of the probe to the speaker voice coil will not give a volt­
age reading unless one side of the voice coil is grounded. First,
run a continuity test between voice coil and chassis, using your
v.t.v.m. for this. If the voice coil is “floating,” that is, if one side is
not grounded, you can make a voice-coil voltage measurement in
either of two ways. You can put the probe on one of the voice-coil
terminals and the v.t.v.m. ground clip on the other, or else you
can ground one side of the voice coil (either side).
Signal tracing with the v.t.v.m. can be a valuable trouble shoot­
ing method with proper experience. It has the advantage of pro­
viding the technician with an overall picture of receiver perform­
ance. Other methods of locating a defective stage, however, can be
used to find trouble quickly. After you are satisfied that tubes are
not responsible, start checking performance of the receiver from
the audio section back toward the r.f. stage. A quick check of the
audio section consists simply of touching the grid pin of the first
audio amplifier with a screwdriver. If the volume control is turned
up all the way and if the audio section is functioning properly, a
loud hum should be heard. It may be helpful to touch the metal
shaft of the screwdriver with a finger. The hum is introduced by
stray pickup into the grid circuit through the screwdriver. A rough
check of performance in the rest of the receiver may be had by
scraping the grid pins of the converter and r.f. stages with a screw­
driver. In a properly operating receiver, this action should produce
noise from the loudspeaker.
Keep in mind that there is some hazard involved in checking a
direct line connected receiver without an isolation transformer.
In Fig. 703, for example, if the signal generator happened to be
grounded and the receiver power plug happened to be inserted so
that the high side of the line was connected to B minus, the test
leads might melt due to the direct short across the line that would
109
exist. A properly fused power line would prevent such an accident.
Although success of these rough checks depends somewhat on

Fig. 704. Simplified circuit of AM receiver showing voltage test points.

experience, they can be very helpful in eliminating two or three

stages as probable sources of trouble.

Voltage measurements
Troubleshooting by measurement of circuit operating voltages
is probably the most used method of locating a defective stage or
section. The schematic diagram in Fig. 704 shows the signal-han­
dling section of a six-tube receiver together with the test points at
which operating voltages can be measured. Table 6 describes the
TABLE 6
V.T.V.M.
Key Letter To Measure Setting Probe Type
in Fig. 704 (Volts)
A Cathode-bias voltage +D.C. D.c. isolating probe
B D.c. plate voltage +D.C.
C D.c. screen voltage +D.C. ft

D Oscillator grid-bias volt. -D.C. ft

E A.v.c. voltage - D.C. ff

F Audio signal voltage A.C. Direct probe

G R.f. signal voltage ±D.C.* R.f. or high-freq, probe

♦Polarity of v.t.v.m. setting depends on the polarity of the output voltage

from the high frequency probe.

voltages to be measured at those points and the v.t.v.m. setup and

type of probe to be used.
Some receivers do not utilize an r.f. amplifier stage and the sig­
nal is fed directly to a converter stage which serves as a combined
detector and oscillator. Two i.f. transformers are ordinarily used
in these receivers, one for the input and one for the output of the
single i.f. stage. The fourth stage (Fig. 704) combines the functions
110
of the second detector (diode) and first audio amplifier (triode).
The a.v.c. voltage is tapped off in this stage and is fed back to the
r.f. amplifier, converter, i.f. amplifier or any combination of these
stages, depending on the type of receiver.
The d.c. voltages used in most radio receivers are much lower
than those used in TV receivers. With the exception of the power
supply and the audio output stage, the voltages are usually less
than 100. The correct operating voltages are given in the service
YTVM SET TO-VOLTS

Fig. 705. Test setup for checking the local oscillator.

notes for the receiver. A deviation of ±20% from the specified

voltages is generally permissible. A defective stage will probably
show excessively high or low d.c. voltages, an indication that the
technician should check component values and circuit continuity

Fig. 706. Test points in simple half-wave power supply.

with the v.t.v.m. Methods of checking different components were

described in Chapter 6.
Keep in mind that in the superheterodyne type of receiver, the
local oscillator frequency beats with the frequency of the incoming
signal in the converter stage to produce an intermediate (differ­
ence) frequency which is fed to the i.f. amplifier. If the oscillator
section of the receiver is defective, no intermediate frequency will
be produced and, consequently, no output is possible.
The v.t.v.m. can be used to check the oscillator section for
proper oscillation by setting up the instrument for negative d.c.
Ill
voltage measurement on its lowest range and measuring the bias
developed at the oscillator grid terminal of the converter tube
(Fig. 705). This is usually in the order of 1 to 10 volts. The volt­
age developed depends upon the intensity of the oscillation, and
upon the setting of the oscillator section of the tuning capacitor.
The reading obtained may be confirmed as being the result of
oscillation by touching the grid terminal with a finger. This action
loads the oscillator sufficiently to detune it, reduce the voltage
reading noticeably, or stop oscillations entirely.

Checking power supplies

If d.c. operating voltages are low throughout the receiver, check
the B plus output of the power supply. Most a.c.-d.c. receivers
utilize a simple half-wave rectifier circuit similar to that shown in
Fig. 706. One side of the line is connected to the chassis, either
directly or through an R-C circuit. In this circuit a single diode,
such as a 35Z5-GT is used. RI is used to limit the peak current
during each portion of the cycle that the rectifier draws current.
Its primary purpose is to increase the rectifier life by keeping the
peak rectifier current within the limits specified by the tube manu­
facturer. CI serves to bypass any incoming hash or noise and helps
to keep undesired interference out of the receiver. The rectified
d.c. voltage is taken from the cathode and filtered by C2, C3 and
R2. Receivers which use a field-coil speaker will employ the field
coil (LI) as a filter choke in place of R2.
With a line voltage of 117, the output at the cathode terminal
(point B) will generally be about 130 to 150 volts. Approximately
5 to 15 volts will be dropped through the filter section. Receiver
B plus should be measured with the v.t.v.m. at point A. If line
voltage is correct and B plus is low, change the rectifier tube. If
installation of a new tube does not correct the difficulty, check
electrolytic capacitors C2 and C3 for excessive leakage and replace
if necessary. A severe leak or short in either C2 or C3 may cause
the rectifier filament to open. If C3 is shorted, R2 may bum out.

Hum
Excessive a.c. hum is a common complaint in a.c.-d.c. receivers.
When hum is encountered, first determine whether it is coming
from the power supply or from the signal-handling section of the
receiver. If the hum originates in any section of the receiver ahead
of the volume control, it should change in level as the control is

112
rotated. If the hum is not tunable, use the v.t.v.m. to check the
ripple voltage at the output of the power supply. The instrument
should be set up for a.c. voltage measurements and the direct
probe connected to point A. As little as 2 or 3 volts of a.c. meas­
ured here may cause considerable hum. If excessive ripple voltage
is found, the filter capacitors may be leaking or heater-to-cathode
leakage may exist in the rectifier tube. Capacitor leakage may be
detected by measuring the resistance of the capacitors when they
are disconnected from the circuit. Discharge the filter capacitor
before making resistance measurements. Heater-to-cathode leak­
age in the rectifier tube as high as several hundred megohms can
cause considerable hum. If these checks do not indicate trouble in

Fig. 707. Full-wave voltage doubler circuit.

the power supply, the audio amplifier tubes should then be
checked for heater-to-cathode leakage.
The full-wave voltage doubler circuit shown in Fig. 707 is found
most often in older models of transformerless receivers designed
only for a.c. operation. Two separate diodes may be used or, as is
most often the case, a twin-diode (such as the 25Z6) which has
separate cathodes, is used. This circuit has the advantage of sup­
plying a much higher B plus voltage — almost twice the value of
the line voltage — without requiring a transformer. In this circuit,
the speaker field coil is connected in the negative lead of the sup­
ply to reduce the voltage on the coil. B plus output voltage and
ripple can be measured with the v.t.v.m. at point A.
A.c.-operated transformer type receivers employ a circuit such
as that shown in Fig. 708. Receivers which use this type of supply
usually employ a B plus voltage of from 225 to 325. The filter
choke, LI, is sometimes replaced by a speaker field coil or, in sets
with moderate current drain, by a high-wattage resistor. Trouble­
shooting of transformer type power supplies is simple. D.c. volt­
ages are measured with the v.t.v.m. at points A and B. The v.t.v.m.
can also be used to measure the a.c. voltage output from the trans­
113
former. Measurement is made from each side of the high-voltage
winding (points C to chassis).

Intermittents
Occasionally a tube heater will open up intermittently, usually
when the line voltage fluctuates. These intermittents may be very
difficult to detect by tube substitution. The v.t.v.m. can simplify
the repair, however, by using the instrument to monitor the volt­
age drop across the heater of the suspected tube. For example, in
Fig. 701, if the I2BA6 is suspected, connect the v.t.v.m. directly
across the heater pins. Under normal operating conditions, ap­
proximately 12.6 volts will be read. If the heater opens, however,

Fig. 708. Test points in a transformer-type full-wave

power supply.

the v.t.v.m. will read almost the full value of the line voltage. If
the intermittent reduces the reading to zero, the v.t.v.m. should be
connected across other tubes until the faulty tube is discovered.
An adjustable-voltage transformer, which permits application of a
line voltage as high as 130, is often helpful in breaking down the
intermittent.
Other intermittent troubles may be localized by using the
v.t.v.m. to monitor signal and operating voltages in different sec­
tions of the receiver. For example, if sound is intermittent, the
B plus voltage from the power supply can be monitored by using
the d.c. measurement feature of the v.t.v.m. If the signal stops and
the B plus changes, the trouble may be due to an open plate,
screen, or cathode circuit. The lower current drain will then cause
the voltage at point 4 to increase. The signal also may stop due to
a shorted screen or shorted cathode resistor. If B plus does not
change when the intermittent shows up, the fault is in the signal­
handling section of the receiver. The v.t.v.m. should then be set
up for a.c. voltage measurements and connected to the grid pin
of the first audio amplifier stage (point 2). If the trouble is be­
tween the r.f. stage and the first audio amplifier, the a.c. signal
114
voltage measured on the v.t.v.m. will change when the intermit-
tent trouble develops. If the reading is unchanged, look for
trouble between the v.t.v.m. test point and the loudspeaker. The
trouble source can be further narrowed down by moving the a.c.
probe to point 3, the grid of the audio output stage. See Fig. 709.
The r.f. probe can be used to monitor the signal at point 1 or
elsewhere in the r.f. section of the receiver. Because of the very low
signal level in this section of the receiver, however, it may be
necessary to employ an r.f. signal generator to obtain a signal of
suitable strength.

R.f. and i.f. alignment

Receivers frequently drift out of alignment because of com-
LU

Fig. 709. An intermittent receiver can be monitored by connecting the

v.t.v.m. to the check points shown in this block diagram.
ponent aging, or they may require realignment when certain com­
ponents are replaced. Also, it is not unusual for the home “me­
chanic” to satisfy his curiosity by turning trimmer screws to see
what happens. It usually “happens” that the receiver ends up in
the repair shop.
The symptoms of receiver misalignment are:
1. Whistling between or on stations (similar to effect produced
by oscillation)
2. Constant hiss, except on very strong stations
3. Weak signals throughout entire tuning range, or weak sig­
nals or no signals throughout part of the tuning range
4. No signals
5. Dial out of calibration
6. Receiver tunes only part of signal in at one end of band —
cannot tune in other stations on extreme ends of the band
These are common complaints and can usually be corrected in

115
Fig. 710. Setup for the alignment of an AM broadcast receiver. The output signal of the r.f. generator is connected to the
input of the r.f. amplifier. If the receiver does not have such a stage, then the generator xwltage is fed into the signal grid
of the converter. The v.t.v.m. is set to read low a.c. volts and is connected across the voice coil, as shown. If one side of the
voice coil is not grounded, then it should be connected to the ground clip of the v.t.v.m. Note that we do not show the
use of an a.c. probe (rectifying probe). Whether such a probe is needed or not at this point depends entirely upon the
design of the v.t.v.m. Some v.t.v.m/s use rectifying probes for all a.c. measurements, while others use rectifying probes
simply to extend the frequency range of the instrument.
a few minutes by “touching up” the i.f. transformers and trimmers
in the oscillator and r.f. stages.
The alignment adjustments provided in a typical AM receiver
are shown in the simplified schematic of Fig. 710. This receiver
employs an r.f. amplifier, converter stage (combined oscillator and
mixer functions) and two i.f. amplifier stages. Complete r.f. and
i.f. alignment requires adjustment of trimmers in all four of these
stages. In addition, an antenna trimmer capacitor (Cl) is located
in the r.f. amplifier input section.
While receivers vary considerably in the design and the number
of alignment adjustments provided, the procedure and recommen­
dations of the alignment technique which follows can be used
generally on any AM radio receiver. The v.t.v.m. and an r.f. signal
generator are the only test instruments required.

The test setup

The r.f. signal generator should have a shielded output cable, an
adjustable-output attenuator to permit setting the signal at the
desired level, and internal modulation. Most generators are modu­
lated at 400 c.p.s., but any frequency within the audio range is
sufficient. If a transformerless receiver is to be aligned, an isolation
transformer should be used.
Before starting alignment, it is generally advisable to disable
the a.v.c. circuit to prevent the a.v.c. voltage from affecting the
gain of the front end and i.f. amplifiers of the receiver although,
on some receivers, it is possible to perform alignment without dis­
connecting the a.v.c. if the input signal is kept extremely low.
The i.f. amplifier section is aligned first. This is the complete
alignment procedure:
1. Disable the a.v.c. circuit and tune the receiver to a quiet
spot at the high end of the dial. Put the oscillator out of operation
by shorting the oscillator tuning-capacitor plates together with a
screwdriver or piece of wire.
2. Set up the v.t.v.m. for a.c. voltage measurements on a low
range and connect the v.t.v.m. across the speaker voice coil.
3. Connect the ground cable of the signal generator to the
chassis or ground bus of the receiver. Connect the r.f. output cable
to the signal grid pin of the converter tube (point A). (It is some­
times sufficient to clip the cable to the insulation of the grid lead.)
4. Turn the receiver volume control to its maximum-volume
position and the attenuator control on the generator to a low
setting.

117
 5. Set the generator dial to the intermediate frequency of the
receiver /'usually 455 kc). If the receiver is not completely mis­
aligned, a small voltage will be read on the v.t.v.m.
6. Starting with the secondary of the last i.f. transformer and
using an insulated screwdriver or alignment tool, adjust the slug
in Lil (Fig. 710) for maximum voltage reading on the v.t.v.m.
If the i.f. amplifier stage is operating correctly, it should be pos­
sible to tune the i.f. slug through a peak on the v.t.v.m. (The i.f.
alignment adjustments shown in Fig. 710 are adjustable slugs
which vary the inductance of the i.f. coils. Some receivers employ
small mica trimmer capacitors instead of slugs but the alignment
procedure is the same.)
7. Working toward the converter stage, similarly adjust the
slugs for LIO, L9, L8, L7 and L6 for maximum voltage output
across the voice coil. Keep the injected signal from the generator
ds low as possible while still obtaining a voltage reading on the
v.t.v.m. This precaution will prevent overloading of the i.f. ampli­
fiers. The i.f. amplifiers are now aligned.
8. Remove the short -from the oscillator tuning capacitor (C6)
and move the r.f. output cable to the antenna terminal (point B).
(It is sometimes advisable to couple the signal loosely by laying
the cable near the antenna circuit.) On receivers employing built-
in antennas, the chassis, if possible, should be installed in the cab­
inet before r.f. adjustments are made. Tune the signal generator
and the receiver to 1,400 kc.
9. Adjust oscillator trimmer C7 for maximum reading on the
v.t.v.m.
10. Retune the generator and the receiver to 1,400 kc and
adjust r.f. amplifier trimmer C3 and antenna trimmer Cl for maxi­
mum voltage output.
11. Re tune the generator and the receiver to 600 kc. Adjust
the oscillator tuning slug in L5 for maximum output on the
v.t.v.m. Rock the tuning capacitor back and forth while making
this adjustment.
12. Repeat steps 8, 9, 10 and 11, if necessary, to get precise
alignment. If this procedure is followed, the receiver should track
well throughout the broadcast band.
Receiver manufacturers make different provisions for alignment
adjustments. Besides conventional trimmer capacitor and coil
slugs, “cut” and “slotted” rotor plates are used and the wire turns
of built-in antennas may be bent to accomplish the desired tuning
condition. The “cut” rotor, used in the oscillator section, consists
of plates having a smaller size than those used in the r.f. and an­
118
tenna sections. The “slotted” rotor contains one or two plates with
slots cut into the metal to permit bending the plates to obtain the
desired tracking action at the low-frequency end of the dial.

FM receivers
Troubleshooting FM receivers with the v.t.v.m. utilizes the
techniques used in troubleshooting AM broadcast receivers. Ex­
cept for the operating frequencies and the types of second detect­
ors involved, the FM set is similar to the AM broadcast receiver.
Block diagrams of two superheterodyne FM and one AM receiver
are shown in Fig. 711. It is evident that these three superhets are

Fig. 711. Block diagrams of three superheterodyne receivers.

similar. The FM receivers differ primarily in the method of signal

detection and in the use of an extra stage (limiter) in the dis­
criminator type receiver.
In addition to troubleshooting problems already discussed, the
technician will be required to align the FM receiver. Alignment
of these receivers is especially important because misalignment can
affect sensitivity and tonal quality. The v.t.v.m. and the r.f. signal
generator are needed to do a first-class FM alignment job. Align­
ment of the i.f. amplifier and the detectors is simple and the tech­
nique differs only slightly between the receivers shown in Fig. 711.
Both FM types commonly employ an intermediate frequency of
10.7 me. The FM detectors used in intercarrier TV receivers em­
ploy a sound intermediate frequency of 4.5 me and are aligned in
the same manner as conventional FM receivers.
119
to
a

Fig. 712. Simplified circuit diagram of FM receiver using two limiter stages and discriminator-type detector. This arrangement is
gradually being replaced by FM sets using ratio detectors. Such receivers do not ordinarily have limiter circuits. Various test points
are shown in the FM circuit above. The audio stages have been eliminated since these are checked in the same manner for all
receivers.
Discriminator detectors
The test setup for alignment of FM receivers having a discrim­
inator detector is shown in the simplified schematic in Fig. 712.
Many receivers will employ an r.f. amplifier stage ahead of the con­
verter; others only a single limiter stage before the detector.
1. Tune the r.f. signal generator to the receiver intermediate
frequency (10.7 me) and connect the output cable to the shield of
the converter tube (point A). Lift the shield from the chassis to
prevent shorting the signal to ground. Set the generator output
control to a low level.

X
Fig. 713. Ratio-detector circuit.

2. Set the v.t.v.m. for negative d.c. voltage measurements on a

low range and connect the d.c. probe to the grid leak of the limiter
stage (point B).
3. With an insulated alignment tool, adjust the secondary of
the third i.f. transformer for maximum voltage at point B. (The
transformer may either be slug or capacitor-tuned, depending
upon the type of receiver.)
4. Adjust the primary tuning of the third i.f. transformer for
maximum voltage indication.
5. Similarly adjust the tuning of the second and first i.f. trans­
formers, working from secondary to primary windings and toward
the converter stage. Keep signal level from the generator low to
avoid overloading. The i.f. amplifier should now be properly
aligned.
6. Move the d.c. probe to point C. Detune the secondary of the
discriminator transformer slightly and tune the primary winding
for maximum negative voltage reading on the v.t.v.m. Disconnect
the d.c. probe from point C.
7. Rotate the zero-adjust control on the v.t.v.m. to position the
meter pointer at the center-scale zero. On some vacuum-tube volt­
meters, it may be necessary to set the function switch to +volts

121
to center the pointer. Connect the d.c. probe to point D in the
discriminator.
8. Carefully tune the secondary of the discriminator trans­
former for an exact zero-center reading on the v.t.v.m. (The exact
setting of this trimmer may be critical. Turn the alignment tool
slowly.) Because the secondary winding is above ground or “float­
ing,” the circuit may be very sensitive to hand capacitance. Use a
long-handled, nonmetallic alignment tool.

Ratio detectors
Receivers which employ ratio detectors do not usually employ a
limiter stage preceding the detector, although in some receivers
the last i.f. stage provides limiting to a small extent. The i.f. ampli­
fier and ratio detector stages are aligned by observing voltage
changes only in the detector stage.
A balanced ratio detector circuit is shown in Fig. 713. Align­
ment of this type receiver is as follows:
I. Feed the i.f. signal from the generator into the mixer (or
converter) as described in step 1 in the preceding section.
2. Set up the v.t.v.m. for negative d.c. voltage measurements
and connect the d.c. probe to point A.
3. Align the i.f. transformers as described earlier.
4. Tune the primary of the ratio detector transformer for
maximum voltage reading on the v.t.v.m. at point A. Disconnect
the d.c. probe.
5. Rotate the zero-adjust control on the v.t.v.m. to position the
meter pointer at the center-scale zero. (On some vacuum-tube volt­
meters, it may be necessary to set the function switch to -J-volts
to center the pointer.) Connect the d.c. probe to point B.
6. Adjust the secondary of the ratio detector transformer for a
zero-center reading.
The unbalanced type of ratio detector is aligned with the same
procedure except for step 5. The v.t.v.m. is left at —volts and
the secondary of the discriminator transformer is adjusted for a
minimum d.c. voltage reading. This procedure is recommended
because unbalanced detectors usually cannot be adjusted for an
exact zero-center reading. For the unbalanced type, two resistors
of about 56,000 ohms, (use 1% resistors) are connected across the
single ratio detector load resistor in series, during adjustment. A
center tap is thus available for alignment.

122
 chapter

servicing audio amplifiers

he audio servicing field is still an unexploited source of rev­

T enue for many technicians, although it offers lucrative profit
possibilities. The installation and repair of public-address systems,
intercoms and high-fidelity equipment provides a good living for
many alert service technicians who specialize in audio. There is
no reason, however, why the radio and TV service technician
should hesitate to encourage business from this direction.
With few exceptions, audio amplifiers are relatively simple and
straightforward. Circuits are fairly well standardized and the
equipment can be serviced quite thoroughly with the v.t.v.m. In
some applications, such as signal tracing and checking frequency
response, an audio signal generator and a scope are also necessary.
For the majority of audio service work, however, a little under­
standing and a v.t.v.m. are sufficient equipment for the job.
In general, the public-address amplifier differs in design from
the high-fidelity amplifier in having less complicated tone control
and feedback circuits and simplified compensating networks in the
input stages. Public-address amplifiers frequently provide for the
mixing of two or more input signals, however, requiring more
than one volume (mixing) control.

Troubleshooting and signal tracing

Aside from differences in tone-control and mixing networks
different audio amplifiers can usually be serviced with the same
techniques. Except for special speaker systems and the phonograph
123
Fig. 801. Representative circuit diagram of a high-fidelity amplifier. The v.t.v.m. can be used to service the amplifier (in the
event of component failure) or can be used to get optimum performance. For servicing and maintenance of such units the
v.t.v.m. is practically indispensable. Checking techniques are described in the text.
mechanisms involved, these amplifiers use tubes and parts which
are the same as, or similar to, those used in radio and TV receivers.
Consequently, techniques for troubleshooting individual com­
ponents are the same as described in Chapter 6.
The schematic diagram of a typical high-fidelity amplifier is
shown in Fig. 80L Trouble in amplifiers of this type is approached
in the conventional manner. Measurement of the d.c. operating
voltages with the v.t.v.m. is important in localizing trouble. If an
audio signal generator is available, the v.t.v.m. can be used to
trace the input signal through the individual stages. Here is a good
procedure to follow:
1. Set up the audio signal generator to deliver a signal within
the response range of the amplifier, such as 400 c.p.s.
2. Connect the generator cable to the input jack of the ampli­
fier chassis.
3. Set the input switch to the position corresponding to the
channel being tested. Turn the volume control up to a suitable
level.
4. Set up the v.t.v.m. for a.c. voltage measurements on a low
range and connect the ground clip to the amplifier chassis. Con­
nect the a.c. probe to the grid of the preamplifier, VI. A voltage
reading at this point indicates that the signal is getting through
the input circuit.
5. Move the probe to the plate pin of the preamplifier. The
voltage reading should increase, indicating that the stage is func­
tioning.
6. Check interstage coupling by moving the a.c. probe to the
grid of the next stage. Check output of this stage at the plate pin.
(The approximate voltage gain of this stage, as well as other
amplifier stages, may be computed by dividing the value of the
a.c. signal at the plate by the value of a.c. grid signal. For example,
if a I-volt signal is measured at the grid and 10 volts a.c. at the
plate, the voltage gain of the stage is 10.)
7. Move the a.c. probe to the grid of V2. Rotate the treble and
bass controls and note the effect upon the voltage reading. Similar­
ly check the output signal at the plate.
8. Check the driving signal on the grids of the phase inverter
V3. The output signals at the plate, pin 6, and cathode, pin 8,
should be approximately equal if the tube and circuit components
are operating correctly.
9. Check the a.c. signal at the grids and plates of output tubes
V4 and V5. Measure the output signal across the speaker voice coil.

125
 If the v.t.v.m. readings at any point indicate that gain is reduced
or that the signal is lost, look for trouble between that point and
the last test point at which a signal was measured. D.c. operating
voltages should be checked first followed by resistance readings of
suspected components.

