Exogenic Processes

The earth’s surface is composed of water and landmasses. The solid portion is made out of rocks and
minerals that could experience changes either physically or chemically. The weathered materials are transported
by different agents from one place to another and will settle down in a particular area. These progressions that
happen are achieved by forms called exogenic processes. It includes weathering, erosion, and deposition.

Weathering refers to the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks. There are two types of
weathering: mechanical weathering and chemical weathering.

Mechanical weathering or physical weathering is the breakdown of rocks into pieces without any
change in its composition. In this process, the size and shape of rocks changes and this occurs because of the
following factors shown in the table below.

Factors Description
Due to tectonic forces, granite may rise to form mountain range. After the granite ascends
Pressure and cools, the overlying rocks and sediments may erode. At the point when the pressure
diminishes, the rock expands, cools, and became brittle and fractured.

Rocks expand and are fractured when expose to high temperature. However, if the
Temperature temperature drops to 0°C (freezing point of water), it also expands and causes fracture.

Generally, rocks have fracture in its surface and when water accumulates in the crack and
Frost
at that point freezes, the ice expands and breaks the rock apart.
Wedging

The breakdown of rocks is caused by impact and friction. This primarily occurs during
Abrasion collision of rocks, sand, and silt due to current or waves along a stream or seashore
causing sharp edges and corners to wear off and become rounded.

Organic The roots grow causing penetration into the crack, expand, and in the long run, break the
Activity rock.
Human Activities such as digging, quarrying, denuding forests and cultivating land contribute to
Activities physical weathering.
Burrowing Animals like rats, rabbits and squirrels excavate into the ground to create a space for
Animals habitation.

In chemical weathering, there are changes in the composition of rocks due to the chemical reactions presented
below.

Chemical Description
Reactions
It occurs in specific minerals which are dissolved in water. Examples of these minerals are
Dissolution Halite (NaCl) and Calcite (CaCO3). The formation of stalactites and stalagmites in caves are
brought about by this chemical reaction.
Rock-forming minerals like amphibole, pyroxene, and feldspar react with water and form
Hydrolysis different kinds of clay minerals.
It is the response of oxygen with minerals. If the iron oxidizes, the mineral in rocks
Oxidation decomposes. Rusting is an example of this chemical reaction.

carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater and becomes weakly acidic. This weak
Carbonation “carbonic acid” can dissolve limestone as it seeps into cracks and cavities. Over many
years, solution of the rock can form spectacular cave systems.
a type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically with the rocks, modifying its
Hydration chemical structure. Example: H2O (water) is added to CaSO4 (calcium sulfate) to create
CaSO4 + 2H2O (calcium sulfate dihydrate). It changes from anhydrite to gypsum.

Weathering is an important process in the formation of soil. Soil is a mixture of grains, organic matter,
H2O, and gas.
 Erosion is the separation and removal of weathered rocks due to different agents like water, wind, and
glacier that causes transportation of the material to where they are deposited. Plants, animals, and humans play
an important role in the erosional process.

The movement of sediments downslope under the influence of gravity is called mass wasting. The
examples of this are fall, slide, avalanche, and flow. On the other hand, deposition is the process in which the
weathered materials carried out by erosion settle down in a particular location.

Biological weathering of rocks occurs when rocks are weakened by different biological agents like plants
and animals. When plant roots grow through rocks, it creates fracture and cracks that result eventually to rock
breakage. It can be classified into:

Biological Weathering by Physical Means.

Burrowing animals like shrews, moles and earthworms create holes on the ground by excavation and
move the rock fragments to the surface. These fragments become more exposed to other environmental factors
that can further enhance their weathering. Furthermore, humans also indirectly contribute to biological
weathering by different activities that cause rocks to break.

Biological Weathering by Chemical Compounds.

Some plants and animals also produced acidic substances that react with the rock and cause its slow
disintegration.

Earth’s Internal Heat Sources

.
Heat is needed in order for organisms to survive. This heat may come from internal and external sources.
The Earth's internal heat provides the heat and energy which supplies the force for natural phenomena such as
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It also provides energy for the movement of the plates. However, despite
the large amount of heat that the Earth possesses, its internal energy is greater during its early stages.

Earth’s Internal Heat Source

Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago and continue to serve as habitat to diverse organisms. Its
biotic components remain alive due to proper regulation of internal heat. It has massive amount of heat that
varies from its layer. The heat increases from the crust down to the inner core due to several reasons. This
internal heat comes from the following sources.

1. Primordial heat of the planet remains from its early stage.

The Earth was formed from the process of accretion wherein gasses and dust of cloud was attracted by
gravitational energy. When these masses compacted it formed planetisimals. In the process, due to the collision
of these masses, heat was generated. This process formed the earliest stage of planet Earth which is molten in
state and heat is trapped in the core of the planet. Eventually, the accrued heat did not vanish. It took a long time
for heat to move from the internal part of the planet going to its surface. There had been the convective
transport of heat within the core to the mantle of the earth. While conductive transport of heat occurs through
different plate boundary layers. This resulted in the preservation of some amount the primordial heat in the
interior earth.

2. Heat from the decay of radioactive elements.

Earth is considered as thermal engine since its main source of internal heat come from the produced
decay of some naturally occurring isotopes from its interior. This process is known as radioactive decay by which
the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus causes the release of energy and matter from the nucleus.
Some of the isotopes are potassium – 40, Uranium - 235, Uranium - 238 and Thorium - 232. There are other
radioactive isotopes that are also present in the Earth however they play a minor role in the production of heat
due to its small abundance and low heat capacity. This process of radioactive decay which emits heat energy as
one of the products prevents the Earth from completely cooling off.

3. Gravitational pressure
The more a person descend into Earth’s interior, the amount of pressure increases due to the force
pressing on an area caused by the weight of an overlying rocks. The pressure near the center is considered to be
3 to 4 million times the pressure of atmosphere at sea level. Again, because rocks are good insulators, the escape
of heat from Earth’s surface is less than the heat generated from internal gravitational attraction or squeezing of
rock, so heat builds up within. At high temperature, the material beneath will melt towards the central part of
the earth. This molten material under tremendous pressure conditions acquires the property of a solid and is
probably in a plastic state.
4. Dense core material in the center of the planet.
Due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials towards the earth’s center, the density of
earth’s layers also increases. Obviously, the materials of the innermost part of the earth are very dense. The inner
core as the inner most layer is composed primarily of iron and nickel which contributes to the density in the core
that ranges between 12,600-13,000 kg/m3. This suggests that there must be other heavy elements such as gold,
platinum, palladium, silver and tungsten that are present in the core. Like in the descent of the dense iron-rich
material that makes up the core of the planet to the center that produce heating in about 2,000 kelvins. The
inner core’s intense pressure prevents the iron and other minimal amount of some elements from melting. The
pressure and density are simply too great for the iron atoms to move into a liquid state. Thus, this contributes to
the intense heat in the interior of the planet.

