CHAPTER 4

NETWORK MEDIA

After reading this chapter and completing the exercises, you will
be able to:
Define the primary cables used in wired networking

Describe the characteristics of the major types of fiber-optic media

Explain the technologies used for wireless networking

Network media are the materials through which network signals travel between
devices. They can be a physical material, such as copper wire or glass fiber, or simply
the air. When a physical material is used as the medium, it’s usually referred to as
“wired networking,” and when signals are transmitted through the air, the medium is
aptly called “wireless networking.”
In this chapter, you learn about common options for wired and wireless
networking and where these options make sense. You learn about the characteristics
of wired media and how to choose a media type to suit a situation and environment.
You also learn how to install and terminate the most common types of LAN media. In
addition, you learn about transmission technologies for making wireless network links
for both short-range Wi-Fi networks and long-range wireless networks.

173
174 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

Table 4-1 summarizes what you need for the hands-on projects in this chapter.

Table 4-1 Hands-on project requirements

Hands-on project Requirements Time required Notes

Hands-On Project 4-1: Wire cutter and cable stripper, RJ-45 20 minutes
Making a Patch Cable crimping tool, 2 to 4 feet of Cat 5e or
Cat 6 cable, two RJ-45 plugs, and a cable
tester (optional)
Hands-On Project 4-2: Wire cutter and cable stripper, 2 to 4 feet 20 minutes
Terminating UTP Cable of Cat 5e or Cat 6 cable, 110 punchdown
tool, Cat 5e or Cat 6 patch panel, RJ-45
jack, and a cable tester (optional)
Hands-On Project 4-3: The patch cable you made, an additional 10 minutes
Conducting End-to-End patch cable, the patch panel and RJ-45
Testing jack to which you terminated the cable, a
lab computer, and a switch

Wired Networking
Certification

98-366 Understanding network hardware:

Understand media types

Wired networking uses tangible physical media called “cables.” Cables used in
networking come in two broad categories: copper wire and fiber optic. Regardless of
the material used, all networking cables must support the basic tasks of sending and
receiving bit signals. The composition of these signals (electricity or light), the speed
at which these signals can be sent (bandwidth), and the distance they can effectively
travel make up the main differences between cabling types. The following sections
discuss cable characteristics, the criteria for choosing a particular type of cabling, and a
variety of cable types, including both copper and fiber optic.

Criteria for Choosing Network Media

All cables share certain fundamental characteristics you should know to understand
their function and correct use. Even though copper cables differ radically from fiber-
optic cables in composition and the types of signals they carry, the characteristics
described in the following sections apply equally to both types of cabling.
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 175

Bandwidth Rating
Bandwidth, the number of bits per second that can be transmitted across a medium,
is as much a function of the technology used to transmit bit signals as it is of the
medium. For example, Category 5e UTP cabling was originally intended to support
speeds only up to 100 Mbps but was later upgraded to support up to 1000 Mbps when
the 1000BaseT standard was developed.
What really determines the bandwidth of a cabling type is how fast a transmitting
device, such as a NIC, can generate bit signals on the medium and whether these
signals can be received accurately at the other end of the cable. Bit signals lose
strength as they travel along the medium, so when judging whether a cabling type is
suitable for a particular transmission speed, the maximum cable length must also be
considered.
Another factor determining bandwidth is how bit signals are represented on the
medium, a process called encoding. Different networking standards use different
patterns of electrical or light pulses to represent a series of bits on the medium.

Note
Encoding is beyond the scope of this book, but if you’d like to read more about it, take a look
at this Web site: http://units.folder101.com/cisco/sem1/Notes/ch7-technologies/encoding.htm

Although different media types and cable grades can support higher bandwidths
than others, what’s most important is choosing the media type and cable grade
specified by the networking standard you want to run. Keep in mind that today’s
1000BaseT network might be tomorrow’s 10GBaseT network. So, when possible,
choose a cabling category that’s compatible with the standard you want to implement
now but will support the next level of speed your network is likely to need in the
future.

Maximum Segment Length

A cable segment is a length of cable between two network devices, such as a NIC
and a switch. Any intermediate passive (unpowered) devices, such as wall jacks, are
considered part of the total segment length.
Each cable type can transport data at a particular speed only so far before
its signals begin to weaken past the point that a receiving station can read them
accurately; this phenomenon is called attenuation, as you learned in Chapter 3. In
addition, electrical signals are affected by electromagnetic interference, or “noise.” The
longer a signal travels down a cable segment, the more likely it is that electrical noise
impairs the signal to the point that data can be misinterpreted. (For example, a 0 bit is
read as a 1 bit.) An internetwork can be constructed of many cable segments, as long as
176 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

the hardware connecting them (such as switches and routers) can accurately capture
the signals, which are then regenerated on the next cable segment at full strength.

Interference and Eavesdropping Susceptibility

How well a media type resists signal interference from outside sources depends on the
medium’s construction and the type of signals it’s designed to carry. Interference to
electrical signals on copper media comes in the form of electromagnetic interference
(EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI). Motors, transformers, fluorescent lights,
and other sources of intense electrical activity can emit both EMI and RFI, but RFI
problems are also associated with the proximity of strong broadcast sources in an
environment (such as a nearby radio or TV station). RFI can also affect wireless networks
if the frequencies are in the same range in which the wireless network operates.
Another type of interference in copper wires is a form of EMI called crosstalk,
which is interference one wire generates on another wire when both are in a bundle
(as all cabling in LANs is). When electrical signals travel across the medium, they create
their own electromagnetic field. Although this field is weak, it can leak onto other
wires, especially when the insulation is in contact with another wire. Although it’s not
as common now, you might have experienced crosstalk while talking on a landline
phone and hearing another conversation faintly. With phone wires, crosstalk is merely
an annoyance because people can filter out this noise easily, but in networking,
excessive crosstalk can render the network connection unusable.
Because electrical signals traveling down a copper wire create an
electromagnetic field that can be detected outside the wires, copper wire is
susceptible to electronic eavesdropping. It might sound like the stuff of spy movies,
but with the right type of equipment, an eavesdropper simply needs to get close
to a copper cable to extract data from it. In the absence of sensitive electronic
equipment, if eavesdroppers have physical access to the connecting equipment
and the copper wire is slightly exposed, they would have no problem installing a
listening device directly on the wires.
Fiber-optic cabling carries light signals and is impervious to interference. In
addition, because no magnetic field is present, eavesdropping is a difficult proposition
with fiber-optic cable. To eavesdrop, someone needs access to the glass strands
carrying the optical signals to install a device that captures data and prevents the
connection from being broken. It’s not impossible, but it’s extremely difficult.
When choosing a cable type, the environment the medium operates in is one of
the most crucial factors in the decision. The choice is usually between copper cabling
and fiber-optic cabling for high-performance applications and between copper cabling
and wireless for less bandwidth-heavy applications.