Making amplifier adjustments

Many amplifier systems can reproduce sound with utmost fidel­
ity. The performance of these units is commonly gauged by such
factors as hum level, frequency response, phase characteristics and
measurement of amplitude, harmonic, and intermodulation dis­
tortion (IM).
A necessary first step to the evaluation of any amplifier is adjust­
ment of circuit components and operating conditions. If best per­
formance is to be obtained from a well-designed circuit, both static
and dynamic voltages and currents must be measured, and adjusted
to their proper values. The v.t.v.m. is an essential instrument for
making these measurements and adjustments. It is especially valu­
able to the designer and constructor because it aids him in setting
the plate, screen, bias and driving voltages to the values recom­
mended by the tube manufacturer. It is important in audio design
that these voltages do not exceed these values because amplifier
efficiency and overall distortion are affected directly by the static
and dynamic operating voltages.
The importance and usefulness of the v.t.v.m. in the adjustment
of a typical amplifier is illustrated in Fig. 802. This is a William­
son type amplifier circuit used in many high-quality audio sys­
tems. The features and advantages of this circuit depend heavily
on the proper setting of the internal adjustments. The amplifier
shown does not include any of the preamplifier, tone-control or
input-switching circuits. Separate adjustments are provided for
setting the operating bias of the output stage (R14), for adjusting
signal balance in the output tubes (RI 3), and for adjusting the
a.c. signal drive in each.section of the output stage (R12). In out­
put stages which operate at this power level, the tubes must handle
an equal amount of power not only to insure operation within
ratings but to make certain that we do not exceed an acceptable
distortion level. Additional features of the circuit shown include
direct coupling between the first and second amplifier stages, nega­
tive feedback, and triode operation throughout.
When an amplifier of this type is first put into operation, the
adjustments in the power output stage should be made first.
126
Never operate an amplifier having a moderate to high power rat­
ing without first connecting the loudspeaker or an equivalent load
across the output transformer. A high wattage resistor with a resis­
tance equal to the normal voice coil impedance may be used. The
resistor should have a wattage rating equal to twice the maximum
power output of the amplifier.
The cathode circuit of the output stage should be adjusted first
to prevent possible damage to the tubes. The operating level of the

Fig. 802- Williamson-type amplifier circuit. Proper performance of this amplifier

depends upon careful adjustment of signal and d.c. operating voltages.

stage is set by adjustment of the cathode bias, which is determined

by the total current for both tubes. The current measurement sec­
tion of the v.t.v.m. can be used to check total tube current. Poten­
tiometer R14 is used to limit the total current. Remember, most
vacuum-tube voltmeters which can measure direct current are not
protected against meter burnout on current ranges. To avoid dam­
age, double-check polarity of current-lead connections and always
set the v.t.v.m. range switch one or two ranges higher than the
expected current. With power applied to the amplifier, switch the
v.t.v.m. range control down to the range desired.

127
 The v.t.v.m. leads should be connected so that the “negative”
current lead is in series with the ground side of the circuit. The
“positive” current lead connects to the section of the circuit near­
est the cathode. Because this adjustment is for static tube current,
no input signal is required and it is usually advisable to short the
input terminals. Allow about ten minutes’ warmup time and then
adjust RI4 for approximately 125-ma current reading on the
v.t.v.m.
The individual tube currents must be set next by means of
potentiometer RI 3 to insure approximate d.c. balance between
the two tubes. Each tube should handle half the current load, or
62.5 ma. Readings in both cathode circuits should be obtained.
Do this by inserting the v.t.v.m. in series between the cathode of
V5 and the cathode resistor. Repeat this operation with V6.
With the tubes adjusted for equal currents, the rest of the ampli­
fier can be checked for proper operation. The v.t.v.m. is used to
check individual stages for proper current drain, static operating
and dynamic (signal) voltages. In Fig. 802, d.c. voltages are indi­
cated and the correct signal voltages obtained at the 15-watt power
level are underlined.
The current and d.c. voltage readings should be made with no
signal applied. For current readings, circuit leads will have to be
unsoldered to permit connection of the v.t.v.m. D.c. voltage read­
ings are made with the d.c. probe.
The a.c. measurement section of the v.t.v.m. is used to check
signal voltages. A 400-c.p.s. signal from an audio oscillator should
be fed into the input stage and the direct probe used at the under­
lined signal points. Perfect dynamic balance between the two
halves of push-pull stages is not usually obtainable with fixed com­
ponents because of the slight differences between tubes and com­
ponents. Consequently, the driving signals at the grids of the out­
put tubes may be different. In the circuit of Fig. 802, good dy­
namic balance may be obtained by adjustment of potentiometer
RI 2. The v.Lv.m. is set up for a.c. measurements on a low a.c.
range. The ground cable should be connected to the amplifier
chassis and the a.c. probe to the center tap of the output trans­
former primary winding. Potentiometer RI2 should be adjusted
for minimum a.c. voltage reading on the v.t.v.m.

Eliminating hum
Hum is a “bug” which shows up in many amplifiers and fre­
quently requires considerable experimenting to eliminate. It is

128
usually the result of insufficient or faulty power supply filtering or
is caused by faulty tubes or components or by improper lead dress
and parts placement. Power supply ripple (which can produce
hum in the output) can be measured directly with the v.t.v.m. If
excessive ripple is not present, the trouble usually lies in another
section of the amplifier.
When troubleshooting hum, set the v.t.v.m. for a.c. voltage
measurements on a low range and connect it across the speaker
voice coil. Operate the amplifier at maximum volume setting with
no signal applied. Turn the bass control to maximum and the
treble control to minimum. Because the v.t.v.m. is much more
sensitive to changes in hum level than is the human ear, the meter
reading should be noted whenever a corrective measure is made in
the amplifier.
Some typical causes of internal hum and their suggested reme­
dies are listed next. Usually two or more factors are responsible.
Whenever a circuit change reduces the hum reading on the
v.t.v.m., the change should be incorporated in the amplifier and
further experimenting attempted until an acceptable hum level is
obtained. It is not always possible to eliminate completely a hum
voltage at the output and the experimenter will have to set his own
limits of acceptance. Here are some causes and remedies:
1. Heater-to-cathode leakage in power output stage which re­
sults from the difference in heater-to-cathode voltage. This situa­
tion may sometimes be corrected by applying a small voltage to the
tube heaters by means of a balancing potentiometer across the
heater winding of the power transformer. The center up or arm
of the potentiometer is connected to the cathodes of the output
tubes, as shown by the 500-ohm potentiometer in the power supply
of Fig. 801. When making this test, short the input jack and put
the v.t.v.m. across the speaker voice coil. Set the amplifier gain
control to maximum. Start with a high a.c. setting on the v.t.v.m.
and reduce the range setting as you adjust the potentiometer.
2. Excessive heater-to-cathode leakage in other tubes in the
amplifier can sometimes be reduced by changing tubes. In some
cases, where amplifier gain is high, it may be necessary to try more
than one new tube to obuin the desired reduction.
3. Inadequate power-supply filtering can cause hum. Addi­
tional ripple filtering or a decoupling network may be required in
the B+ leads going to the preamplifier suge.
4. Poor lead dress can result in hum, especially in a low-level
high-gain sUge which has a sensitive lead placed in the power

129
field. Try moving grid and plate leads around while watching
the effect on hum level being measured by the v.t.v.m.
5. Inadequate shielding in high-gain stages. Make sure that
control-grid leads and switching circuits are shielded and ground­
ed. Use grounded shields on high-gain amplifier tubes. Do not
assume that all metal tubes are properly grounded just because
they are metal. When in doubt, scrape the top surface of the tube
to expose the metal, and then make a connection between tube
and chassis. If hum goes down put a shield around the tube or
replace it. If the amplifier chassis has no bottom plate, try using
one.
6. Improper grounding. Try changing ground points of by­
pass capacitors while watching the meter reading. If poor ground­
ing is source of trouble, run a ground bus which is tied to chassis
only at input end of the amplifier.
7. Poor parts placement. Reorient power transformer, filter
chokes or output transformer to change direction of magnetic
field. This is not too easy to do, since chassis punchouts are usually
designed to hold transformers in one position. With these parts in
operation, turn them slowly and note effect on v.t.v.m. reading.

Frequency-response measurements
The frequency response of an amplifier, tone-control circuit or
equalizer is an important factor in evaluating any audio system.
Remember, however, that an audio system is only as good as its
poorest unit. Overall system fidelity depends not only on amplifier
characteristics but also on the quality of the sound source — phono
or tape pickup — and upon the speaker system. Because the sound
must pass through all of these units in the ordinary audio setup,
frequency response is limited by the unit which has the narrowest
response characteristics. The v.Lv.m. and an audio signal generator
can be used to check the frequency response of the audio system
from the output of the sound pickup, such as the phonograph
cartridge, to the input to the speaker system. Checks which can be
made with these two test instruments do not cover the response
characteristics of the pickup or the loudspeaker itself. Response
characteristics of phono pickups are best measured by use of a
special test record. The sound output of the loudspeaker system
can be checked only through use of a calibrated microphone-ampli ­
fier system. This latter test setup is usually costly and is conse­
quently restricted to the laboratory or sound studio.
It is possible, however, for the audio experimenter to obtain a

130
complete overall check with the v.t.v.m., a test record and an audio
generator. If the response characteristics of the loudspeaker have
been accurately plotted by the manufacturer and if the speaker is
housed in the same type of enclosure used by the manufacturer
when he compiled the speaker-response data, the experimenter can
obtain an accurate evaluation of his entire audio system.
Before frequency-response tests are run on any equipment, check
the equipment to make sure that it is in proper operating condi­
tion. Test amplifier response wherever possible with the loud­
speaker mounted in its proper enclosure and connected to the
amplifier. This is desirable because the speaker impedance is
reflected back into the amplifier and has an effect on the amplifier
output signal. If the amplifier is tested at a high power level, the
reproduced sound may not be tolerable. In this case, a noninduc-
tive dummy load can be used. In any case, a high-power amplifier
should never be operated without a load connected io the output
transformer. Failure to observe this precaution may result in
burnout of the transformer. If a dummy load is used, it should
consist of a resistance equal to the voice coil impedance and should
have a wattage rating equal to approximately twice the amplifier
rated power output. Wirewound resistors are generally used be­
cause of their high-wattage dissipation. The inductance of these
resistors is usually not high enough to cause undesirable reactance
at audio frequencies.

Preliminary considerations
The frequency response of amplifiers, tone-control circuits and
equalizers is measured by feeding a signal of fixed voltage level
from the audio oscillator into the input terminals of the unit
under test and measuring the voltage output with the v.t.v.m.
Readings are taken wdth the v.t.v.m. at different frequency inter­
vals throughout the bandpass of the unit. It is necessary that the
voltage of the generator signal fed to the unit under test be kept
at the same level for all frequencies. This requires that the gen­
erator have essentially flat output throughout its tuning range.
The v.t.v.m. can be used to check the output voltage, if desired,
whenever the frequency is changed. The output voltage control
on the generator can be used to set the voltage to the required
value.
The output circuit of the generator should also be able to
work into the input impedance of the unit under test to preserve
the waveshape of the test signal. Most generators are equipped

131
with an output selector switch which permits setting up the gen­
erator for externa] loads ranging from a few ohms (voice coil
impedances) to several hundred thousand ohms (high-impedance
amplifier input). Cathode-follower amplifiers, employed in various
stages of some audio amplifiers, generally have a very high input
impedance and an output impedance of a few thousand ohms at
best. Amplifiers used in broadcast and professional audio work
frequently utilize transformer input designed to match 250- and
500-ohm audio lines. Crystal microphones and crystal pickups
usually connect to amplifiers having input impedances from 50,000
ohms to 1 megohm. Magnetic pickups for tape and disc recordings
VTVM

Fig. 803. Test setup for the measurement of very low a.c. voltages. With this
technique the approximate voltage gain of a preamplifier can be measured easily.

may work into either a high or low impedance, depending upon

the pickup characteristics.
In many measurements, such as those on very low-level pre­
amplifiers, it is necessary to use a very small input signal voltage.
The voltage required may be difficult to measure. In these applica­
tions, a larger signal voltage which can be measured easily is
applied across a resistance attenuator, as shown in Fig. 803. The
ratio of resistance R2 to RI is 100 and corresponds to the voltage
ratios between the two resistors. The generator is set to the high
impedance output and the v.t.v.m. is set up for a.c. voltage meas­
urements and connected to point A. It is assumed that an input
voltage of .01 is required at the amplifier. The output control on
the generator is adjusted for a reading of 1.0 volt at point A. If
resistance ratios are correct, .01 volt will be obtained at point C.
The a.c. probe of the v.t.v.m. is then moved to point B and the
output voltage measured. The approximate voltage gain of the
amplifier is obtained by dividing the output voltage by the input
voltage. For example, if the measured output is 0.2 volt, the ampli­
fier has a voltage gain of 20 (E3/E2 = 0.2/.01 = 20).

132
Frequency-response checks
It is general practice to plot five curves on an amplifier which
contains tone-control circuits. Individual curves are plotted with
tone controls set for flat response and for maximum and minimum
bass and treble response. The test for flat response can be made
first. Try this procedure:
1. Set up the v.t.v.m., amplifier and audio-signal generator as
shown in Fig. 804.
2. Set the amplifier volume control to a position which cor­
responds to the power output level at which the test is to be made.
3. With a signal of the desired voltage applied to the amplifier
input, set the tone controls so that they have a minimum effect on
VTYM

Fig. 804. Technique for checking the frequency response of an audio amplifier.
the frequency response of the amplifier. On some amplifiers, the
“fiat” positions for these controls are indicated. In other cases, the
points of minimum effect will have to be determined experimen­
tally.
4. Tune the generator to a frequency just below the estimated
bass limit of the amplifier. With the v.t.v.m. connected across the
speaker voice coil, record the a.c. voltage reading.
5. Tune the signal generator to the next highest frequency at
which the measurement is to be made. Record the v.t.v.m. reading.
Below 200 c.p.s., a reading can be taken every 20 cycles. The inter­
val can be increased to 1,000 cycles when readings begin to level
off. The interval can be reduced to 100 c.p.s. on the high end when
readings start to decrease. Keep the audio-generator output con­
stant for all test frequencies.
6. Tune the generator to a frequency in the treble range
(3,000 c.p.s. is a good starting point). Vary the bass control and
note the effect on the output voltage. Similarly vary the treble
control. If the treble control produces a large voltage change, lower
the frequency of the audio generator. Alternately vary the bass
and treble controls and adjust the frequency of the generator until
a frequency is found at which both bass and treble controls have
minimum effect on the output voltage. This frequency can be used

133
as a reference frequency for plotting a curve of output voltage vs.
frequency. The effect of varying the bass control should be plotted
from the lower limit of the amplifier up to the reference level,
while the effect of varying the treble control should be plotted
from the reference frequency to the upper frequency limit of the
amplifier.
Assume that 1,000 c.p.s. is found to be the frequency at which

Fig. 805. Typical curves obtained for various settings of the audio-amplifier
controls.
the bass and treble controls have the least effect on the output
voltage. Set the bass control to minimum and take output voltage
readings with the frequency varied from 30 to 1,000 cycles. Set the
bass control to maximum and repeat the output voltage readings
as the frequency is varied. The same process is followed in deter­
mining the effect of the treble control except that the output
voltage reading need not be taken below 1,000 cycles.
From these voltage readings, curves such as those shown in
Fig. 805 may be plotted. The curves are plotted in decibel units
so that comparison of the results can be seen. These curves indi­
cate the frequency response of the amplifier with minimum and
maximum bass and treble. The flat line corresponds to the re­
sponse obtained at the flat setting of these controls.

Frequency test records

If it is desired to check the response of the phonograph pickup
along with the amplifier, a calibrated test record must be used.
Different types of records which contain recordings of specific
frequencies at a constant voltage level are available.
Two general types of records are used — banded tone and glid­
ing tone. Banded-tone records are recorded with a number of
constant frequencies which may be played in sequence; they are

134
generally used when measurements are being made. Gliding-tone
records are useful when it is desired to check for peaks but may
also be used for frequency-response measurements by appropriate
timing. These normally commence at a high frequency, maintain
constant velocity characteristics down to the crossover frequency,
then follow the recording characteristic down to the final fre­
quency (approximately at the rate of 6 db/octave). In some cases
the high-frequency response follows the recording characteristic.
The test is made by playing the record on the phonograph and
monitoring the voltage output of the amplifier with the v.t.v.m.

Checking phonograph equalizers

Phonograph equalizers are simple networks used to compensate
for attenuation or boost at certain frequencies which is introduced
AUDO SIG GEN

Fig. 806. Test method for determining the input and output imped­
ances of an audio amplifier. The same procedure can be used for
impedance measurements of circuits other than audio amplifiers.
in the record during the recording process. The usual crossover
frequencies (the frequency below which the bass is attenuated)
are 250, 300, 350 and 500 c.p.s. Various record manufacturers use
different crossover frequencies and consequently they have differ­
ent recording curves.
Equalizer networks are designed to match a specific recording
curve. A properly designed equalizer in an ideal amplifier will
have an output which is the inverse of the recording curve. In
other words, if the recording attenuates frequencies below 500
c.p.s. at a certain rate, the equalized amplifier must boost these
frequencies at the same rate. The curves for these units are plotted
in the same manner as described earlier.

Determining input and output impedances

The input and output impedances of amplifiers and similar cir­
cuits may be determined quickly with the v.t.v.m. and a signal

135
from the audio generator. This method, shown in Fig. 807, is
accurate if the impedance is resistive; approximate if it is reactive.
Since most amplifiers have inputs which are mostly resistive,
it is sufficient to check the input impedance with a low-frequency
signal. A frequency of 50 c.p.s. may be used when checking a high-
fidelity amplifier. For checking the input impedance of a public­
address system or an amplifier with limited low-frequency re­
sponse, a test frequency of 100 c.p.s. may be used. The circuit
shown in Fig. 806 is used to determine both high and low input
impedances. For high-impedance circuits use the high-impedance
output of the generator, for low-impedance circuits use the low-
impedance output. Ri is used for input impedance measurements,
Ro for output impedance measurements.
Set the frequency of the generator to either 50 or 100 c.p.s.,
depending on the quality of the equipment under test. Connect
the generator to the amplifier; set the output control so that there
is a convenient reading on the a.c. scale of the v.t.v.m. Keep the
signal level low so that the amplifier is not overloaded. Connect
the potentiometer (Rt) into the circuit and vary its resistance
until the voltage indicated on the v.t.v.m. is one-half the original
value. The resistance of the potentiometer is then equal to the
input impedance.
Output impedances are measured by the same technique except
that the potentiometer (Ro) is shunted across the output of the
amplifier. Since the output impedance changes as the frequency is
varied, it is advisable to check the output impedance over a wide
band of frequencies.

Decibel measurements
To study the relationship between the output voltages measured
with the v.t.v.m. in audio applications and the frequency response
of an amplifier, it is helpful to plot a curve showing the a.c. volt­
age output in decibels against frequency. The conversion table
shown in Fig. 807 offers a convenient means of changing voltage
readings to decibels. Unless the same reference level and load
impedance is used, however, the figures obtained from the chart
will be relative values.

Graph for conversion of r.m.s. voltages to dbm values

The graph can be used to determine dbm values corresponding
to a.c.-voltage values (r.m.s.) across a 600-ohm resistive load. A dbm

136
value is defined as the number of decibels above or below a zero
reference level of 1 milliwatt in 600 ohms at 1,000 c.p.s. Zero dbm,
therefore, would indicate a power level of 1 milliwatt; 10 dbm,
10 milliwatts; and 20 dbm, 100 milliwatts.
The graph makes possible rapid conversion of r.m.s. voltages
to corresponding dbm values. Associated power levels can be read
along the top of the graph. If the r.m.s. voltage is measured across
a resistive load other than 600 ohms, the correction factor given
here must be added algebraically to the dbm values read from the
graph in Fig. 807. For resistive loads not given in Table 7, the
following formula should be used for determining the correction
factor:
Correction factor = 10 log 600
R
where R is the load in ohms. If R is greater than 600 ohms, the
correction factor is negative.

TABLE 7 - CORRECTION FACTORS

Resistive Load
at 1000 cps DBM*
600 0
500 4-0.8
300 +3.0
250 +3.8
150 +6.0
50 +10.8
15 +16.0
8 +18.8
3.2 +22.7

Because dbm are defined with respect to a 600-ohm load, power

levels correspond to voltage values. Dbm can be measured in
terms of T.m.s. voltages across a 600-ohm resistive load. For exam­
ple, 0.775 r.m.s. volt indicates 0 dbm and 7.75 r,m.s. volts indi­
cates 20 dbm. The decibel and ear-response curves have their
closest correlation at 1,000 cps.
By examining Fig. 807 you will see that 0.775 volt (r.m.s.) is
indicated by a vertical line (dashed line). If you will move your
finger straight up this line to the top of the graph, you will note

•DBM is the increment to be added algebraically to the dbm value read from
the chart in Fig. 807.

137
that it corresponds to I milliwatt. Repeat this process, but this
time stop at the diagonal line and then move to the left side of the
graph. The corresponding dbm value is zero. Similarly, 2 volts
corresponds to 8 dbm and slightly less than 7 milliwatts.
The decibel may be defined in a number of ways, including the
following equations:
p E k
db = 10 log — db = 20 log =^. db = 20 log -2.
Px Ej Ij
In these equations Pi is the input power in -watts, P2 is output
power in watts, Ej is the input voltage in volts, E2 the output volt­
age in volts, Ii is the input current in amperes, and I2 is output
current in amperes.
Standard reference levels
In making any series of measurements, it is necessary to employ
a standard specified set of conditions. If this standard is to be

I
L73VRMS <500*.

__1___
Fig. 808. This standard
is 6 mw across 500 ohms.
expressed in terms of voltage and power, the resistance of the load
used must be specified. Two different reference levels are com­
monly used. These standards are shown in Fig. 808 and Fig. 809.

.7WRMS <600xk
I____________JPWR* I MW

Fig. 809. This standard

is 1 mw across 600 ohms.
The standard shown in Fig. 809 is that employed in making up the
chart in Fig. 807 and is finding increased use. In Fig. 808, a
500-ohm resistor is used as the standard load resistance and the
zero reference level (zero db) corresponds to an r.m.s. voltage of
1.73 volts developed across the resistance. In Fig. 809, a 600-ohm
load is used, with the zero-reference level corresponding to an
r.m.s. voltage of 0.775 volt developed across the load. Any voltage
readings above either of these values are plus, and voltages lower
than these have a negative value. On v.t.v.m/s equipped with
decibel scales, the zero-reference point is usually placed in the
midscale region. Decibel units to the right of zero on a v.t.v.m.

139
scale are marked plus and units to the left are marked minus.
The standard load and zero-reference level employed in calibrat­
ing these meters is stamped on the meter face plate or is given in
the instruction manual.
While the chart shown in Fig. 807 is extremely useful, a similar,
but more direct approach can be used. Thus, if extensive work is
to be done with a constant load resistance, power level, or voltage
value, the technician can easily modify his v.t.v.m. to provide
readings of decibel values directly from the face of the meter. This
procedure is described in detail in Chapter 10.

140
 chapte

the v.tv.m. in the ham shack

he radio amateur who has not yet discovered the value of the
T v.t.v.m. around the ham shack has overlooked a helpful and
versatile accessory to his hobby. The many advantages which make
the v.t.v.m. such a useful instrument in radio, TV, audio trouble­
shooting, alignment, and adjustment, make it an extremely desir­
able service aid in the ham shack. The v.t.v.m. can be put to good
work in troubleshooting communications receivers, frequency
meters, variable-frequency and crystal oscillators, exciter units,
r.f. amplifiers, power supplies of all sizes, modulators and speech
amplifiers, and many other types of specialized equipment used by
the amateur.
The basic troubleshooting methods described in earlier chap­
ters can be applied equally well to amateur equipment. Many
of the parts used in amateur apparatus are the same as or similar
to the parts used in radio and television receivers. Capacitors, coils,
transformers, resistors, and other components used by amateurs
are subject to the same types of defects and breakdowns that occur
in broadcast receivers. Therefore, troubleshooting methods used
in localizing faulty operation in a section or stage in amateur
equipment are similar to those employed in repairing radio and
TV sets. The procedures for testing individual components are
the same as those discussed in Chapter 6.
In most amateur applications the v.t.v.m. is even more useful
because of its flexibility and accuracy. The communications re­
ceiver, for example, utilizes many of the conventional circuits

141
found in better-quality broadcast receivers and also employs addi­
tional circuits, such as beat-frequency oscillators, crystal filters,
and voltage-regulated power supplies. Because the communica­
tions receiver is designed for stable performance and has a high
degree of sensitivity and selectivity, adjustment, maintenance and
alignment are obviously important. Good test procedures and a
v.t.v.m. are, therefore, especially necessary.
Some new and interesting applications, most of which involve
familiar procedures, can be found in servicing the amateur trans­
mitter. In oscillator and exciter stages, for example, proper operat­
ing voltages, good regulation, and correct driving voltages are
essential for frequency stability and a clean output signal. The
v.t.v.m. is especially useful in checking and adjusting such stages.
In checking receiving, transmitting and special-purpose equip­
ment, the v.t.v.m. is valuable because of its high sensitivity, low-
loading characteristics, and adaptability to special-purpose probes
and cables.

The amateur transmitter

Because equipment used in the amateur station is designed for
a particular function, it presents some special measurement con­
siderations which should be understood before the v.t.v.m. is used.
The considerations listed here are included because they pertain
to the safety of the amateur and his v.t.v.m. and because they will
also help avoid erroneous or inaccurate readings.

