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Chap 1 of Paper 1 & 2, (C)

The document discusses prehistoric archaeology and dating techniques used to establish chronology. It describes absolute dating methods like radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, and amino acid racemization. It also describes relative dating methods and outlines the Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic periods. Specific sites in India are also mentioned for each period.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
45 views9 pages

Chap 1 of Paper 1 & 2, (C)

The document discusses prehistoric archaeology and dating techniques used to establish chronology. It describes absolute dating methods like radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, and amino acid racemization. It also describes relative dating methods and outlines the Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic periods. Specific sites in India are also mentioned for each period.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Paper 1, unit 1.8( a,b) Prehistoric archaeology Refer to PDF 102.

1
Principle of prehistoric archaeology And chronology :relative and absolute dating
method
1. Dating technique= Measurement of age of tangible object=Time based
2. Necessary to access evolutionary change, cultural development and technological
innovation
3. Absolute dating
a. Chronometric Dating method
b. Date to establish connection between specimen and universal time scale
c. Radiocarbon dating method
i. Solar radiation + nitrogen= radioactive carbon(C14)
ii. C12/ C14 + Oxygen= carbon dioxide=> Enter all living things
iii. Refer to page 164 of paper 1
iv. Ratio of c14 to C12 in atmosphere identical to ratio of c14 to C12 in any
living organism
v.
At death 5730 years 11460 years 17190 years

100% of c14 50% of c14 25% of c14 12.5% of c14


vi. Radiocarbon decay at known rate
vii. Age= amount of c-14
viii. Applicable upto age of 50000 years
d. Potassium Argon dating method:
i. Radioactive potassium k40 →Decomposers→Ar40 In a half life of 1.3
billions year
ii. Applicable on age beyond 4 lakh years,Rock rich in potassium
e. Thermo-luminescence dating method
i. Used on ceramics and pottery
ii. Trapped energy increases over time→ heated→ Radiation→ Strength of
radiation= How long energy was trapped
f. Dendrochronology
i. Age= tree ring analysis And counting
ii. Temperate zone trees have clearly defined annual ring of growth
iii. Refer to page 166 of paper 1
g. Electron spin resonance
i. Tooth enamel dated
ii. Applicable to fossils teeth and quartz
iii. Dating of early and Middle pleistocene site
iv. Elaboration of chronostratigraphic frame= important for homo erectus
dispersal Out of Africa and settlement in Europe
h. fission track technique
i. 20 years to 1 billion years
ii. Spontaneous fission of Uranium 238 impurities→ minute Submicroscopic
damage in insulating solid(Immerse in proper chemical reagent)
→Damage is permanent→ count→ age
i. Paleomagnetic dating
i. Important for Cross checking the date based on constantly shifting nature
of earth magnetic field
ii. clay is heated→ Magnetic element of baked clay align themselves along
the line of intensity→ Cooling to frozen→ Recorded and compared
iii. Flux Gate, spinner magnetometer, super conduction magnetometer Are
instrument
j. Amino acid Racemization technique
i. Applied to human fossils
ii. L-amino acid after death undergo changes →becomes non protein
D-amino acid→D-amino acid increases with time→amount→age
4. Relative dating:
a. Determine whether fossil date before or after another
b. wheeler= Sequencing product of non history societies into time relationship
c. Stratigraphic dating method:
i. Lowest stratum contain oldest artefact uppermost stratum contain most
recent one
d. Palaeontology dating method:
i. Presence and absence of a species in relation to extinct species( climate
change)
e. Patination dating method
i. Amount of patina i.e. Chemical alteration of Rock surface exposed to
atmospheric condition
f. Chemical analysis of collagen dating method
i. Rate of disintegration of collagen( fluorine, uranium and nitrogen)=>
Fossilisation of bone
g. Fluorine dating
i. Accumulated in the teeth
ii. Death=decomposition=Rate

Referred to 102.2 To and 103.1 PDF

Cultural evolution,Broad outline of prehistoric culture :