Cable Grade
Building and fire codes include specific cabling requirements, usually aimed at the
combustibility and toxicity of the jacket and insulation covering most cables. Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) covers the cheapest and most common cables (for example, the
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 177

120-volt cord in lamps and other household appliances). Unfortunately, when this
material burns, it gives off toxic fumes, which makes it unsuitable for cables strung in
ceilings or inside walls.
The space between a false ceiling and the true ceiling in most office buildings,
called the “plenum,” is commonly used to aid air circulation for heating and cooling.
Any cables in this space must be plenum-rated, which typically means they’re coated
with Teflon because of its low combustibility and the nontoxic fumes it produces when
burned. These cables can be used in the plenum or inside walls without being enclosed
in conduit. Although plenum-rated cable is nearly twice as expensive as non-plenum-
rated cable, eliminating the need for conduit makes installing plenum-rated network
cabling much cheaper. UTP cabling is usually marked as communications riser (CMR)
or communications plenum (CMP). CMR is suitable only for building risers, such as
elevator shafts or in cable trays, and can’t be used in spaces that carry environmental
air. CMP is suitable for use in plenum spaces. Before installing any type of cable, check
all local fire and building codes because requirements vary widely.

Connection Hardware
Every type of cable has connectors that influence the kinds of hardware the cable
can connect to and that affect the costs of the resulting network. Some connectors
are fairly easy to attach, requiring only inexpensive tools, but others need specialized
and often expensive equipment to make the correct termination, and should be left
to professionals. In this chapter, you learn how to install the connectors used in UTP
cabling, which are the least expensive and most often used connectors. Fiber-optic
connectors tend to be expensive, as are the tools used to attach them.

Other Media Considerations

Additional media considerations include ease of installation, testability, and of course
cost:
Ease of installation—The difficulty of installing a cable plant has a bearing on
your choice of media. Cable plant is the term for all the cables and connectors
tying a network together. Sometimes you have to make a tradeoff between the
highest quality available and the cost and time factors involved in installing
the medium correctly. Some factors to consider are a medium’s minimum
bend radius, which limits the angle at which a cable can be bent to run around
corners; the cost and time to terminate the medium, which involves installing
connectors and attaching media to patch panels and jacks; and the physical
environment. (Cinderblock or plaster walls, concrete floors, and high ceilings can
make installing a cable plant cost prohibitive, for example.) You might decide to
make parts of your network wireless because of some of these factors.
Testability—How difficult and expensive is it to test the medium after it’s
installed? Declaring a cable installation successful just because computers can
communicate doesn’t really constitute a test. A network that “works” might be
crippled by excessive transmission errors caused by poor cable termination.
178 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

A true test of cabling, whether it’s copper or fiber optic, is to install it, add the
connectors and other termination points, and then test it with a device that
can certify whether the cable meets the requirements for its category. Simple
testers that check for basic electrical or optical connectivity are inexpensive (a
few hundred dollars or less) but don’t give you a true picture of your cable plant.
Copper cable certifiers that do a full battery of Category 5e and above tests start
at about $1000, and those capable of fiber-optic testing can cost more than
$10,000.
Total cost—When figuring the total cost for media, you must include the cabling,
connectors, termination panels, wall jacks, termination tools, testing equipment,
and, of course, time. The complexity of a large media installation (for a new
building, for example) can be daunting, which is why there are companies
specializing in media installation. In almost all cases, fiber-optic cabling costs
considerably more than copper cabling for all components. When you need
fiber-optic cabling, however, there’s really no substitute. Some people opt
for a wireless network because of the cost of wired components, but wireless
networks are often not the solution when there are many users requiring high
bandwidth. As a network administrator, you need to factor in all costs as well as
users’ needs before deciding which media types to use and in which situations.
A combination of types tends to be the norm in today’s networks.
Now that you know the general characteristics of cabling as well as which
characteristics influence selecting cable types, you can understand the importance of
the strengths and weaknesses of cabling types discussed in the following sections.

Coaxial Cable
For many years, coaxial cable—often called “coax” for short—was the predominant
form of network cabling. Inexpensive and easy to install, coaxial cable was the
networker’s choice for many years, until the early 1990s. Now the main use for
coaxial cable in networking is in connecting a cable modem to a wall outlet during
installations by cable TV/Internet providers. For this reason, details on coax cable used
in LANs are no longer covered.

Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair (TP) cable comes in two types: unshielded and shielded (UTP and STP).
It consists of one or more pairs of insulated strands of copper wire twisted around one
another and housed in an outer jacket or sheath (shown in Figure 4-1). These twists
are important because they cause the electromagnetic fields that form around a wire
carrying bit signals to wrap around one another and improve resistance to crosstalk
and EMI from outside sources. In general, the more twists per unit length, the better
the resistance the cable has to EMI and crosstalk. More expensive TP cable is usually
more twisted than less expensive kinds and therefore provides a better pathway for
higher bandwidth networks.
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 179

Shielded twisted pair (STP)

Two twisted pairs

Sheath Foil shielding

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

Sheath

Figure 4-1 STP and UTP cable

Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Most networks use UTP cabling, with STP used only where electrical noise is a major
problem. The UTP cable used in LANs consists of four pairs of insulated wires; other
UTP types contain fewer pairs. UTP is also used as phone wire, but because voice
applications are much less demanding than networking in bandwidth and signal
quality, the type of cable used for phone connections is usually unsuitable as network
cabling.
UTP cabling is rated according to categories devised by the Telecommunications
Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA); the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) has also endorsed these standards. The ANSI/TIA/
EIA 568 Commercial Building Wiring Standard defines standards for the kinds of wiring
used in commercial environments and helps ensure consistent performance from
wiring products. Currently, the ANSI/TIA/EIA 568 standard includes nine categories for
UTP wiring; these categories also govern the number of twists per foot or meter:
Category 1—Applies to traditional UTP phone cabling, which is designed to carry
voice but not data. This cabling is therefore labeled as voicegrade. Most UTP
installed before 1982 falls into this category. This standard is no longer recognized
by TIA/EIA.
Category 2—Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 4 Mbps and consists of
four pairs of wire. Because 4 Mbps is slower than most current networking
technologies (except for older token ring installations), Category 2 is unlikely to
be seen in networking environments and is no longer recognized by TIA/EIA.
180 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

