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Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture in

India: State-of-the-Art-Review

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DOI: 10.24966/AAF-5523/100003

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 Mishra SS, et al., J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003

HSOA Journal of
Aquaculture & Fisheries
Review Article

Present Status of Fish Disease sector in India, enhancing productivity, socioeconomic condition and
livelihood security of fishers who are directly or indirectly dependant

Management in Freshwater on this sector. The details of freshwater aquaculture practices, prev-
alence of disease, principle of disease diagnosis and control pro-
gramme and future scope of development of freshwater aquaculture
Aquaculture in India: State-of- in India, have been elaborated.
Keywords: Antibiotics; Anti-parasitic; Aquaculture; Chemicals; Feed
the-Art-Review supplements; Fish health management; Probiotics

Mishra SS1*, Rakesh D1, Dhiman M2, Choudhary P1, Debbar- Introduction
ma J1, Sahoo SN1, Barua A1, Giri BS3, Ramesh R3, Ananda K4,
Mishra CK5 and Swain P1 There is global need for food and nutritional security especially
amongst developing and under-developed counties [1]. Fisheries in
Fish Health Management Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater
1

Aquaculture (CIFA), Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

India, is a progressively growing sector with varied resources. It has
been estimated that more than 14.50 million people at the primary
Department of Zoology, Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramodaya Vish-
2
level are directly or indirectly dependant on this sector for their live-
wavidyalaya, Chitrakoot, Satna, Madhya Pradesh, India
lihood security. The sector has shown significant growth from tradi-
Regional Centre of ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture,
3
tional culture practices to commercial methods of culture, enhanc-
Poranki, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India
ing fish production from a mere 7.5 lakh tonne in 1950-51 to 107.95
Regional Centre of ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture,
4
lakh tonne during 2015-2016, while earnings has of Rupees 33,441
Hessarghatta, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
crore in 2014-15 (US $ 5.51 billion) through export of fish to dif-
Regional Centre of ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture,
5
ferent countries [2-4]. Fisheries and aquaculture sector has achieved
Anand, Gujarat, India a significant overall annual growth rate of about 4% during the 11th
Five Year Plan period. As such fisheries and aquaculture has made
contribution of about 0.91% to the National Gross Domestic Produc-
tion (GDP) and 5.23% to the agricultural GDP (2014-2015), which
is very significant [2,5]. At present India contributes about 6.30% to
Abstract the global fish basket and 5% of global fish trade [6]. India is the
second largest fish producing country and hold second largest aqua-
Indian fisheries and aquaculture is an important sector of food
production, providing nutritional security to the food basket, con- culture producing nation in the world [2]. While, Asia contributes
tributing to the agricultural exports and engaging about fourteen more than 90% to the world’s aquaculture production, India now
million people in different activities. With diverse aquatic resourc- takes the second position with regard to annual fisheries and aqua-
es the country has shown continuous and sustained increments in culture production, only after China [5]. As per FAO data, aquacul-
fish production since independence. Constituting about 6.3% of the
global fish production, the sector contributes to 1.1% of the GDP ture has been the fastest growing food producing sector in the world,
and 5.15% of the agricultural GDP. The total fish production of 10.07 with an average annual growth rate of 8.9% since 1970, compared to
million metric tonnes, presently has nearly 65% contribution from the only 1.2% for capture fisheries and 2.8% for terrestrial farmed meat
inland sector and nearly the same from culture fisheries. However, production systems over the same period [7]. During the year 2015-
occurrence of disease has become a primary constraint to sustain-
2016, the country has produced about Indian Rupees 1.0 lakh crore
able aquaculture production and product trade, there by affecting the
socioeconomic status of fishers in country like India. Different stress value fish for local consumption and export [8]. This resulted in an
factors such as inadequate physicochemical and microbial quality of unparalleled average annual growth rate of over 4.5 percent over the
culture water, poor nutritional status and high stocking density can years which has placed the country on the forefront of global fish
cause infection by opportunistic pathogens. Acute level of pollutants production [3,8]. The country has plans to increase the fish produc-
and suspended solids can directly bring about abnormalities and
mortalities in seed fishes and adults. Different opportunistic bacterial tion and productivity by 8 per cent annual growth rate and to reach
pathogens and parasites cause devastating loss to fish industry in 15 million tonnes mark by 2020 [9]. This sector is also a principal
terms of high morbidity and mortality, diminishing growth and en- source of livelihood for a large section of economically underprivi-
hanced expenditure on use of chemicals as preventive and control leged population of the country and more than 14.5 million people
measures. As is understood, prevention of fish diseases assumes depend on fisheries activities [10]. However, progress of aquacul-
paramount importance in terms of sustainable growth of aquaculture
ture has caused some unwarranted activities both for the species and
environment. At the same time, over-exploitation of fisheries and
*Corresponding author: Mishra SS, Fish Health Management Division, ICAR-
Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA), Kausalyaganga, Bhubane- anthropogenic stress on aquatic ecosystems has placed pressure on
swar, Odisha, India, Tel: +91 7894281261; E-mail: [email protected] wild fish populations. The consequence has been the emergence and
spread of an increasing array of new diseases change. As has been
Citation: Mishra SS, Das R, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, et al.
(2017) Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture noticed in other food producing sector, aquaculture has been adverse-
in India: State-of-the-Art-Review. J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003. ly affected due to frequent occurrence of disease outbreaks mostly
Received: August 03, 2017; Accepted: September 11, 2017; Published: Sept- due to intensive culture practices for higher economic gain [11]. This
ember 25, 2017 review examines the development and characteristics of freshwater
Citation: Mishra SS, Das R, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, et al. (2017) Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture in
India: State-of-the-Art-Review. J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003.