1. Palaeolithic:
a. Coined by John lubbock
b. Meaning= old stone age
c. Classification given by edouard lartet :
i. Lower-Palaeolithic:
Time period= 1.6 million to 500000 years
Earliest period of Human Development
First tool at olduvai Gorge
Crude hand axes, cleavers, Chopper chopping tools
Refer to page 175 of paper 1
Three varieties of hand axes:
○ Cheulian= Earliest, Large size, Shape of pear, France and
England
○ Abbevellian=Less rough than Cheulian variety,
Unsophisticated
○ Acheulian= Small size, Look better ,Soft and refined,
Heavily flaked on both the side
Lower palaeolithic man is homo erectus
Fire were used => Evidence at zhoukoudian China
skeleton Of large animal=> Group hunting=> community living
ii. Middle palaeolithic:
500000 to 40000 year ago
Mousterian of France= Flake tools
levalloisian technique=One side is to handle and all three side are
sharpened
Others tool= scraper, borers ,Points( to catch fish) Refer to page
176 of paper 1
Material used= Jasper, agete, Chalcedony
Shanidar( Iraq)=Prove rocks shelter by Neanderthal and
zhoukoudian caves living
Belief in supernatural= proved by burial practice of Europe
Earliest form of totemism practised by neanderthal society
Tool type: Chopper chopping→ For cutting, Hand axes→ Digging,
Cleavers→ Skinning
iii. Upper palaeolithic:
40,000 to 10,000 years ago
Non lithic tool like bone, Ivory, wood etc
Aurignitiation culture=Blade and burin culture
Fluting technique i.e. Indirect percussion
Refer to page 178 of paper 1
Human fossils of homo sapiens
Site:Solutream = Needles(eyed=Stitching clothes, uneyed) and
flake, Magdalenian =Flake made up of bone with art on it
Cave painting have group living art form (Venus figure, Animal
carving), Rock painting
art: Figurative art and configurative( Shape & Symbol)
Indian palaeolithic, Paper 2, 2 unit 1.1 PDF 104.1
1. Robert Bruce foote proved that palaeolithic age is present in India
2. Yale-Cambridge University categorisation:Lower, middlel, upper
3. H D sankalia= Evidence from Soan and Bhimbetka=> Middle and upper
palaeolithic=Continuous evolution of man<=Appropriate sequence of tool and cultural
evidence
4. Lower palaeolithic in India:
a. 2 million year ago to 5 lakh year ago
b. except north Alluvial plain and Kerala,Rest of India have evidence.
c. absence of continuity in evolution And heterogeneity of tools
d. Quartzite and basalt made tools
e. Site:
i. Soan Valley:
Region lying between Indus and Jehlum
Referred to page number 6 of 104.1 PDF
Excavated by De Terra and paterson
Classified into 4 zones: pre soan, early soan, late soan, advanced
soan and pre and early belong to to lower palaeolithic
Remarkable similarities between France and Soan Valley
Tools: crude hand axes, Chopper chopping tools, cleaver, pebble
tools made of quartzite
ii. Narmada Valley or Western India:
Reason of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat
Tool= crude hand axes and chopper chopping tool
H.D sankalia= Chittorgarh Rajasthan→ Chopper chopping tool &
Didwara→ Human settlement
iii. Central India :
Hoshangabad =Hand axes, cleaver, Pebble tools, Flake tools
Hathnora of Madhya Pradesh= Hand axes, human fossil
Bhimbetka= Hand axes, Flake tools and care living
iv. South India or Peninsular India:
Karampudi, muchantla Chintanama gavi=Hand axes and flake
with different dimension and direction
v. Eastern India:
Purulia and Bankura of West Bengal= Chopper chopping tools
Meghalaya and Sikkim= Chopper chopping tools and Flake tools
5. Middle palaeolithic of India:
a. 500000 to 40000 year ago
b. Bhimbetka Of Madhya Pradesh=Cave living with Flake tools made of Jasper,
quartzite, chalcedony
c. Late Soan=Chopper chopping tool made by levalloisian technique
d. Nevasa of Maharashtra By sankalia= All features of middle palaeolithic
e. Site: belan river Uttar Pradesh, Purulia and Bankura of West Bengal
6. Upper palaeolithic in India:
a. 40000 To 10,000 year ago
b. Existence of female figurine, blade tools, harpoons, beginning of Magical
religious practice
c. Beginning of group living
d. Harpoon=> Shift of economic substance from hunting gathering to hunting fishing
e. Site:
i. Renigunta= Points, Burin, chopper As tools and similar culture of East
gravettian Europe
ii. Muchantla Chintamani gavi= Bone tools
iii. Bhimbetka= Rocks shelter
iv. Belan Valley= female figurine + magico religious practice
v. Advanced soan= Blade tool, Fluting technique.