Category 3—Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 10 Mbps with signaling

rates up to 16 MHz. This category supports 10BaseT Ethernet and 4 Mbps token
ring networks with maximum segment lengths of 100 meters. Cat 3 consists of
four pairs, with each pair having a minimum of three twists per foot (10 twists
per meter). It remains in use in some older networks but should be replaced
when networks are upgraded. Most networks have already migrated to 100 Mbps
and 1000 Mbps speeds, and Cat 3 isn’t suitable for these speeds.
Category 4—Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 16 Mbps with signaling
rates up to 20 MHz. This category supports mainly 10BaseT Ethernet and
16 Mbps token ring and is the first ANSI/TIA/EIA designation that labels cables
as datagrade (capable of carrying data) rather than voicegrade. Cat 4 consists of
four twisted pairs.
Category 5—Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 100 Mbps with signaling
rates up to 100 MHz. This category supports 100BaseTX, Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM) technologies at 25 and 155 Mbps, and Copper Distributed Data
Interface (CDDI) at 100 Mbps. Category 5 also consists of four twisted pairs with
an average of three to four twists per inch. This cabling has been superseded
by Category 5e. It can be used in Gigabit Ethernet (1000BaseT), but Cat 5e is the
minimum recommendation because of the additional tests required for it. Cat 5
cable is no longer widely available.
Category 5e—The “e” means enhanced, so this category is an enhancement to
Category 5 UTP. It differs mainly in the tests it must undergo and was designed to
correct some shortcomings in Cat 5 cabling, particularly in Gigabit Ethernet and
full-duplex operation. Cat 5e is an acceptable cable type for 1000BaseT Ethernet,
but Category 6 should be considered for new installations. Cat 5e consists of four
pairs and is rated for 100 MHz signaling rates; it comes in both shielded and
unshielded versions.
Category 6—This standard, published in June 2002 by the TIA/EIA, is the
recommended UTP cabling standard for Ethernet applications over copper media
at speeds up to 1 Gbps. Category 6 cabling uses the same type of modular jack as
lower categories and is backward-compatible with Category 5 and Category 5e
cable plants. It’s specified to operate at signaling rates of 250 MHz. Some Cat 6
cabling includes a spline, or separator, in the jacket for additional separation
between pairs of wires. However, this separator isn’t a requirement. Cat 6 is
the preferred cabling for 1000BaseT (Gigabit Ethernet) networks, but it can also
support 10GBaseT for distances under 55 meters. It’s a four-pair cable and comes
in both shielded and unshielded versions.
Category 6a—Published in February 2008, Category 6a (Category 6 augmented)
is suitable for signaling rates up to 500 MHz and is the category specified for
10GBaseT networks with segments up to 100 meters. It comes in both shielded
and unshielded versions.
Category 8—Published in November 2016, Category 8 is suitable for signaling
rates up to 2000 MHz and is the category specified for 25GBaseT and 40GBaseT
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 181

networks with segments up to 30 meters when supporting speeds faster than

10 Gbps. It comes in only shielded versions. A standard RJ-45 modular connector
(discussed below) can be used to terminate Cat 8 cables.
Two additional categories aren’t TIA/EIA standards. However, Europe has accepted
the Category 7 and Category 7a standards, which specify a fully shielded twisted-
pair cable (each wire pair is shielded, as is the outer sheath) with performance
characteristics well above earlier cabling standards. Signaling rates are specified at
up to 600 MHz for Cat 7 and 1000 MHz for Cat 7a. Because of a different connecting
hardware design, these cables and connectors aren’t likely to be backward-compatible.
Cat 7 and 7a are ISO/IEC 11801 Class F cabling standards.
Categories 5e and 6 are by far the most installed categories of UTP cabling.
Their huge installed base guarantees that developers of new high-speed networking
technologies will strive to make their technologies compatible with these categories;
for example, Category 5 cable, originally designed for 10 Mbps Ethernet, is capable
(although not recommended) of running at speeds up to 1 Gbps. Table 4-2 summarizes
the characteristics of the two most common UTP cabling types.

Table 4-2 Category 5e and 6 UTP cabling characteristics

Characteristic Value
Maximum cable length 100 m (328 ft)
Bandwidth Up to 1000 Mbps
Bend radius Minimum four times the cable diameter or 1 inch
Installation and maintenance Easy to install, no need to reroute; the most flexible
Cost Least expensive of all cabling options
Connector type RJ-45 plug, RJ-45 jack, and patch panels
Security Moderately susceptible to eavesdropping
Signaling rates 100 MHz for Cat 5e; 250 MHz for Cat 6
Interference rating Susceptible to EMI and crosstalk

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

As its name indicates, STP includes shielding to reduce crosstalk and limit the effects
of external interference. For most STP cables, this means the wiring includes a wire
braid inside the cladding or sheath material as well as a foil wrap around each
wire pair. This shielding improves the cable’s transmission speed and resistance
to interference, which allows using STP in electrically noisy environments or very
high-bandwidth applications. You can readily find STP versions of Cat 5e (shown in
Figure 4-2), Cat 6, and Cat 6a. These STP versions are sometimes referred to as “foiled
twisted pair (FTP),” and the shielding surrounds all four wire pairs rather than each
wire pair.
182 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

Figure 4-2 Cat 5e shielded twisted pair

Twisted-Pair Cable Plant Components

A twisted-pair cable plant requires more than just the cabling, which is usually sold in
spools of 1000 feet. In addition, you find most of the following components:
RJ-45 connectors—Whether STP or UTP, most twisted-pair cabling uses registered
jack 45 (RJ-45) connectors to plug into network interfaces or other networked
devices. This connector looks much like the RJ-11 connector on modular phone
jacks, but it’s larger and contains eight wire traces rather than the four or six
in an RJ-11. An RJ-45 connector (see Figure 4-3), often called an RJ-45 plug, is
most commonly used in patch cables, which are used to connect computers to
switches and computers to RJ-45 wall jacks.

Figure 4-3 An RJ-45 plug

Courtesy of Hyperline Systems

Patch cable—A patch cable (see Figure 4-4) is a short cable for connecting a
computer to an RJ-45 jack or connecting a patch-panel port to a switch or hub.
Patch cables can be made with inexpensive tools, two RJ-45 plugs, and a length
of TP cable, which you do later in Hands-On Project 4-1. Although making a
patch cable is easy, most network administrators prefer buying ready-made
cables to save time.
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 183

Figure 4-4 A patch cable

spilman/Shutterstock.com

RJ-45 jacks—An RJ-45 jack (shown in Figure 4-5) is what you plug an RJ-45
connector into when the computer is in a work area away from hubs and switches.
It has a receptacle for an RJ-45 plug on one side and a place to terminate, or “punch
down,” the TP cabling on the other side. RJ-45 jacks are usually placed behind wall
plates when cables are run inside walls but can also be recessed into the floor or
placed in surface-mounted boxes if the cabling runs on the outside of walls.

Figure 4-5 An RJ-45 jack

Courtesy of Hyperline Systems

Patch panels—Patch panels are used to terminate long runs of cable from the
work area (where computers are) to the wiring closet (where switches are).
Patch panels are like RJ-45 jacks, in that they have a receptacle on one end and
punchdown terminals on the other, but a patch panel can usually accommodate
12, 24, or 48 cables. Figure 4-6 shows the front side of a patch panel, where a
patch cable plugs in, and the back side, where long runs of cable are terminated.
184 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

Front

Back

Figure 4-6 Patch panel front and back

Courtesy of Hyperline Systems

Distribution racks—Distribution racks (also called 19-inch racks because the

upright rails are 19 inches apart) hold network equipment, such as routers and
switches, plus patch panels and rack-mounted servers. They’re usually found in
wiring closets and equipment rooms. Figure 4-7 shows a typical distribution rack.