Special considerations
1. Remember that there is danger inherent in testing amateur
equipment which operates at hazardous voltages. Therefore, the
amateur should thoroughly familiarize himself with the equip­
ment under test before working on it, bearing in mind that high
voltages may appear at unexpected points in defective equipment.
2. It is good practice to remove power before connecting test
leads to high-voltage points. If this is impractical, be especially
careful to avoid accidental contact with equipment racks and other
objects which can provide a ground. Working with one hand in
your pocket and standing on a properly insulated floor lessens the
danger of shock.
3. Filter capacitors may store a charge large enough to be
hazardous. Therefore, discharge filter capacitors before attaching
test leads-.

142
 4. Remember that leads with broken insulation provide the
additional hazard of high voltages appearing at exposed points
along the leads. Check test leads for frayed or broken insulation
before working with them. This is most important when making
measurements with the high-voltage probe.
5. To lessen the danger of accidental shock, disconnect the test
leads immediately after the test is completed.
6. Remember that the risk of severe shock is only one of the
possible hazards. Even a minor shock can place the operator in
hazard of more serious risk such as a bad fall or contact with a
source of higher voltage.
7. The experienced amateur continuously guards against in­
jury and does not work on hazardous circuits unless another person
is available to assist in case of accident.
8. Do not attempt to make measurements in circuits contain­
ing high-level r.f. signals. If an accessory r.f. probe is used, make
sure the d.c. and r.f. voltages do not exceed the input rating of
the probe. It is generally impossible to measure the r.f. signal of
exciter and power stages with the v.t.v.m. because of the relatively
large r.f. signal voltages.
9. Take special care to ground the v.t.v.m. thoroughly when
making any high-frequency measurements. Remember that the
presence of stray r.f. fields can cause some weird effects and upset
normal a.c. and d.c. voltage measurements.
10. Make sure the range and function switches on the v.t.v.m
are set correctly before connecting the v.t.v.m. to the circuit to be
tested. Failure to observe this precaution can result in damage to
the v.t.v.m.

Checking oscillator stages

In the amateur transmitter, the adjustment of the oscillator
stage and its power supply is probably the most critical application
in which the v.t.v.m. can be used.
The setting of the operating voltages are of great importance in
the oscillator stage and are usually specified by the tube manu­
facturer in his published data for the particular tube type. If
operating voltages are too high, or if they are not proportioned
correctly to different circuits (such as the plate and screen circuits)
tube ratings may be exceeded and the amplitude and frequency
stability of the output from the oscillator may be seriously affected.
Operating voltages which are too low may result in poor regula­
tion and insufficient output power.

143
 For example, in crystal oscillators, the plate and screen voltages
must be adjusted properly to assure operation, not only within the
tube’s ratings, but also to prevent excessive grid-circuit current
from damaging the crystal. In both crystal and variable-frequency
oscillators, improper d.c. voltages can cause frequency shift or
chirp under keying conditions. In variable frequency oscillator
circuits, excessive frequency drift may result from improper
operating voltages.
Two basic types of oscillators employed in amateur transmitters
are shown in Fig. 901. Both the crystal oscillator shown in Fig.
901-a and the variable-frequency oscillator in Fig. 901-b have many
variations in their circuit design. If the amateur is familiar with
the requirements for making measurements in both the types of
oscillators shown here, however, he should be able to make meas­
urements without difficulty in nearly every type of oscillator.
The crystal oscillator of Fig. 901-a provides output on a fre­
quency fixed by the crystal in the control-grid circuit. The supply
voltage from the power supply is fed to the B plus and B minus
terminals. The correct value of screen voltage is obtained by drop­
ping the higher B plus voltage through the screen-grid resistor.
In tetrode and pentode oscillators, the screen voltage exercises a
great influence on performance of the stage, and this voltage
should be measured with the v.t.v.m. set up for d.c. voltage meas­
urements. If the oscillator is keyed, the plate and screen voltages
should be measured under both key-up and key-down conditions
because, unless a voltage-regulated power supply is used, the key­
down (load) voltage will be lower than the key-up voltage.
If the oscillator must deliver much power, the plate voltage
should be measured with the v.t.v.m. at point D rather than at any
point between D and the plate pin (G) because the plate circuit
will contain a relatively strong r.f. signal which will disrupt the
voltage reading. The capacitor from point D to ground serves to
keep r.f. energy from getting into the supply line and also permits
the measurement to be made. Because there is no dropping resistor
in this plate circuit, the d.c. voltage measured at D should be the
same as that at the plate. In crystal-oscillator stages, as in doubler
and amplifier stages, the tuning of the plate-tank circuit will affect
plate and screen voltages. Off-resonance tuning will cause plate
current to increase, resulting in a change in the d.c. voltages at
the tube pins.
It is not usually possible to measure the r.f. signal voltages at
points E and F in power oscillators because the peak values of these

144
voltages normally exceed the maximum allowable input voltages
of the r.f. probes used with v.t.v.m.’s. Crystal-diode type r.f. probes
generally have a much lower signal-handling rating than have the
vacuum-tube probes. Before r.f. measurements are attempted,
therefore, the amateur should be sure that the v.t.v.m. and the r.f.
probe can handle the estimated signal voltage without damage to
the measurement equipment.
The screen voltage should be measured with the d.c. probe at
point C, which is at r.f. ground because of the bypass capacitor.

Fig. 90I-a,-b. Crystal oscillator (a) and variable-frequency oscillator (b) can be
checked at the various test points shown in the circuits.

If a considerable amount of power is being drawn from the oscil­

lator under key-down conditions, the amateur should make sure
that the screen voltage does not exceed the permissible limit when
the key is up. The degree of voltage change depends upon power­
supply regulation.
The developed grid bias, which can be measured at point A
with the d.c. probe, provides an indication of how the stage is
functioning. This voltage is negative at point A with respect to
the cathode and is measured from the control grid to cathode of
the oscillator stage. The amount of bias voltage will increase with
the strength of oscillation and should decrease as the load on the
plate circuit is increased. Cathode bias (point B) is always positive
and is measured from the cathode pin to ground.

Current measurements
If the v.t.v.m. has facilities for measuring direct current, the
peter can be inserted at the points marked “X” in the plate and
screen leads to read the plate and screen currents. The amount of
current flow will depend upon the tuning of the plate tank circuit
and also upon the load connected to point F. Remember that both

145
these leads are above ground and caution should be exercised
when connecting the v.t.v.m. into the circuit. For additional con­
siderations on current measurements, see the section on direct
current measurements in Chapter 5.
A variable-frequency oscillator is shown in Fig. 901-b. The
operating frequency of this oscillator is determined by the tuning
of the split-stator capacitor in the grid circuit. Supply voltages, grid
bias, and output-signal voltages are measured with the v.t.v.m.
with the same procedures used in checking the crystal-oscillator
stage shown in Fig. 901-a. In the variable-frequency oscillator
stage, however, tuning of the grid capacitor may produce changes
in the output signal, in the bias and operating voltages. Because
these oscillators are usually constructed to cover a specified range
of frequencies, the grid tank circuit should be designed to give
uniform output throughout the tuning range. If essentially flat
(uniform) output cannot be obtained, the circuit should be ad­
justed to give peak output near the center of the range. The
v.t.v.m. is especially important in checking these variable-fre­
quency oscillators because they are more susceptible to power­
supply voltage changes and keying. The v.t.v.m. is extremely
valuable in debugging such stages. Plate and screen currents can
be read at points marked “X”.

Amplifier and multiplier stages

As in the case of oscillator stages, it is important that plate,
screen, and bias voltages be set correctly in amplifier (buffer) and
frequency-multiplier stages to prevent damage to tubes and also
to minimize the generation of parasitics and harmonics. The
typical operating conditions specified in manufacturers’ tube-data
sheets should be followed to insure maximum operating efficiency.
If it is necessary to operate any element of the tube at a voltage
different from that specified, other voltages, with exception of the
tube-heater voltage, should be changed proportionately.
Fig. 902 shows typical circuit arrangements used in amplifier
and multiplier stages of transmitters. The differences between
these two circuits are in the way signal and d.c. voltages are fed to
the grids and plates of the tubes. The stage in Fig. 902-a shows
series plate feed, and in Fig. 902-b we have parallel plate feed.
In the latter arrangement the plate-tank circuit does not contain
any d.c. voltage.
In both these types of amplifiers, the tuning of the tank circuit
will affect the grid, screen, and plate current flow and also affect
146
the voltages. The bias voltage measured at points A in both cir­
cuits, for example, will depend upon the drive from the preced­
ing stage and upon the tuning of the plate tank circuit. In Fig.
902-b, grid-tank tuning also influences the measured bias voltage.
The bias voltage will usually increase with increased excitation
and at grid circuit resonance. Grid, screen, and plate voltages are
measured with the d.c. probe with respect to cathode. The cathode
bias (point B) is measured with respect to ground. Points E and F
are at r.f. potential and should not be used for measurement when
excitation is applied.

Measurement of screen voltage

In adjusting any r.f. amplifier or multiplier stage, care should
be taken to prevent the screen voltage from exceeding the maxi-

4 J
Fig. 902-a,-b. Two different types of r.f. amplifier circuits (buffer or voltage
amplifier). The drawing at the left (a) and that at the right (b) differ in the way
in which they are coupled to the driver and also in the arrangement of the
plate-tank circuit.
mum specified value when the key is up. A voltage divider and
bleeder, such as that shown in Fig. 902-a, is recommended for
c.w. stages. The series-dropping resistor arrangement used in the
screen circuit of Fig. 902-b is usually satisfactory for phone opera­
tion because excitation is applied continuously to the stage. In
either circuit arrangement, the v.t.v.m. should be used to measure
the screen voltage under key-up and key-down conditions. The
screen bypass capacitor puts the screen circuit at r.f. ground poten­
tial, permitting d.c.-voltage measurements at this point to be made
with the v.t.v.m.

Checking grid bias

The grid-bias voltage of an r.f. stage is obtained in a number
of ways. Transmitter amplifier stages usually are operated class C

147
— which means that no plate current flows when excitation is
removed (key up). Some final amplifiers used in c.w\ transmitters
are operated under class ABi, ABo or class B conditions, however,
and a small amount of plate current may flow under key-up condi­
tions. Usually, however, bias is adjusted to a cut-off or below
cut-off value recommended by the tube manufacturer. For class-C
phone amplifier operation, the bias is usually increased to approxi­
mately two and a half times the amount required for plate-current
cut-off.
Grid current can be measured in both of the stages shown by
inserting the meter at points marked “X” in the grid circuits.
These points should not contain r.f., which can disrupt the meter
reading. Total tube current is checked at points “X” in the
cathode circuits. The proper test points for screen and plate cur­
rent (C and D) are also shown. See Table 8 for complete data on
oscillator and amplifier measurements.
TABLE 8
Key Letter V.T.V.M.
in Fig. 901 Setting
and Fig. 902 To Measure (Volts) Probe Type
A Grid bias -D.C. D.c. isolating probe
B Cathode bias 4-D.C.
ft
C D.c. screen voltage 4-D.C.
D Plate supply voltage 4-D.C.
E R.f. signal voltage ±D.C.* R.f. probe
F R.f. output signal voltage ±D.C* R.f. probe
G D.c. plate voltage 4-D.C. D.c. isolating probe
♦Polarity of v.t.v.m. setting depends on the polarity of the output voltage from the
r.f. (high-frequency) probe.
Several different methods of obtaining grid bias are used in
transmitter stages, some of which are shown in Fig. 903. In all
the arrangements shown (except Fig. 903-f) the total tube bias
voltage is measured with the v.t.v.m. by connecting the ground
cable of the v.t.v.m. to the chassis (because the cathodes are
grounded) and measuring the d.c. operating bias (Eop) on the
—DC volts ranges of the v.t.v.m. Bias should be measured under
both key-up and key-down conditions because the bias voltage may
change appreciably with removal and application of the excitation.
In Fig. 903-a, the operating bias voltage, Eop, depends on the excita­
tion and is developed by grid current flow through the resistor, RI.
Fixed or protective bias (Epr) is used in Figs. 903-b to 903-e
inclusive. The operating bias in Fig. 903-c and Fig. 903-e is the
total of the fixed bias and the developed grid-leak bias. Both
protective and operating bias are provided by the arrangement
148
shown in Fig. 903-f although this method should not be employed
in c.w. stages.
In the circuits shown in Fig. 903, bias under key-up conditions
can be measured by connecting the ground cable of the v.t.v.m.
to the chassis and connecting the d.c. probe to the control grid pin
of the tube. Not all grid-circuit arrangements contain an r.f. choke
or r.f. bypass capacitor and the accuracy of measurement of the
grid bias at the tube pin under key-down or phone conditions will

e
Fig. 903-a to f. Bias arrangements for transmitter tubes. Circuit a uses
grid-leak bias while the battery in circuit b could represent a bias (power
supply) pack. Circuit c uses a combination of the types shown in a and b.
In circuit d, RI is the bleeder across the bias pack. Circuit e has the advan­
tage of using a gas-tube regulator across the bias pack output. Bias is
developed across the cathode resistor, RI, in circuit f.
depend upon the driving power and the stability of the v.t.v.m.
under r.f. conditions.
Bias in the circuit shown in Fig. 903-f should be measured by
connecting the ground cable of the v.t.v.m. to the chassis and
connecting the d.c. probe to the cathode pin of the tube.

Adjustment of high-power amplifiers

For several reasons, high-power r.f. amplifiers deserve special
consideration when measurements are involved. The high plate
and screen voltages used in these amplifiers are hazardous and
measurement techniques must allow for the possibility of an
insulation breakdown in both the transmitter and measurement
equipment. (See “Special Considerations” at beginning of this
149
chapter.) Also, misadjustment of tuning controls or operating
voltages may damage costly tubes and components. These pitfalls
are especially liable to be encountered when newly constructed
equipment is first tried out.
While the r.f. transmitter circuit shown in Fig. 904 may differ
considerably in design from those found in many ham rigs, the
v.t.v.m. measurement techniques and precautions described for it
apply generally to all transmitter r.f. amplifiers. In all high-power
equipment, the checking and adjustment of a.c. filament voltages
is especially important to tube life and performance. Grid bias
voltages are equally critical because they have a direct effect upon
the screen and plate dissipation of the tube under key-up condi­
tions. The value of the grid voltage also affects drive requirements
and sets the operating level (class of operation) of the amplifier
stage. In tetrodes, screen voltages may be critical and should be
carefully set to insure that screen dissipation is kept within proper
limits under both key-up and key-down conditions. Plate voltages,
as well as total plate current should be determined exactly when
the operating power level borders on the legal input-power limit
or the maximum permissible rating for the tube type.

Preliminary checks
In setting up an r.f. amplifier for the first time, the v.t.v.m. can
be used to make several precautionary measurements before plate
and screen voltages are applied. In checking out a high-power
amplifier such as that shown in Fig. 904 the following procedure
should be used:
1. Apply filament and grid bias voltages. Remove excitation.
2. Set up the v.t.v.m. for a.c. voltage measurements. Check the
filament voltage of each tube directly at the tube filament pins (xx)
by connecting the ground cable of the vxv.m. to one pin and the
a.c. probe to the other pin of the same tube socket. The filament
voltage should be within at least ±5% of the recommended fila­
ment voltage for the tube type.
3. Similarly check the filament voltage of the other amplifier
tube (yy). The voltage should be the same as that measured on
the first tube. If the voltage measured at either filament is off more
than ±5%, measure the line voltage on the primary side of the
filament transformers. Use the v.t.v.m. set to read a.c. volts for
this check. Make sure the range switch is in the proper position.
Too low or too high a line voltage may be the cause of improper
filament voltages. If the line voltage is correct, the voltage drop
150
in the filament leads may be responsible, in which case a heavier
conductor should be used, or one of the filament transformers
may need to be replaced because of improper turns ratio. In no
event should the high-power tubes be operated outside their fila­
ment-voltage ratings when B— voltages are applied.
4. Set up the v.t.v.m. for minus d.c. voltage measurements.
Connect the ground cable to the amplifier chassis. The d.c. bias
supplied by the separate bias supply should be checked at the
control grid pins of both amplifier tubes by connecting the d.c.
probe to these points. This is a wise precaution, especially in
equipment which is not relay protected again grid-bias failure.
If equally correct voltages are measured, the operator may be

sure that wiring is correct and that the bias supply is functioning
properly.
The separate bias-supply leads feeding the two halves of the
grid circuit are provided as a means of checking the balance of
the push-pull circuit. Grid-bias voltage measurements (taken from
control grid to chassis) in the amplifier circuit should not be
attempted when excitation is applied because of the large circulat­
ing r.f. current.
5. Adjust the grid-tank tuning and the coupling to obtain the
required amount of grid-current. If the v.t.v.m. is equipped with
a current-measuring circuit, the instrument can be used as a mil­
liammeter. Open the bias leads at point A, apply excitation, and
read the amount of direct current on the meter. Repeat at point B.

151
Both readings should be the same. If not, then RI and R2 should
be adjusted until both readings are identical. We are assuming,
of course, that the coupling from the driver stage is such that
both VI and V2 receive equal amounts of excitation. Bias due to
excitation or drive is developed across RI and R2. The r.f. chokes
(RFC) and capacitors Cl and C2 will keep r.f. out of the v.t.v.m.
After obtaining the correct value of grid drive, remove excitation.
6. The amplifier should now be checked for plate current
cut-off or, if the amplifier is to be run with a small amount of
static plate current flowing, the amplifier can be checked for the
desired static plate-current flow.
With bias applied and excitation removed, apply plate and
screen voltages. Note the plate-current flow, if any, and adjust the
bias voltage from the bias supply, if necessary, to give the required
cut-off or static current. Remove the high voltage.
7. The plate and screen circuits can now be checked with
excitation applied. In circuits which employ high-perveance tubes,
special care should be taken to prevent excessive plate and screen
current flow while tuning adjustments are made. Unless dial set­
tings of plate-tank resonant points are first established by means
of a grid-dip oscillator, a considerably reduced plate voltage should
be employed for tuning operations. The value of this voltage
depends upon the plate characteristics and permissible dissipation
of the tube type employed and can best be determined from the
manufacturers’ tube data for the type involved. The plate-supply
voltage should be measured at point C and the screen-supply
voltage should be measured at point D. The radio-frequency choke
(RFC) and capacitor C5 will keep r.f. out of the v.t.v.m. when
making a measurement of the supply voltage for the plate at
point C. Similarly, the radio-frequency choke and capacitors C3
and C4 keep point D at r.f. ground potential. Resistors R3 and R4
act as a voltage divider to put the proper amount of d.c. voltage
on the screens. If, when making d.c. voltage measurements of
screen potential you find that the screen voltage is too low, then
the tie point at D should be moved further up on R4 (toward
point C). Similarly, if the screen voltage is too high, then D should
be moved down on the voltage divider toward ground.

Measuring high voltage

The maximum d.c. voltage limit of commercial vacuum-tube
voltmeters is between 1,000 and 1,500 volts. Plate supply voltages
higher than these values can be measured with the v.t.v.m. by use
152
of an accessory' high-voltage probe. When these probes are
equipped with the proper value of multiplying resistor (see Chap­
ter 4), it is possible to measure d.c. voltages up to 30,000 volts or
higher.
Unfortunately for the amateur fraternity, the high-voltage probe
is a valuable, but unexploited accessory in the ham shack. The
accuracy and versatility of these accessories is sufficient to compete
with fixed voltmeters, while their cost is usually considerably
below that of an insulated panel meter equipped with one or
more external multipliers.
While the electrical and mechanical characteristics of these
probes has already been discussed, the measurement procedure
bears repeating. The high-voltage measurement should be made
as follows:
a. Remove all B plus voltages from the transmitter.
b. With probe and ground cable properly connected to the
v.t.v.m. connect the ground clip of the high-voltage probe and/or
the ground cable to the transmitter chassis.
c. Connect the tip of the high-voltage probe to the high-voltage
test point. If measurements and circuit adjustments are to be
made simultaneously the probe should be clamped or taped firmly
in position.
d. Make sure that the v.t.v.m. is set up for plus d.c.-voltage
measurements and that a suitable voltage range is selected on the
v.t.v.m. Apply plate, screen voltage and grid drive to the amplifier
stage. The voltage regulation (see also Chapter 10) of the high-
voltage power supply may be determined by measuring the output
voltages under two conditions; (1) with no excitation and no load
attached to the amplifier and (2) with excitation applied and a load
attached. As the load on the amplifier increases, the supply voltage
will tend to decrease. The power input to the amplifier stage can
be determined simply by multiplying the plate voltage as read on
the v.t.v.m. by the total amount of plate current (in amperes)
drawn from the supply.

The v.t.v.m. as a neutralizing indicator

When used in conjunction with a high-frequency (rectifying)
probe, the v.t.v.m. becomes an excellent neutralizing indicator for
r.f. power-amplifier stages. Amplifier neutralization is normally
accomplished with plate voltages removed and with excitation
applied. If the amplifier is not properly neutralized, some r.f.
energy will be coupled into the plate-tank circuit. Proper adjust­

153
meat of the neutralizing capacitors or loops in the amplifier will
eliminate the r.f. from the plate-tank circuit. While these adjust­
ments are made, however, it is necessary to have some additional
means of indicating the presence of this energy because the regular
metering circuits will usually not indicate the presence of the r.f.
A typical neutralizing setup employing a v.t.v.m. as an r.f.
indicator is shown in Fig. 905. The v.t.v.m. should be set to its

Fig. 905. Technique for neutralizing triode r.f. power-amplifier

tubes. Neutralizing capacitors (NC) are adjusted until the v.t.v.m.
gives a minimum (or zero) reading for any setting of the tank
tuning capacitor.
most sensitive (lowest) d.c. voltage range and a small wire loop
should be attached to the tip of the r.f. probe. Make sure plate
voltage is turned off. The loop should be coupled tightly to the
center of the plate-tank coil. With excitation applied to the r.f.
power-amplifier stage, the plate-tank capacitor should be tuned to
or near the normal resonant point until a reading is obtained on
the v.t.v.m. The neutralizing capacitors of the amplifier are then
adjusted, keeping each in approximately the same degree of
adjustment for a push-pull amplifier, until no reading or a mini­
mum reading is obtained on the v.t.v.m. It is usually necessary to
retune the plate-tank slightly to maintain a reading on the v.t.v.m.
because adjustment of the neutralizing capacitors changes the
tuning point at which the r.f. indication occurs.

The v.t.v.m. as a field-strength meter

A field-strength meter is especially useful in checking for radia­
tion from transmitter cabinets and for plotting the radiation
patterns of antenna systems. The test setup shown in Fig. 906
may be used in many applications which require relative measure­
ments of r.f. radiation.

154
 The tuned circuit consists simply of a coil and capacitor which
can be adjusted to the operating frequency. The coil is tapped
about a third of the length along its turns. The set to
read low voltage dx. is connected to the tap through the r.f.
(rectifying) probe and the circuit is tuned for maximum reading
on the v.tv.m. The readings obtained will be relative because the
field strength will vary considerably with the power input to the
equipment and the orientation of the antenna. A small length of
wire may be added to the tuned circuit to increase the r.f. pickup.

Fig. 906. The v.t.v.m. can be used as a field­

strength meter.
Checking and adjusting voltage-regulator circuits
Special filter circuits which utilize voltage-regulator tubes are
commonly used in communications receivers, frequency meters,
and power supplies for variable-frequency oscillators in amateur
equipment. Using gas tubes, these regulator circuits (usually

Fig. 907. Typical voltage-regu­

lator circuit.
inserted between the load and the d.c. output of the power-supply
filter) help maintain the d.c. supply voltage at a fairly constant
level despite variations in the load. Voltage regulator circuits must
be adjusted so the regulator tubes draw the required amount of
current under both no-load and load conditions to insure that the
gas-type voltage regulator tubes fire properly and do not become
extinguished under load conditions. When these circuits are
properly adjusted, voltage regulation in the order of one percent
san be obtained.
Two typical voltage-regulator circuits are illustrated in Figs.

155
907 and 908. Regulator tubes can be obtained for 75, 90, 105 and
150 volts. Such tubes can be connected in series, as shown in
Fig. 908, to provide two or more regulated voltages. The same
supply can furnish an unregulated voltage by tapping off at a point
prior to that at which regulation takes place.
The v.t.v.m. can be used in setting the adjustment for current
through the tubes. A starting voltage approximately 30 percent
higher than the operating voltage is required to fire the tubes.
(Voltage regulation will not be obtained unless the gas tube fires.)
The value of the current limiting resistor R must be between that

Fig. 908. VR tubes connected

in series.
which permits minimum tube current to flow and that which just
passes the maximum amount of current allowed with the tube
type. The value of the resistor can be computed as follows:
B _ 1,000 (E, - E,)

In this formula R is the limiting resistance in ohms, E, is the

voltage measured with the v.t.v.m. across the output from the
power supply, Er is the rated voltage drop of the regulator tube,
and I is the current in milliamperes through the tube. The
formula is simply Ohm’s law, with a multiplying factor of 1,000
because the current is expressed in milliamperes instead of amp­
eres.
The v.t.v.m. can be used to check the regulation by measuring
the regulated output under load and no-load conditions. In
troubleshooting circuits of this type, failure of the regulator tube
to light may indicate too great a load on the regulated output or
insufficient firing voltage from the power supply. The load should
be disconnected from the circuit and voltage measurements taken
in the power supply and regulator circuits.