Mesolithic age
1. 10,000 to 4000 BC
2. Regarded as transition period from Big game hunting and stone tool tradition i.e.
Palaeolithic to the beginning of farming and pottery tradition I.e. Neolithic
3. Tool are smaller(1 cm to 8 cm) and geometrical =>Small Game Hunting=> Domestication
of plant and animal
Referred to PDF 104.2
Refer to page number 1 & 2 of 104.2 PDF
4. Tool type= microLiths.eg=lunate, trapezes, triangles ,Harpoon→Hafted on wood or
bones
5. Also called as microlithic age
6. Sites:
a. Frenchthi, theoPetra- Greece
b. Lepenski- Romania/ Serbia
c. Gamble cave- Kenya
7. Natufian culture
a. Mesolithic culture of Palestine and the southern Syria from 9000 BC
b. Supplemented their diet by gathering wild grain, did not cultivate it
c. Use sickle of Flint blade for harvesting And stone mortar and pastels for grinding
d. Lived in cave, occupied incipient village
e. Buried dead with personal ornament in cemeteries
8. Upper palaeolithic→ epipaleolithic→Mesolithic

Mesolithic in India, Paper 2, unit 1.1


1. 10000 to 4000 BC
2. First mesolithic tool In India= Vindhyan region by carlyne
3. HD sankalia focused on mesolithic site in Gujarat and Rajasthan
4. Mesolithic site in India:
a. Early site( 18th, 19th and 20th century)
i. Langhnaj→ Gujarat by sankalia= Tools of rhinoceros bones ,Geometric
variety of microlithic, human fossils With grave tools (Burial practices of
magico religious belief)
ii. Bhimbetka , Madhya Pradesh by sanKalia=Cave living with entrance
having artificial barrier( windbreak To protect from environment)
iii. adamgarh,Madhya Pradesh by sanKalia=Domestication of animal
iv. Kaveri river Basin, Tamil Nadu
v. Begar,Rajasthan by BN Mishra
vi. Sarai Nahar Rai, Uttar Pradesh
b. Recent site( After 2000)
i. Mirzapur, UP by RK verma= Perfect geometric tools
ii. Bidar, KK by sankalia=Geometric and non geometric microlithic
iii. Chambal Valley By Joshi And Khare=Perfect geometric tools
5. Conclusion: vehicle from palaeolithic to neolithics

Neolithic age
1. 4000 to 3000 BC
2. Neolithic culture= Neolithic revolution by Gordon childe and Henry Morgan=>Advanced
feature in technology and social life ,Food production
3. Beginning of food production economy
4. From hunting and fishing to agriculture and domestication
5. From cave living and Nomadic lifestyle to sedentary lifestyle
6. Advanced tools: pecked and ground tools, Microlithic , Hammer, points
7. Production of pottery ,Domestication of agriculture and milk product, Institution of former
leader like chief, Rudimentary form of wheel
8. Henry Morgan= beginning of economic inequalities called as primitive Communism
9. Bone tool industry flourished, material Used was basalt, Quartz and sandstone

Neolithic age in India Paper 2 unit 1.1


1. 4000 to 3000 BC
2. Categorised into three
a. Northern= in Kashmir and gangetic valley,
i. Major sites Are
Burzhoan, j&k
Chirand, Bihar
ii. Major produced
celts, pounding rock, Scraper, Eyed and united needles, Sphere,
polished tool
wheel absent, handmade pottery with coloured and painted
b. Southern= Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh
i. Evidences:
James Fraser from Bellary
Hassan and taylor from Raichur
Robert Bruce foote From Bellary= sarsen stones, rice and
handmade pottery
Sankalia= bone tools, chisels, Adzes and borers
Sankalia in Tamilnadu= Terracotta figure of humped bull