• Page 2 of 9 •

aquaculture practices in India, major fish diseases, principle of dis- to about 2,135 kg/hectare/year in 1994-1995 and 2,270 kg/hectar/
ease diagnosis and control programme and future scope of develop- year in 2003-2004 [15-16]. However, as indicated by Siddick et al.,
ment of freshwater aquaculture in India. It also considers the potential [17], the most common constraints of aquaculture production in India
challenges for heath management issues in aquaculture for sustain- include, i) Lack of perennial rivers, tanks and ponds with year the
able development. round availability of water ii) Frequent erratic and inadequate rain fall
iii) Mismatch of monsoon rain and breeding season (May-August) of
Aquaculture Production Status in India IMC iv) Lack of awareness among the farmers on improved methods
By virtue of its geographical situation in the monsoon belt, India of fish cultivation and better Management Practices (BMPs) in aqua-
is endowed with good rainfall. As a consequence, it has extensive culture, v) Improper coordination with production, demand and sup-
potential aquaculture area in the form of ponds and tanks. These wa- ply of fish and fish-seed vi) Non availability of quality fish-seed for
ter bodies are distributed throughout almost all the states of India. stocking vii)Under-utilization and poor management of water bodies
In India the aquatic resources are vast and diversified. As per the re- by local authority or cooperatives and viii) Lack of suitable public
cord of Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, policies on long-term lease of water bodies or giving ownership, in
Government of India records, the country has varied potential aquatic some states [17].
which includes 1.95 km of rivers and canals, 7.95 lakh hectare (ha)
of floodplain wetlands, 24.33 lakh ha of freshwater ponds and tanks, S. no Resource Size Management Mode
29.26 lakh ha of reservoirs and 11.55 lakh ha of brackish water ponds 1. Rivers 54,000 km Capture fisheries
[2]. Besides, the country has 19134 small reservoirs, 180 medium Medium and large
and 56 large reservoirs, with a total water surface area of 1485557 2. 16.86 lakh ha Capture fisheries
reservoirs
ha, 527541 and 1140268 ha, respectively [12-13]. Cage culture is 3. Small reservoirs 14.86 lakh ha Culture based fisheries
practised in open water resources especially in reservoirs and lakes. 4. Flood plain wetlands 5.42 lakh ha Culture based fisheries
The major aquatic resources, aquaculture practices being followed 5. Freshwater ponds/tanks 23.8 lakh ha Aquaculture
in India and their management modes are given in table 1. Fresh-
water aquaculture contributes to over 95 percent of the total aqua- Table 1: The major freshwater aquatic resources, aquaculture practices be-
ing followed in India and their management modes [13].
culture production [3-4]. It accounts for nearly 55% of the total fish
production in India (Figure 1). The sector has benchmarked from a
domestic activity in Eastern Indian states of West Bengal and Odisha
to an enterprise in the states like Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Maharashtra, etc. taking up fish culture as a trade and enterprise. The
largest area under aquaculture being in the state of Andhra Pradesh
(0.52 mha), followed by Karnataka (0.41mha) and West Bengal
(0.276 mha). These three states account for about 50.5% of India’s
aquaculture areas [14]. The fish production status during 2012-2013
in different states table 2 indicates that out of total 90,19,148 tonnes
total fish production, inland fisheries contributed to 57,44,057 tonnes
with maximum contribution by Andhra Pradesh (13,93728 tonnes),
followed by West Bengal (13,37,664 tonnes) [8]. Besides these other
states like Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
and Gujarat also contributed significantly to freshwater fish basket Figure 1: Showing growth total aquaculture production status in India [4].
in India (Table 2). The freshwater aquaculture comprises of the cul-
ture of mainly three species of Indian Major Carps (IMC) viz. Catla Disease Problems in Indian Aquaculture
catla (Catla), Labeo rohita (Rohu), and Cirrhinus mrigala (Mrigal)
with three exotic species Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Silver carp), Disease is one of the major constrains to aquaculture and limiting
Ctenopharyngodon idella (Grass carp), and Cyprinus carpio (Com- factor for economic and socio-economic development in India and
mon carp) through polyculture of either only Indian Major Carps as in many other countries of the world [18-20]. Some diseases have
(IMC) or combination of Indian and exotic carps Kathia et al., [14]. caused serious damage, not only the livelihood of fish farmers, but
Culture of catfishes (air breathing and non-air breathing), Giant fresh- also, to the future development of the industry. Many diseases affect-
water prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Scampi), pangasius (Pan- ing present day aquaculture is resultant of intensification of culture
gasiandon hypophthalamus) and culture of tilapia (Oreochromis ni- practices without the basic perception of intricate balance between
host, pathogen and environment [7,21]. In India, the increase in
loticus; Oreochromis mossambicus) are also practised in freshwater
aquaculture production particularly in expansion into intensive and
aquaculture. Production of IMCs contribute between 70% and 75%
semi-intensive methods of production has been coupled by increase
of the total freshwater fish production, while silver carp, grass carp,
in fish and shellfish resulting from high stocking densities and stress
common carp and catfish make up 25% to 30% of the production.
conditions that favours the occurrence and spread of infectious dis-
However, currently, only an estimated 40% of the available re- eases [22]. A total loss of one billion US $ was reported due to dis-
sources in India, is in use for aquaculture because of technical and eases in shrimp culture [23]. The vertical expansion of fish culture
market access issues and there is lot of scope of development of aqua- with diversified species and higher stocking density has resulted
culture [5]. With technological inputs, productivity has gone up from more frequent occurrence of bacterial, parasitic and viral pathogens,
500-600 kg/ha to 3000 kg/ha, with several farmers and entrepreneurs often leading to higher morbidity or mass mortalities and lowered
achieving higher production levels of 6-8 t/ha/yr. The national aver- production. Rural resource poor farmers with little or no knowledge
age productivity has increased from 50 kg/hectare/year in 1974-1975 of fish health management and skill to prevent and control disease

Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 003

J Aquac Fisheries
ISSN: HAAF, Open Access Journal
Citation: Mishra SS, Das R, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, et al. (2017) Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture in
India: State-of-the-Art-Review. J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003.