Endogenic Processes: Plutonism and Volcanism

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We know that the Earth transmits seismic waves which makes the planet solid for thousands of
kilometers down to the core-mantle boundary. The evidence of volcanic eruptions, however, tells us that there
must be liquid regions where magma originates.

Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered
on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites.

An endogenic process is a geological process that was formed, originated, and located below the surface
of the earth. It involves geologic activities such as tectonic movements, metamorphism, seismic activities and
magmatism.

How is magma formed?

Magma is formed under certain circumstances in special location deep in the crust or in the upper
mantle. Magma forms from partial melting of mantle rocks.
Rocks undergo partial melting because the minerals that compose them melt at different temperature.
Partial melting takes place because rocks are not pure materials. As temperature rises, some minerals melt and
others remain solid. If the same conditions are maintained at any given temperature, the same mixture of solid
and melted rock is maintained. To visualize the partial melt, think of how chocolate chip cookies would look if you
heated it to the point at which chocolate chips melted while the main part of the cookie stayed solid. The chips
represent the partial melt or magma.

To understand melting, pressure is also considered. Pressure increases with depth as a result of the
increased weight of overlying rock. Geologists found out that as they melted rocks under various pressures,
higher pressure led to higher melting points.

According to Bayo-ang, et.al (2016), the two main mechanisms through which rocks melt are
decompression melting and flux melting.

Decompression melting takes place within Earth when a body of rock is held at approximately the same
temperature but the pressure is reduced. This happens because the rock is being moved toward the surface,
either at a mantle plume (a.k.a., hot spot), or in the upwelling part of a mantle convection cell. If a rock that is
hot enough which is close to its melting point is moved toward the surface, the pressure is reduced, and the rock
can pass to the liquid side of its melting curve. At this point, partial melting starts to take place.

Flux melting happens if a rock is close to its melting point and some water or carbon dioxide is added to
the rock, the melting temperature is reduced and partial melting starts.

As the magma moves toward the surface, and especially when it moves from the mantle into the lower
crust, it interacts with the surrounding rock. This typically leads to partial melting of the surrounding rock
because most such magmas are hotter than the melting temperature of a crustal rock.

At very high temperatures (over 1300°C), most magmas are entirely liquid because there is too much
energy for the atoms to bond together. As the temperature drops, usually because the magma is slowly moving
upward, things start to change. Silicon and oxygen combine to form silica tetrahedra, and then, as cooling
continues, the tetrahedra start to link together to make chains (polymerize). These silica chains have the
important effect of making the magma more viscous (less runny), and magma viscosity has significant
implications for more explosive volcanic eruptions.
 As the magma continues to cool, crystals start to form. (https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-2-
magma-and-magma-formation/)

What happens after magma is formed?

Cuarto (2016) described that magma escaped in two forms: intrusion and extrusion.
An intrusion is magma that moves up into a volcano without erupting. Like a balloon, this causes the volcano to
grow on the inside. What is meant by the intrusion of magma is the inclusion of the rock layers forming the
earth's crust (magma does not get out).

Plutonism

❖ Plutonism refers to all sorts of igneous geological activities taking place below the Earth's surface.

❖ In cases where magma infiltrates the Earth's crust but fails to make it to the surface, the process of magma
differentiation gives birth to ideal conditions for metallogenesis and that is a kind of Plutonism.

❖ This is the exact process that gives birth to magma, when the presence of various oxides, fluorine, sulfur, and
chlorine compounds that are necessary for the creation of magma is guaranteed.

❖ The solidification and crystallization of magma takes place mainly inside the Earth's interior.

When the process of crystallization takes place inside the crust, the magmatic rocks produced are called
plutonites, which is another major category of igneous rock formation. Plutonites are igneous rock formations
that are created when the process of crystallization and solidification of magma takes places below the Earth's
surface and particularly in the crust.

An extrusion is an eruption of magmatic materials that causes land formation on the surface of the Earth.
Magma extrusion causes the formation of volcanoes when the gas pressure is strong enough and there are cracks
in the earth's crust. Magma that came out to the surface of the earth is called the eruption. Magma that came to
the surface of the earth is called lava.(http://page- edu.blogspot.com/2014/02/volcanism-intrusion-and-
extrusion-of.html)
 Magma can move up because of a high pressure exerted by magma and gases. In the lithosphere, magma
occupies a bag which is called magma chamber. The depth of the magma chamber causes the differences in the
strength of volcanic eruptions. In general, the deeper the magma chamber, the stronger the explosion.

Volcanism

❖ Volcanism is used to describe all geological phenomena that occurs on the natural terrestrial surface, such as
the creation of volcanoes and hot springs. (Grotzinger et.al ,2008)

❖ It refers to all sorts of geological activities correlated with the flow and transportation of igneous material from
the planet's interior towards the natural terrestrial surface.

❖ This motion takes place inside the cracks that are known among geologists as natural pipes that infiltrate the
upper mantle. In many cases, the mantle allows massive quantities of liquids and gases to reach the upper layers
of the planet and in various cases, even the natural terrestrial surface.

Volcanoes are created and formed when the energy generated by inductive currents flowing from the
Earth's core towards the surface hits the upper layers in the form of pressure and smashes the overlaying rock
formations. The presence of dilated water vapor plays an important role in the creation of craters by assisting the
flow of magma towards the surface. This also explains why massive amounts of water vapor concentration in
magmatic gases with an average value of 80% are emitted into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions.

Molten material in the form of lava that undergoes the process of crystallization on the natural terrestrial
surface gives birth to rock formations known as volcanites. These are one of the major categories of igneous rock
formations. Volcanites are composed of gray, dull pink colored track basaltic lava with large phenocrysts and
pyroclastic.