Referred to PDF 104.3 and 105.1


c. Eastern= Assam, West Bengal and Odisha
i. Explored by Krishna Swamy In 2 stream
Assam stream
○ Evidences from Jaintia Hill region
○ Neolithic Pattern still followed by khasi, Naga and Garo
tribes
○ Most advanced Neolithic pattern
○ Tools: Rounded axe, stand axe, Grooved hammer
stone(Most advanced tool of Assam region), Handmade
pottery and wheeled pottery
○ Habitation: mud wall with thatched roof
Bihar, Odisha and West Bengal stream
○ Similar to Mesolithic tools, Presence of a rounded axe
○ Less yield agricultural since practised on hill slope
d. Conclusion: Wheel=>Transport ,& Writing=>civilization

Chalcolithic age:
1. 3000 to 1000 BC
2. Copper= Tougher, Les brittle, Re-shaped and Re-sharpened
3. First time copper tool was present at cayonu tepesi Turkey
4. Adopted copper plough cultivation, Different model of pottery
5. Megalith( first time), Related to magico religious practices
6. Gordon childe= ten invention: Wheeled cart, copper tools, plough, irrigation through
canal, horticulture, liquor brewing, Different varieties of pottery, manufacture of brick,
glazing technique and script & numerical notation
7. Found in Egypt and Eastern Mediterranean countries.
8. Marriage system evolved=> strengthened kinship relationship

Chalcolithic in India Paper 2 unit 1.1


1. 2800 to 700 BC
2. Full fledged village with political system of chiefdom
3. In spite of plenty of food, longevity was not ensured=> large number of Grave of
children(Sharma: due to epidemic)
4. Malwa region & Deccan region have evidences of child mortality
5. Non urban culture= social and economic inequalities
6. Four region of chalcolithic in India:
a. Banas-Ahar culture/Region. Divided into two Region:
i. Banas-Ahar= Economic subsistence is cattle rearing and absence of
cultivation of crops. Had Brown and Red ware
ii. South Eastern Rajasthan= Cultivation of rice and millet .Red ware is
available. Joint family living(RK Sharma)
b. Malwa culture:Divided into two
i. Kayastha culture = Grey ware ,black ware ,red and brown ware posses
Diagram of hunting and community living .Copper is extensively used
ii. Malwa culture= Largest chalcolithic site. Blade tools with copper
tools.Red and brown ware.
c. Deccan culture or daimabad culture:
i. 1st Phase= Polished stone with grey ware , & 2nd Phase= Combination of
stone blade and copper tools
ii. Tool typology= Lunate, trapeze, single edge blade, obliquely blunted
blade ,Copper tool,Megaliths.
iii. Evidence of silk thread, needle, Lenin cloth, storage of grain in urns.
iv. Children were buried in pots similar to European chalcolithic= parallel
evolution
d. Eastern chalcolithic:
i. Bihar ,West Bengal and Odisha= handmade pottery which are of Grey
ware
ii. Mud walled house with Thatched roof and art on them
7. Conclusion= Also called as megalithic tradition

Referred to PDF 105.2

Megalith
1. Referred to to large stone for identification of graves as well as to regulate the soul from
not coming out of the grave
2. wheeler= Stone monument used for burial practices for religious ritual
3. India= Late chalcolithic and early iron age, & Europe= late iron age
4. 4 type= Menher, cairn circle, DoloMen, cist

Copper bronze age:


1. 2000 to 1200 BC
2. Bronze is alloy of Copper and Tin, more durable and more soft, easily cast into
different shape
3. Producing bronze and manufacturing bronze tool
4. Gordon childe:
a. increase in population= social integration
b. specialised work like smelting
c. Highly developed art form
d. well structured political organisation
e. Temple construction
f. art of writing
Iron age:
1. Copper bronze age and iron age are not the process of evolution i.e. not universal, but
event in the cultural revolution
2. 2500 to 700 BC
3. Kroeber= Iron ore discovered everywhere And spreaded
a. Abundantly available and cheaper
b. Designing need simple skill
4. Democratising agent= available with haves and have nots
5. Iron smelting mastered→ Hoe blade, plough, Sickle and knife To clear forest, For
settlement and cultivation →Raised standard of living
6. Improve weaponry like Sword and spare→Invasion and conquers→ Warfare

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