• Page 3 of 9 •

outbreaks are the most sufferers, incurring huge economic loss [18]. intensification of culture practices. However, frequent occurrence of
It is understood that occurrence of disease is a result of the complex diseases and epizootics are considered to be major bottlenecks for
interaction between the host, the pathogen and the environment [24]. increasing production. It is estimated that disease account for 10-5%
In aquatic systems, disease management is a difficult proposition due towards the production cost [28]. The diseases are mostly of bacterial
to the unique ecosystem, where the pathogen is always looking for an and parasitic origin and involvement of fungal pathogens and viruses
opportunity when the health status of the host is compromised [25]. are rarely reported in Indian aquaculture practices.
In many cases, disease outbreaks are closely related to environmental
Bacterial diseases
deterioration, leading to stress to the cultured animals. Different stress
factors such as non-optimal water quality, higher microbial load, poor Bacterial fish diseases are very common and are one of the most
nutritional status, high stocking density can trigger the chances of difficult health problems to deal with. These bacteria are generally
infection by opportunistic pathogens in aquatic environment [26]. saprophytic in nature and only become pathogenic when fishes are
Most bacterial, parasitic and fungal pathogens are not strictly parasit- physiologically unbalanced, nutritionally deficient, or there are other
ic micro-organisms. These pathogens have a high adaptability to en- stressors, i.e., poor water quality, overstocking, which allow oppor-
vironmental changes. If the conditions for parasitism are unsuitable, tunistic bacterial infections to proceed [29]. Bacterial diseases have
saprophytic relationship will develop. Environmental stress factors been frequently encountered in eggs, fry, fingerlings of fish, causing
can result in increased occurrence of fungal infections. High organic heavy mortality. These microorganisms are essentially opportunistic
pathogens which invade the tissues of a fish host rendered susceptible
loadings were also identified as a cause of increased infection of Sap-
to infection by stress factors [12]. Occurrence of bacterial diseases
rolegnia parasitica [27].
was not considered to be a serious problem in our country, as econom-
ic losses in fish culture was not known. The incidences of Ulcerative
S. No. State Marine Inland Total disease (EUS) in various Southeast Asian countries as well as in In-
1 Andhra Pradesh 414349 1393728 1808077 dia, focused tremendous attention on the threat the disease epidemics
2 Bihar 0 400140 400140 hold for the farmers. Economic losses of the order of US $ 10 million
3 Gujarat 6933500 92586 786086 in Thailand and over 3 $ million in Bangladesh were lessons enough
4 Karnataka 373167 202216 575383
to realize their importance [30]. Some of the important bacterial
diseases like motile aeromonads septicaemia caused by Aeromonas
5 Kerala 484392 149098 633490
hydrophila, edwardsiellosis caused by Edwardsiella tarda, Pseudo-
6 Madhya Pradesh 0 85165 85165
monas septicaemia by Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas
7 Maharashtra 433684 145110 578794 putrefaciens, flexibacteriosis by Flexibacter columnar, Vibriosis by
8 Odisha 118311 291832 410143 Vibrio alginolyticus and V. parahaemolyticus bacterial gill disease,
9 Tamilnadu 428441 191956 620397 streptococcal septicaemia, mycobacteriosis, disease, and enteric sep-
10 Uttar Pradesh 0 449750 449750 ticaemia, are often being reported in carp culture in India [30-31]. In
11 West Bengal 152352 1337664 1490016
general there are four types of bacterial infections i) Fin rot - usually
resulting from environmental stress, ii) Bacterial body ulcers-open,
12 Chhattisgarh 0 255611 255611
shallow to deep, lesions on the fish’s body iii) Bacterial gill disease -
13 Jharkhand 0 96600 96600
in which the gills are the primary target iv) Systemic bacterial disease,
14
All States together in India,
3275091 5744057 9019148 in which bacteria invade and cause damage to internal organs [29,32].
total
The details of common bacterial diseases reported in aquaculture
Table 2: State-wise production of fish in India during 2012-13 (In tonnes) have been presented in table 3.
[8].
Another bacterial disease commonly reported in fish culture is
bacterial skin disease or red disease. It is a systematic bacterial infec-
Common Diseases Reported in Freshwater Aqua- tion. There are red areas on body, depression with swollen eyes and
culture abdomen. A wide variety of bacteria mainly belonging to Gram-neg-
India is basically a carp country and indigenous Indian Major ative rods are involved. Many pathogens are present only at skin le-
Caps (IMC) which include rohu (Labeo rohita), Catla (Catla catla), sions, especially Flexibacteria, Aeromonads, Vibrios etc. There may
mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigal), exotic carps like common carp (Cypri- be necrotic lesions on fins (fin rot). The disease may become system-
atic, more severe form causing mortality. Another important bacteri-
nus carpio), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) silver carp (Hy-
al disease often confused with red disease in carp culture in Motile
pophthalmicthys molitrix) along with catfishes (Clarius batrachus,
Aeromonas Septicaemia (MAS). This is probably the most common
Heteropneuestes fossilis, Pangassius spp.) and freshwater prawn
bacterial disease causing severe production loss to freshwater fish
Macrobrachium rosenbergii also being widely cultured account for culture. This disease has been associated with several members of
bulk of aquaculture production. In last few years, the exotic catfish the genus Aeromonas, including A. hydrophila, A. sobria, A. caviae,
Pangasiandon hypophthalamus, and pacu, Piaractus brachypomus, A. schuberti, and A.veronii [31]. The clinical signs of motile Aero-
culture are also increasing. Also Tilapia and Pangasius offer oppor- monas septicaemia include high morbidity often with superficial to
tunities, for cage culture freshwater lakes and reservoirs. Instead of deep skin lesions and sometimes sudden death with or without any
10 ton per ha, in pond culture system, now a fish production of 3.0 clinical symptoms. Skin lesions are often noticed at base of the fins,
ton in a cage of 6ft × 4ft × 4ft can be achieved. The focus has been with variously sized areas of haemorrhage and necrosis. There are red
on the production of genetically improved tilapia for market of cheap areas on body, skin ulcers, swollen body, abdomen and eyes and mus-
source of proteins [5]. However, carp production contributes to bulk culature, hence often called as “red-disease”. These lesions may prog-
of the fish production in Indian freshwater aquaculture, with produc- ress to reddish to grey ulcerations with necrosis of the underlying.
tion over 3.25 million tonnes. As there is limited scope for horizontal Unless immediate action not taken, the mortality rate often reached
expansion, the current trend in aquaculture development is towards to 100%.
Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 003
J Aquac Fisheries
ISSN: HAAF, Open Access Journal
Citation: Mishra SS, Das R, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, et al. (2017) Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture in
India: State-of-the-Art-Review. J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003.