156
 chapter
A

miscellaneous applications

he v.tv.m., because of its relatively wide frequency response,

T can be used to check the output level of audio oscillators and
r.f. signal generators. If the output is at a high r.f. frequency,
an r.f. probe can be used with the v.t.v.m.

Calibrating voltage output of generators and oscillators

The test setup for making output measurements is shown in
Fig. 1001. If it is desired to check the voltage output of an audio-

Fig. 1001. Test setup for checking the output of an

audio oscillator. The load resistor stabilizes generator
output.

signal generator, for example, a suitable load resistor should be

connected across the generator output terminals. Load resistors
of different values will be required for the different output imped­
ance taps on the generator. If no load resistor is used, the voltage
may be higher than normal and may be different at different fre­
quencies. Voltage readings should be taken at intervals through­
out the tuning range of the generator. Output should be plotted
at maximum-output setting of the attenuator control. The a.c.
157
(direct) probe of the v.t.v.m. should be used for all audio and
low radio frequencies; the r.f. probe should be used for frequen­
cies above the normal a.c.-response range of the v.t.v.m. When
measuring low frequency a.c. set the v.t.v.m. to read a.c. volts.
For high frequency a.c. use an r.f. probe and set the v.t.v.m. to
read d.c. volts.
A well designed generator should have essentially flat voltage
output throughout its rated frequency range if the correct load
resistance is used. Many r.f. signal generators, however, show a
decrease in output as frequency is increased. This factor should be

Fig. 1002. Test procedure for measuring the ripple out­

put of a power supply. The v.t.v.m. will read the r.ms.
value of the ripple.
kept in mind when using the generator to make frequency-re­
sponse and voltage-gain tests. Once the output has been calibrated
for different loads and frequencies, a correction chart can be drawn
up for use in these tests.

Measurement of power-supply ripple and regulation

The filtering action of power-supply filters may be determined
easily by measuring the a.c. component at the output of the filter.
The v.t.v.m. is well suited for this application because of its ability
to measure a.c. in the presence of d.c. voltage. The ripple voltage
in radio and TV receiver power supplies is low, usually in the
order of a few tenths of a volt to two volts. Ripple is measured by
setting up the v.t.v.m. for a.c. voltage measurements on a low
range, connecting the ground cable to the negative side of the
power-supply filter section and the a.c. (or direct) probe to the
positive side. Fig. 1002 shows the setup and a representation of the
ripple and d.c. components of the output voltage. The v.t.v.m. will
indicate only the r.m.s. value of the ripple component.
The effectiveness of the filter can be expressed in terms of per­
cent of ripple which is the ratio of the r.m.s. value of the ripple
to the value of the d.c. voltage. For example, if the d.c. voltage is

158
250 volts and the measured ripple voltage is 1.25 volts, the per­
centage of ripple is 0.5. The percentage of ripple is usually greater
under load than without load because the a.c. component remains
relatively unchanged when the d.c. output voltage is dropped by
the load current. In general, the amount of ripple which can be
tolerated in audio amplifiers and radio receivers is less than 1
percent.
Power-supply regulation can be determined simply by measur­
ing the d.c. output voltage under load (Eminimom) and no-load con­
ditions (Emaximum). Percentage of regulation is equal to:
Ejnaximum Endnlmum
-------------------------- X 100

Power-supply regulation depends primarily upon the value of

the load current, the power-transformer rating, the resistance of
the filter chokes or resistors, the type of filter, and the amount of
filter capacitance.

Checking battery voltages

The output voltages of nearly every type of battery can be
checked with the v.t.v.m. provided that a suitable load is attached

Fig. 1003. Method of testing battery voltage.

to the battery. It is a characteristic of nearly all batteries that the

load voltage decreases with battery age and use. Often, after exten­
sive use, a battery will deliver a considerably lower voltage under
load than will be measured across the open terminals. This is due
to the fact that the used battery develops an increased internal
resistance which acts to lower the output voltage when load cur­
rent is drawn.
Because of this characteristic, the battery voltage should always
be measured under load in the equipment in which it is installed
as the extremely high loading resistance of the v.t.v.m. will not
provide a suitable load. In the case of portable radios, the voltage
should be measured with batteries connected to the receiver and
the power switch turned on. If the batteries are not installed in
the receiver, a suitable external resistance (see Fig. 1003) should
159
be temporarily connected across the output terminals. The value
of this load resistance can be calculated by Ohm’s law. The resistor
should draw an amount of current equal to that drawn from the
battery under normal load. The resistor should have a wattage
rating sufficient to handle the current drawn during the test. The
v.t.v.m. should be set to read dx. volts and a suitable range scale
should be selected.

Checking bias cells

The v.t.v.m. can also be used to measure the voltage output of
bias cells. Because these low-voltage cells are designed for ex­
tremely low current loads, the v.t.v.m. should not be left con­
nected for a period longer than necessary to make the required

PWR TRANS

Fig. 1004. System for checking transformers.

voltage reading. In making this test, do not shunt the cell with a
load resistor. Make the measurement using an isolating probe
and with the v.t.v.m. set to read on a low-voltage d.c. scale.

Checking transformers
The average radio junk box usually contains one or more mul­
tiple-winding transformers for which no data are available.
Because it is not always possible to pair up leads by means of their
color codings, the v.t.v.m. can be used to determine which leads
are connected internally and what voltage ratings they have.
The windings of power transformers should be paired up first
by means of resistance measurements. Filament windings will have
a very low resistance, usually a few ohms or less, while the plate
winding has the highest resistance, ordinarily 100 ohms or more.
The resistance of the primary winding will vary, although it is
more than that of the filament windings and less than that of the
plate winding. The primary resistance ranges from about 1 to 5
ohms. Center taps of filament and plate windings should also be
determined.

160
 The turns ratio of the transformer can be determined only by
voltage measurements; resistance measurements cannot provide an
accurate indication. After the related leads have been identified,
the transformer turns ratio can be found by applying an a.c.
voltage to the primary winding of the transformer and measuring
the a.c. output voltage with the v.t.v.m. connected, in turn, across
each winding. If the primary winding could not be clearly identi­
fied by resistance measurements, only a low test voltage should be
applied to determine the turns ratio. A filament voltage from
another transformer or an audio-oscillator signal can be used.
The setup is shown in Fig. 1004. Using only enough test voltage

Fig. 1005. Audio-output transformers are often supplied

with multiple taps on the secondary. The v.t.v.m. can
be used for finding the best impedance match between
the voice coil of the speaker and the secondary winding.
A listening test is not as conclusive as the method
shown here.
to produce an adequate reading from the remaining windings,
the output voltage of each winding can be measured.
There will be a considerable variation in the voltage you will
measure depending upon which winding is being checked. For
this reason you should have the range switch set to read high-volt­
age a.c. at the beginning of each test* Rotate the range switch
control (in a counter-clockwise direction) one step at a time, until
you get a suitable indication on the meter scale.
The v.t.v.m. can also be used to advantage in checking windings
of audio transformers. A rough approximation of the impedance
of voice coils may be obtained by measuring the resistance of the
winding with the v.t.v.m. and multiplying the reading by 1.5.
Sometimes, in the case of multi-tap output transformers, it is
desired to identify the best or most efficient winding for use with
a particular loudspeaker. If listening tests fail, the setup shown in
Fig. 1005 can be used.
With a signal from an amplifier or an audio-signal generator fed
to the primary of the output transformer, connect the speaker to
each of the voice-coil taps of the secondary winding and note the
a.c. voltage reading. The tap which provides the highest voltage
161
reading on the v.t.v.m. should be used. Use a low-frequency test
signal, such as 1,000 c.p.s. and make your measurements with the
v.t.v.m. set to read low volts a.c.

Checking for gassy tubes

The presence of gas in a class-A amplifier tube can often be
determined by using the v.t.v.m. to measure the d.c. voltage at the
control grid pin. Under normal operating conditions, no voltage
or a negative voltage will be measured. If the tube is gassy the grid
will draw current, resulting in a positive d.c. voltage at the grid.
If a positive-voltage reading is obtained, the technician should
double check the condition by removing the tube and measuring
the voltage at the socket pin. If the grid-to-plate coupling capacitor
is leaking, a positive voltage reading could result.

Checking potentiometers
The overall resistance, taper, value of tone-control taps, and
general condition of potentiometers can be determined easily
with the v.t.v.m. Few of these controls used in radio and tele­
vision receivers and audio equipment exceed a maximum value
of 10 megohms. Consequently, the controls can be checked with
considerable accuracy with the v.t.v.m., which has a center-scale
value of 10 megohms on its highest resistance range.
Fortunately for the service technician, potentiometers have a
reputation for becoming noisy. This is not always due to the
design of the control but can be caused by rough handling, insuffi­
cient power rating, poor choice of type for the circuit involved,
high humidity, defective circuitry, or wear.
The best test for noisy operation, of course, is to try the poten­
tiometer in an operating circuit. A good approximation of the
condition of the control may be had by connecting the v.t.v.m.
(set to read ohms) across the arm and one end of the control and
varying the position of the shaft. If the control is in good condi­
tion, the resistance should change smoothly as the shaft is rotated.
A spotty control will cause the meter pointer to flicker or jump in
spots as the shaft is turned.
If the control is used in high-gain circuits especially susceptible
to noise, however, such as audio preamplifier stages, the true con­
dition can be determined only by installing the pot and listening
for noise in the output. Some of these circuits are extremely
sensitive and only a new control of good design and high quality
will give noise-free performance. Unless a spotty control can be
162
repaired, it should be discarded immediately to prevent its finding
its way back to the stock drawer.
Spotty controls often can be repaired by applying a few drops
of anti-noise solution to the base of the shaft and turning the shaft
back and forth several times. In a pinch, cigarette-lighter fluid
will also do the trick. In cases where a new control fails to correct
the noise it is wise to check the circuitry in the stage and make
sure that a leaky capacitor or other defective component is not
causing trouble in the control circuit.
Potentiometers are manufactured with a variety of tapers.
Basically, the taper indicates the rate of change of resistance per
unit of rotation throughout the range of the control. The taper
of a potentiometer may be determined by plotting resistance
readings against degrees of rotation on a graph. A small dial, cali­
brated from zero to 300 degrees, can be placed around the shaft,
and a pointer knob used to indicate the exact amount of rotation.
In most radio repair work, the value of the potentiometer is not
critical. When replacing controls, however, care should be taken
when cutting the shaft to proper length that excess force does not
cause the shaft to loosen. Rough handling can make a new control
noisy.
When replacing these controls in TV and FM receivers, careless
handling of adjacent leads should also be avoided. This is es­
pecially true in small FM receivers where improper lead dress can
cause a bad case of hum. In sets where wiring is compact, it is a
good idea to make a pencil sketch of adjacent leads, if no wiring
schematic is available, to make sure leads are dressed in their
original positions.

Calibrating an oscilloscope
The v.t.v.m. can be used to calibrate the vertical-deflection
amplifier of an oscilloscope. A voltage-calibrated oscilloscope is
extremely valuable in troubleshooting TV receivers and other
electronic equipment because calibration makes possible simultan­
eous waveshape display and voltage measurement on the screen
of the oscilloscope.
The maximum deflection sensitivity of an oscilloscope is ex­
pressed as the number of volts required at the scope input termin­
als to produce one inch of vertical deflection on the oscilloscope
screen when the scope controls are set for maximum gain. For
example, if the input attenuator on the scope is set to its minimum
attenuation (maximum gain) position and 1 volt applied to the

163
input terminals produces a waveform one inch high on the screen,
the scope is said to have a vertical sensitivity of one volt per inch.
If scope amplification is linear, five volts applied at the input
should produce full-screen deflection on a five-inch cathode ray
tube. It is possible, therefore, to calibrate or scale the screen of
the cathode-ray tube directly in terms of volts. The v.t.v.m. is used
in the initial calibration. Once calibrated, the scope may be used
in voltage measurements without requiring the addition of the
v.t.v.m.
The test setup required consists of the oscilloscope, v.t.v.m., and
an audio oscillator. Before proceeding with the calibration, how­
ever, it is necessary that some of the characteristics of the scope
be understood or established. The following are important:
1. Some scopes do not provide linear deflection at all points
on the tube screen. Nonlinearity is usually greatest near the edges
of the screen. Therefore, it may not be possible to obtain linear
deflection over more than two-thirds or three-fourths of the screen
height. In these cases, the calibration should be confined to the
center section of the screen or it will be necessary to plot a non­
linear voltage scale. In the example which follows, both linear
and nonlinear scales will be plotted.
2. The frequency response range of the oscilloscope vertical
amplifier should be established. The response of the instrument
will not be the same at all frequencies, and the range over which
amplification is uniform should be determined. Unless this range
is established, inaccurate voltage measurements may be obtained.
For example, if scope response is flat from 30 cps to 500 kc a one-
volt input signal of any frequency within that range should pro­
duce the same amount of vertical deflection on the screen. A one-
volt signal of 1.5 me, however, might produce only one quarter the
amount of vertical deflection on the screen — an error of 75%.
The frequency of the calibrating voltage, therefore, should lie
somewhere within the flat response range of the scope.
3. The attenuation ratio of the vertical-input attenuator
should be established by experiment. It is desirable that these posi­
tions on the attenuator switch have a fixed attenuation ratio
between each other. If the ratio is a factor of ten, it is possible to
use one base scale for all the attenuator positions. If the attenuator
positions have a different ratio, a separate scale must be laid out on
the scope screen for each attenuator-switch position.
The test setup for calibrating the scope is shown in Fig. 1006.
The output from the audio oscillator is fed to the vertical-input

164
of the scope and also to the v.t.v.m. The vxv.m. is set up for
a.c. voltage measurements and the direct probe of the v.t.v.m. is
used. The scope may be calibrated in either r.m.s. or peak-to-peak
voltage values, although peak-to-peak values are more useful in
troubleshooting TV receivers and other equipment where com­
plex waveforms are encountered. If the v.t.v.m. does not have
peak-to-peak voltage scales, it will be necessary to multiply the

Fig. 1006. The v.t.v.m. can be used to calibrate or moni­

tor a scope by using the procedure shown above.

a.c. meter reading by 2.83 to obtain the equivalent peak-to-peak

value. Calibration procedure is as follows:
1. Connect the equipment as shown in Fig. 1006. Set the
vertical-attenuator input switch on the scope to the most sen­
sitive (maximum gain) position.
2. Adjust the frequency of the audio oscillator to a suitable
frequency within the response range of the scope — 1,000 c.p.s. for
example.
3. Set the vertical-gain fine-adjust control on the scope to
its maximum-gain setting. This setting should not be changed
during the rest of the calibrating procedure. The scope should be
equipped with a cross-hatch (cartesian coordinate) graph made of
plastic.
4. Adjust the output attenuator on the audio oscillator to
give a trace of the maximum desired height on the usable area
of the scope screen. Adjust the position of the trace by means of
the vertical and horizontal centering controls. Set the sweep
and sync controls on the scope to give one or two locked-in wave­
shapes. Keep the sync control at the minimum setting that will
give a locked-in waveform. Set the range switch of the v.t.v.m to a
position which gives a voltage reading nearest the full-scale point.
5. Mark the upper and lower limits of the trace on the screen
with a pen or grease pencil and draw a straight line between these
two points. This line is the voltage scale with zero volts at the
bottom and full-scale volts at the top. Mark the bottom of the
vertical scale with a zero.
165
 6. Observe the peak-to-peak voltage reading on the v.t.v.m. or
calculate the value from the r.m.s. reading. Mark this figure at the
top of the scope scale.
7. Divide the scale into the number of equal parts which give
the desired voltage divisions. Reduce the output from the audio
oscillator by adjustment of the output attenuator until the wave­
form is reduced in amplitude by an amount equal to one major
division on the scale drawn on the scope screen. Zero the bottom
of the trace on the zero axis of the screen by adjusting the center­
ing controls.
8. Note the reading on the v.t.v.m. Transcribe this voltage
reading to the scale division opposite the top of the waveshape on
the screen.
9. Similarly calibrate the other divisions on the vertical scale
by reducing the output signal from the audio oscillator and trans­
scribing the v.t.v.m. voltage reading to the appropriate dividing
line on the scope-screen scale. Rezero the bottom of the trace on
the zero line before transcribing the readings.
r-200 r-75 p25
- 180
. 160 - -20
- 140
-50
- 120 -15
-KN
- 80 - -10
- 60 -25

- 40 -5
- 20 -

-0 —0 -0
A B c

Fig. 1007. Voltmeter scales

for an oscilloscope.
This procedure may be repeated for different settings of the
vertical-input attenuator switch. If two or more of the input
positions have a 10 to 1 attenuation ratio, the same scale on the
screen may be used. In this case, it will be necessary to multiply
or divide the indicated value by 10, depending upon the full-scale
value selected for the scale. If the attenuator positions do not bear
a fixed relationship, it will be necessary to plot separate scales for
each attenuator setting. DO NOT change the setting of the verti­
cal fine-gain adjustment during any of this procedure. Any
changes made in the deflection of the calibration waveshape should
be made by adjusting the output from the audio oscillator and
scaling the graph screen accordingly. A scope screen plotted with
different scales is shown in Fig. 1007. The letters A, B, and C at
166
the bottom of the scales are keyed to the different range-switch
settings on the attenuator. On this scope, the attenuator switch has
three positions.

Zero-center null indications

Because of its high sensitivity, the v.t.v.m. is an excellent null
indicator in applications such as that shown in Fig. 1008. The cir­
cuit shown is that of a Wheatstone bridge, an instrument which is

Fig. 1008. The v.t.v.m. can be used as a sensitive

null indicator.
especially useful for measuring resistance values to very close toler­
ances.
The Wheatstone bridge contains three resistors and provision
for connecting in the resistance to be measured (R4). Resistors
RI and R2 are selected to have equal values, the value selected
depending upon the range of resistance values to be measured on
the bridge. R3 is a calibrated resistor, either a precision adjustable
resistor or a decade-resistance box.
When the switch is closed, current will flow through both the
left- and right-hand halves of the bridge. If the resistance in both
halves is equal, equal currents will flow.
The v.t.v.m. is set up for zero-center (null) measurements on
d.c. volts (using a d.c. probe) and connected across the bridge as
shown. When the voltages at points A and B are equal, the meter
pointer will rest at the center-scale zero. The value of the unknown
resistor is determined by adjusting R3 to produce the zero-center
reading. R3 is calibrated to provide a direct-reading indication
when the v.t.v.m. is zeroed.

Modifying the v.t.v.m. for resistance matching

The range and usefulness of the v.t.v.m. in resistance measure­

167
ments can be increased by modification of the instrument as shown
in Fig. 1009. Parts required include two banana-plug jacks and a
well-insulated s.p.d.t. switch having low leakage. The switch and
jacks should be mounted on the front panel and connected as
shown by the heavy lines in Fig. 1009. The switch is inserted in
series with the divider network.

Fig. 1009. Modification of v.t.v.m. for resis­

tance matching.
Operation of the v.t.v.m. is normal when the switch is in posi­
tion 1. To increase the resistance range of the meter, zero the
meter with the jacks open and the switch set to position 1. Set the
range selector to the R X 1 position, set the s.p.d.t. switch to posi­
tion 2, and insert a suitable precision multiplier resistor in the
jacks. Two resistors can be matched closely by connecting one
across the v.t.v.m. ohms leads and plugging the other into the
jacks. If the resistors are of equal value, the meter pointer will rest
at exactly the mid-scale mark on the ohms scale.
The precise value of any resistor can be determined by con­
necting it to the ohms test leads and connecting a decade-resistance
box to the banana jacks. The decade box is adjusted for exact
center-scale reading on the meter. The resistance of the decade
box is then equal to the value of the unknown resistor. The
v.t.v.m. is used somewhat as a null indicator in this application.
When modifying the v.t.v.m. for this application, take care to
avoid overheating the divider resistors with the soldering iron
because excessive heat may permanently change the values of the
precision resistors and cause inaccurate ohms readings.

Checking selenium-rectifier circuits with the v.t.v.m.

Selenium-rectifier power supplies are finding increased use in

168
transformerless radio and TV receivers. A typical voltage-doubler
circuit employing two of these rectifiers is shown in Fig. 1010.
The v.t.v.m. can be used to check operating voltages as follows:
1. Set up the vxv.m. for a.c.-voltage measurements. With
power removed from the supply, connect the ground lead to the
B-minus bus and connect the a.c. probe to point A. Apply power.
The v.t.v.m. will read the line voltage.
2. Move the probe to point B. RI is a surge-current limiting
resistor of low value. Little or no drop in the voltage reading
should be noticed unless the resistor has increased in value. If
resistance is increased, look for a leaky or shorted filter capacitor
(C2 or C3) or faulty rectifier (CR1 or CR2).
3. Move the a.c. probe to the output of the rectifier section and
measure the ripple content at the input to the filter section (point

Fig. 1010. Test points in a typical voltage-doubler type

power supply using selenium rectifiers.

C). Using the d.c. probe, measure the d.c. voltage. Under no-load
conditions, the d.c. voltage will be approximately 2 to 214 times
the a.c. voltage (r.m.s.) measured at point B.
4. Measure the d.c. output voltage at point D. The a.c. output
ripple voltage should also be measured at this point.
In some supply circuits, a filter resistor (R2) may be used in
place of choke, LI. If the resistance of the choke or resistor is
known, the amount of d.c. load current may be determined by
Ohm’s law. Subtract the voltage measured at point D from the
voltage at point C and divide the difference by the resistance of
LI or R2.
When replacing defective rectifiers in either half-wave or volt­
age-doubler circuits, make sure to observe correct polarity when
installing the new unit. If rectifier connections are reversed and
power is applied, the rectifier may be damaged quickly. Although
selenium rectifiers are best checked by means of current measure­
ments in a specially designed tester, the front-to-back resistance
ratio as measured with the v.t.v.m. will usually indicate a shorted
or damaged unit.
169
Checking TV antennas and transmission lines
TV antennas and twin-line lead-ins can be checked easily with
the v.t.v.m. for continuity, shorts, and intermittent conditions in
test applications like those shown in Figs. 101 La and -b. In
installations which employ a continuous system (folded dipole
antenna), overall continuity can be checked at the TV receiver by
disconnecting the transmission line at the set and measuring the
continuity as shown in Fig. 101 La. The resistance of a properly

Fig. 1011-a, -b. Technique for testing transmission lines and TV antennas.
Disconnect the line from the receiver terminals before making the check.

operating antenna system will vary, depending upon the length

of transmission line employed, but should be in the vicinity of
2 to 5 ohms per hundred feet of transmission line. A shorted system
will give a very low resistance reading or indicate zero resistance.
A break in the line or at any connection point on the antenna
should give an infinite resistance reading. In the system shown in
Fig. 101 Lb, a short in the line will cause a reading. Properly con­
nected, this arrangement should give an infinite resistance reading.
When checking resistance and continuity of any antenna system,
clip the vxv.m. leads to the line and move or shake the transmis­
sion line while watching the v.t.v.m. indication. An intermittent
condition in a line may show up only under these conditions and
produce erratic readings. Because most breaks in an antenna
system occur at the antenna connections or in places where the
line rubs against the building or other structure, these spots should
be inspected closely when the v.t.v.m. indicates trouble.
This same technique can also be applied for the testing of
coaxial cable. With the v.t.v.m. set to read ohms, connect the
ground clip to the shield braid of the cable and the probe tip to
the center conductor. You should get an infinite resistance read­
ing. If at all possible, flex the cable while observing the meter
scale. Anv flick of the needle indicates an intermittent short. Use

170
this same method for checking cables used with test instruments.
Such cables, subjected to considerable flexing while in use, can
develop shorts, particularly where the cable is connected to the
probe.

Checking reactance and impedance with the v.t.v.m.

The v.t.v.m. may be used in the simple test setup shown in
Fig. 1012 to check the reactance or impedance of different com­
ponents, such as inductors, capacitors, chokes, speaker voice coils,
and transformers. The setup makes use of the a.c. measurement

Fig. 1012. The v.t.v.m. and a generator can be used to measure the
impedance of a coil or a capacitor, or combination of resistance, induc­
tance and capacitance.
function of the v.t.v.m. and will give a close approximation of the
reactance or impedance at audio and low radio frequencies.
The setup requires use of a calibrated potentiometer or adjust­
able resistor. The component under test is connected in series
with the resistance, and the junction point of the two components
is connected to ground of the v.t.v.m. A low-frequency test signal,
from 400 to 1,000 c.p.s., is applied across the two components.
The s.p.d.t. switch is supplied to permit reading the individual
voltage drops across the resistor and the component under test.
Repeated readings are taken while the resistor is adjusted until
the voltage drops (Ex and E2) across both the calibrated resistor
and the unit under test are the same. Equal voltage drops across the
units indicate that the reactance or impedance of the component
under test is equal to the resistance of the calibrating resistor.
If a calibrated resistor is not available, a good quality potentio­
meter may be used. The potentiometer is adjusted as described
above for equal voltage drops. The potentiometer is then removed
from the circuit and its resistance checked with the v.t.v.m. The
setting of the pot should not be changed before the resistance
measurement is made. Power transformers may be checked using

171
a 60-c.p.s. signal from a filament transformer. In these applications,
a signal generator is not required. The setup for checking the
impedance of the primary of a power transformer is shown in
Fig. 1013. Be careful not to short any secondary windings of the
transformer under test. Each of the windings of the power trans­
former can be checked in turn. Several different test potentio­
meters (R) may be required if the impedances to be measured
have a wide range. Thus, you may need one test potentiometer for

Fig. 1013. Method for determining the impedance of a transformer wind­

ing. The test frequency should be that at which the transformer will be
used.
low impedances (a few ohms) and another for checking higher im­
pedances (50 ohms or more).