Patch panel

Patch cables

Switch

Router

Server

Figure 4-7 A distribution rack

The following sections explain how to use these components to construct a cable plant.
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 185

Structured Cabling: Managing and Installing a UTP Cable Plant

Entire books are written on cable installation and management, and the details are
beyond the scope of this book. However, understanding some basic methods and
terminology of cable installation and management gives you a good foundation. As
mentioned, the TIA/EIA developed the document “568 Commercial Building Wiring
Standard,” which specifies how network media should be installed to maximize
performance and efficiency. This standard defines what’s often referred to as
“structured cabling.”

Note
The 568 Commercial Building Wiring Standard covers all media types, but the discussion in
this section focuses on UTP cabling, the most common media for LANs and internetworks.

Structured cabling specifies how cabling should be organized, regardless of the

media type or network architecture. Although a variety of logical topologies can be
used, structured cabling relies on an extended star physical topology. TIA/EIA 568
can be applied to any network size and divides the details of a cable plant into six
components. A small LAN in a 10-computer business might need only two or three of
these components, but large networks typically use most or all of these components:

Work area
Horizontal wiring
Telecommunications closets
Equipment rooms
Backbone or vertical wiring
Entrance facilities

Network cabling standards are designed to ensure adherence to standards for

equipment rooms and wiring closets, including limitations on media, which helps
limit the possible reasons for network failure or poor performance. If the network cable
plant is in good working order and meets standards, a network administrator’s job is
easier. Structured cabling facilitates troubleshooting as well as network upgrades and
expansion.

Work Area
The work area, as the name suggests, is where workstations and other user devices
are located—in short, the place where people work. Faceplates and wall jacks are
installed in the work area, and patch cables connect computers and printers to wall
186 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

jacks, which are connected to a nearby telecommunications closet. Patch cables in the
work area should be less than 6 meters long (about 20 feet). The TIA/EIA 568 standard
calls for at least one voice and one data outlet on each faceplate in each work area.
The connection between a wall jack and a telecommunications closet is made with
horizontal wiring. Figure 4-8 shows the components of the work area.

Wall plate with

Patch cable RJ-45 jack

Figure 4-8 Work area components

Horizontal Wiring
Horizontal wiring runs from the work area’s wall jack to the telecommunications
closet and is usually terminated at a patch panel. Acceptable horizontal wiring types
include four-pair Cat 5e or Cat 6/6a or two fiber-optic cables. The total maximum
distance for horizontal wiring is up to 100 meters, which includes the cable running
from the wall jack to the patch panel plus all patch cables. However, horizontal wiring
from the wall jack to the patch panel should be no longer than 90 meters to allow up to
10 meters for patch cables.

Telecommunications Closet
The telecommunications closet (TC) provides connectivity to computer equipment in
the nearby work area. In small installations, it can also serve as the entrance facility
(explained later in “Entrance Facilities”). Typical equipment includes patch panels to
terminate horizontal wiring runs, switches to provide network connectivity, and patch
cables to connect patch panels to switches. In smaller installations, network servers
can be housed in the TC. Larger installations usually have connections from the TC
to an equipment room (discussed next). A telecommunications closet that houses
the cabling and devices for work area computers is referred to as an intermediate
distribution frame (IDF). Figure 4-9 shows the relationship and connections between
the work area, horizontal wiring, and IDF.
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 187

Work area IDF

Horizontal
cabling

Patch cable
Wall plate
with
RJ-45 jack Distribution rack

Figure 4-9 Work area, horizontal wiring, and IDF

Equipment Rooms
The equipment room houses servers, routers, switches, and other major network
equipment and serves as a connection point for backbone cabling running between
IDFs. An equipment room that’s the connection point between IDFs is called a main
distribution frame (MDF) or “main cross-connect.” An MDF can be the main cross-
connect of backbone cabling for the entire network, or it might serve as the connecting
point for backbone cabling between buildings. In multi-building installations, each
building often has its own MDF.

Backbone Cabling
Backbone cabling (or vertical cabling) interconnects IDFs and MDFs. This cabling runs
between floors or wings of a building and between buildings to carry network traffic
destined for devices outside the work area. It’s often fiber-optic cable but can also be
UTP if the distance between rooms is less than 90 meters. When it connects buildings,
backbone cabling is almost always fiber optic because of UTP’s distance limitations
and because fiber doesn’t propagate lightning strikes or electrical imbalances between
buildings. Multimode fiber-optic cable can extend up to 2000 meters, whereas single-
mode fiber can reach distances up to 3000 meters when used as backbone cabling
between the MDF and IDFs. Figure 4-10 shows how backbone cabling can connect IDFs
to an MDF.
188 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

Backbone Backbone
cabling cabling

Distribution Distribution
rack rack
in IDF 1 in IDF 2

Distribution
rack in
MDF 1

Figure 4-10 Backbone cabling connects IDFs and MDFs

Entrance Facilities
An entrance facility is the location of the cabling and equipment that connects an
organization’s network to a third-party telecommunications provider. It can also serve
as an equipment room and the MDF for all backbone cabling. This location is also
where a connection to a WAN is made and where an organization’s LAN equipment
ends and a third-party provider’s equipment and cabling begins—also known as the
demarcation point.

Installing UTP Cabling

One skill required of a network technician is terminating UTP cables. Cable
termination means putting RJ-45 plugs on a cable to make a patch cable or punching
down cable wires into terminal blocks on a jack or patch panel. To create a patch panel,
a technician needs the following tools:

Bulk UTP cabling

Wire cutters or electrician’s scissors
Cable stripper
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 189

Crimping tool
Cable tester
RJ-45 plugs
To terminate cable at an RJ-45 jack or a patch panel, you need the following tools:

Bulk UTP cabling

Wire cutters or electrician’s scissors
Cable stripper
Type 110 punchdown tool
Cable tester
RJ-45 jack and patch panel
Some of these tools are shown in Figure 4-11.

Cable tester

Cable stripper

Electrician’s scissors

Crimping tool Punchdown tool

Figure 4-11 Cable installation and termination tools

The quality of the tools needed for cable installation varies considerably, usually
according to cost. If you expect to be doing a lot of cable termination, it pays to invest
in high-quality tools, particularly a cable tester. If you’re installing only a few dozen to
a few hundred cables, you might get away with less expensive tools and a basic cable
190 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

tester. However, if you have a cable-installation business, you want high-quality tools,
including a cable tester that certifies the cable plant for the category of cable installed.
Hands-On Project 4-1 walks you through making a patch cable. One of the most
important aspects of making a cable or terminating a cable at a jack or patch panel is to
get the colored wires arranged in the correct order. There are two competing standards
for the arrangement of wires: TIA/EIA 568A and TIA/EIA 568B. Either standard is okay
to follow, as long as you stick to one throughout your network. Figure 4-12 shows the
arrangement of wires for both standards for 10/100 Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet.