• Page 4 of 9 •

Sl No Disease Condition Symptoms Involvement of Pathogens

A. Bacterial diseases
Haemorrhagic and ulcerative lesions on fins, head, back, which may look Flavobacterium columnare (Flexibacter/
1 Columnaris Disease
yellow to orange due to bacterial growth and pigmentation. Cytophaga columnaris)
A.hydrophila, Pseudomonas spp. Cy-
2 Tail rot and Fin rot Erosions, discoloration and disintegration of fins and tails.
tophaga spp., Haemophilus
Bacterial gill disease or Gill rot or Gasping, lethargic, gills look discoloured with trapped materials, secondary Flavobacterium branchiophilum, Cy-
3
Environmental disease fungal infection tophaga spp., Flexibacter spp
Aeromoniasis or Motile aeromonas Aeromonas hydrophila, A veronii bv.
4 Haemorrhagic and ulcerative lesions on skin fins, head, exopthalmia
septicaemia Sobria, A. sobria
Edwardsiellosis or Edwardsiella Ulcerative abscesses in internal organs, haemorrahic ulcers on skin, fins
5 Edwardsiella tarda
septicaemia and body, rectal protrusion
Ulcerative abscesses in internal organs, haemorrahic ulcers on skin, fins Vibrio anguillarum, V. parahaemolyticus,
6 Vibriosis
and body V.alginolyitucs
Aeromonas liquefaciens,Staphylococcus
7 Eye disease Cataract of eyes, affect cornea, eyeball gets putrefied
aureus, various other bacteria
Pseudomoniasis/Psedomonas Pseudomonas sp. Pseudomonas
8 Haemorgaic lesions on skin, fins, tail
septicaemia fluorescens

9 Enteric Red Mouth Disease (ERM) Haemorgaic lesions on skin around mouth, fins, tail. Internal haemorrhages Yersinia ruckeri

B. Fungal diseases
Fungi usually grow on dead organic matter of pond bottom. Fish become
1 Saprolegniasis weak, ulceration of skin with haemorrhages, cotton wool growth on ulcers Saprolegnia parasitica,
with grey patches
Fungi usually grow on heavily deposited decaying organic matter of pond
2 Branchiomycosis (Gill rot disease) bottom. Fish become lethargic, redness of gills, which later become gray- Branchiomyces demigrans
ish-white, necrosis of gill filaments
Aphanomyces invadans sp. (Fungs),
3 Epzootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) Fish become lethargic, redness of skin, ulcerative patches, high mortality
Aeromonas hydrophila, A. sobria
C. Parasitic diseases

Ichthyophthiriasis (Ich/White spot Most fish are susceptible. Whitish cysts of around 1 mm diameter, mostly
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis
disease) observed on skin, fins and gills.

Most fish are susceptible. Whitish cysts observed on skin, fins and gills.
2 Trichodiniasis Disc shaped, spherical cysts can be observed in whitish material under Trichodina sp.
microscope.

Mostly affects gills, destroying the gill filaments, gills with clumps of white
3 Dactylogyrusis (Gill fluke) Dactylogyrus
masses. Parasites can be observed under microscope in sample from gills

These parasites which grow on and destroy the skin, gills with clumps of
4 Gyrodactylosis(Skin fluke) Gyrodactylus spp.
white masses, frequently associated with secondary infections.

Wide spread in most cultured & ornamental fish species in India. Parasite
6 Argulosis (Carp lice) is seen moving on the skin surface, causing skin lesions with secondary Argulus spp.
bacterial infections, haemorrhagic spots and ulcers.
Parasite produces cysts on different parts of body, internal organs and gill
7 Myxosporidiasis filaments. Fish becomes weak, falling of scales. On microscopic observa- Myxosporidium spp.
tion, typical cysts can be observed in gill squash.

Table 3: Common diseases recorded from cultivable species of fish in India.