Q and inductance measurements with the v.t.v.m.

The Q of r.f. and i.f. coils and chokes can be approximated by
using the v.t.v.m. in a test setup like that shown in Fig. 1014. The
inductance under test is connected across a variable capacitor of
approximately 350 upf. An r.f.-signal generator is used to furnish
an r.f. test signal which is loosely coupled into the tuned circuit
through a small one- or two-turn loop at the end of the output
cable. The v.tv.m. is set up for d.c.-voltage measurements and an
r.f. probe is used. To make this test:
1. Set the v.t.v.m. range switch to its lowest range.
2. Set the tuning capacitor to its center position.
3. Starting at the high-frequency end, slowly tune the r.f.-signal
generator through its tuning range until a reading is obtained on
the v.t.v.m. If the v.t.v.m. reading is too low, turn the generator
attenuator for greater output. Also couple LI closer to L2.
4. Readjust the tuning of both the generator and the tuned
circuit under test for maximum reading on the v.t.v.m. Note the
frequency setting of the generator dial and the exact reading on
the v.t.v.m. Record this frequency as Fi.
5. Carefully retune the generator to a frequency higher than
172
Fi until the v.t.v.m. reads 70 percent of the previous maximum
voltage. Note and record the frequency setting on the generator as
F2.
6. Retune the generator to a frequency below that obtained
in step 4 which gives a 70 percent reading. Record the frequency
setting of the generator as F3.
The Q of the coil may be approximated by the following
formula: r? t*
Q = liJjL
F1
If coil Q is high, points F2 and Fs will be relatively close to­
gether. If coil Q is low, the points will be farther apart in fre­
quency. As the coupling of the generator loop LI will affect the Q,
use only enough coupling to obtain a usable reading.

Fig. 1014. This procedure can be used for checking the Q of

various types of coils. The Q of a coil is defined as the ratio of
the inductive reactance of the coil to its d.c. resistance.
The setup of Fig. 1014 may also be used for determining the
inductance values of coils and chokes over a range from a few
microhenries to several millihenries. The inductance test requires
an r.f. signal generator which has relatively high output and a
high-dielectric capacitor of approximately 100 pqxf capacitance.
The procedure is:
1. Connect the inductance under test across the capacitor of
known value.
2. Couple the r.f. signal to the circuit with a one or two-turn
loop. Use loose coupling to avoid detuning the circuit.
3. Set the v.t.v.m. for measurements on its lowest d.c. range
and connect the r.f. probe to one end of the tuned circuit. Con­
nect the ground clip of the probe to the other end of the circuit,
as shown in the illustration.
4. Starting at the high end of the signal generator’s tuning
range, tune slowly down the band while watching the v.t.v.m.
5. When a resonant point is indicated by a reading on the
v.t.v.m., adjust the generator tuning for peak indication. Note the
frequency of the dial setting.
17*
 The value of the unknown inductance can be calculated from
the formula:
L = 2514QQ,
f2c
L is in- microhenries, F is in megacycles, and C is the exact value
of the capacitor in micromicrofarads. The accuracy of this process
depends upon the tolerance of the capacitor employed, the dial
accuracy of the signal generator, and the loading effect of the
v.t.v.m. As the loading capacitance of most r.f. probes is in the
order of 2 to 4 jipf, this capacitance may be subtracted from the
value of C, or may be ignored in the computation.

Direct decibel readings with the v.t.v.m.

Although few v.t.v.m.’s are equipped with decibel-measurement
scales, it is possible to modify the instruments simply and without
disturbing any circuitry to enable them to provide direct reading
of decibel values. Direct-reading scales are especially valuable to
the audio experimenter in plotting curves for high-fidelity ampli­
fiers and other audio equipment in which it is desired to know
exact performance characteristics for comparison purposes.
The modification process consists of making a series of simple
computations and adding the results to the regular scales on the
v.t.v.m. scale-plate. Fig. 1015 shows three v.t.v.m. scales which have
been modified by addition of decibel scales. The lower parts of
these scales, which are linear, are the original a.c.-voltage, current,
or power scales. These three scales were chosen because they are
representative of the scales and ranges used on many v.t.v.m.’s.
The calibrations on the upper parts of these scales represent the
decibel equivalents of the voltage, current, or power being meas­
ured.
By use of the conversion scales, the linear voltage, current, or
power measurements can be transformed at a glance to decibel
measurements during the actual measurement process without
requiring intermediate computations. This has the advantage of
avoiding a tedious amount of arithmetic, plus elimination of the
possibilities of making errors in doing such work.
While the calibration of the bottom scales is linear, the calibra­
tion of the equivalent decibel scales is nonlinear. This nonlinearity
is due to the fact that, with a given resistance, the power is propor­
tional to either the square of the voltage across the resistance or
the square of the current through the resistance. Since the conver­
sion to decibels is made for some values that are squared (voltage
174
or current) and for some values that are not squared (power or
watts), two separate sets of decibel values are provided. The larger
values are used for readings based on current and voltage measure­
ments; the smaller figures (in parentheses) are based on power
measurements.
The scales in these examples are drawn with respect to 1.5 as
the reference value, since this permits the number of decibels
DECIBELS

Fig. 1015. Modification of v.t.v.m. scales to

permit the direct reading of decibels.
to be a whole number at full scale. In addition, 1.5 volts of audio
signal applied to the 8-ohm voice coil of a good loudspeaker repre­
sents close to watt of electrical power, constituting a good aver­
age sound level for music reproduction in a family-size living room
when neither bass nor treble boost is used. A 1.5-volt signal across
a 500-ohm load also represents 4.5 milliwatts of power, which is
reasonably close (1.3 db) to the older standard power reference
level of 6 milliwatts across 500 ohms.
In practice, the scales are used by noting the current, voltage,
or power readings along the linear bottom scale and reading the
equivalent decibel rating from one of the upper scales. If the
figures directly above the scale are used for voltage and the small

175
figures in parentheses are used for power measurements, the proper
decibel values will be found quickly, without requiring calcula­
tions and without extracting additional figures from a decibel con­
version table.
Transforming these measurements, which are given with respect
to 1.5, into measurements referred to some other value is simple.
If, for example, the measurements are to be obtained with respect
to 1 volt, first perform the conversion in the usual way, with
respect to 1.5.
Now operate on the 10-volt range. Referring to the 0-12 volt
range, 10 volts in linear measurement corresponds to 16.5 db,
still with respect to 1.5. To find the final set of values, take each
of the decibel values of the measurements (with respect to 1.5) and
find the difference between them (subtract 16.5 db from each
value). The answer will be in decibels, referred to 10 volts.
Or, for example, if the power readings are to be given with
respect to 1 watt, the readings are first converted to decibels by
using the values in parentheses. Since the 0-3 range shows that
1 watt corresponds to —1.75 db, the difference is found between
—1.75 db and other power readings. Each value in the measure­
ment has 1.75 db added to it. In this way, the final power measure­
ment is found in decibels, with respect to 1 watt.

Checking r.f.-amplifier gain with the v.t.v.m.

A rough check of the gain of a TV r.f. amplifier stage can be
had by using the v.t.v.m. and an r.f.-signal generator as shown in
Fig. 1016. The procedure is as follows:
1. Tune the TV receiver to a local station, touch up settings
of controls, then disconnect the antenna at the set.
2. Set up the v.t.v.m. for d.c.-voltage measurements on a low
range (use the d.c. probe) and connect it across the output load
resistor of the second detector. Disable the a.g.c. and use an ex­
ternal bias supply (see page 92). For this test, the r.f. amplifier
should operate at maximum gain. Advance the generator attenua­
tor control until the output shown on the v.t.v.m. reads maximum,
then reduce the generator output until the meter reading just
begins to drop off.
3- . Tune the r.f. signal generator to the channel picture-carrier
frequency or, if a low-frequency generator is used, tune to a fre­
quency which will supply a harmonic at the carrier frequency.
Connect the r.f. output of the generator to the antenna terminals
of the set (position 2). Note v.t.v.m. reading.
176
 4. Move the output cable of the generator to the mixer stage
of the tuner (position I). The v.t.v.m. reading should be noticeably
decreased.
If possible, this test should be made on all channels to provide
an overall picture of r.f.-amplifier performance.

~ RFSGGEN

Fig. 1016. Setup for making a rough check of the gain of an r.f. amplifier stage.
Although the block diagram shows a TP receiver, the same technique can be
used for r.f. amplifiers in AM and FM sets.

A preamplifier for the v.t.v.m.*

In many audio signal-tracing and frequency-measurement appli­
cations a.c. voltages must be measured in the millivolt region.
Because commercial v.t.v.m.’s cannot respond to voltages lower
than a few tenths of a volt, it is sometimes necessary to employ a
special, extra-sensitive v.t.v.m., such as an audio voltmeter,
equipped with special low-voltage scales. This relatively costly
solution to the problem can be avoided by use of a simple pre­
amplifier with the service-type v.t.v.m. to increase its measurement
sensitivity. Such a preamplifier is described here. The preamplifier
unit is simple in design and construction and can be assembled
and tested in a reasonable length of time. The unit can be perma­
nently attached to the v.t.v.m. case, as shown in Fig. 1017.
The preamplifier is a two-stage resistance-coupled unit em­
ploying a single 12AX7 twin-triode and making use of inverse
feedback. B+ and heater voltages are taken from the v.tv.m.
power supply. The preamplifier may be permanently attached to
the v.t.v.m. without affecting its use in conventional service appli­
cations. The unit is equipped with an output jack to receive the
a.c. probe of the v.t.v.m. When the preamplifier is calibrated, the
v.t.v.m. range switch is set to its lowest a.c. range and millivolt
readings are taken directly from the corresponding low-a.c. scale.
•B ased on an article, “‘The Milvamp” by Forrest H. Frantz, Sr., in Radio-
Electronicsmagazine, Dec. 1955.

177
 The preamplifier provides an additional gain factor of approxi­
mately 100. The lowest full-scale sensitivity, therefore, is 0.01
times the full-scale value of the lowest v.tv.m. range. For example,
the lowest range on the v.t.v.m. shown here has a full-scale value
of 1.5 volts. With addition of the preamplifier, the full-scale sensi­
tivity is increased to 0.015 volt, or 15 millivolts. The frequency
response of the modified unit is within ±1 db from 25 to 30,000

Fig. 1017. The preamplifier is attached to the

case of the v.t.v.m.

c.p.s. The low-frequency response can be extended by increasing

the value of the a.c.-input capacitor in the v.t.v.m.

Construction
The metal case for the preamplifier may be purchased or con­
structed from a small sheet of aluminum. The layout is shown in
Fig. 1018. The tube socket mounts on the small bracket. Compo­
nents should be connected and soldered to the socket before the
bracket is installed in the case. Keep all signal leads short to pre­
vent hum pickup and feedback. (Miniature input and output
capacitors are used for this purpose.) Supply voltage leads from
178
the v.t.v.m. should be made long enough to permit the v.t.v.m. to
be taken out of the case without requiring disconnection of the
preamplifier. The complete circuit appears in Fig. 1019. The R-C

Fig. 1018. Chassis layout of the preampli­

fier unit.

filter network, shown at the bottom of the circuit, is installed in

the v.t.v.m. to isolate and filter the B supply to the preamplifier.

TjGND INPUT TOM ¿F_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ BH-TD MILVAMP

OF VTVM 4G 150V1 **

fro VTVM B+

——
x............ - FILTER v-------- -
ADDED IN VTVM
—
Fig. 1019. Diagram of the v.t.v.m. preamp­
lifier. The circuit is that of a resistance-
coupled amplifier.
A small notch is cut in the v.t.v.m. case (lower left-hand comer)
for the voltage supply-lead grommet. Two holes are drilled in the
side of the case to permit attachment of the preamplifier with self­

179
tapping screws. An underchassis view of the v.tv.m. preamplifier
showing connections to the v.t.v.m. is illustrated in Fig. 1020.
The B plus in the v.tv.m. shown here is 50 volts. Other v.t.v.m.’s
may employ higher voltages. If so, the frequency response of the
preamplifier may be extended because a greater amount of feed­
back can be used. In any event, the B-plus voltage supplied to the
preamplifier should be limited to 75 volts by using a larger filter
resistance in place of the 10,000-ohm resistor shown in Fig. 1019.
Voltages higher than 75 volts might impose too heavy a load on
the v.t.v.m. voltage divider and cause unstable v.t.v.m. operation.

Fig. 1020. Underchassis view of the preamplifier shows connections to the v.t.v.m.

The arrangement shown does not affect the stability or calibration

accuracy of the v.tv.m. to any measurable extent.
The voltage divider for the preamplifier consists of a 1-megohm
potentiometer having an audio taper. Control settings correspond­
ing to 0.015, 0.05, 0.15, and 0.5 are marked on the preamplifier
panel.

Calibration
Basic calibration of the preamplifier consists of applying a
0 31-volt signal to the input and adjusting the feedback control so
the v.tv.m. reads full scale on its lowest range. The 1-megohm
range control should be set to maximum during this adjustment.
The preamplifier may be calibrated by means of an accurate audio
180.
voltmeter or by using the simple calibration setups shown in
Figs. 1021 and 1022. When using these test setups, procedure is
as follows:
1. Set up the v.t.v.m. for a.c. measurements and measure the
line voltage.
2. Connect the ground cable to the bottom end of the 2,000-
ohm pot and connect the a.c. probe to the wiper arm. Adjust the
control to give a reading of 0.01 (one-hundredth) the value of the
line voltage. For example, if the line voltage is 115 volts, adjust

the pot for a v.t.v.m. reading of L5 volts. DO NOT change the

setting of this control during the remainder of the calibrating
procedure.
3. Disconnect the setup from the a.c. line.
4. Connect the potentiometer and 100,000-ohm resistor as
shown in the setup of Fig. 1022. Set the v.t.v.m. range control to

Fig. 1022. Calibration of the v.t.v.m. using

the preamplifier.
its lowest setting. Connect the common lead to the bottom of the
2,000-ohm control and the a.c. probe to the arm of the 100-ohm
control. Adjust the 100-ohm control for exactly full-scale reading.
5. Plug the a.c. probe into the output jack of the preamplifier.
Connect the preamplifier input probe to the arm of the 2,000-ohm
control.
6. Adjust the feedback control for exact full-scale setting of the
meter pointer. Preamplifier gain has now been set.
181
 To make calibration easy, the 1-megohm pot should have an
audio taper. The input lead to the preamplifier should be shielded
and can be made up from a short piece of coaxial cable. All ground
leads should be returned to a common point on the chassis and
this point should be connected to the input ground terminal of
the v.t.v.m. If the meter pointer does not return to zero when the
preamplifier input leads are shorted, check to see that the heater
leads are dressed against the preamplifier chassis. In some cases,
it may be necessary to reverse the preamplifier heater connections
in the v.t.v.m. When reinstalling the v.t.v.m. in its case, take care
to avoid shorting the voltage-supply leads.

Parts for the v.t.v.m. preamplifier

Resistors: 1—10,000, 3—470,000 ohms, 2—10 megohms, >2 watt; 1—10,000-ohm potentio­
meter; 1—1-megohm potentiometer (audio taper).
Capacitors: 2—.05, 1—0.1 flf, 400 volts (Aerovox P-82 or equivalent); 1—40 jxf, 150 volts,
electrolytic.
Miscellaneous: 1—12AX7 and socket; 2—connectors (input and output); 1—chassis 116x41Ax
2% inches (1CA 29078 or equivalent); 2—terminal strips.

Modifying the v.t.v.m. for current measurements

Although most v.t.v.m.’s do not provide facilities for the meas­
urement of direct current, the meter movement used in many of
these instruments is readily available for such a purpose. The
meter movement is a sensitive one, requiring from 50 microamp­
eres to 1 milliampere of direct current flow through the meter for
full-scale deflection of the pointer. It is possible to change the
v.t.v.m. and utilize the sensitive meter for various types of current
measurements, including those of high values. See Fig. 1023-a, -b.
The modification includes the addition of a double-pole,
double-throw switch and two binding posts to which the test
circuit is connected. A good quality switch having low leakage
and low contact resistance should be used. A wafer switch which
can be mounted on the top or side of the v.t.v.m. is recommended.
The binding posts should be well insulated from the instrument
case as the meter is inserted directly in series with the test circuit
for current measurements and therefore is at the same potential.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the meter can be connected between
the plates or cathodes of the bridge circuit, depending upon the
type of v.t.v.m. When making current checks the v.t.v.m. need not
be connected to the power line. Remember, also, that the meter
is not protected against burnout when used in this manner.

182
 If the meter is used without an external shunt connected across
the binding posts, the maximum current limit will be equal to the
amount of current required for full-scale deflection. The sensitiv­
ity of the meter (amount of current needed to move the pointer
needle to right-hand maximum) is usually given in the schematic
diagram or parts list for the v.t.v.m. Current readings should be
taken from a linear voltage scale.
The value of the external meter shunt will be determined by

Fig. 1023-a, -b. The meter in the bridge circuit (a) can be connected to
a double-pole, double-throw switch (b) for making current measurements.
The meter can be provided with external shunts for increasing its cur-
rent-measuring range.
the amount of current you wish to measure. The larger the cur­
rent, the lower will be the value of the meter shunt resistance.
The shunt resistance can easily be calculated from the formula:
Shunt resistance = x meter resistance
shunt current
The resistance of the meter in the v.t.v.m. can be supplied by the
manufacturer, but often appears in the circuit diagram for the
instrument. As an example, suppose that your meter has a resis­
tance of 50 ohms and a sensitivity of 1,000 ohms-per-volt. This
means that a current of 1 milliampere will produce full-scale
deflection. Let us also suppose that you wish to measure a current
of 25 milliamperes.
To protect the meter movement, it would be advisable to have
a shunt whose resistance value would permit the meter needle
to come to rest at about center scale. This can easily be done if
you estimate the shunt to carry twice the required amount of
current. Thus, in this example we would calculate the value of a
50-milliampere shunt (2 X 25 milliamperes). Substituting these
values in our formula we would have: Shunt resistance =
(.001/.05) X 50 = 1 ohm. The maximum current you could
measure with this shunt would be 51 milliamperes, since under
such conditions 50 milliamperes would flow through the shunt,
and 1 milliampere would go through the meter, producing full
183
scale deflection. If you wanted to measure a larger amount of
current you would have to calculate and supply another shunt
resistor.
A conversion chart utilizing a straight line can be plotted, show­
ing voltage in terms of current. If another current meter is avail-
OIRECTHaeE

Fig. 1024. Temporary isolating probe is easily made.

able, the v.t.v.m. meter should be calibrated, as meter movements

may vary somewhat in sensitivity.
Hints and kinks for the v.t.v.m.
There are many ways of getting your v.t.v.m. to do more for you.
These are but a few suggestions that have been tried by service
technicians.
Special isolating probe
In some applications, it is necessary to make d.c.-voltage meas­
urements in sensitive a.c. circuits characterized by high imped­
ance. At other times, the measurement must be made in tight,

Fig. 1025. Convenient mounting stand for the

v.t.v.m.
inconvenient places which will not admit a bulky probe. These
difficulties can be overcome by a makeshift isolating probe made
up of a suitable value of isolating resistor (usually 1 megohm)
soldered to the tip of a direct probe. The test-point end of the
resistor should be cut short, as shown in Fig. 1024. With careful
construction, the effective loading capacitance of this probe can
be reduced to less than 1 pp.f. This probe is especially useful in
applications involving measurements of developed grid bias,

184
checking oscillator injection voltage, and in receiver and converter
alignment.

Storage of spare probes

Accessory probes can be located quickly when they are needed
if they are attached to small spring clips attached to the v.t.v.m.
case. As most of these accessory probes are round, they can be
snapped into spring fuse holders, mounted on the top or side of
the case. These clips are available in a variety of sizes, and can be
mounted to the case by self-tapping screws.

Mounting stand for v.t.v.m.

Fig. 1025 shows a convenient wire mounting stand which can
be used to hold the v.tv.m. in a slanted, easy-to-read and easy-to-use

Fig. 1026. High-voltage rectifying probe for a.c. measure­

ments. Plate and filament leads should be well insulated
to guard against shock.
position on the test bench. The rack can be made by straightening
out a wire coat hanger and rebending it to shape. The wire stand
can be wrapped with electrical tape to prevent scratching the
meter case and to prevent slipping on the bench.

Hint for cable plug tips

Many v.t.v.m.’s are equipped with pin jacks for connection of
test leads. With usage, the pin plugs (or tips) on the cables become
worn and the cable pulls out of the jack. The situation may be
corrected by coating the tips with a thin film of solder. The solder
is soft enough to allow the pin tip to make a force fit with the jack.

The v.t.v.m. as a precision resistor

The v.t.v.m. can be used as a precision resistor in special applica­
tions where it is necessary to use a resistor of close tolerance. When
the v.t.v.m. is switched to d.c. volts, the precision voltage divider
in the d.c.-voltage measurement section is connected in series with

185
the d.c. probe and the ground lead. The total value of this net­
work, which is usually within ±1% of the rated value, can be
determined by adding the values of all the series resistors, includ­
ing the isolating resistor in the probe tip. The v.t.v.m. should be
disconnected from the power line when used in these applications.

A high-voltage rectifying probe for a.c. measurements

In some special applications, it is necessary to measure a.c. volt­
ages which are higher than those which can be measured with the
v.t.v.m. alone. Because it is not practical or safe to use a conven­
tional d.c. high-voltage probe in conjunction with the a.c. measure­
ment section of the v.t.v.m., a special rectifying circuit must be
used. Such a circuit is shown in Fig. 1026. The special circuit is
made up of a high-voltage diode rectifier tube, such as a 1B3-GT
or a 1X2-A, a 1.5-volt flashlight cell, and a TV high-voltage mica
filter capacitor. If the circuit is to be used in different applications,
it can be built into the form of a probe. Because these applications
involve dangerously high voltages, construction and application
of the probe should take all safety factors into consideration.
It is important that the unit be constructed to keep lead and
stray capacitance at a minimum. Excessive capacitance can affect
accuracy, especially in measurements at radio frequencies. If the
1X2-A is used, it should be remembered that the tube has an
inverse peak rating of 18,000 volts. The 1B3-GT, which has an
inverse peak rating of 30,000 volts, is a better tube choice for use
in television service work and other applications employing volt­
ages up to 15,000 volts. It will be necessary to calibrate the v.t.v.m.
for the type of waveform being measured.
If the probe is used in applications where the voltages exceed
these values, the probe may function without trouble, but only at
the risk of damaging the tube. As the success of applying this
method of voltage measurement depends largely upon individual
construction and calibration, accuracy of readings cannot be guar­
anteed. If accurate readings are required, it will be necessary to
calibrate the probe against a high-voltage a.c. voltmeter of known
accuracy.

An experimental v.t.v.m. for home construction

For the technician who may wish to experiment with the con­
struction of his own v.t.v.m. but does not want to make a costly
investment in special parts, the simple v.t.v.m. illustrated in the

186
schematic diagram of Fig. 1027 may be of interest. The instrument
utilizes only a few readily available components, a single twin­
section tube (6SN7-GT) and an inexpensive 500-microampere
meter movement. Designed for use on a.c. and d.c. voltage meas­
urements, the v.t.v.m. can be compactly constructed to suit the
needs of the builder. The instrument can be used as an auxiliary
device, as a portable v.t.v.m. in the service chest, or as an emer­
gency unit in the event that the regular v.t.v.m. is in for repairs.
Designed as a compromise between the extremes of expense and
impracticability, this simplified v.t.v.m. will perform most of the

Fig. 1027. Schematic diagram of simplified

functions of larger models, but at a considerable saving in cost.
The instrument has no facility for making ohms tests, but omis­
sion of the resistance-measuring circuits makes possible an ex­
tremely simple design because elaborate switching arrangements
and provisions for an ohms battery have been omitted.

Construction details
The unit can be mounted in any small aluminum or steel case
(or in a shielded box). These can be purchased from any parts
distributor. A small shelf or chassis is required as a mount for the
tube socket, selenium rectifier and terminal strips. The v.t.v.m.
could have been made still more compact by using a transformer­
less power supply, but this is not recommended because of fre­
quent applications involving transformerless and a.c.-d.c. receivers.
Any small power transformer delivering about 120 volts at 40 ma
(or more) is suitable. This voltage, furnished to the rectifier and

187
filter will provide a relatively low and stable d.c. output voltage.
The transformer should also have a filament winding for the
v.t.v.m. bridge tube. Although a 6SN7-GT is shown in the circuit,
a miniature type 12AU7 can be substituted.
A variety of meter movements having different basic sensitivities
can be used. The circuit shown will work well with a movement
of 500-microampere sensitivity, although a meter having a greater
sensitivity (such as a 200-microampere type) should provide better
performance because it will permit operation over a smaller por­
tion of the tube’s characteristic curve and make for increased
linearity and accuracy.
The voltage divider network, consisting of four half-watt carbon

Parts for the experimental v.t.v.m.