EARTH PROCESSES
Changes in Minerals Components due to changes in temperature and pressure
Mineral components refer to the inorganic elements that make up minerals, which are naturally occurring,
solid substances with a specific chemical composition and crystal structure. These minerals can be found in
rocks and soil, and they play essential roles in various geological and biological processes. Examples of mineral
components include elements like calcium, potassium, iron, and others that contribute to the composition
of rocks and minerals. Changes in mineral components due to pressure and temperature are a fundamental
aspect of metamorphism.
Mineral components refer to the inorganic elements that make up minerals, which are naturally occurring,
solid substances with a specific chemical composition and crystal structure. These minerals can be found in
rocks and soil, and they play essential roles in various geological and biological processes.
1. Recrystallization - Existing minerals may recrystallize into new forms that are stable under the increased
pressure and temperature. This process involves the rearrangement of atoms without changing the mineral
composition.

2. New Mineral Formation - Chemical reactions driven by the changed conditions can lead to the formation of
new minerals. For example, clay minerals can transform into micas, and feldspar may convert into garnet.
3. Mineral Growth and Size Changes - Minerals may grow larger (porphyroblasts) as a result of
recrystallization. Changes in grain size are common, with fine-grained rocks becoming coarser during
metamorphism.
4. Mineralogical Index Minerals - Certain minerals, known as index minerals (e.g., garnet, staurolite, kyanite),
are indicative of specific pressure and temperature conditions.Their presence or absence helps geologists
determine the metamorphic grade and history of rocks.
5. Phase Changes - Some minerals may undergo phase changes, where they transform from one mineral
phase to another while maintaining the same chemical composition. This is common in polymorphic minerals.
6. Zoning in Minerals - Zoning may occur within minerals, where different parts of a crystal have distinct
compositions due to variations in pressure and temperature during metamorphism.
7. Reaction Textures - Metamorphic rocks often display characteristic textures resulting from specific mineral
reactions. For instance, the development of foliation in rocks like schist is a result of minerals aligning under
directed pressure.
Understanding these changes in mineral components provides insights into the geological processes and
conditions that a rock has experienced during metamorphism. The combination of mineralogical and
textural features helps geologists interpret the complex history of metamorphic rocks.

Changes in the texture of rocks due to pressure and temperature, often associated
with metamorphism, can result in distinct alterations
Changes in the texture of rocks due to pressure and temperature, often associated with metamorphism, can
result in distinct alterations. Here are some common textural changes:
1. Foliation - Intense pressure can cause minerals within a rock to align in preferred orientations, resulting in a
foliated texture. This gives the rock a layered or banded appearance. Examples include slate, schist, and
gneiss.

2. Recrystallization - Minerals within the rock can undergo recrystallization, wherein existing crystals grow and
rearrange under the influence of elevated temperature and pressure. This process often leads to an increase
in grain size, transforming fine- grained rocks into coarse-grained ones.
3. Porphyroblasts - Larger crystals known as porphyroblasts can develop within a rock during metamorphism.
These crystals grow at the expense of the surrounding minerals, creating a distinctive texture. The size and
type of porphyroblasts can provide clues about the metamorphi
4. Granulation - Metamorphic rocks may exhibit granulation, where minerals recrystallize into
equidimensional grains without preferred alignment. This is common in certain contact metamorphic rocks.
5. Lineation - Linear structures or textures, known as lineation, may develop in response to directed pressure.
This can be observed in rocks like schist, where elongated minerals align in a preferred direction.
In summary, the interplay of pressure and temperature during metamorphism can lead to diverse textural
changes in rocks, influencing the arrangement, size, and types of minerals present. The specific textures
observed depend on the geological conditions and the original rock composition.

The behavior of rocks under different types of stress-compression, tension (pulling

apart), and shearing-varies, leading to distinct geological features and responses
The behavior of rocks under different types of stress-compression, tension (pulling apart), and shearing-varies,
leading to distinct geological features and responses.
1. Compression:
Description: Compression occurs when rocks are subjected to forces that squeeze or shorten them.
Behavior:
•Rocks may fold or bend under compression, forming structures like folds in sedimentary layers or mountain
ranges.
•High-pressure conditions during compression can lead to the metamorphism of rocks, altering their mineral
composition and texture.
•Faults may develop where rocks break due to compressive stress, resulting in a variety of fault types,
including thrust faults.
2. Tension (Pulling Apart):
Description: Tensional stress happens when rocks are pulled apart or stretched.
Behavior:
• Rocks can fracture and create normal faults, where one block drops down relative to the other.
•Extensional features like rift valleys can form as a result of tensional forces, often associated with the
divergence of tectonic plates.
•In volcanic settings, tensional stress can lead to the formation of grabens or rift zones.
3. Shearing:
Description: Shearing stress occurs when rocks are subjected to parallel forces acting in opposite directions.
Behavior:
•Shearing can cause rocks to deform along planes, resulting in structures like strike-slip faults.
•Rocks may exhibit a ductile response, where they deform without significant fracturing, creating features like
mylonites.
• The movement along transform faults, such as the San Andreas Fault, is a classic example of shearing in
tectonic settings.

Understanding how rocks respond to these different stresses provides valuable insights into the geological
processes shaping the Earth's crust. These interactions play a crucial role in the formation of various
landforms, mountain ranges, and seismic activity.
LAYERS OF THE EARTH
The Earth can be divided into several distinct layers based on their composition, physical properties, and
behavior.
1. Crust: The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth. It is relatively thin compared to the other layers and can
be divided into two types: continental crust and oceanic crust. The continental crust is thicker, less dense, and
primarily composed of lighter rocks like granite. It forms the continents and extends beneath the shallow
ocean basins. The oceanic crust, on the other hand, is thinner, denser, and mainly composed of basaltic rocks.
It underlies the ocean basins.
2. Mantle: The mantle lies beneath the crust and is the thickest layer of the Earth. It extends from the base of
the crust to a depth of about 2,900 kilometers. The mantle is primarily composed of solid rock, but due to high
temperature and pressure, it can flow slowly over long periods of time in a process called mantle convection.
The mantle is further divided into two regions: the upper mantle and the lower mantle. The upper mantle is
relatively rigid, while the lower mantle is more ductile.
3. Core: The core is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is divided into two parts: the outer core and the inner
core. The outer core is a liquid layer composed mainly of molten iron and nickel. It surrounds the solid inner
core, which is primarily made up of solid iron and nickel. The core is responsible for generating the Earth's
magnetic field.
These layers differ in terms of their composition, physical state, density, and behavior. The crust is the
thinnest and least dense layer, while the core is the densest. The mantle plays a crucial role in the
movement of tectonic plates and the convection of heat within the Earth. The core's molten outer layer
generates the Earth's magnetic field, which protects the planet from harmful solar radiation.