Other bacterial diseases of less importance are Edwardsiellosis, of various fish parasites. Compared to other diseases, occurrence of
caused by Edwardsiella tarda and Enteric Red mouth Disease, caused parasitic disease has been the major cause of concern and caused sig-
by the pathogen Yersinia ruckeri. There are some reports of occur- nificant setback to freshwater aquaculture in India [20]. Fish parasites
rence of Columnaris bacterial disease that affects the skin or gills of multiply rapidly under favourable conditions, there by affecting the
freshwater fish and is caused most commonly by Flexibacter colum- health of fishes, often leading to high mortality. Parasites interfere
naris. This is primarily an epithelial disease and necrosis and erosions with nutrition of hosts, disrupts metabolism and secretary functions
of the skin and gills are often observed which may become systemic. of alimentary canal and damage nervous system [29,33]. During sur-
Whitish plaques with reddish peripheral zone are observed mostly on vey of different carp and Pangasius farms in Andhra Pradesh, Odisha,
the head or back, hence the disease also called saddleback disease. Karnataka and Gujarat, fish were observed to be affected by fish par-
Lesions on fins arte also often observed, hence it is also called as fin asites, mostly, the protozoan ciliates (Ichthyophthirius sp., Trichodina
rot disease. sp.), monogenetic trematodes (Dactylogyrus spp., Gyrodactylus sp.)
and larger crustacean ectoparasites viz. Lernae spp., Argulus spp.,
Parasitic diseases of fish
(the freshwater louse,) Ergasilus, which cause substantial economic
The production from culture system is hampered by the infestation loss in fish culture system in India [20,22,26]. Disease and mortality

Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 003

J Aquac Fisheries
ISSN: HAAF, Open Access Journal
Citation: Mishra SS, Das R, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, et al. (2017) Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture in
India: State-of-the-Art-Review. J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003.

• Page 5 of 9 •

due to monogenian trematodes Gyrodactylus spp., (commonly known cage culture systems, the incidences are normally less in pond culture
as skin flukes), and Dactylogyrus spp., (known as gill flukes) have system, unless there is gross mismanagement. Besides Saprolegnia,
also been commonly reported in carp culture and cage culture. These Branciomyces and Aphanomyces causes disease in pond aquaculture.
monogenetic trematodes are considered as one of the most prevalent
Another important fungal induced disease in fish culture of high
parasitic agents affecting skin and gills, causing irritation and destruc-
economic importance is Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS). It
tion of gill tissues leading to impairment of breathing. The Ichthy-
is widely occurred in freshwater aquaculture causing a great loss in
opthirius, cause “white spot” or “Ich” in most freshwater fishes. An- South East Asia including India. It is a severe and economically im-
other fish parasite, Trichodina browse over gills and skin, damaging portant disease affecting farmed freshwater fish and listed as a notifi-
the host tissue and consuming the resulting dead tissues. Repeated able disease. Haemorrhages and ulcers are the clinical manifestation
chemical treatments are necessary to eliminate the parasites [26]. An- of the disease symptoms on the body surfaces. It is an important bac-
other important and most prevalent parasitic disease causing severe terial-fungal mixed infection responsible for high mortality in fresh-
economic loss in carp culture is “Argulosis” caused by crustacean water fishes. Fish species commonly affected are Catla catla, L. rohi-
ectoparasites of the genus Argulus also called “freshwater fish lice” ta, C.mrigala, C. carpio, Channa sp., Puntus sp., and G. chapra [22].
[20]. Acute infestation of Argulus infestations often cause dermal Affected fishes become weak, off-fed and float on the surface of the
ulceration, osmotic imbalance, physiological stress and immunosup- water. Initially, red coloured lesions often with haemorrhages are seen
pression, leading to high morbidity and lowered growth rate of carps on skin, which gradually becoming deeper and assuming the form of
[30,33], but the incidence of mass mortality due to this disease has ulcers. In some cases tissues patches fall off, causing secondary in-
been very low [34]. Reported that Indian major carps are more sus- fection and high mortality [36]. Although a wide variety of organisms
ceptible to Argulus parasites, in comparison to Chinese and European have been isolated from the body surfaces and internal organs of the
carps. The intensity of infestation is greatly influenced by seasonality, fish, Aphanomyces invadrans is believed to be the primary causative
which affects host physiology and ecology [30,34]. Intense parasite organism [18]. A range of both biotic and abiotic factors may pre-
infestation can cause ulceration and upset the normal course of repro- dispose fish to infection by EUS [18], reported EUS to be the most
duction [33]. Besides, indirect effects of infestation such as reduced common disease in Bangladesh that has a significant impact on carp
fish growth, reduced feed conversion ratio, secondary infections with culture they indicated that ponds receiving water from rice field and
other bacterial and parasitic infestations and fish mortality as well as river/ditch had high relative risk of EUS [18]. The details of fungal
farmers perception about safe aquaculture, too contribute substantial- disease in fish culture has been presented in table 3.
ly to the loss incurred [30]. Farmers in the region are in practice of using various probiotic
Among all fish parasitic infestations, disease with Argulous is formulations, aqua drugs and chemicals, various antimicrobials, sani-
most common (29%), followed by infestation with Dactylogyrous tizers, anti-parasitic drugs and even antibiotics in fish culture system,
(25%) and Myxobolous (9%) (Figure 2). However, in some cases in- as preventive and control measures to protect the crops. Some drugs
festation with multiple parasites have also been reported in fish cul- and preparations, which are used in animal medicine and agriculture
practices are also being used in fish culture [37]. CIFAX, a chemi-
ture. It has been observed that incidence of Argulosis in the wild fish
cal formulation developed by the scientists of ICAR-CIFA, has been
populations is of very low in intensity compared to that reported in
found quite useful in controlling EUS and other bacterial infections,
pond culture conditions [35]. Loss due to parasitic disease Argulosis
besides have some other useful actions in pond culture [38].
was been estimated to be to the tune of Rupees 30,000 (US$ 615) per
hectare per year in carp culture in India [28]. However, [34] estimated
Viral diseases for fish
loss of BDT 35,552.50 ha-1 yr-1 due to parasitic diseases in carp cul-
tures in Bangladesh. Overall loss due to parasitic diseases was found There are more than 125 different viruses have been identified in
11% for mortality, 11% for chemicals cost and 65% for reduction of fish around the globe and new viruses are being discovered every new
growth of carps in the study areas. date. However, there are only few reports of viral diseases affecting
finfish in India. Viral diseases like Cyprinid Herpesvius-2 (CyHV-2),
Fungal diseases of fish Koi Rana Virus (KIRV), Carp Edema Virus (CEV), Megalocytiviris
Contrary to bacterial and parasitic diseases, only a few number and Goldfish haematopoietic virus necrosis herpes have been reported
of fungal species are known to be pathogenic to fish. Mostly these in ornamental fish culture [28]. KIRV causing huge mortality of koi
are present in water and under unfavourable conditions, they attack Cyprinus carpio was reported in ornamental fishery. In addition, koi
the fish causing skin lesions. Most fungal infections recorded in carp sleepy disease caused by CEV was reported in Cyprinus carpio [39].
culture are those caused by species belonging to the oomycete fun- Report of Viral Encephalopathy and Retinopathy (VER) or Betano-
gi, Saprolegnia, Achlya and Aphanomyces. Diseases caused by these da virus was also reported for a period in seabass farming, although
fungi are collectively called “saprolegniasis” [22]. These oomycete there were no subsequent reports of such disease occurrence in India.
fungi, are commonly present in aquatic environments, are rarely There are some reports of occurrence of Tilapia Lake Virus (TILV) in
considered to be primary pathogens. These are often recognized as some pockets of tilapia culture in cages and tanks. However, Indian
saprophytic, opportunistic secondary pathogens that readily colonise Native Species of Carps (IMC), which is the predominant species is
the damaged tissues infected by bacteria or parasites [30]. Fungal not affected by any of above describes viruses, which is a good sign
for Indian aquaculture sector. Overall the freshwater aquaculture sec-
growths on skin or fins look like patches of white to whitish-grey
tor is free from adverse impact of fish viral epidemics as has been
cotton-wool like growths. These are mostly composed of numerous
reported in marine or brackish water shrimp culture and in other parts
fungal hyphae, which can be visualized under microscopic observa-
of the world.
tion Saprolegniasis is particularly prevalent in over-wintering ponds
with a high stocking density, like in cage culture or intensive aqua- The pattern of disease occurrence and mortality is typical in Indi-
culture. Although there are several reports of saprolegniasis mostly is an aquaculture system. While occurrence of viral disease especially

Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 003

J Aquac Fisheries
ISSN: HAAF, Open Access Journal
Citation: Mishra SS, Das R, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, et al. (2017) Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture in
India: State-of-the-Art-Review. J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003.

• Page 6 of 9 •

White spot disease, has caused havoc in shrimp aquaculture, viral dis- Principles of Disease Diagnosis and Control Pro-
ease outbreaks has not been the cause of concern in fish culture. The
significant observation is that so far not a single case of viral disease
gramme
outbreak has been reported in freshwater aquaculture in India, caus- The impacts of emerging diseases of aquatic animals have been sub-
ing huge mortality. May be that India is blessed with Indigenous Va- stantial, adversely affecting livelihood security of millions and have
riety of Indian Major Carps (IMCS) which are not susceptible to fish impacted regional or national economies [11]. The most devastating
viral pathogens as prevalent in other Asian countries or the culture production loss with socioeconomic impacts was that observed in in
environment is not conducive for the viral pathogens to multiply and shrimp aquaculture in India during 1995-1998, which almost led to
cause disease. However, frequent occurrence of parasitic infestations collapse of shrimp aquaculture industry in India [40]. Development
in fish culture has been an area of concern, which is responsible for and application of suitable diagnostic and control measures to combat
high morbidity and production loss, compared to other pathogens. As disease occurrence in fish and shellfish culture to control production
has been presented in figure 3, incidences of occurrence of parasitic loss, thus have assumed significance in many aquaculture-producing
infestations in freshwater aquaculture are maximum (46%), followed countries [21]. The most important approach to disease control pro-
by loss due to alternation in water quality parameters (24%) leading gramme is managing the culture unit to reduce disease predisposing
to production loss. Infection of fish with bacterial pathogens are in conditions. This is best achieved through the use of realistic stocking
the range of 22% and in only 8% cases the mortality are due to other densities, preventing the introduction of pathogens into culture sys-
factors (Figure 3). tems or hatcheries, maintenance of good water quality parameters,
avoiding stress and through the provision of adequate nutrition to
Another significant observation in Indian aquaculture has been
cultured animals. Until few years from now, diseases in aquatic or-
seasonal variation in occurrence and severity of fish diseases in
ganisms were not considered to be a serious problem in our country,
freshwater aquaculture (Table 4). Whereas incidences of red disease
as economic losses in fish culture were not known. Recent incidences
or Aeromoniasis are common during all seasons, the incidences of
of various emerging diseases have focused attention in this aspects.
Black-gill disease are more during winter periods. Among parasitic
However consolidate affords are necessary to tackle this problems for
diseases, occurrence of Argulousis and gill fluke disease are compar-
sustainable aqua farming and to prevent production losses [22,29]. As
atively more during winter and post-rainy season. Hence, the farmers
elaborated by Subasinghe et al., [21] and Bondad-Reantaso et al., [7],
are advised to take due preventive and control measures during post-
the essential principles of disease treatment and control are to i) estab-
rain and winter seasons in grow-out culture system. lish an accurate diagnosis; ii) select an appropriate and environmen-
tally responsible treatment and iii) evaluate management practices
within the farm and determine if future outbreaks could be prevented
by changes in procedure or design. At National level, the laborato-
ry facilities, diagnostic expertise, control protocols and therapeutic
strategies are becoming better day by day to handle such disease out-
breaks. In addition, many farmers, especially in developed countries,
have improved their capacity to respond quickly and effectively to
emergent disease situations [21]. It has been emphasized to establish
such composite “Water quality testing- disease diagnosis Laboratory”
required to be set up at every district level, specifically in aquaculture
zones to tackle the problem. Considering the present condition, it is
presumed unless there intra-state and inter-state cooperation and co-
ordination, it would be difficult to implement it. If implemented, this
would greatly Enhanced their disease prevention awareness.