Resistors: 2—2,200, 1—15,000, 1—30,000, 1—47,000, 1—270,000, 1—900,000 ohms, %
watt; 1—1.2, 2—3.3, 1—10.8 megohms, 14 watt; 1—22,000 ohms, 1 watt; 2—5,000-ohm
wirewound potentiometers.
Capacitors: 1—.003, 1—.01 |xf, paper; 1—10 |Lif electrolytic, 150 volts.
Switches: 1-single-pole, 5-positions; 1 s.p.s.t, 1-d.p.d.t.
Miscellaneous: 1-60-ma selenium rectifier; 1-1N23 crystal; 1-half-wave power transformer,
117-120 volts, 40 ma or more, 6.3 volts, 1 amp or more; 1 meter, as per text; 1-6SN7-GT
tube and socket for same; ¡ack; plug material; hardware; wiring, etc.

resistors in series, provides for four voltage ranges of 1.5, 15, 60

and 600 volts, a.c. or d.c. The resistances are the inexpensive half­
watt variety, but should be selected with care to assure values as
close as possible to 30,000, 270,000, 900,000, and 10.8 megohms.
Since the basic accuracy of the meter depends directly on the toler­
ance of these resistors, selections should be made from stock with
an accurate ohmmeter. Precision or close-tolerance resistors can
be used, but their cost might defeat the purpose of the instrument.
An on-off toggle switch is provided for the transformer primary
and a pilot lamp can be connected if desired. Other controls in­
clude a range-selector switch, a BALANCE-control (zero-set) po­
tentiometer, polarity-reversing switch, and connectors for the
two test leads. The calibration control, a 5,000-ohm potentio­
meter, is mounted inside the instrument case.

Circuit operation
Operation centers around the vacuum-tube bridge circuit, which
is similar to those discussed in Chapter 2. The balance control
provides a means of adjusting the two halves of the bridge so that

188
the voltages appearing at the cathodes are equal with no signal
applied. A change in control grid voltage at pin 4 will upset the
balance of the bridge, causing current to flow through the meter
movement. The amount of meter-pointer deflection depends upon
the amount of current flow. The 6SN7-GT has sufficiently straight
characteristic curves to produce linear voltage readings over the
instrument’s basic operating range from — 1.5 volts to -j-1.5 volts,
as measured at grid pin 4.

Test probe
The d.c.-isolating probe can be constructed from any suitable
plastic tubing and an insulated or coaxial lead. A 1.2-megohm
isolating resistor should be connected in series with the probe tip
to reduce the capacitance loading of the cable and instrument on

Fig. 1028. Circuit and assembly details

of simple rectifying probe.

the test circuit. For a.c. measurements, a simple rectifying probe,

as shown in Fig. 1028 can be constructed. The probe contains a
crystal diode, two capacitors, and a resistor. Mechanical parts can
probably be taken from the junk box. For example, the probe can
be constructed from a short section of half-inch thin-wall copper
tubing. Formica plugs for the ends can be cut with a coping saw
and filed down to size. The screw tip can be made from a screw­
type earphone tip, threaded into the front plug. A microphone-
type connector can be used at the instrument end of each cable
to connect the probe and coaxial cable to the instrument. Shielded
cable is recommended to reduce the effects of hand capacitance.
The scale readings for a.c. measuremnts are a trifle higher than the
actual values but, as the difference is in the order of only 10 per­
cent, it can be ignored when making comparative measurements.

Calibration
Before attempting calibration, the builder should disassemble
the meter and remove the face plate. A new face plate containing
189
blank scales drawn in ink or pencil can be pasted over the old
scales. Calibration consists simply of making d.c. voltage readings
with another v.t.v.m. of known accuracy and transcribing the read­
ings to the points indicated on the blank scale when the home-
constructed instrument is connected to the same voltage source.
The calibration control should be adjusted to provide for most
accurate readings at the full-scale points.
Checking approximate stage gain in audio amplifiers
Remove or disable one of the i.f.-amplifier tubes so that external
signals cannot reach the audio. Set up the v.t.v.m. to measure a.c.
voltage on a low range (see Fig. 1029), and adjust the signal gen­
erator to deliver an audio output signal.
L Connect the output cable of the signal generator to the grid
of the output tube, shown as point 1 in Fig. 1029. Connect the
v.t.v.m. to the same point. Adjust the output of the signal genera­
tor to produce 1.0 r.m.s. volt of signal at the control grid. Shift
the v.t.v.m. probe to the plate of the stage and measure the audio
signal voltage at point 2. The approximate voltage gain of the
stage is equal to the numerical value of the signal voltage at the
plate. For example, with 1.0 volt of signal at the grid and 15 volts
of signal at the plate, the approximate gain is equal to 15/1 or 15.
In a.c.-d.c. radio receivers and in some small a.c. receivers, con­
siderable hum, up to 10 or 15 volts, may be present at the plate of
the output tube. To minimize the error that this can cause, it is
necessary to measure the hum voltage separately at the plate and
subtract the hum voltage from the previous reading. The hum
voltage should be measured without application of an audio signal.
When checking the gain of an audio-output stage, it is essential
to have a speaker connected to the output transformer because the
gain of the output stage without a load is much higher than
normal.

Correcting for the effects of contact potential

When making i.f.-gain checks, if the second detector of the
receiver is a vacuum-tube diode, it may be necessary to correct
readings because of the existence of contact potential. The effect
of contact potential within the tube is to produce a d.c. voltage
across the detector load resistor. This voltage usually ranges from
about 0.1 volt across a video load resistor of a few thousand ohxns,
to about 0.5 volt across an audio load resistor of about 100,000
ohms.
190
 In gain checks which deal with a relatively weak signal at the
second detector, it is advisable to correct for contact potential.
This may be done as follows:
1. Kill any input signal to the second detector, by removing
or disabling an i.f. tube if necessary.
2. Measure the d.c. voltage across the load resistor with the
v.t.v.m. This voltage is the result of contact potential.
3. Suppose, for example, that the voltage across the load resis­
tor, without input signals, is 0.1 volt. Assume, also, that when the
desired signal is applied, the voltage across the load resistor is
0.5 volt. The actual voltage produced by the signal in this example
is 0.5 volt minus 0.1 volt, or 0.4 volt.
The effect of contact potential is also evident in some limiter

Fig. 1029. Test procedure for checking the approximate

stage gain of an audio amplifier. This technique is also
useful for determining if a particular tube is function­
ing properly.
and amplifier stages, such as the last sound-i.f. amplifier in many
television receivers which operate without fixed grid bias and
without cathode bias. The grid and cathode in these cases may be
regarded as a diode section, and the grid resistor as the diode load.
With no input signal, a small d.c. voltage will be produced across
the grid resistor as a result of contact potential in the tube.

Servicing the shorted receiver

When servicing a receiver which the customer complains is
smoking or blowing fuses, it is a wise precaution to make one or
two simple resistance checks with the v.t.v.m. before applying
power to the set. For example, a short in the power transformer
or a shorted line bypass capacitor in the primary of the trans­
former may cause serious damage unless the trouble is corrected
before power is applied.
In such cases the v.t.v.m. should be used to measure the resis­
tance of the primary by connecting the v.t.v.m. cables across the
prongs of the line plug and turning the receiver power switch to
the on position. This resistance may be very low, less than one
ohm. Additional checks can be made from the line plug to chassis
191
ground. If this test indicates resistance to ground, however, the
technician should check the primary circuit to make sure that one
side of the line is not connected to chassis through a resistor, which
is common practice in some sets. If the primary circuit check out is
satisfactory, the rectifier tube should be removed before power is
applied to make sure that a short in the poweY supply is not re­
sponsible.
It is entirely possible to have a short in either the primary or
one of the secondary windings and to be unable to detect the short
by making a resistance check. A shorted turn, for example, will
have such a very slight effect on the overall resistance of the wind­

M-

Fig. 1030. Test procedure for power-output measurements.

ing that it is difficult to detect. If the transformer gets unduly hot

and if resistance checks with the v.t.v.m. do not reveal the source
of trouble, disconnect all wires going to the secondary taps. Make
certain that none of the secondary leads touch each other. Now
apply power to the primary of the power transformer. If the trans­
former still gets hot or smokes, a short definitely exists and the
transformer can be discarded.

Measuring power output

The v.t.v.m. can be used to measure the power output of an
audio amplifier by means of the test set-up shown in Fig. 1030.
The v.t.v.m. is set up for a.c. measurements and is connected across
the voice coil leads of the loudspeaker. If high-power checks are
to be made, the speaker can be replaced by a resistance load which
is equal to the impedance of the speaker voice coil.
The receiver or audio amplifier must be fed a suitable signal
from a signal generator. If a receiver is involved, the r.f. generator
should be modulated by an audio signal to provide an output from
the audio stage. The signal should be tuned in carefully.
With the signal applied and volume turned up, the output
voltage is read on the v.t.v.m. The power output can be calculated
simply by squaring the measured voltage and dividing it by the
resistance of the load resistor or impedance of the loudspeaker
192
voice coil. For example, if the speaker has a 3.2-ohm voice coil
and an output signal of 10 volts is measured on the v.t.v.m., the
power output is:

l^"2 = = 1'24 watts

To obtain a good idea of the overall performance of the system,

the power measurements should be made at different power levels
and at different frequencies throughout the audio range.

Checking voltage output of phonograph cartridges

The v.t.v.m. can be used without introducing serious loading in
measurement of the output voltage of many types of phonograph
pickup cartridges. The input circuits of amplifiers employing three

Fig. 1031-a, -b, -c. The v.t.v.m. can be used to check the output of phono­
graph cartridges. Use a constant amplitude test record for making these
measurements.
of the most common types are shown in Fig. 1031. In all three
circuits, the v.t.v.m. is set up for a.c. measurements on a low
a.c. scale and the a.c. probe connected to test points A. The v.t.v.m.
ground lead connects to the" ground side of the potentiometer.
In Fig. 1031-a, a crystal cartridge is connected to the arm of the
input volume control. A maximum voltage reading will be ob­
tained when the arm is at the top (maximum volume position) of
the resistor. In this position, the signal is fed directly to the control
grid of the amplifier.
Two input circuits for magnetic cartridges are shown in
Fig. 1031-b and Fig. 1031-c. A matching transformer, which steps
up the output voltage from the magnetic pickup is used in
Fig. 1031-c. In all three of these circuits, an input signal from a
193
phonograph record is required. If a banded-tone test record is
available, the frequency response of the cartridge can be deter­
mined.
In making these tests of pickup units, the most convenient
point at which to clip the test lead is the control grid of the pre­
amplifier tube (point A in Fig. 1031). Another test spot is the lead
connected to the moving arm of the potentiometer. Do not clip
the probe directly to the pickup unit itself or to the wire leading
from the pickup, since this could upset the weight and balance of
the tone arm. The lead could damage the test record. You can also
use this method for checking the flatness of output of the record.
Although we have given various miscellaneous applications in
this chapter, the ideas suggested here are not a complete list by
any means. The value of the v.t.v.m. is limited only by the re­
sourcefulness and ingenuity of the user. In the hands of a skilled
technician this instrument can do many jobs over and beyond
those originally intended by the manufacturer of the v.t.v.m.

194
troubleshooting the vtv.m.

f the many tools and instruments used in servicing, probably

O no other device is taken so much for granted as the v.tv.m.
In most shops this reliable instrument is turned on early in the
morning and shut off with the lights at night. During this time
the v.tv.m. may be used in dozens of different tests. Because of its
versatility and dependability many technicians consider it an
almost fool-proof device, immune to the electronic gremlins that
afflict the sets on which the v.tv.m. is used. The technician who
places such faith in this number-one instrument is often shaken
when he discovers that something has gone wrong with the v.t.v.m.
In the “one-meter shop,” a mild case of panic can ensue.
Because the v.t.v.m. is basically a simple instrument, it should
present no complicated troubleshooting problem. The technician
who can work with the much more involved circuitry of a modern
TV receiver should have little or no trouble in repairing his own
v.t.v.m. quickly and easily if a few basic characteristics of the
instrument are understood. This chapter describes some of the
more common circuit arrangements employed in commercial
v.t.v.m.’s and suggests specific remedies for the more frequent types
of troubles. A detailed troubleshooting analysis of a representative
v.t.v.m. is also included. If the technician understands the basic
principles of operation, such as those described in Chapter 2, he
can feel confident in correcting any type of v.t.v.m. defect.
The best way of eliminating breakdown of the v.t.v.m. is to
prevent trouble in the first place. As is the case with an automo­

195
bile, the v.t.v.m. should be inspected and serviced at frequent
intervals to insure continued reliable operation. There are a num­
ber of routine checks and adjustments which can be made periodi­
cally to keep the v.t.v.m. in top condition. Such checks and adjust­
ments are classified as preventive maintenance.

Preventive maintenance
Improper use of the v.t.v.m. is a major cause of failure. Misuse
can result in costly repairs. Some of the most frequent mistakes
made by the technician include improper setting of the function
control or the application of too much voltage to the input cir­
cuits. For example, many v.t.v.m.’s are returned to their manufac­
turer for repairs because the low-value precision resistors in the
ohms network have been damaged or burned out due to the fact
that the technician has set up the v.t.v.m. for ohms measurement
and applied a high d.c. or a.c. voltage to the instrument. Since the
ohms network uses precision resistors having a very low wattage
rating, misuse can easily result in damage. Immediate repair of
such damage is not always possible because the resistors are usually
made specially for the instrument in which they are used. If re­
placement parts cannot be obtained locally, the technician must
obtain these from the instrument manufacturer.
Repairs of this nature are often expensive and require two to
three weeks “down” time for the instrument. A little additional
care and double checking by the technician when he is using the
instrument can prevent this type of trouble.
Improper connection of probes and cables, and failure to pro­
vide transformer isolation of other equipment from the power
line in a.c.-d.c. or transformerless applications can also cause
similar costly repairs. Damage resulting from such misapplication
can be prevented by use of an isolation transformer, as described
on page 76.
Probes and cables are a frequent source of trouble because they
receive a great deal of physical handling. The constant flexing and
bending of cables causes the wires to break or mechanical connec­
tions to loosen. Detachable probes may be lost or damaged if a
heavy chassis is set down on them or if they are dropped to the
floor. This frequent source of trouble can be eliminated by clamp­
ing the probe to the instrument case when the probe is not being
used. Insulation of probes and cables can also be damaged if it
comes into contact with a hot soldering iron. Out-of-the way place­
ment of the soldering-iron stand can prevent this.

196
 Rough handling or dropping of the instrument is a frequent
source of trouble and invariably results in damage to the meter
movement. Meter bearings and coil mountings are relatively deli­
cate and, while the v.tv.m. is a sturdy instrument, it should be
remembered that the movement can be damaged by heavy jars or
shocks. The shop v.t.v.m. should be firmly mounted in a suitable
place on the bench or shelf where it cannot be moved or pulled
onto the floor when cables are handled. Even the best constructed
meter movements cannot be expected to withstand a four-foot
drop.
While the preventive measures described here appear to be
obvious, they are, nevertheless, frequent sources of trouble. These
measures are concerned primarily with the everyday use of the
v.t.v.m. Below are listed some of the instrument checks and peri­
odic servicing tips which can extend the trouble-free life of the
instrument.

Ohms battery
Failure of the ohms-measurement function can be prevented by
periodic inspection or replacement of the ohms battery. The con­
dition of the battery may be checked as follows:
I. Set function switch to “ohms.”
2. Set range control to “R X 1” position.
3. Rotate the ohms adjust control to bring the pointer to
full-scale deflection. If it is impossible to adjust the pointer to full
scale, the battery should be replaced.
4. Short the ohms cable to the ground cable for about 10 sec­
onds.
5. Open the short circuit and observe the scale indication. Any
appreciable deviation of the pointer from full-scale deflection
indicates a weak battery.
Exhausted batteries should not be left in the instrument. If
inspection at any time shows that the battery is leaking or corrod­
ed, it should be replaced at once and any chemical deposits or
corrosion on the battery contacts or inside the case should be
removed. When replacing the ohms battery in a holder with spring
contacts, the contacts should be sanded clean and the tension
adjusted to insure solid contact and as low a contact resistance as
possible. In some instruments the internal ohms connections are
soldered directly to the battery terminals. It is important, also
that correct polarity be observed. In some v.t.v.m.’s, the positive
197
contact is grounded. In other instruments, the negative contact is
grounded.

General troubleshooting
Of necessity a v.t.v.m. contains electronic and mechanically
operated components. Mechanical parts, such as function and
range switches, are in constant use, often require repair or re­
placement.

Switches
The apparently complicated construction of switches used in
the v.t.v.m. is a big source of difficulty to many technicians. Indeed,
the switches and their connections are the most difficult aspect of
troubleshooting the v.t.v.m. If the switches could be removed, the
v.t.v.m. would be an extremely simple instrument. With a little
patience and careful circuit tracing, however, the technician
should be able to follow through and understand the switching
circuits without difficulty.
Three symbolic methods of drawing rotary switches are shown in
Fig. 1101. These types are widely used for the function and range
switches in schematic diagrams of v.t.v.m.’s. These drawings show
how contacts, permanent connections, and wiper arms are sym­
bolized. In Fig. 1101-b the numbered terminals are used to con­
nect to seven different points of a resistance network in a v.t.v.m.
which has seven measurement ranges. Contact 1 corresponds to the
first or left-hand position of the range control. The unnumbered
terminal is the wiper contact. In nearly all v.t.v.m. schematics, the
switches are shown in their maximum counterclockwise positions.
A five-position switch of similar construction is shown symboli­
cally in Fig. 1101-c. In this illustration, the wiper arms are shown
in position 1 (the first range position). As the switch is rotated to
the right, the wiper arm will move up to positions 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Ganging of the switch sections is shown by the dotted line. Ganged
switch sections may also be identified by symbol numbers, such
as SI-a and Sl-b.
As is necessary in repairing and maintaining TV tuners, the
v.t.v.m. switches should be checked and attended to periodically
to keep them in good working order. This is an important preven­
tive measure because switch replacements are costly and are best
done by the factory. Panel nuts on switch shafts should be kept
tight to prevent movement of the switch assembly, broken leads

198
and shorted components. Because many of the precision resistors
used in the v.t.v.m. are mounted directly on the switch assemblies,
care should be taken when soldering to prevent overheating or
mechanically scraping the resistors. Excessive heating may perma­
nently change the value of the resistors and result in inaccurate
meter readings. A pair of long-nose pliers may be clamped to the
lead between the resistor being soldered and the point of connec­
tion at the switch to dissipate as much heat as possible. Care should
also be taken to prevent twisting or loosening of the switch con-
5ECTÎON SECTION
Sl-a S-b
05 o5

04 o4
JeO-WIFERARM

03 o3

SWITCH CONTACT 02 02

PERMANENT CONNHITION
WÉR ARMS GANGED
A £

Fig. 1101-a, -b, -c. Rotary switches used in v.t.v.m’s can be repre­
sented in these three different ways in circuit diagrams.

tacts and to prevent solder from getting down into the switch.
Contacts should be cleaned periodically with a good contact
cleaner.

Replacement parts
Whenever possible parts should be obtained from the instru­
ment manufacturer to insure exact replacement. Individual com­
ponents for meter movements are often not stocked, however, and
the meter movement must be repaired by a shop which specializes
in such work.
When replacing selenium rectifiers in the v.t.v.m. or when
replacing crystal diodes in high-frequency probes, be sure to
observe polarity. Incorrect installation of these parts may result in
damage or improper circuit operation.

Tube replacement
Most v.t.v.m.’s are supplied with tubes which have been specially
aged at the factory before installation in the instrument. In some
instruments it is necessary to select tubes. Tubes are picked or
199
 aged to insure a low value of gas and contact-potential current.
While the tube replacement requirements may differ somewhat
between instruments of different manufacturers, it is usually desir­
able to age replacement tubes for bridge circuit and a.c.-signal
rectifier applications.
Proper selection and aging of the bridge tube is usually required
in v.t.v.m.’s which utilize bridge circuits of the types described in
Chapter 2. Unless the tube has suitable operating characteristics
and a low value of gas current, it may cause off-zero deflection of
the meter pointer when the range switch is changed from the low­
est d.c.-voltage range to the higher ranges. This condition requires
that the operator rezero the meter pointer whenever ranges are
changed. Often, a tube will prove unsuitable for installation, even
after a lengthy aging period. The acceptability of a tube for bridge­
circuit use will depend upon the design of the v.t.v.m. and the
manufacturer’s recommendations. In most cases, however, a change
of one or more divisions in the meter-zero setting as the range
switch is changed indicates that the tube requires more aging or
that the tube is unacceptable for use in the v.t.v.m. If a number
of new tubes are available, they should be installed in the instru­
ment, one at a time, before aging, to determine which tube has the
lowest value of gas. The tube which produces the least amount
of off-zero deflection as the range is changed is the best tube to
select for aging.
Single or twin diodes used in the a.c.-signal rectifying section
may or may not require selection or aging before installation. As
requirements for replacement will depend upon circuit design
and the particular v.t.v.m. involved, the manufacturer’s recom­
mendations should be followed. In general, however, the tube
selected should provide a minimum amount of off-zero deflection
of the meter pointer when the function switch is changed from
d.c. volts or ohms to a.c. volts as well as a minimum amount of
deflection as the range switch is rotated. Internal adjustments are
provided on many instruments, however, to compensate for differ­
ences between various signal-rectifier tubes, hence tube selection
and aging may not be critical.
A new tube may be aged by installing it in the v.t.v.m. and run­
ning the instrument for a number of hours or days. An alternate
and ordinarily quicker method of tube aging makes use of a simple
external setup such as that shown in Figure 1102. This setup may
be used for either triodes or diodes. In the case of triodes, the grids
and cathodes are tied to one side of the a.c. line and the plates are

200
tied to the other side of the line. Filaments should be operated at
a normal filament voltage supplied by a separate transformer.
Diodes can be aged in the same way, except that no grid connec­
tions are required.
The aging period required is from 24 to 100 hours, depending
upon the type of tube and instrument involved. Aging of tubes by
this method usually requires a shorter length of time than when
the tube is aged in the instrument.
Whenever a new tube is installed in the v.t.v.m., the instrument
should be checked for calibration and accuracy. In some instru-

Fig. 1102. Setup for aging diodes and triodes to be used in

the v.t.v.m.

ments it may be necessary to recalibrate to insure accurate a.c. and

d.c. voltage measurements.

Measurement accuracy
The degree of accuracy or inaccuracy with which a v.t.v.m. will
provide a voltage reading is usually expressed in percent of full-
scale reading. A typical figure is ±3% for d.c.-voltage measure­
ments. The error is introduced primarily by two factors: (1) error
in the meter movement and (2) variance in the values of the pre­
cision resistors used in the divider networks. These errors may be
cumulative. For example, if the meter movement causes a reading
which is low by two percent and the resistor network introduces
an additional error of minus one percent, the v.t.v.m. will indicate
a value which is three percent lower than the actual value of the
test voltage. It is also possible for the tolerance of the meter move­
ment to be off in one direction and for the error in resistance value
to be off in the opposite direction so that the total measurement
error is only 1%. The error can be high or low.
Before the technician decides that his v.t.v.m. is providing scale
indications which are out of tolerance with the manufacturer’s
201
specifications, however, he should make sure that the standard
which he is using is accurate. It is not sufficient to make a com­
parison with the readings of other voltmeters. The v.t.v.m. read­
ings should be checked against those provided by a laboratory
standard or against a calibrating voltage which is carefully regu­
lated.
When it is suspected that changed-value divider resistors are
causing incorrect readings, these components should be checked
on an accurately calibrated resistance bridge. Because many resis­
tors used in commercial v.t.v.m.’s are designed to be accurate to
three and four numerical places, conventional resistance-measur­
ing meters cannot be depended upon to measure their values
accurately.
Factory-fresh flashlight cells are a fair substitute for a voltage
standard for checking measurement accuracy on d.c.-voltage
ranges. When new, a flashlight cell should provide a voltage of
1.55 volts under the high-resistance load of the v.t.v.m. Two of the
cells can be connected in series to make a three-volt test source.

Mechanical zero setting of the meter

When the v.t.v.m. is switched to “off”, the meter pointer should
come to rest at the left-hand zero mark. If the pointer comes to
rest above or below the zero mark, the mechanical zero should be
adjusted. This is an adjustment which is accessible from the front
of the meter case and may be either a small set screw or a lever.
On some v.t.v.m.’s, the screw head of the adjustment is accessible
through a hole in the meter case. This hole may be covered with
a small cap or screw plug. The cap or plug should be removed
and the set screw adjusted with a small screw driver to bring the
pointer into line. V.t.v.m.’s equipped with a lever adjustment can
be zeroed by inserting a small scriber or similar tool into the hole
and moving the lever right or left, as required. When making lever
adjustments, however, take extreme care to avoid inserting the
scriber into the movement. Always replace the screw plug (or cap)
as this part is provided as a dust and hermetic seal.