Continental drift
Continental drift is the hypothesis that the Earth's continents have moved over geologic time relative to each
other, thus appearing to have "drifted" across the ocean bed.

◾Abraham Ortelius, a Brabantian cartographer and geographer and known as the creator of the first modern
atlas (Theatrum Orbis Terrarum or Theatre of the World).
◾Ortelius was the first to underline the geometrical similarity between the coasts of America and Europe-Africa
and to propose continental drift as an explanation.
The Continental Drift
In 1912, Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, proposed a theory that about 250 millionyears ago, the
continents were once one large landmass. He called this landmass Pangaea, a Greek word which means "All
Earth. This Pangaea started to break into two smaller supercontinent called Laurasia and Gondwanaland
during the Jurassic Period. These smaller supercontinents broke into the continents and these continents
separated and drifted apart since then.
Wegener searched for evidences to support his claim. He noticed the fit of the edges of the continents on the
opposite sides of the South Atlantic. His evidences to the Continental Drift Theory includes the distribution of
fossils in different continents, rock features, and ancient climates.
(Wegener's evidence)
The continental jigsaw puzzle
Evidence from fossils
Evidence from rock
Coal deposits
Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
The most visible and fascinating evidence that these continents were once one is their shapes. The edge of
one continent surprisingly matches the edge of another: South America and Africa fit together; India,
Antarctica, and Australia match one another; Eurasia and North America complete the whole continental
puzzle in the north.
Evidence from Fossils
Fossils are preserved remains or traces of organisms (plants and animals) from the remote past.
Distribution of fossils
(Fossils are found in Australia, South Africa,South America, India and Antarctica. When the continents of the
southern hemisphere are re-assembled into the single land mass of Gondwanaland, the distribution of these
four fossil types form linear and continuous patterns of distribution across continental boundaries.)
Fossilized leaves
Fossilized leaves of an extinct plant Glossopteris were found in 250 million years old rocks. These fossils were
located in the continents of Southern Africa, Australia, India, and Antarctica, which are now separated from
each other by wide oceans. (The large seeds of this plant could not possibly travel a long journey by the wind
or survive a rough ride through ocean waves.)
Mesosaurus and Lystosaurus are freshwater reptiles. Fossils of these animals were discovered in different
continents, such as in South America and Africa. It is impossible for these reptiles to swim over the vast oceans
and move from one continent to another. Fossils were also found in Antarctica.
Evidence from Rocks
Fossils found in rocks support the Continental Drift Theory. The rocks themselves also provide evidence that
continents drifted apart from each other. From the previous activity, you have learned that Africa fits South
America. Rock formations in Africa line up with that in South America as if it was a long mountain range.
The folded cape mountains of South America and Africa line up perfectly as if they were once a long mountain
range.
Coal Deposits
Coal beds were formed from the compaction and decomposition of swamp plants that lived million years ago.
These were discovered in South America, Africa, Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and even in Antarctica.
(How is a coal bed formation possible in Antarctica?)
The current location of Antarctica could not sustain substantial amount of life. If there is a substantial quantity
of coal in it, thus, it only means that Antarctica must have been positioned in a part of the Earth where it once
 supported large quantities of life. This leads to the idea that Antarctica once experienced a tropical climate,
thus, it might have been closer before to the equator.
How the drifting took place left the Continental Drift Theory blurry?
The Seafloor Spreading
(The question as to how the drifting took place left the Continental Drift Theory blurry. Despite the evidences
by wegener, his idea that the continents were once joined together was not accepted by the scientific society
until the 1960s. He wasn't able to explain how this drifting took place. This made scientists conduct further
studies in search for the answer.)
During the 1950s and 1960s, new techniques and modern gadgets enabled scientists to make better
observations and gather new information about the ocean floor. With the use of sonars and submersibles,
scientists had a clearer view of the ocean floors. They have discovered underwater features deep within the
ocean.
Scientists found a system of ridges or mountains in the seafloor similar to those found in the continents. These
are called mid-ocean ridges. One of these is the famous Mid-Atlantic Ridge, an undersea mountain chain in the
Atlantic Ocean.It has a gigantic cleft about 32-48 km long and 1.6 km deep. The ridge is offset by fracture
zones or rift valleys.
In the early 1960's, scientist Harry Hess, together with Robert Dietz, suggested an explanation to the
continental drift. This is the Seafloor Spreading Theory. According to this theory, hot, less dense material from
below the earth's crust rises towards the surface at the mid-ocean ridge. This material flows sideways carrying
the seafloor away from the ridge, and creates a crack in the crust. The magma flows out of the crack, cools
down and becomes the new seafloor.
Overtime, the new oceanic crust pushed the old oceanic crust far from the ridge. The process of seafloor
spreading allowed the creation of new bodies of water. For example, the Red Sea was created as the African
plate and the Arabian plate moved away from each other. Seafloor spreading is also pulling the continents of
Australia, South America, and Antarctica away from each other in the East Pacific Rise. The East Pacific Rise is
one of the most active sites of seafloor spreading, with more than 14 centimeters every year.
As we conclude our exploration of continental drift, let the tectonic plates of knowledge shift your
understanding. Embrace the dynamic journey of Earth's evolution, where continents dance through time.
Seafloor Spreading
• The process that continually adds new material to the ocean floor while pushing older rocks away from the
ridge.
• Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift was finally confirmed by evidence supporting the idea of seafloor
spreading.
Sonar
• A device that bounces sound waves off under-water objects and then records the echoes of these sound
waves. The time it takes for the echo to arrive indicates the distance to the object.
• Before scientists invented sonar, many people believed that the ocean floor was a completely a flat
surface. But in the data in records up to this day, the seafloor is far from flat.
Fun Fact:
The tallest mountain and deepest canyons are found on the ocean floor; far taller and deeper than any
landforms found on the continents.
Mantle Convection
• Beginning just after Wegener’s end, Arthur Holmes began to describe mantle heat flow in terms of
convection. Materials that can flow tend to lose thermal energy by the convection process.
• This explains circulation in a pot of water that is being heated from below in the same way it describes the
cooling of the Earth.
• Mantle Convection Deep materials, hotter than their surroundings (and hence buoyant), would tend to
flow upward. In approaching the cool surface of the Earth, the material would lose its thermal energy, cool
and sink, having lost buoyancy.
Magnetometers
• A passive instrument that measures changes in the Earth's magnetic field. In ocean exploration, it can be
used to survey cultural heritage sites such as ship and aircraft wrecks and to characterize geological features
on the seafloor.
• During World War II, using the magnetometers that were attached to ships, scientists discovered a lot
about the magnetic properties of the seafloor. Sometimes, no one really knows why the magnetic poles
switch positions. North becomes the south and vice versa.
 • Geologists say that polarity is normal when the north and south are aligned while when they are in the
opposite position, the polarity is reversed.
• They found that magnetic polarity in the seafloor was normal at mid-ocean ridges but reversed in
symmetrical patterns away from the ridge center.
• The seafloor has different features which includes continental shelf, continental slope, abyssal plain, mid-
ocean ridge, seamount and trench.
Features of Seafloor
How does the Seafloor Spread?
Seafloor Spreading
• In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess made his single most important contribution. In a widely
circulated report Hess stated that the Earth's crust moved laterally away from long, volcanically active
oceanic ridges
• Currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread, it carry heat from the molten materials in the
mantle and core towards the lithosphere.
• These current ensures that the “recycled” materials formed in the lithosphere were back to the mantle.
The magma moves up from the mantle and erupts as pillow lava. This forms new oceanic crust at the ridge.
Then, as new oceanic crust form, it pushes the older crust aside.
• This crust eventually subducts at the deep ocean trenches and melts back into the mantle. Then the
seafloor spreading continues as a “recycling” process.
Fun Fact
Record shows that the oldest seafloor is relatively younger (about 180 million years old) than the oldest rock
(about 3 billion years old) found on land.