Figure 2: Occurrence of single and/ multiple parasitic infestations in fresh-

Future Scope of Development of Aquaculture in
water aquaculture. India
Data indicate currently, only an estimated 40% of the available
resources in India are in use for aquaculture because of technical and
market access issues and there is lot of scope of development of aqua-
culture [5]. Realizing the immense scope for development of fisheries
and aquaculture, the Government of India has restructured the Central
Plan Scheme under an umbrella of “Blue Revolution”. The restructured
Central Sector Scheme on Blue Revolution called Integrated Devel-
opment and Management of Fisheries (CSS) approved by the Gov-
ernment provides for a focused development and management of the
fisheries sector to increase both fish production and fish productivity
from aquaculture and fisheries resources of the inland and marine
fisheries sector including deep sea fishing [9]. Blue Revolution, the
Neel Kranti Mission has the vision to achieve economic prosperity
of the country and the fishers and fish farmers as well as contribute
Figure 3: Different causative factors responsible for mortality and produc- towards food and nutritional security through full potential utilization
tion loss in freshwater aquaculture. of water resources for fisheries development in a sustainable manner,

Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 003

J Aquac Fisheries
ISSN: HAAF, Open Access Journal
Citation: Mishra SS, Das R, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, et al. (2017) Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture in
India: State-of-the-Art-Review. J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003.

• Page 7 of 9 •

keeping in view the bio-security and environmental concerns [2]. Un- by the ICAR-National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBG-
der Blue revolution scheme, specific target has been made to enhance FR),Lucknow, India, in consultation with national partners and
the fish production from present level of 107.95 lakh tonnes to about NACA [41]. In this regard, DAHDF, Government of India, has al-
150 lakh tonnes by 2020. It would lead to augmentation of export ready approved a “National Surveillance Programme on Aquatic An-
earnings, which would directly and indirectly benefit the fishers and imal Disease”, through the National Fisheries Development Board,
fish farmers, with nearly doubling their income. The Department of Hyderabad, in collaboration with State Agricultural Universities
Animal Husbandry Dairying and Fisheries (DAHDF), Ministry of (SAUs) and ICAR Research Institutes. Besides this, Indian Council
Agriculture, Government of India, has prepared a detailed proposal of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has already implemented a nation-
called “National Fisheries Action Plan-2020” (NFAP) for the next al programme “All Indian Network Project on Fish Health” through
5 years with sole objective of enhancing fish production by 8 per- ICAR - Research Institutes and SAUs [42]. The project aims to under-
cent annual growth rate, to achieve the concept of Blue Revolution. stand the disease prevalence status, economic loss caused due to dis-
The mission would be operated through National Fisheries Devel- ease, cataloguing of various drugs and chemicals used in aquaculture
opment Board (NFDB) in collaboration with State Governments and conducting fish health camp and awareness programme for the
and ICAR Research Institutes, for their specific components [9]. benefit of farmers. Efforts are also being made to bring a “National
inland fisheries Policy” along with new “National Marine Fisheries
However, there remain some impediments which need to be
Policy”, which will decide an overall and integrated growth frame
tackled to have enhanced fish production in India. As suggested by
work in the area of inland fisheries throughout the country [2], which
Siddick et al., [17], the productivity of water bodies can be further
would lead to sustainable development of aquaculture in India.
improved by i) Stocking right mix of fast growing fish varieties in
recommended quantities ii) Indian Major Carps (IMC) being the most Conclusion
demanded fish species in the region, seed production hatcheries to be
made available near to the culture sites, iii) Research work need to be Fisheries in India is an expanding industry, with varied aquatic
taken up in developing fast growing fish varieties suitable for short sea- resources and potential, engaging over 14.50 million people at the pri-
sonal tanks iv) Stocking with right composition of fish seeds need to mary level and many more along the value chain. Transformation of
be taken up to utilize natural feed available in different levels of water the fisheries sector from traditional to commercial scale has led to an
column. Again, there is considerable potential for promoting scientific increase in fish production from 7.5 lakh tonne in 1950-1951 to 107.95
fish culture practices in community ponds or open-water resources lakh tonne during 2015-2016, while the export earnings from the sec-
[17]. Besides modern culture practices, research on disease surveil- tor registered at around 33,441 crore (US $ 5.51 billion) in 2014-2015
lance, pathogen zoning and disease forecasting would help to take up [9]. In fish production, India is constantly at the second position after
suitable preventive and control measures to protect the crops against China. While, India has made a sufficiently fast progress in achieving
eventualities. Considering the importance of fish disease surveillance production of 7.2 million ton, and aiming for doubling it by 2020,
in health management Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pa- there remains an opportunity for further increasing the production of
cific (NACA), Bangkok, in their meeting during April 2012, made a fish from inland water bodies like reservoirs, wetlands, lakes and ca-
strong recommendation for the need for a national program on surveil- nals. Cage culture has the potential application in such water bodies
lance. This was followed up by the development of a project proposal and the results in Chandil reservoir in Jharkhand, is encouraging [43].