T568A Wiring

Brown pair

12345678
1122 33 4 5 66 7788

Blue pair Orange pair

Green pair

T568B Wiring

Brown pair
12345678

Blue pair Green pair

Orange pair

Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet

Pin # T568A Color T568B Color function function
1 White/green White/orange Tx1 Bidirectional1
2 Green Orange Tx2 Bidirectional2
3 White/orange White/green Rx1 Bidirectional1
4 Blue Blue Unused Bidirectional1
5 White/blue White/blue Unused Bidirectional2
6 Orange Green Rx2 Bidirectional2
7 White/brown White/brown Unused Bidirectional1
8 Brown Brown Unused Bidirectional2
Figure 4-12 TIA/EIA 568A and 568B cable pinouts

Straight-Through versus Crossover Cable

When you make a standard patch cable, you use the same wiring standards on both
ends of the cable so that each wire is in the same corresponding location on both
ends of the cable (pin 1 goes to pin 1, pin 2 to pin 2, and so forth). This type of cable
is also called a straight-through cable. Another type of cable, called a crossover
cable, uses the 568B standard on one end and the 568A standard on the other end.
This arrangement crosses the transmit and receive wires so that transmit signals
on one end connect to receive signals on the other end. This type of cable is often
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 191

needed when you connect two devices of the same type to one another—for example,
connecting a hub to a hub, a switch to a switch, a hub to a switch, or a PC to a PC.
However, for a 1000BaseT crossover cable, you have to cross the blue and brown
pins because they’re used in 1000BaseT. Table 4-3 shows the pinout for a 1000BaseT
crossover cable. This configuration also works for a 10BaseT or 100BaseT crossover
cable, even though the brown and blue pins aren’t used.

Table 4-3 Pinout for a 1000BaseT crossover cable

Pin Connector 1 Connector 2

1 White with orange stripe White with green stripe
2 Orange Green
3 White with green stripe White with orange stripe
4 Blue White with brown stripe
5 White with blue stripe Brown
6 Green Orange
7 White with brown stripe Blue
8 Brown White with blue stripe

Medium Dependent Interface

Network devices connecting with RJ-45 plugs over twisted-pair cabling are classified
as medium dependent interface (MDI) devices or MDI crossed (MDI-X) devices. You
might even see these abbreviations on some switches. For communication to take
place between two devices, the wires one device transmits on must be connected to
the wires the other device receives on, and vice versa. For example, the 568 standards
have pins 1 and 2 labeled as transmit and pins 3 and 6 labeled as receive. Clearly, not all
devices can transmit on pins 1 and 2 and receive on pins 3 and 6; otherwise, a standard
patch cable wouldn’t work between these devices because one device’s transmit signals
would be going to the transmitter of the other device—like having a phone’s earpiece at
your mouth and the mouthpiece at your ear.
MDI devices transmit on pins 1 and 2 and receive on pins 3 and 6. Examples include
PC NICs and routers. MDI-X devices, usually hubs and switches, receive on pins 1 and 2
and transmit on pins 3 and 6. Therefore, a straight-through patch cable works for the most
common connection of a PC NIC to a switch. When a switch needs to be connected to a
switch (or a PC to a PC), you use a crossover cable so that the transmit and receive wires
get crossed, and you end up with transmit going to receive and vice versa. Thankfully,
developers of NICs, switches, and routers have started doing this job for you by making
“auto-sensing” ports on some devices. Auto-sensing means a port can detect whether
you’re trying to connect transmit wires to transmit wires, and the port reconfigures its
192 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

transmit and receive wires, thus making a crossover cable unnecessary. Not all devices
support auto-sensing, so it’s best to have crossover cables handy in case you need them.
Table 4-4 lists common types of devices and the type of cable required to connect them
if they don’t support auto-sensing. Hubs and switches use the same connection type, so
when you see a switch in the table, a hub uses the same type of cable.

Table 4-4 Device connections and cable type

Device Connected to Type of cable

Switch Switch Crossover
Switch Router Straight-through
Switch PC Straight-through
Router Router Crossover
Router PC Crossover
PC PC Crossover

Note
Another type of cable you might run across is called a “rollover cable,” which is designed to
connect a PC’s serial communication port and a Cisco device’s console port for configuring
the Cisco device. You use terminal emulation software, such as PuTTY, to get a command-line
interface prompt from the Cisco device so that you can enter commands to view and change
its configuration. A rollover cable reverses all eight wires; in other words, the wires on one
end are connected to pins 1 through 8, and on the other end, they’re connected to pins 8
through 1. So, pin 1 goes to pin 8, pin 2 to pin 7, pin 3 to pin 6, and so forth.

Hands-On Project 4-1: Making a Patch Cable

Time Required: 20 minutes
Objective: Create a 568B straight-through patch cable.
Required Tools and Equipment: Wire cutter and cable stripper, RJ-45 crimping tool, 2 to 4 feet
of Cat 5e or Cat 6 cable, two RJ-45 plugs, and a cable tester (optional)
Description: In this project, you make a patch cable according to the instructions. The instructor
will inspect the cable for the correct wire order and strain relief. If possible, use a cable tester to
test for conductivity and wiremap, at a minimum.
1. Strip approximately 2 inches of the outer jacket off one end of the cable with the cable
stripper. Be careful not to nick the inner wires’ insulation. Most UTP cable strippers are
calibrated to score the cable’s outer jacket so that you can simply break it off. Cable
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 193

strippers differ in the techniques you use with them, so refer to the instructions that
came with yours or ask your instructor.
2. Untwist the four pairs of wires.
3. Here comes the tricky part: Arrange the wires from left to right (as you’re looking down on
them) so that they’re in the following order: white with orange stripe, orange, white with
green stripe, blue, white with blue stripe, green, white with brown stripe, and brown. This
order adheres to the 568B wiring standard (see Figure 4-13).

White with green stripe

ipe
tripe

blue stripe

Brown ith brown str

orange s

White with
ith

White w
e
White w
Orang

Green
Blue

Figure 4-13 The correct arrangement of wires

4. Clip the eight wires so that a little more than a half-inch of wire extends beyond the outer
jacket.
5. While holding the RJ-45 plug in one hand with the clip facing away from you, insert the
eight wires into the connector, making sure the tops of wires extend to the front of the
connector and the cable jacket goes far enough into the connector so that the jacket will
be caught by the crimp bar (see Figure 4-14).

Figure 4-14 Correct RJ-45 plug installation

194 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

6. Now insert the RJ-45 connector into the crimping tool, and make sure the wires don’t slip.
Squeeze the handle on the crimping tool firmly. It might take a little hand strength or
using two hands, depending on the crimping tool’s quality. This tool does two things. First,
it forces the eight small contacts at the top of the plug down onto the wires; the contacts
are pushed just far enough in that they slice through the insulation on each wire, thereby
making an electrical contact with the wire. Second, the strain-relief bar is pushed in to
grab the cable’s outer jacket, making it more difficult to pull the wires out of the plug.
7. Repeat the process for the other end of the cable, and test with a cable tester, if available.
Congratulations! You have made a patch cable. Where do you find patch cables in struc-
ture cabling installations? Describe the connections they make.