Evidences for Seafloor Spreading

1. Molten Materials
• Shaped like pillows (rock pillows) show that molten materials have erupted again and again from cracks
along the mid- ocean ridge and cooled quickly.
2. Magnetic Strip
• Rocks that make up the ocean floor lie in a pattern of magnetized stripes which hold a record of the
reversals in magnetic field
3. Drilling Sample
• Core samples from the ocean floor show that older rocks are found farther from the ridge; youngest rocks
are in the mid-ocean ridge.
Seafloor Spreading Flow
Ocean Basins
• As plate tectonics meet and subduction occurs, a vast geologic basin that covers the large area of Earth’s
surface is formed called ocean basins.
• All of the ocean basins were formed from volcanic rock that was released from the fissures that is located at
the mid-ocean ridges, which is an underwater mountain range formed by plate tectonics.
• Through subduction process and high gravitational energy, oceanic lithosphere is forced to move under the
mantle. Over years, ocean basins are continuously evolving as four major ocean subdivision is formed.
• The world ocean is divided into the North and South Pacific, North and South Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic
Oceans. They are all distinct based on their stage of geological evolution.
Pacific Ocean Basin
• The largest, deepest, and oldest existing ocean basin.
Artic Ocean Basin
• The smallest ocean basin and is covered by ice.

1. Continental Shelf
• Partly shallow extension of the continent underwater.
2. Continental Slope
• Transition zone of continental shelf and deep ocean floor. It starts from oceanic crust to continental crust.
3. Continental Rise
• It is where the ocean begins. All basaltic and oceanic rocks are found here. It is the place where sediments
from land are washed. The continental margin starts from continental shelf up to continental rise.
4. Abyssal Plain
• The flattest part of the ocean. 50% of the Earth's surface is covered by this plain.
5. Island
• It's not just a piece of land floating in the middle of the sea, it is part of the ocean basin that extends up
from ocean floor.
6. Seamount
• It is an undersea mountain. The erosion caused by waves destroyed the top of a seamount which caused it
to be flattened.
7. Trench
• It is the deepest part of the ocean formed at the boundary of tectonic plates where one plate is pushed, or
subducts, beneath another.
8. Mid-Ocean Ridge
• The seafloor mountain system which is situated in the middle of the ocean basin. It is where upwelling of
magma happens which causes the floor to spread.

Evolution of the Ocean Basin

• The Wilson Cycle explains the process of the opening (beginning) and the closing (end) of an ocean which is
driven by Plate Tectonics. This process is named after the Canadian Geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson (1908-1993).

1. Embryonic Ocean Basin

• Rift valley forms as continent begins to split.
2. Juvenile Ocean Basin
Seafloor basalts begin forming as continental fragments diverge.
3. Mature Ocean Basin
Broad ocean basin widens, trenches eventually develop and subduction begins.
4. Declining Ocean Basin
• Subduction eliminates much of seafloor and oceanic ridge.
5. Terminal Ocean Basin
Last of the sea floor is eliminated and continents collide forming a continental mountain chain.
6. Suturing (Continental Collision)
Forming the zone where two continents have met and become welded into a single continent

Movement of Plates
Plate movement, or tectonic shift, is the movement of the plates that make up Earth’s crust. The plates are
driven by the heat from the planet’s interior and the variations in crustal density.
• The movement of the plates creates different types of boundaries, such as convergent, divergent, and
transform, where major landforms, volcanoes, and earthquakes are formed.
Plate Tectonics
A tectonic plate is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock. It can be divided into continental and
oceanic plate. Thus, plate tectonics explain the features and movement of Earth's surface in the present and
the past.
MOVEMENT OF PLATES
Convergent Plate Boundary
• A convergent plate boundary
is a location where two tectonic plates are moving toward each other, often causing one plate to slide below
the other (in a process known as subduction).
•The collision of tectonic plates can result in earthquakes, volcanoes, the formation of mountains, and other
geological events.
• The type of convergence called by some a very slow "collision" that takes place between plates depends
on the kind of lithosphere involved. Convergence can occur between an oceanic and a largely continental
plate, or between two largely oceanic plates, or between two largely continental plates.
• Convergent plate boundary occurs when two plates collide. Subduction zones occur when one or both of
the tectonic plates are composed of oceanic crust. The denser plate is subducted underneath the less dense
plate.