Diseases Species affected Stage of fish Seasonal distribution

A. Bacterial diseases Summer Rainy Winter
Aeromoniasis Freshwater fishes All stages Yes Yes Yes
Red disease Freshwater fishes Grow out and Adult Yes Yes Yes
All freshwater and some brackish water
Edwardsellosis Mostly fry and fingerlings No Yes Yes
fishes
Bacterial gill disease All freshwater fishes Grow out and Adult No No Yes
Columnaris disease All freshwater fishes All stages Yes No No
Vibriosis Freshwater prawn and shrimps All stages Yes Yes No
B. Viral diseases
Whites pot disease Penaeus monodon, P. vennamei All stages Yes Yes Yes
White tail disease Macrobrachium rosenbergii Post larvae and juvenile Yes Yes Yes
C. Fungal diseases
Saprolegniasis All freshwater fishes All stages No No Yes
D. Parasitic diseases
All freshwater fishes with scales are
Argulosis Adult No Yes Yes
affected. Labeo rohita more susceptible
Lernaeasis All freshwater fishes Adult and Juveniles No Yes Yes
Myxosporidiasis All freshwater fishes All stages Yes Yes Yes
Dactylogyrosis All freshwater fishes Adult No Yes Yes

Table 4: Seasonal variation of disease occurrence in Indian aquaculture.

Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 003

J Aquac Fisheries
ISSN: HAAF, Open Access Journal
Citation: Mishra SS, Das R, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, et al. (2017) Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture in
India: State-of-the-Art-Review. J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003.

• Page 8 of 9 •

However, some important aspects which needs urgent attention for 10. Kumar Prem, Khar Sanjay, Dwivedi Sudhakar, Sharma Shiv Kumar et al.
enhancement in fish production include stocking of right mix of fast (2015) An Overview of Fisheries and Aquaculture in India. Agro Econo-
mist 2: 1-6.
growing fish varieties, specifically the improved disease resistance
variety of IMC, easy availability of quality fish seed, implementation 11. Walker PJ, Winton JR (2010) Emerging viral diseases of fish and shrimp.
of scientific culture practices in community ponds or tanks. Again, Vet Res 41: 51.
anthropogenic activities leading to decrease water flow, loss of habitat 12. Ahmed K, Kumar WAG (2005) Handbook on Fish and crustacean diseases
and above all discharge of sewage and toxic factory effluents, pollut- in the SAARC region. (1st edn), SAARC Agricultural Information Centre,
ing large sections of water bodies, coupled with indiscriminate fish- Bangladesh.
ing pressure have deeply impacted fish production from water bodies.
13. Suresh VR (2017) Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture. In: souve-
Development of suitable preventive and control measures, specifical- nir of National Seminar on Priorities in fisheries and aquaculture (ed.).
ly therapy for fish diseases assumes paramount significance, for the ICAR-Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, India.
farmers to protect their crop against pathogens. Besides implementa-
14. Katiha Pradeep K, Jena JK, Pillai NGK, Chakraborty Chinmoy, Dey MM
tion of Better Management Practices (BMP) is important to prevent
(2005) lnland Aquaculture in India: Past Trend, Present Status and Future
frequent occurrence of disease and production loss in aquaculture. Prospects, Aquaculture Economics & Management 9: 237-264.
Further enhancement in knowledge about the disease process, host-
pathogen and the environment interaction leading to disease occur- 15. Ayyappan S (2004) Enhancing global competition. Survey of Indian Agri-
culture. The Hindu 97-100.
rence, are very much essential for development of scientific methods
of disease control programme [21]. A good understanding of disease 16. Katiha PK (2000) Freshwater aquaculture in India: Status, potential and
prevalence status, indigenous technologies for disease prevention constraints. Proceedings of the Aquaculture Development in India: Prob-
and control, development suitable economic bio security programme lems and Prospects Workshop. In: Krishnan M, Birthal PS (eds.). National
Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, New Delhi, India.
and implementing farm-level BMPs and husbandry measures are key
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Acknowledgment Gender Equity and Nutritional Security in a Changing World.

All the authors are grateful to Director ICAR-CIFA for all kind 18. Bagum N, Monir MS, Khan MH (2013) Present status of fish diseases and
of necessary support to carry out the work. The cooperation and help economic losses due to incidence of disease in rural freshwater aquacul-
ture of Bangladesh. J Innov Dev Strategy 7: 48-53.
provided by all State Fisheries Department for providing necessary
information, is also acknowledged. Authors are also thankful to ICAR 19. Mohan CV, Bhatta R (2002) Social and economic impacts of aquatic an-
for financial support in form of “ICAR-All India Network Project on imal health problems on aquaculture in India. In: Arthur JR, Phillips MJ,
Fish Health”. Subasinghe RP, Reantaso MB, Mac Rae (eds.). Primary Aquatic Animal
Health Care in Rural, Small-Scale, Aquaculture Development. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
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Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 003

J Aquac Fisheries
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Citation: Mishra SS, Das R, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, et al. (2017) Present Status of Fish Disease Management in Freshwater Aquaculture in
India: State-of-the-Art-Review. J Aquac Fisheries 1: 003.

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