8. Keep your tools handy for the next project.

Hands-On Project 4-2: Terminating UTP Cable

Time Required: 20 minutes
Objective: Terminate UTP cable at a patch panel and an RJ-45 jack.
Required Tools and Equipment: Wire cutter and cable stripper, 2 to 4 feet of Cat 5e or Cat 6
cable, 110 punchdown tool, Cat 5e or Cat 6 patch panel (a 568A or 568B patch panel can be used;
568B panels are more common), RJ-45 jack, and a cable tester (optional)
Description: In this project, you punch down one end of a cable to the back of a patch panel.
1. Strip approximately 2 inches of the outer jacket off one end of the cable with the cable
stripper. Be careful not to nick the inner wires.
2. Leave the wire pairs twisted. Arrange the wires according to the color coding on your
patch panel. The color coding will vary, depending on whether it’s a 568A or 568B patch
panel, and the wires might be arranged in a straight line or split between the two rows of
terminals.
3. Center the cable so that each wire is equally distant from the terminal in which it will be
placed. On each wire pair, separate the wires about one-half inch or less from the end of
the jacket so that the two wires form an oval, and slip the wire pair over its middle termi-
nal (see Figure 4-15). Pull each wire pair down firmly so that the wires stay in place.
4. Next, use the 110 punchdown tool. Place the tool over each wire so that the slot in the
tool lines up with the wire. The tool’s blade should be facing the end of the wires, not the
cable jacket (see Figure 4-16).
5. Push the punchdown tool down firmly until you hear it snap. Don’t be afraid to give it a
good, hard push. The blade should cut the wire or at least score it so that you can gently
twist the end off. Do this for all eight wires.
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 195

Green Orange

White with
green stripe White with
White with orange stripe
brown stripe White with
blue stripe
Brown Blue

Figure 4-15 Placing wires on the patch panel terminals

Figure 4-16 Positioning the punchdown tool

6. That’s it! A correct termination should have no more than one-half inch of untwisted wire
outside the jacket. Repeat this process for the other end of the cable, but this time, termi-
nate the cable onto an RJ-45 jack. In structured cabling, what’s the run of cable called that
goes from a wall jack to a patch panel?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Keep your cables and tools ready for the next project.
196 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

Hands-On Project 4-3: Conducting End-to-End Testing

Time Required: 10 minutes
Objective: Test your terminations and patch cable with a live connection.
Required Tools and Equipment: The patch cable you made, an additional patch cable, the patch
panel and RJ-45 jack to which you terminated the cable, a lab computer, and a switch
Description: Working in groups of at least two, use the patch cable you made to connect a lab
computer to the RJ-45 jack you punched down. Using an additional patch cable, connect the
patch panel to a switch. Then use the ping command to verify connectivity between computers.
1. Using the patch cable you made in Hands-On Project 4-1, connect your lab computer’s
NIC to the RJ-45 jack you punched down in Hands-On Project 4-2.
2. Using the additional patch cable, connect the port on the patch panel you punched down
to a switch.
3. Turn on the PC and the switch, if necessary.
4. Verify that you have a link light at the switch and at your lab computer’s NIC. Log on to
your computer, and give your computer’s IP address to another student who’s connected
to the switch.
5. Ping another student’s computer after getting his or her IP address. If the ping is success-
ful, your cable termination was a success.
6. If you’re sharing computers, allow the next group of students to test their cabling.
7. Shut down your computer if no one else is using it for testing.

Why Two Transmit and Two Receive Wires?

As you can see from the cable pinout diagrams shown previously in Figure 4-12, one
wire pair in 10BaseT and 100BaseT Ethernet is used for transmit (labeled Tx+/Tx-)
and one wire pair is used for receive (labeled Rx+/Rx-). The plus and minus symbols
indicate that the wires carry a positive or negative signal. This differential signal
mitigates the effects of crosstalk and noise on the cable. It does so because a bit signal
is transmitted as a positive voltage and a negative voltage (V). For example, if a 1 bit is
defined as +2V, the bit is transmitted as +2V on one wire and -2V on the other wire. The
receiver reads the difference between the two values, which is 4V. EMI and crosstalk
manifest as positive voltages, so what happens if the signal is hit by a burst of EMI that
adds 1V to the signal? You have the following:
Original signal with no EMI:

Transmit+ Transmit+ Differential result

+2V -2V +4V
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 197

Signal with EMI adding 1V to both transmit+ and transmit- wires:

Transmit+ Transmit+ Differential result

+2V + 1V 5 3V -2V + 1V 5 -1V +4V

As you can see, the result stays at +4V in both cases because the differential signal
effectively cancels out the EMI. However, this canceling effect works only if the same
amount of EMI is imposed on both wires. The closer the wires are, the more likely it
is that EMI will affect both wires equally. This phenomenon is one reason for using
twisted wires: The wires are so tightly coupled that both external EMI and crosstalk are
likely to affect both wires equally and be canceled out.
Although UTP is the most common media type for LANs, it has its limitations in
bandwidth, noise susceptibility, and length. In addition, UTP wiring shouldn’t be used
outside to connect between buildings. Copper wire is susceptible to the elements, and
its electrical conducting properties change slightly depending on the temperature. A
more important reason not to use any type of copper wire between buildings is that it
can carry a harmful electrical charge based on the ground potential between buildings
if they are fed from different transformers. When any of these limitations eliminate
UTP as an option, fiber-optic cable is the likely solution.

Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable trades electrical pulses for pulses of light to represent bits. Because
no electrical signals ever pass through the cable, fiber-optic cabling is as immune to
electrical interference as any medium can get. Therefore, light pulses are unaffected by
EMI and RFI. This characteristic also makes fiber-optic cables highly secure. They emit
no external signals that might be detected, unlike electrical or broadcast media, thereby
eliminating the possibility of electronic eavesdropping. In particular, fiber-optic cable
is a good medium for high-bandwidth, high-speed, long-distance data transmission
because of its lower attenuation characteristics and vastly higher bandwidth potential.
Commercial implementations at 10, 40, and 100 Gbps are currently in use.
Figure 4-17 shows a typical fiber-optic cable. A slender cylinder of glass fiber called
the “core” is surrounded by a concentric layer of glass known as the cladding. The
fiber is then jacketed in a thin, transparent plastic material called the “buffer.” These
three components make up what’s labeled as the optical fiber in this figure. The fiber
is optionally surrounded by an inner sheath made of colored plastic. A strengthening
material, usually made of Kevlar, comes next, followed by an outer sheath. Sometimes
the core consists of plastic rather than glass fibers; plastic is more flexible and less
sensitive to damage than glass, but attenuation is more of a problem with plastic than
with glass.
198 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

Kevlar for strength

Inner jacket
Jacket Optical fiber

Figure 4-17 Fiber-optic cable

In most cases, the fiber-optic strand carries data in only one direction, meaning
fiber-optic network connections typically consist of two or more strands, each in a
separate inner sheath. However, these cables can also be enclosed in a single sheath. Just
as you have UTP patch cables, you also find fiber-optic patch cables, usually to connect
from a fiber-optic patch panel to a switch or router. Fiber-optic cable used as backbone
cabling often comes in bundles of 12 or more fiber strands. Even if you’re using only two
strands at first, it’s a good idea to run cable containing more fiber than you need, in case
a strand breaks during installation or you need additional strands for future growth.
Some testing has shown that glass fibers can carry several terabits (1000 gigabits)
per second (Tbps). There’s really no end in sight for the bandwidth capacity of optical
fiber. As network bandwidth needs increase and the limits of copper wire are reached,
fiber-optic cable might eventually replace copper for all types of network connections.
Table 4-5 summarizes fiber-optic cable characteristics.