Oceanic - Oceanic Convergence

• When oceanic crust meets ocean crust, Island arcs and oceanic trenches occur.
•Areas of active seafloor spreading can also occur behind the island arc known as back-arc basins.
Oceanic - Continental Convergence
• When oceanic crust meets continental crust, the denser oceanic plate is subducted, often forming a
mountain range on the continent.
•The Andes is an example of this type of collision.
Continental - Continental Convergence
• When a continental crust collides with another continental crust, both continental crusts are too light to
subduct. This creates large mountain ranges.
 •The most spectacular example of this is the Himalayas.
Divergent Plate Boundary
• Divergent plate boundaries are locations where plates are moving away from one another. This occurs
above rising convection currents.
•The rising current pushes up on the bottom of the lithosphere, lifting it and flowing laterally beneath it.
• When a divergent boundary occurs beneath oceanic lithosphere, the rising convection current below lifts
the lithosphere, producing a mid-ocean ridge. Extensional forces stretch the lithosphere and produce a deep
fissure.
•When the fissure opens, pressure is reduced on the super-heated mantle material below. It responds by
melting, and the new magma flows into the fissure. The magma then solidifies and the process repeats itself.
• Divergent boundaries can form within continents but may eventually open and become ocean basins.
Within continents, this plate boundary initially produces rifts or rift valleys.
• The most active divergent plate boundaries are between oceanic plates which is called mid-oceanic ridges.
This is also known as underwater mountain range.

Transform Plate Boundary

• Transform Plate Boundaries are locations where two plates slide past one another. The fracture zone that
forms a transform plate boundary is known as a transform fault.
• Most transform faults are found in the ocean basin and connect offsets in the mid-ocean ridges. A smaller
number connect mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones.
• In the process, the crust is neither destroyed nor created. Due to this friction, the plates cannot simply
glide past each other. As a result, stress builds up in both plates. When it surpasses the threshold of the
rocks, energy is released which can cause earthquakes.
• A transform fault is formed between two different plates, each moving away from the spreading center of
a divergent plate boundary.
Transform Fault
•The most famous example of this is the
San Andreas Fault Zone of western North America. The San Andreas connects a divergent boundary in the
Gulf of California with the Cascadia subduction zone.
• The Alpine Fault is a geological fault that runs almost the entire length of New Zealand's South Island and
forms the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate.
How layers of rocks are formed?
The rock layers is formed by erosion and weathering of mountains and the particles is transported
and deposited in the sedimentary basin, then the sediment particles is cemented over hundreds of years
to form layers.

1. Weathering and Erosion: The process begins with the weathering of existing rocks, breaking them down into
smaller particles like sand, silt, and clay. These particles are then transported by natural agents such as wind,
water, or ice.

2. Transportation: The weathered particles are transported by agents like rivers, streams, or ocean currents to
new locations. During this stage, sorting occurs, where particles of similar sizes tend to group together.

3. Deposition: As the transporting agents lose energy, they deposit the sediment particles. This can happen in
bodies of water like lakes, rivers, or oceans, or even on land. When deposition occurs, the sediment settles and
accumulates in layers.

4.Compaction: Over time, the weight of the overlying sediments compresses the layers beneath. This compaction
reduces the pore spaces between the particles and causes the sediments to become more solid.

5. Cementation: Mineral-rich groundwater seeps through the compacted sediment layers, depositing minerals
such as silica or calcium carbonate. These minerals act as a cementing agent, binding the sediment particles
together and turning them into solid rock.

6. Lithification: The combination of compaction and cementation results in lithification, the process that
transforms loose sediment into solid rock. The layered structure, or stratification, develops as new sedimentary
layers are added over time.

The Relative and absolute dating methods help geologists determine the age of stratified rocks.

Relative Dating
1. Law of Superposition:
 - Principle: In an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, the youngest rocks are at the top, and the oldest
are at the bottom.

- Application: Geologists use this principle to infer the relative ages of rock layers.

2. Stratigraphy:

- Principle: Examining the layering or stratification of rocks and correlating similar sequences in different
locations.

- Application: Geologists analyze the types of fossils, rock types, or other features to establish relative ages.

3. Index Fossils:

- Principle:Certain fossils are indicative of a particular time period and can be used to correlate and date rock
layers.

- Application:Presence of specific index fossils helps narrow down the age range of the rocks.

Absolute Dating:
1. Radiometric Dating:

- Principle: The decay of radioactive isotopes in minerals allows the determination of the absolute age of rocks.

- Application: Common isotopes like uranium-lead, potassium-argon, and carbon-14 are used depending on the
age range of the rocks.

2. Luminescence Dating:

- Principle: Certain minerals, like quartz or feldspar, accumulate trapped electrons over time. Measuring the
release of these trapped electrons when the minerals are exposed to light helps determine the time since the last
exposure.

- Application: Used for dating sediments and archaeological artifacts.

3. Dendrochronology:

- Principle: Counting the annual growth rings in the cross-section of trees to determine the age of the wood.

- Application: Limited to relatively recent time periods and regions with distinct seasonal variations

4. Varve Analysis:

- Principle: Varves are annual layers of sediment deposited in glacial lakes. Counting varves allows the dating of
sedimentary sequences.

- Application: Particularly useful in dating events during the last Ice Age.

These dating methods are often used in combination to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the age
of stratified rocks, allowing geologists to construct a detailed timeline of Earth's geological history.

Relative dating and absolute dating are two methods employed in geology to understand the subdivisions of
geologic time.

Relative dating
- relies on the principle of superposition, which states that in undisturbed rock layers, the oldest rocks are at the
bottom and the youngest are at the top. This method also uses other principles like cross-cutting relationships
and fossil succession to determine the relative ages of rocks and events. It helps establish a sequence of events
without assigning specific numerical ages.

Absolute dating
- involves techniques that provide specific numerical ages to rocks or events. Methods like radiometric dating,
using the decay of radioactive isotopes, help determine the actual age of rocks by measuring the ratio of parent
isotopes to daughter isotopes. This gives an absolute or numerical age, usually in years, and enables a more
precise understanding of geological time.
By combining these methods, geologists can create a comprehensive timeline of Earth's history, subdividing it
into periods, epochs, eras, and eons based on relative and absolute dating techniques applied to rock layers,
fossils, and isotopic dating of various materials

WHAT IS FOSSILS?

Fossils are preserved remains or traces of organisms from the past, providing insights into Earth's history and the
evolution of life.