Analyzing and localizing trouble

When troubleshooting a defective v.t.v.m., the technician
should apply the same methods of analysis he employs in trouble­
shooting a defective radio or television receiver. Like the TV set,
the v.tv.m. has a number of individual sections and circuits which
202
perform specific functions. In the v.t.v.m., however, some of these
circuits, such as the a.c.-signal rectifier and the ohms-divider net­
work, are used only for one or two types of measurements. These
circuits are inoperative (disconnected) for all other functions.
Other circuits, such as the power supply, bridge circuit, and indi­
cating meter, are employed for all operations of the v.t.v.m.
To make an intelligent analysis of the v.t.v.m. defect, therefore,
the technician should understand the function of the different

Fig. 1103. This block diagram represents the circuit arrangement in many
v.t.v.m’s.

circuit sections. These functions and typical circuits are described

in Chapter 2.
The first step to be taken in localizing trouble consists of in­
specting the performance of the v.tv.m. on all ranges and func­
tions. The function switch should be set to the first position,
(—D.c. volts, for example) and the range switch rotated to each'
of its settings. The function switch should then be turned to the
next position and the range switch again rotated through all its
positions. This procedure should be repeated for all remaining
settings of the function and range controls. Probes and cables
should be tested in a routine application at each step of the inspec­
tion to determine whether v.t.v.m. operation is normal. When this
complete check has been made, the technician should have a com­
plete picture of overall performance. If the v.t.v.m. is inoperative
on all functions, the trouble can be looked for in sections or cir­
cuits common to all functions. If the defect occurs only on one or
two functions or ranges, the technician should look for trouble in
the corresponding sections of the instrument.
If the cause of the trouble is not immediately apparent, the
technician should make a simple block diagram of the instrument,

203
tracing out the basic circuits on the schematic diagram provided
in the instruction manual. Representative block diagrams of two
v.t.v.m.’s are shown in Fig. 1103 and Fig. 1104. Different commer­
cial instruments will present numerous variations in design from
the layouts shown here, but the circuit switching and relationships
of the voltage-dividers and electron-tube circuits are similar.
Fig. 1103 shows a simplified and straightforward layout common
to many commercial v.tv.m.’s. This circuit employs three different
voltage dividers for d.c. volts, a.c. volts, and ohms measurements.
Analysis of the diagram will show that only one of these divider
circuits is operative at any one time. When the function switch
is set to plus or minus d.c. volts, for example, the ohms and a.c.
networks are disconnected from the circuit. The bridge circuit,
power supply, and indicating meter, however, are employed on all
three functions.
The technician should have little difficulty in localizing trouble
in an instrument of this design. For example, if the v.t.v.m. fails
to indicate on any function, the trouble must lie in the three sec­
tions common to all functions — the bridge circuit, power supply,
or meter. Faulty operation on ohms measurements only would pin­
point the source of trouble to the ohms divider network, the ohms
probe and cable, or the associated circuitry. The preliminary
checks described here are important to localizing and detecting
the source of trouble.
When troubleshooting the defective v.t.v.m., the technician
should not overlook the probes and cables as a source of trouble.
These accessories should be inspected carefully during the prelim­
inary tests and moved and flexed about during each step of the
inspection to make sure no intermittent shorts or opens are re­
sponsible.
A v.t.v.m. of somewhat different design is shown in block-dia­
gram form in Fig. 1104. This arrangement is similar to the design
employed in the RCA WV-97A Senior VoltOhmyst and other
commercial instruments. As is common with many v.t.v.m.’s, a
single input circuit is used for both a.c. and d.c.-voltage measure­
ments and a single test cable is used for both functions. The input
is switched inside the v.t.v.m. to channel the test voltage to the
proper circuit.
The probe used with this type of v.t.v.m. may be a switch type,
such as that described in Chapter 4, to permit removal or addition
of an isolating resistor for d.c.-voltage measurements. The instru­
ment of Fig. 1104 employs a common voltage divider for both a.c.

204
and d.c. voltage measurements. On d.c. volts, the input signal is
fed directly to the voltage divider and then to the bridge circuit.
On a.c. volts, the signal is first rectified by the a.c.-signal rectifier
and then fed to the voltage divider as a d.c. voltage. A defect in the
a.c.-d.c. voltage-divider network will affect operation of the v.t.v.m.
on both these voltage functions. Improper operation on a.c.-voltage
measurements only would point to the a.c.-signal rectifier section
as a source of trouble.
The a.c. signal section incorporates a special high-voltage divider
network between the a.c.-voltage terminal and the signal rectifier
section. This network usually consists of two or three precision

Fig. 1104. Block diagram of the various circuits of a v.t.v.m. This instrument
uses a contact-potential compensating circuit for a.c. voltage measurements.

resistors which are switched into operation only on the highest

a.c.-voltage ranges. The function of the divider is to attenuate high
a.c. voltages before they are applied to the relatively low-voltage
signal rectifier. This design feature prevents overloading and pos­
sible damage to the rectifier tube on high a.c.-voltage measure­
ments (500 to 1,500 volts r.m.s.).
A compensating circuit for contact potential is provided with
this v.t.v.m. The circuit is operative only when the v.t.v.m. is set
up for a.c.-voltage measurements as compensation is not required
on d.c.-voltage and ohms functions. The switch wafer in this
section is ganged to the function switch. The output from this
section is fed either to the bridge circuits, as shown, or to the
a.c.-signal rectifier section. Operation of contact-potential com­
pensating and bucking circuits is discussed in detail in Chapter 2.

205
A complete schematic diagram for a v.t.v.m. which employs this
arrangement is shown in Fig. 1105.

Description and analysis of two commercial v.t.v.m/s

Simpson 303
The complete schematic diagram of a typical commercial v.t.v.m.
is shown in Fig. 1105. This instrument, the Simpson model 303,
will measure resistance values up to 1,000 megohms and a.c. and

Fig. 1105. Complete diagram of a vacuum-tube voltmeter. The circuit is analyzed

in the text and in the illustrations which follow.

d.c. voltages up to 1,200 volts in five ranges. A single probe is used

for both a.c. volts and ohms measurements. A separate d.c.-voltage
probe is provided. An r.f. signal-tracing probe (not shown in

206
Fig. 1105) is available for the measurement of high frequencies
up to 100 me.
By carefully tracing the switching arrangements used in the 303,

200HA/650a APPROX

Fig. 1106. D.c. voltage measuring section of the v.t.v.m.

A.c. voltages are bypassed by capacitor C3.
the circuitry employed for each individual function can be deter­
mined. The circuits used for d.c. volts, a.c. volts, and ohms meas­
urements are shown in Figs. 1106, 1107, and 1108, respectively.

Fig. 1107. A.c. voltage section of the v.t.v.m. The diode rectifies the a.c., passes
it on to the triode in the form of a d.c. voltage.

A brief analysis of these individual circuit arrangements should

prove helpful to the technician in understanding operation of
many other similar instruments.
207
 Fig. 1106 shows the simplified diagram of the circuit used for
d.c.-voltage measurements. The circuit selector is set to the +dc
position and the range switch is set to the 1.2 v position. On d.c.
volts, the total input resistance of the 303 is 10 megohms and con­
sists of the resistance of the divider resistors, R26, R9, RIO, Rll,
R12, R27, and the isolating resistor in the probe, R29. This input
resistance is constant for all ranges. The divider and associated
bridge circuitry is designed so that the voltage required at the
grid of bridge tube VI for full-scale deflection is the same on all
ranges, regardless of the setting of the range selector. Resistor R19
and capacitor C3 constitute a filter circuit to keep a.c. and r.f. out
of the bridge circuit. A fixed negative bias is applied to the cath­
odes of VI from the power supply through resistors RI3 and R14,
which provide a small amount of self bias. The relatively high
values of RI3 and RI4 result in degeneration in the cathode cir­
cuits, thereby promoting stability and linear operation.
Potentiometer R33 is provided to permit balancing the two
sections of the 12AU7 bridge tube. R30 is connected in series with
the meter on all d.c.-voltage ranges and is the calibrating control
for d.c. voltage measurements. Both R30 and R33 are adjusted at
the factory.
When the d.c. probe and ground cable are connected to a d.c.-
voltage source, the test voltage is applied across the complete
divider network. A proportional amount of the voltage is tapped
off by means of the range switch. This voltage is fed to the grid
of the left-hand bridge tube, causing a meter reading which is
proportional to the applied voltage.
Examination of the circuit arrangement used on a.c.-voltage
measurements (Fig. 1107) shows that a different divider is em­
ployed in conjunction with a 6AL5 twin diode rectifier. A.c.-signal
voltages up to 60 volts are fed directly to the rectifier tube. On
higher voltage ranges, a special divider network, consisting of
R22, R23, and R24, is switched in automatically for measurements
on the 300- and 1,200-volt ranges in an arrangement like that shown
in Fig. 1104. Capacitor C2 serves as a blocking capacitor to keep
d.c. voltage out of the circuit on all range switch settings. The
rectified output voltage (d.c.) is applied across the voltage divider
made up of R20, R21, and R25, and is fed to the bridge circuit.
Potentiometer R31 is provided as a contact-potential adjust­
ment. To avoid the necessity for resetting the zero adjustment
when switching from a.c. to d.c. voltage measurements, or vice
versa, the contact-potential voltage developed by the rectifier sec­

208
tion of the 6AL5 must be overcome. This is accomplished in the
303 by using one diode section of the 6AL5 in a bridge arrange­
ment arid balancing the circuit by means of R31. A.c. calibration
is effected by means of R32. Both R31 and R32 are adjusted at the
factory.
Fig. 1108 shows the circuit arrangement used when the selector
switch is set to ohms. A 1.5-volt battery supplies the test voltage
for ohms measurements and is sufficient to cause full-scale deflec­
tion of the meter pointer when the test leads are open. Exact
full-scale setting of the meter pointer is effected by adjustment of
R35, the front-panel ohms-adjust control. When the resistance

Fig. 1108. Resistance measuring circuit of the v.t.v.m.

under test is connected between the ohms and ground leads, a

voltage-divider network, consisting of either R2, R3, R4, R5, or
R6, and the unknown resistor is produced. The battery is in series
with the network. This arrangement is similar to that shown in
Fig. 206 in Chapter 2. The voltage developed across the unknown
resistance will be proportional to the value of the resistance.
An examination of the individual circuits employed in the 303
shows that different networks and circuit arrangements are used
for each function of the v.t.v.m. The technician may wish to draw
his own block diagram of the 303, using the schematic diagram
of Fig. 1105 as a guide.

The RCA Master VoltOhmyst

The complete circuit diagram of the RCA Master VoltOhmyst
209
 [SWITCHES SHOWN IN MM COUNTERCLOCKWISE POSVEWEDFROM FRONT; RESISTORS IN OEMS; K=1000; CAPACITORS IN pf UNLESS NOTED IN ^rf; 0 -SCREWDRIVER ADJ | [ FOR ROTARY SWITCH COMPONENTS SEE HG.HOtT|

Fig. 1109. Complete circuit diagram of the vacuum-tube voltmeter described in the text. The troubleshooting procedure for this instru­
ment can be applied to any v.t.v.m.
is shown in Fig. 1109. This instrument will measure resistance
values up to 1,000 megohms, d.c. and a.c. (r.m.s.) voltages up to
1,500 in seven ranges, and direct current from 10 microamperes
to 15 amperes in nine ranges. A simplified block diagram is shown
in Fig. 1110. Examination of the block diagram shows that separ­
ate resistance dividers are used for each of the major functions

Fig. 1110. Complete block diagram of the v.t.v.m. illustrated in Fig. 501. This
instrument has provisions for measuring direct current, up to a maximum of
15 amperes.

and that the vacuum-tube bridge circuit is not used when the
v.t.v.m. is employed to measure current. In block-diagram form,
the instrument appears in its simplest form and the relationships
between the different circuits and functions is readily apparent.
A front-panel view of the Master VoltOhmyst is illustrated in
Fig. 501. Two interior views are shown in Figs. 1111 and 1112.
To gain some experience with circuit tracing and to acquaint
ourselves with some of the problems and techniques encountered
in troubleshooting any defective v.t.v.m., let us anticipate a variety
of possible troubles and, from examination of the block and sche­
211
matic diagrams, list the possible causes. Because v.t.v.m. s have
so much in common in their design and operation, we should be
able to apply much of the following discussion to other instru­
ments.
(Note: At this point, the technician might wish to list a number
of operating defects and, with the aid of the schematic diagram,
list for himself some of the possible causes. When the list has been
completed, it can be checked against the possible causes listed
below.) Components and tubes, described in the list of v.t.v.m.
troubles on this and following pages, are illustrated in Figs. 1109,
1111, and 1112.

General Troubles
Symptom
1. Instrument fails to operate on all functions except current;
tubes do not light.
Possible Causes
a. Line cord broken or not making contact at outlet.
b. Switch section S2F defective.
c. T1 defective. Check continuity of windings and resistance to
ground.
d. Fuse Fl open.
Symptom
2. Instrument fails to operate on all functions except current;
tubes light, zero adj does not work.
Possible Causes
a. Broken lead in ground cable or J2 defective.
b. Incorrect operating voltages on bridge tube. Measure volt­
ages with another voltmeter.
c. V2 or C3 defective.
d. Open or short circuit in V3 bridge circuit. Check out with
ohmmeter. Check R26, C5, T1 secondary (plate winding),
and meter leads.
e. Switch section S2B, S2C, or S2D defective.
Symptom
3. Meter pointer sticks.
Possible Causes
a. Cracked or broken jewel bearing in meter.
212
 b. Scale plate of meter is loose and is striking meter pointer
(remove meter from case and tighten screws).
Symptom
4. Meter pointer bangs hard left or right, depending upon set­
ting Of FUNCTION Switch.
Possible Causes
a. Open or short circuit in bridge circuit.

Fig. 1111. View of the interior of a v.t.v.m. Voltage and current cali­
bration adjustments are easily available, can easily be made with a
screwdriver. The battery (used for ohms measurements) is clamped
into place, but a new unit can be readily substituted.

Symptom
5. Intermittent operation on all functions except current.
Possible Causes
a. Loose or broken connection in ground cable. (Check by flex­
ing cable and observing meter readings.)
b. Wiper contact on S2B, S2C, or S2D defective.
c. Loose or broken connection in bridge circuit wiring. With

213
 power applied, check wiring, connections, and components
with insulated probe.
d. V2 or V3 defective.

Ohms-Function Troubles
Symptom
1. Instrument fails to operate on ohms; works normally on a.c.-
and D.c.-voltage measurements.
Possible Causes
a. Battery exhausted or not making contact.
b. Loose or broken connection in ohms cable. Check by flexing
cable and observing meter readings.
c. Defective wiper contact on switch section SID.
d. Open circuit in resistor network, or burned out resistor
around switch section SID (ohms-divider section). Note: This
network is made up of resistors which are added in series as
the switch is rotated. Therefore, one faulty resistor may cause
improper operation on one or more ranges.
e. Ohms jack, JI, or its attaching lead is open or shorted to other
wiring or to instrument case. Check resistance to case and
adjacent wiring.
f. Loose or broken “ohms” contact on switch section S2C (ter­
minal 12) or S2D (terminal 6).
g. Cable connector not making contact.
Symptoms
2. Ohms adj control fails to give infinity setting on resistance
scale.
Possible Causes
a. Ohms battery exhausted.
b. Ohms adjustment potentiometer, RI 6, defective.
c. V3 defective.
Symptoms
3. Readings inaccurate on some or all resistance ranges.
Possible Causes
a. One or more resistors in network around switch section SID
have changed value.
b. Excessive leakage in “ohms” circuit. Check switch wafers on

214
 SID and S2B for dirt or damage. Note: High humidity may
cause leakage and inaccurate readings on high ohms scales.
Bake out inside of instrument with low-wattage light bulb,
c. Poor contact from ground jack to ground bus of chassis,
d. Shorted wiring in resistor network around SID.
e. Faulty or high-resistance connections in “ohms” circuit.

R2

Fig. 1112. Underchassis view of a v.t.v.m. Note the way in which parts
are mounted on the wafer switches. Components with code numbers
can be identified by reference to the circuit diagram in Fig. 1109 on
page 210.

Symptoms
4. Meter pointer moves off infinity mark when range switch is
changed.
Possible Causes
a. Replace V3 with 12AU7 having a low value of gas current.
Note: A small deviation should be considered acceptable.
b. Excessive leakage in “ohms” circuit, possibly caused by high
humidity. Check by baking out for several hours with light
bulb. Do not overheat and damage capacitors.

215
 A.C.-Voltage Measurement Troubles
Symptoms
1. Instrument fails to operate on any A.c.-voltage range; works
normally on ohms and ‘d.c. volts.
Possible Causes
a. VI defective.
b. A.c. volts contact on S2A, S2B, S2C or S2D defective.
c. Faulty wiper contact on SIA.
d. Open or short circuit in circuitry associated with VI. Check
out wiring and components with ohmmeter.
e. Cl or C3 open, C6 shorted, or R34 open.
Symptoms
2. Meter pointer moves off zero when ranges are changed.
Possible Causes
a. A.c. zero potentiometer out of adjustment. If adjustment
fails to correct trouble, then do steps b and c.
b. Interchange VI and V2 or replace one or both tubes.
c. Resistor network around SIE defective. Check continuity and
values with ohmmeter.
Symptoms
3. A.c.-voltage readings inaccurate on some or all a.c. ranges;
performance on ohms and D.c.-voltage ranges is normal.
Possible Causes
a. Resistor network around switch SIC defective. Check values
with ohmmeter.
b. Defective contacts or wipers or excessive leakage in SIC.
Check for loose or dirty contacts.
c. VI defective.
d. C6 leaky.
e. R34 changed in value.
Note: If instrument is inaccurate on 500- and 1,500-volt
ranges only, check RIO, Rll, R12, and C2. If inaccurate on
1.5-volt range only, replace VI.
D.C.-Voltage Measurement Troubles
Symptoms
1. Instrument fails to operate on any range of +volts or
—volts; works normally on ohms and a.c. volts.
216
Possible Causes
a. D.c. (isolating) probe is defective. Try applying low d.c.-
voltage directly to direct-probe tip.
b. D.c.-voltage contacts on switch sections S2A, S2B, S2C, or
S2D defective. Check for loose or broken contacts.
Symptoms
2. Instrument fails to operate on any range of ¿-volts but nor­
mal on —volts or vice versa; works normally on ohms and
A.C. VOLTS.

Possible Causes
a. Potentiometer RI5 or RI3 defective. Check out with ohm­
meter. Check R15 when ¿-volts is defective; check R13 when
—volts is defective.
b. Defective contacts on switch sections S2A, S2B, S2C, or S2D.
Check switches for loose or broken contacts.
Symptoms
3. Voltage readings inaccurate on ¿-volts, —volts, or both; a.c.
voltage and resistance readings are correct.

Possible Causes
a. RI3 and RI5 out of adjustment.
b. Isolating resistor in d.c. (isolating) probe has changed value.
Measure resistance on ohms function. Note: If one or more
of the low-value resistors in the network around SIB have
changed value, it is possible that the meter reading may be
inaccurate on the 500- and 1,500-volt ranges but the inaccur­
acy may not be apparent on the lower ranges.
Symptoms
4. D.c.-voltage readings incorrect; resistance readings correct.
Possible Causes
a. Resistance in network around SIB has changed value. Check
out with ohmmeter and replace defective resistors.
b. Switch contacts on SIB or S2A defective. Check for loose or
broken contacts or foreign material.
Symptoms
5. Instrument fails to function on D.c.-voltage measurements;
works normally on ohms function.

217
Possible Causes
a. Check d.c. (isolating) probe and cable and connectors.
b. SIB network open.
Symptoms
6. -pD.c. and a.c. voltage readings incorrect; —d.c. normal.
Possible Causes
a. Recalibrate RI5.
b. RI5 defective.

Current-Measurement Troubles
Symptoms
1. Instrument fails to operate on any current range. A.c. and
D.c. volts and ohms functions normal.
Possible Causes
a. Switch contact on S2C (terminal 2) or S2D (terminal 8)
defective.
Symptoms
2. Instrument fails to operate on -|-ma current range; .+ I-5a
and +15a ranges normal.
Possible Causes
a. Faulty wiper contact on SIF.
b. Check +ma terminal for broken lead.
Symptoms
3. Instrument operates only on low-current ranges, or no opera­
tion on any current range; a.c. and d.c. volts and ohms
functions normal.
Possible Causes
a. Resistor network RI through R9 defective. Check out with
ohmmeter.
b. Switch contact on S1F, S2C, or S2D defective.

218
 index

Control Settings, Audio 134

High-Voltage Rectifying Probe Input and Output Impedances — 135
for____________________ 186 Neutralization 153
Measurements, Wide-Range Stages in Transmitter--------------- 146
Frequency Response in_ 10 Amplifiers:
Measuring Circuits —_________ 28 Adjustment of High-Power----- 149
Probes______________________ 49 Buffer 147
R.M.S. Scales_________________ 42 Measurements in Audio 125
A.C. Voltage: Servicing Audio ......... .................... 123
Measurement Troubles 216 Analysis of Commercial V.T.V.M. _ 206
Measurements-------------------- 71, 75 Analysis of V.T.V.M. Defects _ ___ 203
Test Setup for Measurement of Analyzing the Defective TV Receiver 79
Low „------------------------------- 132 Analyzing Trouble in the V.T.V.M. _ 202
Voltage Scales________________ 42 Antenna Intermittents 170
Voltage Section of V.T.V.M.----- 207 Antennas, Checking TV 170
Accuracy, Measurement---------------- 201 Applications of V.T.V.M. ----------- 62, 63
Adjustments: Audio Amplifiers:
Alignment____________________ 118 Adjustments, Making ------------- 126
Audio Amplifier _______________ 126 Checking Frequency Response of 133
Meter Level---------------------------- 202 Cheeking Stage Gain in-------— 190
A.G.C. Circuit Troubles_______ ___ 91 Control Settings 134
Aging Tubes for the V.T.V.M.-------- 200 Measurements in---------------------- 125
Aging Tubes, Setup for 201 Servicing -------- 123
Alignment:
Adjustments---- ----------------- 118
AM Receiver--------- 103, 116, 117 Balanced Ratio Detector - ------------- 122
FM__________________________ 103 Banded Tone Records - ------------------ 134
I.F. _---------------------------------------- 115 Bandpass Curve, Plotting a----------- 95
Ratio Detector —--------------------- 122 Bass Control------------------------------- 134
R.F. -________________________ 115 Battery, Ohms ---- —--------------------- 197
Trap----------------------- 97 Battery Voltages, Checking----------- 159
AM Receiver Test Points 106, 110 Bias:
AM Repair..... . .................... 103 Arrangements ------------------------ 149
Amateur Radio------------- 141 Cathode------------------------------ — 143
Amateur Transmitters — 141 Cells. Checking ----------------------- 160
Amplifier: Checking Grid--------------------- — 147
Adjustments, Making-------- 126 Fixed------------------------------------- 148
Audio, Checking Frequency Grid-------------------------------------- 148
Response of - ------------ -------- 133 Grid-Leak ------------------ ——- 148
Circuit, High-Fidelity-------------- 124 Operating ........................ -.... —- 148
Circuits, R.F. Transmitter------- 147 Oscillator----- ------------------------- 145