Table 4-5 Fiber-optic cable characteristics

Characteristic Value
Maximum cable length 2 km (6562 ft) to 100 km (62.14 miles)
Bandwidth 10, 40, and 100 Gbps and higher
Bend radius 30 degrees per foot
Installation and maintenance Difficult to install and reroute; sensitive to strain and bending
Cost Most expensive of all cabling options
Connector type Several types (see bulleted list in the next section)
Security Not susceptible to eavesdropping
Interference rating None; least susceptible of all cable types
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 199

Fiber-Optic Connectors
A wide variety of connectors can be used with fiber-optic media, depending on the
light-emitting sources used to generate light pulses and the corresponding light-
detecting sensors used to detect them. Figure 4-18 shows some connectors described in
the following list:

SC connector ST connector

MT-RJ connector LC connector

Figure 4-18 Fiber-optic connectors

Straight tip—Straight tip (ST) connectors join fibers at cross-connects or to

optical devices. They’re used most often in Ethernet networks with fiber-optic
cable as backbone cabling. An ST connector locks onto the jack when twisted.
Straight connection—Straight connection (SC) connectors push on, which makes
them easy to install and requires less space for an attachment. They make a strong
connection and can be used when splicing fiber-optic cables. An SC connector is
a one-piece component, with two receptacles for sending and receiving fibers. A
notch in its jacket ensures the correct orientation when inserted.
Locking connection—Locking connection (LC) connectors push on and pull
off with an RJ-45-style latching mechanism. They’re about half the size of SC
connectors, which makes them good for high-density applications, in which
many fibers are concentrated in one location.
Mechanical transfer registered jack—A mechanical transfer registered jack (MT-RJ)
connector looks a little like an RJ-45 connector. It provides a high-density
200 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

fiber-optic connection by using two fiber-optic cables. Compared with other

connector types, MT-RJ connectors take only half the space for the same number
of cable terminations. They’re also easy to install and require only one connector
for a two-fiber termination.
Fiber channel—A fiber channel or ferrule connector (FC) is used in some
measurement equipment applications and with single-mode lasers. This type of
connector is less common than most of the others in this list for LAN and WAN
applications.
Medium interface connector—A medium interface connector (MIC) is used for
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). Like SC connectors, MIC connectors are
one-piece constructions.
Subminiature type A—The company Amphenol originally designed subminiature
type A (SMA) connectors for microwave use and later modified them for fiber-
optic use. Two SMA versions are widely available: The 905 uses a straight ferrule,
which is a metal sleeve for strengthening the connector, and the 906 uses a
stepped ferrule with a plastic sleeve to ensure precise alignment of fibers. Like ST
connectors, SMAs use two connectors for each fiber strand.

Fiber-Optic Installation
Installing fiber-optic networks is somewhat more difficult and time consuming than
copper media installation. However, advances in connector technology have made field
termination of fiber-optic cables almost as fast and easy as copper terminations. The
connectors and test equipment for termination are still considerably more expensive
than their copper counterparts, but the trend toward easier, more affordable fiber-
optic networks continues. Fiber-optic cable to the desktop, although not common, is
becoming a feasible option for more companies.
There are several methods for terminating fiber-optic cables because of the many
connectors and cable types available, so installation details are beyond the scope of
this book. Before embarking on a fiber-optic termination task, you need to purchase a
fiber-optic termination kit, which can range from several hundred to several thousand
dollars. Some tools in a typical fiber-optic termination kit include the following:
Buffer tube stripper—A tightly calibrated tool designed for stripping buffer tubes
off the glass fiber strand without breaking the fiber
Cable stripper—Used to remove the fiber cable’s outer sheath; much like the cable
stripper used with UTP
Crimper—Used with connectors that use crimping as the method to fix the
connector to the cable, such as MT-RJ connectors
Diamond cleaver—Used to cut glass fiber cleanly without shattering the end
Inspection scope—Used for examining the end of a fiber strand to make sure it’s
clean and polished
Polishing tool—Used to polish the end of a cleaved (cut) strand of fiber
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 201

Fiber-Optic Cable Types

Fiber-optic cables come in two main types: single-mode fiber (SMF) cables, which
include a single, extremely small-diameter fiber (typically 8 microns) at the core, and
multimode fiber (MMF) cables, which use a considerably larger-diameter fiber (50
and 62.5 microns are standard sizes) at the core. SMF cable costs more and generally
works with laser-based emitters but spans the longest distances and is used in higher-
bandwidth applications. MMF cables cost less and work with lower-power light
emitting diodes (LEDs), which span shorter distances.
In the past, fiber-optic cable’s high cost and difficult installation meant it was
used only when a network required extremely high bandwidth or needed to span long
distances between wired network segments. However, because of the falling costs
of fiber and its advantages in immunity to interference, high-bandwidth capability,
and increased security, it’s now used almost exclusively for all network backbone
connections. It’s also the medium of choice for long-haul telecommunications,
in which large amounts of voice and data traffic are aggregated, such as between
telecommunication providers and ISPs.

Cable-Testing Equipment
Network cable installers should have a variety of testing and troubleshooting gadgets
in their toolkits. Cable-testing tools are used to detect incorrect terminations, breaks,
shorts, excessive noise or crosstalk, and cable length, among other problems and
characteristics. The following list describes some common tools for testing and
troubleshooting wired networks:
Cable certifier—As mentioned, cable certifiers do a full battery of tests to certify
that a cable installation meets a particular wiring standard, such as Cat 5e, Cat 6,
or Cat 6a. These tools check for total segment length, crosstalk, noise, wiremap,
resistance, impedance, and the capability to transfer data at the maximum
frequency rated for the cable. They do the most complete testing of the tools
discussed in this list and therefore cost the most.
Basic cable tester—This device varies by capability and cost. Most cable testers
check for wiremap, shorts, and opens, and some also check for length and
crosstalk. They’re mostly intended to let installers know that wires have been
terminated correctly, but they don’t certify a cable for a particular category. Basic
cable testers sometimes come with several ID plugs that help you identify the
cable end you are testing. You plug several ID plugs into patch panel ports and
the ID number (for example, 1, 2, 3) shows on the display of the cable tester at
the other end of the cable, allowing you to quickly identify which cable goes to
which patch panel port.
Tone generator—This tool is used to locate both ends of the same wire. It issues
a signal on one end of a wire, and a probe is used on the other end of the wire
to verify continuity. The probe delivers an audible tone when it’s touched to the
202 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