Index fossils play a crucial role in defining and identifying subdivisions of the geologic time scale. These fossils are
species that existed for a relatively short period but had a wide geographic distribution. When found in
sedimentary rocks, index fossils help correlate and date different layers.

By examining the presence of specific index fossils in rock layers, geologists can establish a relative age for those
layers. This allows them to create a chronological sequence of events, forming the basis for subdividing the
geologic time scale into periods, epochs, and other units.

For example, if a particular species of trilobite is known to have existed during a specific epoch, the discovery of
that trilobite in a rock layer helps date that layer to that particular time. This correlation helps scientists create a
timeline of Earth's history, aiding in the study of past life forms, climate changes, and geological events.

However, not all fossils are suitable as index fossils. They need to have most of the following characteristics:

1. SHORT-LIVED

They only existed for a limited time, making it easier to identify their first appearance and extinction.

2. WIDESPREAD

They have a wide geographic distribution, allowing for the correlation of strata over a broader area.

3. DISTINCTIVE

They contain distinct morphological characteristics for easier identification.

4. ABUNDANT

They are common and have sufficient abundance, increasing the likelihood of them being found.

In summary, index fossils serve as key markers in deciphering the geologic time scale by providing a means to
date and correlate different rock layers, ultimately contributing to our understanding of Earth's evolutionary
history.

WHAT IS GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE?

The geologic time scale is a system used by geologists to chronologically organize and divide Earth's history into
distinct intervals based on major events and changes in the planet's geology. It spans from the formation of Earth
about 4.6 billion years ago to the present day.

The Geologic Time Scale is divided by the following divisions:

Eons: Longest subdivision; based on the abundance of certain fossils

Eras: Next to longest subdivision; marked by major changes in the fossil record

Periods: Based on types of life existing at the time

Epochs: Shortest subdivision; marked by differences in life forms and can vary from continent to continent.

The Earth's geological history spans vast time periods and is categorized into several hierarchical divisions:

1. **Eons:**

- **Hadean Eon (4.6 - 4 billion years ago):** Marked by the formation of the Earth and the intense
bombardment by celestial bodies.

- **Archean Eon (4 - 2.5 billion years ago):** Witnessed the development of Earth's crust, oceans, and the
emergence of life in the form of simple organisms.

- **Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion - 541 million years ago):** Characterized by the rise of complex life forms and
the formation of supercontinents.
2. **Phanerozoic Eon (541 million years ago - Present):**

- **Paleozoic Era (541 - 252 million years ago):** Includes the Cambrian explosion, the development of
vertebrates, and the formation of Pangaea.

- **Mesozoic Era (252 - 66 million years ago):** Witnessed the dominance of dinosaurs, the evolution of birds
and mammals, and ended with the mass extinction that killed dinosaurs.

- **Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago - Present):** Marked by the diversification of mammals, the rise of
humans, and ongoing geological processes.

3. **Periods within the Phanerozoic Eon:**

- Each era is further divided into periods, such as the Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous within the
Mesozoic Era.

4. **Epochs:**

- Periods are subdivided into epochs, representing even smaller units of time. For instance, the Tertiary and
Quaternary epochs are part of the Cenozoic Era.

Throughout these geological time divisions, Earth has undergone profound changes, including continental drift,
climate fluctuations, and the evolution of diverse life forms. Studying these time periods provides insights into
the Earth's dynamic history and the processes that have shaped its current state.

Fossils are the preserved remains, or traces of remains of ancient organisms. Fossils are not the remains of the
organism itself! They are rocks. A fossil can preserve an entire organism or just part of one. Bones, shells,
feathers, and leaves can all become fossils.

 A fossil is the remain or evidence of a living thing. The most common fossils are bones, skills, teeth,
leaves, spores, and seeds of pollen grains.
 Most fossils are formed when the whole part of an organism becomes buried in sedimentary rocks, which
provide the most important evidence about the evolution of plants and animals.
 Fossils give clues about organisms that lived long ago.
 They also provide evidence about how Earth’s surface changed overtime.
 Fossils helps scientist understand what past environments may have been like.
There are five main types of fossils namely:
1. Petrified fossils are formed through petrification that means turning into stones. It forms when
minerals replace all part of an organism.
2. Molds and casts form when hard parts of an organism are buried in sediments such as sand, silt, or
clay. A cast is formed as the result of mold. Minerals and sediments fill the mold’s empty spaces and make a cast.
3. Carbon Films, all living things contain an element called carbon. When an organism dies and is buried
in sediments, the material that make up the organism break down. Eventually, only carbon remains.
4. Trace fossils show the activities of organism. An animal makes a footprint when it steps in sand or
mud. Overtime the footprint is buried in layers of sediment, then sediment becomes solid rock.
5. Preserved remains, and some organisms get preserved in or close to their original states.
There are some ways it can happen;
(a) Amber-an organism, such as insect, is trapped in a tree’s sticky resins and dies.
(b) Tar an organism, such as mammoth, is trapped in a tar pit and dies.
(c) Ice-an organism, such as wooly mammoth, dies in very cold regions.

Geologic time is divided into four large segments called Eons: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and
Phanerozoic.
The Phanerozoic Eon (the eon of visible life) is divided into Eras: The names of the eras are the Cenozoic
("recent life"), Mesozoic ("middle life") and Paleozoic ("ancient life").
The longest geologic era was the Precambrian. It began with the formation of the earth about 4.53 billion
years ago and ended about 542 million years ago. So, the Precambrian takes up about 90% of the history of the
earth.
Next to eons, the longest subdivisions are the eras, which are marked by major, striking, and worldwide
changes in the types of fossils present. Eras are subdivided into periods.
Periods are units of geologic time characterized by the types of life existing worldwide at the time. Period
can be divided into smaller units of time called epochs.
 Epochs also are characterized by the differences in life-forms, but some of these differences vary from
continent to continent. Epochs of period in the Cenozoic era have been given specific names. Epochs of other
periods usually are referred to simply as early, middle, or late.
Epochs are subdivided into units of shorter duration called system.