219
 Protective--------------------------------- 148 Contrast, Excessive Picture------------ 91
Supply, External---------------------- 92 Contrast, Insufficient Picture --------- 91
Breakdown of V.T.V.M.-------------------- 195 Control:
Bridge: Circuit----------------------------------------- 65
Balancing the------------------------------- 19 Function-------------------------------- 65, 198
Circuit----------- ------------------------16, 17 Ohms Adjust------------------------------ 65
Circuit, Cathode-Metered --------- 17 Range------------------------------------ 65, 198
Circuit, Open----------------- 212 Selector-------------------------------------- 65
Circuit Operation, Cathode- Zero-Adjust--------------------------- 19, 43
Metered ------------------- 20 Controls, Bass and Treble--------------- 134
Circuit, Plate-Metered ---------------- 17 Controls, Front-Panel-------- ------------- 65
Wheatstone-------------------------------- 167 Conversion Scales, DB-------------------- 174
Buffer Amplifiers----------------------------- 147 Conversion Table for Sine Waves — 26
Burnout, Meter--------------------------------- 127 Crossover Frequencies---------------------- 135
Burnout-Resistant Meter Circuit — 11 Crystal:
Buzz in Sound - ------------------------------------91 Diode Rectifier Probes —49, 51, 52
Oscillator __ ___________________ 144
Pickup, Checking ------- -------------- 193
Cable, Checking Coaxial------------------ 170 Curing Hum------------------------------------- 129
Cable Plug Tips------------------------------ 185 Current:
Cables 45, 46 Gas, in V.T.V.M. Tube - ------------ 200
Cables, Failure of--------------------------- 196 Grid____________________________ 148
Calibrating an Oscilloscope------------ 163 Measurements___ _______________ 145
Calibrating Voltage Output of Measurements, Meter Burnout in 182
Generators . ------------ ---------------- 157 Measurements, Modifying
Calibration of V.T.V.M. Preamplifier 180 V.T.V.M. for----------------------- 182
Cap, Meter —----------------------------------- 202 Measurements, Troubles in_____ 218
Capacitance, Excessive in Probe------ 186 Measuring Circuit . -------- 34
Capacitor Leakage -------------------------- 113 Readings with the V.T.V.M.____ 183
Capacitors, Checking----------------------- 83 Cut Rotor Plates ------------------------------- 118
Capacitors, Leaky Coupling------------ 105
Cartridge, Checking Voltage Output DB:
of---- - -------------- -------- 193 Conversion Scales------------------- -- 174
Cathode Bias, Measuring---------------- 148 Measurements ------------------------- 136
Cathode Follower Impedance - --------- 132 Readings with the V.T.V.M.___ 174
Cathode-Metered Bridge Circuit Scales 175
Operation----------------------------------- 20 DBM 137
Causes of Hum-------------------------------- 129 DBM vs. R.M.S. Voltages 136
Cells, Checking Bias------------------------ 160 D.C.:
Characteristics, Instrument------------ 7 Input to V.T.V.M. 21
Checking: Isolating Probe, Making a 189
Battery Voltages----------——- 159 Plate Voltage, Measuring 148
Bias Cells--------- —------------------- 160 Probe ................ ....-------------- 48
Coaxial Cable--------------------------- 170 Screen Voltage, Measuring___ 148
Current-------------------------------------- 182 Voltage-Divider Network 20
Defective Picture Tubes---------- 99 Voltage Measurement Troubles . 216
Frequency Response------------------ 133 Voltage Measurements ___ 47, 70
Gassy Tubes------------------------------ 162 Voltage Measuring Section of
Impedance--------------------------------- 171 the V.T.V.M. 207
Inductance-------------------------------- 172 Decibel:
Local Oscillator------------------------ 111 Measurements 136
Ohms Battery--------------------------- 197 Readings with the V.T.V.M........ — 174
Phonograph Equalizers------------ 135 Scales ........ —.................... 175
Pickups - ------------------------------------- 193 Defective Selenium Rectifier,
Potentiometers —--------------------- 162 Replacing_______ ________ ______ 169
Power Supplies-------------------------- 112 Deflection Circuits, Troubleshooting 100
Power Transformers---------------- 172 Deflection, Off-Zero __ _ ___ 200
Precision Resistors-------------------- 168 Deflection Sensitivity of Scope_____ 163
Q of Coils--------------------------------- 173 Demodulator Probe________ -________ 49
Reactance------ --------------------------- 171 Detail, Soft Picture _______ —.___ 101
R.F. Amplifier Gain------------------ 176 Detector:
Selenium Rectifier Circuits ------- 168 Alignment of Ratio 122
Stage Gain in Audio Amplifiers 190 Balanced Ratio 122
Transformers _--------------------------- 160 Circuit. Ratio_________ _______ „__ 121
Transmission Lines--------------------170 Discriminator 121
TV Antennas-------------------------- — 170 Probes 49
Voltage Output of Phonograph Ratio 122
Cartridges------ ---------------------- 193 Unbalanced Ratio 122
Voltage Regulator Circuits_____155 Dial Out of Calibration----------- .------- 115
Circuit: Direct Current Measurements __ 33, 72
Arrangement of V.T.V.M. ---------- 203 Direct Probes 46
Control 65 Discriminator Detectors 121
Loading ---------------------------,--------- 8 Divider Probes 56
Coaxial Cable, Checking 170 Divisions, Scale 39
Coils, Checking_______________________ 89 Doubler, Full-Wave Voltage 113
Coils, Checking Q of 173 Dress, Lead 163
Combined Probe ------------------------- 49, 50 Dress, Poor Lead 129
Commercial V.T.V.M/s, Analysis of 206 Dummy Load 131
Component Failures..................103, 107
Construction of Preamplifier for the
V.T.V.M. 179 Eliminating Hum — -------------- ------ 128
Contact Potential----- _-------- -------30, 205 Equalizers, Checking Phonograph 135
Contact Potential, Correcting for Error, Tracking w _76
Effects of 190 Experimental V.T.V.M______ .____— 186
220
Factor, Multiplier 38 Instrument Characteristics —_____ — 7
Failures, Component__________ ___ 107 Intercarrier TV, Test Points in____ 93
Field-Strength Meter____________ _ 154 Intermittent:
Filament Wiring Tests_____________ 104 Receiver Test Points 115
Filtering, Inadequate Power Supply 129 Sound 114
Fixed Bias_________________________ _ 148 Trouble _____________________ ___ 94
Flutter, Excessive Airplane 91 Intermittents __ _____________ __103, 114
FM: Intermittents in Antenna Systems _ 170
Alignment ._____________________ __ 103 Isolating:
Receiver Circuit 120 Effect of Probe 47
Receiver, Test Points in ______ 120 Probes 47, 184
Receivers 119 Resistor 47, 184
Repair------- --------------- ----------- 103 Isolation Transformer, Need for____ 109
Frequencies, Crossover_________ 135
Frequency Response: Kinks for the V.T.V.M. 184
Checks 133
Measurements 130
Of Scope 164 Lead Dress 163
Of V.T.V.M. __________________26, 27 Lead Dress, Poor 129
Vs. Output Voltage 136 Leakage:
Frequency Test Records 134 In Power Output Stage,
Front-Panel Controls 65 Heater-to-Cathode 129
Front-to-Back Resistance of Paths, Transformer 89
Selenium Rectifier 169 Resistance Test _90
Full-Wave Supply, Test Points in .. 114 Leaky Coupling Capacitors------------- 105
Full-Wave Voltage Doubler 113 Levels, Standard Reference------------139
Function Control-------------------------65, 198 Lever Adjustment, Meter 202
Limitations of the V.T.V.M.------- 62, 63
Gain, Checking R.F.Amplifier--------- 176 Linear Deflection of Scope 164
Gain, Voltage------------------------------------ 132 Linear Scales 41
Ganged Switches --------------------- 198 Load:
Gas Current in V.T.V.M.Tubes____ _ 200 Dummy 131
Gas-Tube Regulator------- ----------------- ' 156 Impedance, Voice-Coil--------- '— 131
Gassy Tubes - — ---------------------------- 105 Transformer Output 127
Gassy Tubes, Checking .. _— 162 Loading Effect, Meter 8
General Troubles in the V.T.V.M. _ 212 Local Oscillator, Checking........... — 111
Generators, Calibrating Voltage Localizing Trouble in the V.T.V.M. - 202
Output of---------------------------- 157 Low A.C. Voltage Scales --------- 42
Gliding Tone Records------------------------- 134 Low Circuit Loading in Voltage
Grid Bias, Checking 147 Measurements 8
Grid, Bias, Measuring----------------------- 148
Grid Current 148 Magnetic Pickups, Checking------------ 193
Grid-Leak Bias----- ---------------------------- 148 Maintaining V.T.V.M. Switches ------ 198
Grounding, Improper------------------------- 130 Maintenance of the V.T.V.M. —_— 196
Measurement:
Half-Wave Supply, Test Points in — 111 A Pr*TIT'S! (*V 201
Ham Shack. V.T.V.M. in the 141 Of Low A.C. Voltages, Test
Heater-to-Cathode Leakage 113, 129 Setup for ----------------------- 132
Heater Wiring Tests----------------------- 104 Of Power-Supply Ripple and
Height, Insufficient ------------------------ 101 Regulation ------------------- -------- 158
High-Fidelity Amplifier Circuit------ 124 Tips ..................................................... 74
High-Frequency Probes ------------- 49 Troubles, Current------------------- 218
High-Power Amplifiers, Adjustment Troubles, D.C. Voltage------------- 216
of _________________ 149 Measurements:
High Voltage: A.C. Voltage - --------------------- 25, 71
Circuit, TV______________ _______ 101 In Audio Amplifiers------------------ 125
Measuring —------------------------------- 152 Current ----------------------------------- 145
Precautions --------------- --------------- 142 D.C- Voltage________________ 47, 70
Probes ------ -------- - -------------------- 56 Decibel --------------------------------- 136
Rectifying Probe for A.C. Direct Current --------------------- 33, 72
Measurements-------------- ------- 186 Frequency Response ------------------ 130
Hints for the V.T.V.M.-------------------- 184 How to Take ------------------ 70
Hiss .................................. .............................. 115 Modifying the V.T.V.M. for
Horizontal Hold, Critical----------- — 91 Current ---------------- --------- 182
Horizontal Pulling---------------------------- 91 Of Screen Voltages in
Hum: Transmitters ——--------------- 147
Eliminating ___-------------------------- 128 Ohms---------------------- —— 71, 74
Excessive -------------------------------- 112 Voltage__________ ____ —75, 110
In Output Tube ------------------------ 190 Measuring:
Remedies for----------------------------- 129 Circuits. A.C.------------ —------------ 28
High Voltage--------------- —--------- 152
I.F. Response Curve------------------------ 97 Inductance------------------------- — 172
Impedance, Checking -------------------- 171 Power Output--------------------------- 192
Impedance of Power Transformers, 172
Checking - --------- :-----------------172 Unknown Impedance --------- 171
Improper Grounding -------- —— 130 Mechanical Zero Setting of the
Improper Use of the V.T.V.M. -- ------ 196 Meter---------------------- 202
Inadequate Shielding —------------- — 130 Meter:
Inductance, Measuring--------------------- 172 Burnout —--------------------------- 127
Infinity ........-.................................. Burnout in Current
42
Input and Output Impedances of Measurements--------------------- 182
Amplifier ____________ ____ _—— 135 Cap — ---------- .—.----------------- 202
Input Resistance of the V.T.V.M. — 21 Circuit, Burnout-Resistant —— 11
Input to V.T.V.M., D.C---------------- ---- 21 Cracked Bearing in-------------------- 212

221
 Field-Strength 154 Picture Tube, Checking a Defective 99
Lever Adjustment----------------------- 202 Placements of Parts, Poor--------------- 130
Loading Effect -9 Plate Feed, Series and Parallel —— 146
Mechanical Zero Setting of------- 202 Plate Supply Voltage, Measuring — 148
Resistance---------------- 9 Plotting a Bandpass Curve -------------- 95
Screw Plug----------------------------------202 Plug Tips -------- 185
Shunts 183 Polarity of Ohms Battery----------------- 197
Misalignment___________________ 103, 115 Potential, Contact ------------------ 30, 205
Miscellaneous Applications--------------- 157 Potential, Contact, Correcting for
Misuse of the V.T.V.M___ 196 Effects of------------------------------ 190
Modifying the V.T.V.M. for Potentiometers:
Current Measurements 182, 183 Checking------------------------------------- 162
Modifying the V.T.V.M. Scales for Noisy _162
DB Readings 175 Taper of--------------------------------------- 163
Monitoring a TV Set 95 Power:
Mounting Stand for the V.T.V.M. _ 185 Input to Amplifier----------------------- 153
Multiplier: Output, Measuring---------------------- 192
Factor------------------------------------- 38 Output Stage, Heater-to-
Probes---------------- 56 Cathode Leakage in------------ 129
Resistor 57, 58 Power Supplies:
Stages in Transmitter---------------- 146 Checking ---------------------------------- 112
Multipliers------------------------------------------- 67 Checking Selenium Rectifier------ 168
Filtering Inadequate in-------------- 129
Neutralizing Indicator-----------------------153 Regulation of----------------------- 156, 159
Neutralizing Triodes------------------------ 154 Ripple in --------------------------- 158
Noisy Potentiometers----------------------- 162 Testing Voltage Doubler 169
Nonlinear Scales-------------------------41, 174 Tests of ---------------------------------- 88
Null Indication 73 Voltage Regulated----------------------- 156
Null Indications, Zero-Center---------167 Power Transformers, Checking_____ 172
Preamplifier for the V.T.V.M.--------- 177
Off-Zero Deflection--------------------------- 200 Preamplifier Voltage Gain,
Ohms: Measurement of ---- 132
Adjust Control----------------------------- 65 Precision Resistors, Checking Value
Battery--------------------------------------- 197 of ________________ 168
Battery Polarity-------------------------- 197 Precision Resistor, Using the
Battery, Replacing--------------------- 197 V.T.V.M. as a ............„.................185
Function Troubles---------------------- 214 Preventive Maintenance of the
Measurements 71, 74 V.T.V.M. 196
Scale 41 Probes:
Open Tubes 104 A.C. 49
Operating Bias--------------------------------- 148 Combined ------------------------------- 49, 50
Oscillator: Crystal Diode------------------------------- 49
Bias 145 Damage to --------------------------------- 196
Checking Local--------------------------- 111 D.C. 48
Crystal --- ---------------------------------144 Demodulator 49
Operating Voltages--------------------- 143 Design of 50
Stages, Checking ....--------------------- 143 Detector --------------------------------------- 49
Variable-Frequency 144 Direct ------------------------------------------ 46
Oscillators, Calibrating Voltage Divider ---------------------------------------- 56
Output of 157 Failure of ---------------------------------- 196
Oscillators, Testing of____ ___________ 144 High-Frequency ------------------------- 49
Oscilloscope: High-Voltage 56
Calibration of 163 Isolating ---------------------------- 47, 184
Frequency Response of 164 Isolating Effect of --------------------- 47
Voltmeter Scales for 166 Making D.C. Isolating 189
Output: Making Rectifying--------- ------------ 189
Measuring Power 192 Multiplier 56
Stage, Heater-to-Cathode Peak-to-Peak 55
Leakage in 129 Rectifying ------------ .--------------------- 49
Transformer Load 127 Resistance of_____ ._____________ 21
Tube Hum 190 R.F 49
Voltage vs. Frequency Response 136 Storage of ---------------------------------- 185
Output and Input Impedances, Switch Type-------- ----------------------- 49
Audio Amplifier 135 Vacuum Tube ------------------ 49, 53, 54
Overloading 91 Protective Bias ---------------------- 148
Push-Pull Transmitter Power
Parallel Plate Feed 146 Amplifier 151
Parasitics 146
Parts Placement, Poor______________ 130 Q Measurements 172
Parts, Replacement of 199
Peak-to-Peak: Range Control 65, 198
Probes 55 Range Switch-------- ----------------------- 38, 40
Rectifier ____ -________ ._________ 33 Ratio Detector:
Rectifier Circuit____„___________ 29 Balanced 122
Scales 42 Circuit 121
Value of Sine Wave 25 Unbalanced 122
Peak Value of Sine Wave__ „______ 25 Reactance, Checking_____ ._________ 171
Percentage of Regulation ___________ 159 APAiVAT* *
Phonograph Cartridges, Checking Alignment, AM _________ .____ 116, 117
Voltage Output of ________ 193 Circuit, FM 120
Phonograph Equalizer, Checking ___ 135 FM .................................... ................... 119
Pickups, Checking _______ __________ 193 Servicing the Shorted ........____ .... 191
Picture I.F. Amplifiers, Trouble­ Records:
shooting ------------------ 94 Banded Tone 134

222
 Gliding Tone_______ ________ ____ 134 Selenium Rectifier Circuits,
Test Frequency _____________ 134 Checking _ _ 168
Rectifier: Selenium Rectifier, Replacing
Circuits, Checking Selenium ___ 168 Defective................. 169
Circuits, Peak-to-Peak_________ 29 Sensitivity of the V.T.V.M.__________ 10
Peak-to-Peak ___ 33 Series Plate Feed ___________ 146
Probes, Crystal-Diode . 51, 52 Servicing Audio Amplifiers ________ — 123
Replacing Defective Selenium __ 169 Servicing the ShortedReceiver_____ 191
Rectifying: Setup for Aging Tubes ____________ 201
Probe, Making a_______________ 189 Setup for AM Alignment, Test__117, 118
Probes . __ _ __________________ 49 Shielding ______ 78
Probes for High-Voltage A.C. Shielding, Inadequate ____________ 130
Measurements_____________ 186 Shock Hazard ____________________ 142
Reference Levels, Standard ______ 139 Shorted Receiver, Servicing the___ 191
Regulation, Percentage of___________ 159 Shunts, Meter_______________________ 183
Regulation, Power-Supply _____ 156, 158 Signal Tracing---------------------------------- 107
Regulator, Gas-Tube ________________ 156 Signal Tracing Audio Amplifiers__ 123
Repairs, AM_________________________ 103 Sine Waves, Conversion Table for__ 26
Repairs, FM--------------------------------------- 103 Slip on Probes_________ 46
Replacement of Tubes in the Slotted Rotor Plates ______________ 118
V.T.V.M. _________________ 199 Snow in Picture ---------——---------- 91
Replacement Parts for the Soft Picture Detail__________________ 101
V.T.V.M.___________________ 199 Sound I.F. Amplifiers, Trouble­
Resistance: shooting ---------------- 94
Matching, Modifying the Sound, Intermittent_________________ 114
V.T.V.M. for 167 Spare Probes, Storage of-----------------185
Measurement Network _________ 23 Split-Sound TV, TestPoints in ______ 93
Measuring Circuit of the Stage Gain in Audio Amplifiers,
V.T.V.M.____________________ 209 Checking_ 190
Of Meter_____________ 9 Standard Reference Levels __________139
Of Transformer Windings_______ 160 Storage of Spare Probes ___ 185
Of V.T.V.M. Input_____ 21 Subdivision Marks on Scales------------- 39
Probe___ _____ 21 Substitution Tests, Capacitor------------ 86
Readings Over Wide Ranges___ 12 -Switch, Range------------------------ 38, 40
Resistor: Switch-Type Probe-------------------- 49
Isolating-------------------------------- 47, 184 Switches:
Multiplier_________________________ 57 Defective -------------------------- ----- — 212
V.T.V.M. as a Precision_________ 185 Ganged---------------------------- :---------- 198
Resistors, Checking_______________ 87 Rotary . _ — -------- ---------- 199
Response: Troubleshooting V.T.V.M.------ 198
Curve, I.F._______________________ 97 Switching Arrangements in the
Measurements, Frequency_______ 130 V.T.V.M. . _____ 207
Of V.T.V.M., Frequency__________ 27 Sync Circuits, Troubleshooting - ------- 100
R.F.: Sync Noise Immunity. Poor--------------- 91
Alignment----------------------------------- 115
Amplifier Circuits, Transmitter 147 Taper of Potentiometers------------------ 163
Amplifier Gain, Checking________ 176 Test Points:
Amplifier, Testing-------------------- 150 AM Receiver ----------------------------- 110
Output Signal Voltage, FM Receiver----------------------------- 120
Measuring----------------------- 148 Half-Wave Supply ----------------------111
Probes --------------------------------------- 49 Intermittent Receiver---------------- 115
Signal Voltage, Measuring---------- 148 Transformer Full-Wave Supply 114
Voltages, Measuring------------------ 52 Voltage-Doubler Supply------------- 169
Ripple, Power-Supply - ------------------ 158
Test Probe, Making a --------- 189
R.M.S. Value of Sine Wave - --------------25 Test Records, Frequency------------------ 134
R.M.S. Voltages vs. DBM -------------- 136 Test Setup for AM Alignment 117, 118
Rotary Switches in the V.T.V.M. _ 199 Test Setup for Measurement of
Rotor Plates, Cut and Slotted-----------118 Low A.C. Voltages---------- — 132
Testing:
Safety--------- 142 Amplifier Input and Output
Scales: Impedances ------------------------- 135
A.C., R.M.S.________ ___________ 42 Battery Voltages ----------------------- 159
A.C. Voltage_____________________42 Oscillators 144
DB Conversion__________________ 174 TV High-Voltage Circuits---------- 101
Division of ----------------------- 39 Time, Transit ------------------------------ — 51
For an Oscilloscope,Voltmeter _ 166 Tips, Plug----------------------------------------- 185
How to Read ------ 39 Tracing, Signal--------------------------------- 107
Linear and Nonlinear-------------------- 41 Tracking Error------- 76
Low A.C. Voltage----- w------------- 42 Transformer:
Modifying for DB Readings------ 175 Impedance Matching ------------ 161
Ohms --------- 41 Isolation, Need for--------------------- 109
Peak-to-Peak ----------------------------- 42 Load, Output ----------------------------- J27
Sharing of —-------- 38 Turns Ratio----------------------- —r 161
Subdivisions of___________________ 39 Transformers, Checking----------— 89, 160
Zero-Center ------ 43 Transit Time--------- - -------- --------------- 51
Scope (see also Oscilloscope): Transmission Lines, Checking--------- 170
Calibration of Transmitter:
163
Deflection Sensitivity------------------ 163 Amateur —----------------- —-------- —- 141
Frequency Response of--------------- 164 Amplifier Stages-------------------- 146
Linear Deflection of ——------ 164 Harmonics --------- —---------------146
Screen Voltage Measurements in Multiplier Stages — ------------------ - 146
Transmitter- 147 Trap Alignment----------------------------------8 J
Screw Plug, Meter ------ 202 Treble Control-------------------------------- J|4
Selector Control-------------------------------- 65 Triode Neutralization----------------------- 154
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Trouble in the V.T.V.M., Analyzing Field-Strength Meter-------------------155
and Localizing 202 General Troubles in the------------ 212
Troubles, Tube----------------------------------- 80 Hints and Kinks for-------------------- 184
Troubleshooting: Improper Use of-------------------------- 196
Audio Amplifiers------------------------ 123 Localizing Trouble in the 202
Defective Components------------------ S3 Maintaining Switches in the — 198
Deflection Circuits ----------------------- 100 Measurement Accuracy of 201
FM Receivers------------------------------- 119 Meter, Setting of the-------------------202
Picture I.F. Amplifiers -------------- 94 Miscellaneous Applications _____ 157
Sound I.F. Amplifiers-------------------- 94 Mounting Stand for-------------------- 185
Switches in the V.T.V.M.198 Preventive Maintenance of_____ 196
Sync Circuits 100 Replacement Parts for----------------- 199
Tuners ------- 92 Rotary Switches in---------------------- 199
TV 79 Switching Arrangements in the 207
Video Amplifiers ------------- 98 Troubleshooting ----------------------- 195
Vacuum-Tube Voltmeters--------- 195 Troubleshooting Switches in the 198
Tube: Tube Replacement in the 199
Failures_____________________ 103, 104 Voltage Standard------------------------- 202
Heaters, Open----------------- 114 V.T.V.M. Defects:
Hum in Output--------------------------- 190 A.C. Voltage Range Defective _ 216
Replacement 199 A.C. Voltage Readings
Troubles -------------- 80 Inaccurate .. 216, 218
Tubes: A.C. Zero Potentiometer Out of
Aging for the V.T.V.M.------------- 200 Adjustment 216
Checking Gassy-------------------------- 162 Analysis of ---------------------------- -- 203
Gassy------------------------------------------- 105 Broken Connection in Ohms
Open ------------------------------------------- 104 Cable — -------------------214
Setup for Aging-------------------------- 201 Broken Ground Cable _ --------- 212
Tuner Operation, Improper -________ 93 Cable Connector Not Making
Tuners, Troubleshooting-------------------- 92 Contact —_______ ________ 214
Turns Ratio of Transformers —------- 161 Cracked Jewel Bearing in Meter 212
TV: Current Range Does Not Work 218
Antennas, Checking —.---------------- 170 D.C. Probe Defective------------------= 217
High-Voltage Circuit------- ---------- 101 D.C. Voltage Readings
Troubleshooting--------------------------- 79 Incorrect ----------- 217, 218
Defective Wiper Contact _____ 214
Unbalanced Ratio Detector 122 Excessive Leakage in Ohms
Unstable Picture 91 Circuit --------- 214
Exhausted Battery 214
Vacuum-Tube Probes 49, 53, 54 Fails to Operate ------------------------- 212
Vacuum-Tube Rectifying Probe--------- 51 Faulty Resistors---------------------------214
Variable-Frequency Oscillator --------- 144 Faulty Wiper Contact 216
Video Amplifier, Troubleshooting Fuse Open ........................................ * 212
in the 98 Inaccurate Reading .......................... 214
Voice-Coil Impedance Matching — 161 Instrument Does Not Read D.C.
Voice-Coil Load Impedance------------ 131 Voltages ----------- 217
Voltage: Instrument Falls to Work on
Checking Battery 159 Ohms —..... ---- -------------------- 214
D.C. Plate -____________________ 148 Intermittent Operation --------------- 213
D.C. Screen______________________ 148 Isolating Probe, Defective--------- 217
Divider Network, D.C. 20 Loose Connection in Ohms Cable 214
Doubler, Full-Wave------------------- 113 Loose or Dirty Contacts_____ . 216
Doubler Power Supply, Testing -169 Meter Pointer Off Scale ------ 213, 215
Gain 132 Meter Pointer Off Zero-------------- 216
Measurement of Screen------------ 147 Meter Pointer Sticks ----------------- 212
Measurement Troubles, A.C. — 216 Ohms Adjustment Control Fails
Measurements 75, 110 to Give Infinity Setting.. 214
Measurements, Low-Circuit Ohms Adjustment Potentiometer
Loading in 8 Defective --------- 214
Measuring High 152 Ohms Jack Shorted -------------------- 214
Output of Generators and Open Bridge Circuit ------------------ 212
Oscillators, Calibrating______ 157 Open Resistor Network 214
Plate Supply ------------------------------- 148 Probe Isolating Resistor Changes
Regulated Supply 156 Value -................... —------------- 217
Regulator Circuits, Gas Tube .... 155 Transformer Defective __ -_____ 212
R.F. Output Signal 148 Tubes Do Not Light --------- 212
R.M.S. vs. DBM 136 Zero Adjust Does Not Work — 212
Sources for Ohms Measurements 23
Standard for the V.T.V.M._____ 202
Voltmeter Scales for the Wheatstone Bridge --------------------------- 167
Oscilloscope 166 Whistling Between Stations-------------- 115
V.T.V.M.: Weak Signals .. - --------- 115
A.C. Voltage Section of 207 Wide-Range Frequency Response
Aging Tubes for 200 in A.C. Measurements______ 10
Analysis of Commercial------------ 206 Width, Insufficient _________________ - 101
Analyzing Trouble in the---------- 202
As a Precision Resistor - ------------ 185 Zero-Adjust Control —_______ 19, 43, 65
Circuit Arrangement of 203 Zero-Center Null Indication------- —— 167
Complete Circuit of 206 Zero-Center Scales . -------------- -------- 43
D.C. Voltage Measuring Section 207 Zero Setting of the Meter,
Experimental 186 Mechanical ------- .--- 202

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