Clues from Fossils

Fossils are our best form of evidence about the history of life on Earth. In addition, fossils can give us
clues about past climates, the motions of plates, and other major geological events.
The first clue that fossils can give is whether an environment was marine (underwater) or terrestrial (on
land). Along with the rock characteristics, fossils can indicate whether the water is shallow or deep and whether
the rate of sedimentation is slow or rapid.
Fossils can also reveal clues about past climate. For example, fossils of plants and coal beds have been
found in Antarctica. Although Antarctica is frozen today, in the past it must have been much warmer.

Exceptional Preservation
Some rock beds have produced exceptional fossils. Fossils from these beds may show evidence of soft
body parts that are not normally preserved.

How are index fossils formed?

Index fossils are the preserved remains of specific species found in the strata of sedimentary rock. They
are easily recognized by shape and lived for either a short period, geologically speaking, or completely vanished
from the Earth in a known extinction event. Index fossils are usually sea creatures due to preservation conditions
and how widespread ocean-dwelling creatures can proliferate on the planet.

Types of Fossils
Fossilization can occur in many ways. Most fossils are preserved in one of five processes; preserved
remains, permineralization, molds and casts, replacement, and compression.
1. Preserved Remains
The rarest form of fossilization is the preservation of original skeletal material and even soft tissue. For
example, insects have been preserved perfectly in amber, which is ancient tree sap. Several mammoths and even
a Neanderthal hunter have been discovered frozen in glaciers.
2. Permineralization
The most common method of fossilization is permineralization. After a bone, wood fragment, or shell is
buried in sediment, it may be exposed to mineral-rich water that moves through the sediment. This water will
deposit minerals into empty spaces, producing a fossil. Fossil dinosaur bones, petrified wood, and many marine
fossils were formed by permineralization.
3. Molds and Casts
In some cases, the original bone or shell dissolves away, leaving behind a space in the shape of the shell
or bone. This depression is called mold. Later the space may be filled with other sediments to form a matching
cast in the shape of the original organism. Many mollusks (clams, snails, octopi, and squid) are commonly found
as molds and casts because their shells dissolve easily.
4. Replacement
In some cases, the original shell or bone dissolves away and is replaced by a different mineral. For
example, shells that were originally calcite may be replaced by dolomite, quartz, or pyrite. If quartz fossils are
surrounded by a calcite matrix, the calcite can be dissolved away by acid, leaving behind an exquisitely preserved
quartz fossil.
5. Compression
Some fossils form when their remains are compressed by high pressure. This can leave behind a dark
imprint on the fossil. Compression is most common for fossils of leaves and ferns but can occur with other
organisms, as well.

Index Fossils and Living Fossils

Index fossils are widespread but only existed for a relatively brief period. When a particular index fossil is
found, the relative age of the bed is immediately known.
Ammonites, trilobites, and graptolites are often used as index fossils, as are various microfossils, or
fossils of microscopic organisms.
Living fossils are organisms that have existed for a tremendously long period without changing very much
at all. For example, the Lingulata brachiopods have existed from the Cambrian period to the present, a period of
over 500 million years!

Correlation by Index Fossils

To be considered an index fossil, it must meet 3 criteria:
 1. The fossilized organism must be easily recognizable. It must be easy to ID and look unique.
2. The fossils must be geographically widespread or found over large areas so that we can use them to
match layers separated by huge distances.
3. The fossil must have lived for only a short time so that it appears in only a horizontal layer of
sedimentary rocks.

History of Earth’s Life Forms

The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three chunks of time called eras—the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and
the Cenozoic. Their life span is about 540 million years ago to the present. Each era will describe the different
types of organisms developed at different times.
Earth’ Diversity
There are over 1 million species of plants and animals known to be currently alive on Earth. Look around
you and notice that the organisms on this planet have incredible variation. One of the most remarkable features
of Earth’s organisms is their ability to survive in their specific environments.

Adaptations and Evolution

The characteristics of an organism that help it survive in each environment are called adaptations.
Adaptations develop when certain variations in a population help some members survive better than others.
Changes and adaptations in a species accumulate over time. Eventually, the descendants are very
different from their ancestors and may become a whole new species. Changes in a species over time are called
evolution. It shows us that many of the life forms that live today developed from earlier, different life forms.

Phanerozoic Eon
The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three chunks of time called eras—the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and
the Cenozoic. They span from about 540 million years ago to the present. We now live in the Cenozoic Era.

The eras of the Phanerozoic Eon are separated by events called mass extinctions. A mass extinction
occurs when large numbers of organisms become extinct in a short amount of time. Between the Paleozoic and
the Mesozoic, nearly 95% of all species on Earth died off.
Between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic, about 50% of all animal species on Earth died off. This mass
extinction, 65 million years ago, is the one in which the dinosaurs became extinct. Earth’s climate changed
numerous times during the Phanerozoic Eon. Just before the beginning of the Phanerozoic, much of the Earth
was cold and covered with glaciers.

How Index Fossils Help Define Geologic Time?

Index fossils are used to define geological periods. These fossils can be defined as "commonly found,
widely distributed fossils that are limited in time span." Using the index fossils, the geological periods are defined.
The geological periods make up the "geological column" which lists the periods in sequence.
Geologic Time
The first principle you need to understand about geologic time is that the laws of nature are always the
same. This means that the laws describing how things work are the same today as they were billions of years ago.
This law has always been true and always will be true. Knowing the natural laws helps you think about Earth’s
past because it gives you clues about how things happened very long ago. It means that we can use present-day
processes to interpret the past.

Every fossil tells us something about the age of the rock it's found in, and index fossils are the ones that
tell us the most. Index fossils (also called key fossils or type fossils) are those that are used to define periods of
geologic time.
Geologic Time Scale
Today, the geologic time scale is divided into major chunks of time called eons. Eons may be further
divided into smaller chunks called eras, and each era is divided into periods. We now live in the Phanerozoic eon,
the Cenozoic era, and the Quaternary period. Sometimes, periods are further divided into epochs, but they are
usually just named “early” or “late”, for example, “late Jurassic”, or “early Cretaceous.”
Chunks of geologic time are not divided into equal numbers of years. Instead, they are divided into blocks
of time when the fossil record shows that there were similar organisms on Earth.
James Hutton
 He is sometimes called the “Father of Geology.”
 In the late 1700s, he traveled around Great Britain and studied sedimentary rocks and their fossils
 He believed that the same processes that work on Earth today formed the rocks and fossils from the past.
 He knew that these processes take a very long time, so the rocks must have formed over millions of
years.

Figure 3.1. Sample of a Geologic Time Scale