same wire as the tone generator. In some installations, dozens or hundreds of

cables are installed in the work area, with the other end of the cables in an IDF.
To match up the two ends of the cable, a technician places the tone generator
on a wire in the work area, and the technician in the IDF touches each wire until
the tone is heard. There are other methods to locate cables. For example, cable
certifiers and some basic cable testers include remote ID plugs that are plugged
into a patch panel’s ports, and the end of the cable in the work area is plugged
into the cable tester. The cable tester runs through its tests and displays the ID
number of the remote ID plug to let the installer know to which patch panel port
the cable is terminated.
Time domain reflectometer—A TDR measures cable length by transmitting a
signal on one end and measuring the time it takes for the reflection (signal
bounce) to reach the end of the cable. TDRs are useful for finding a cable’s total
segment length and finding breaks. For example, if a cable is believed to be
about 80 meters, but you don’t have end-to-end continuity because of a break
in the cable, a TDR can tell you approximately how far down the cable the break
is located. A similar tool for fiber-optic cables, called an “optical time domain
reflectometer (OTDR),” can also measure the location of breaks, bad connectors,
and signal attenuation.
Multimeter—This device can measure properties of electrical signals, such
as voltage, resistance, impedance, and current. It’s not often used to test
communications cables but is handy for measuring DC and AC voltage and
resistance levels on electrical circuits and power supplies. It can be used with
some coaxial cable installations to measure impedance and test for shorts and
opens.
Optical power meter—An OPM measures the amount of light transmitted by a
device on a fiber-optic cable and whether the amount of light on the cable’s
receiver meets the requirements for the device you’re connecting. OPMs and
OTDRs can be stand-alone devices but are also built into fiber-optic cable
certifiers.

Wireless Networking
Certification

98-366 Understanding network infrastructure:

Understand wireless networking

Wireless technologies are playing a bigger role in all kinds of networks. Since 1990,
wireless options have increased, and the cost of these technologies continues to
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 203

decrease. As wireless networking has become more affordable, demand has increased,
and as it does, so does production of wireless equipment, which brings prices down
even more. For this reason, wireless networks are now ubiquitous, with free Wi-Fi
hotspots available in restaurants, coffee shops, shopping centers, and most places
where a lot of paying customers can be found.
The adjective “wireless” might lead you to believe that wireless networks have no
cabling of any kind. However, wireless networks are often used with wired networks
to interconnect geographically dispersed LANs or groups of mobile users with wired
servers and resources on a wired LAN. Networks that include both wired and wireless
components are called “hybrid networks.” Indeed, even in home or small business
networks with workstations connecting to a wireless AP or router, the AP or router
usually connects to the Internet via a wired connection to a cable modem or similar
device. Probably the only truly wireless networks are ad hoc networks or small
infrastructure networks put together for the purpose of sharing files among a small
group of people.

Wireless Benefits
Wireless networking has a lot of appeal in many circumstances and can offer the
following capabilities:
Create temporary connections to existing wired networks.
Establish backup or contingency connectivity for existing wired networks.
Extend a network’s span beyond the reach of wire-based or fiber-optic cabling,
especially in older buildings where rewiring might be too expensive.
Allow businesses to provide customers with wireless networking easily, thereby
offering a service that gets customers in and keeps them there.
Enable users to roam around an organization or college campus with their devices.
Each capability supports uses that extend the benefits of networking beyond
conventional limits. Common applications for wireless networking technologies
include the following:
Ready access to data for mobile workers, such as doctors and nurses in hospitals
or delivery personnel. For instance, United Parcel Service (UPS) drivers maintain
connections to a server at the home office; their handheld computers send and
receive delivery updates and status information via a network server over a
wireless phone connection. Doctors can carry lightweight mobile devices so that
they have wireless access to patient information at all times.
Delivering network access to isolated facilities or disaster-stricken areas. For
example, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) uses battery-
powered wireless technologies to install field networks in areas where power and
connections might be unavailable.
Access in environments where layout and settings change constantly. For
instance, film studios often include wireless network components on the set
204 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

so that information is always available, no matter how the stage configuration

changes.
Improved customer services in busy areas, such as check-in or reception centers.
For example, Hertz employees use handheld units to check in returned rental
vehicles right in the parking lot.
Network connectivity in structures, such as historical buildings, where in-wall
wiring is impossible to install or prohibitively expensive.
Home networks where running cables is inconvenient. More people who
own multiple computers install inexpensive wireless networks so that family
members can share Internet connections and files. Figure 4-19 shows an
example of a home wireless network.

CATV cable from cable

Internet provider Computer

Wireless Laptop
Cable modem router

Twisted-pair patch
cable
Computer
Figure 4-19 A typical home wireless network

Types of Wireless Networks

Depending on the role wireless components play in a network, wireless networks can
be subdivided into the following categories:
Local area networks (LANs)—In LANs, wireless components act as part of an
ordinary LAN, usually to provide connectivity for mobile users or in changing
environments, or perhaps across areas that couldn’t otherwise be networked.
Examples include older buildings where installing wiring is impractical or
areas encompassing public or common property, where cabling might not be
permitted.
Extended LANs—In extended LANs, an organization might use wireless
components to increase a LAN’s span beyond normal distance limitations for
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 205

wire-based or fiber-optic cables, using a point-to-point arrangement (described

in Chapter 3).
Internet service—A company that wants to be a high-speed ISP but doesn’t have
a media infrastructure available, as cable and phone companies do, can use
wireless technologies to bring Internet access to homes and businesses.
Mobile computing—With mobile computing, users communicate by using a
wireless networking medium, such as radio or cell phone frequencies, that
enable them to move while remaining connected to a network.

Wireless LAN Components

The wireless components of most LANs behave like their wired counterparts, except
for the media and related hardware. The operational principles are much the same:
Attaching a network interface of some kind to a computer is still necessary, but the
interface attaches to an antenna and an emitter rather than to a cable. Users can still
access the network as though cable connects them to it.
Another component is required to link wireless users with wired users or
resources. At some point on a cabled network, a transmitter/receiver device, called a
transceiver or an access point (AP), must be installed to translate between wired and
wireless networks. This device broadcasts messages in wireless format that must be
directed to wireless users and relays messages sent by wireless users to resources or
users on the wired side of its connection. An AP includes an antenna and a transmitter
to send and receive wireless traffic but also connects to the wired side of the network.
This connection enables the device to shuttle traffic back and forth between a
network’s wired and wireless sides.

Wireless LAN Transmission

All wireless communication depends on sending and receiving signals broadcast
through the air to carry information between network devices. These signals take the
form of waves in the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. The frequency of the wave forms
used for communication is measured in cycles per second, usually expressed as hertz
(Hz). The entire EM spectrum starts with low-frequency waves, such as those used for
electrical power (60 Hz in the United States) and telephone (0 to 3 kilohertz [KHz] for
traditional voice systems), and goes all the way through the visible light frequencies
to the highest frequencies in existence, at which gamma rays and other high-energy
particles operate.
In wireless communication, frequency affects the amount and speed of data
transmission. The transmission’s strength or power determines the distance
that broadcast data can travel and still remain intelligible. In general, however,
the principles governing wireless transmissions dictate that lower-frequency
transmissions can carry less data more slowly over longer distances, and higher-
frequency transmissions can carry more data faster over shorter distances.
206 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

The middle part of the EM spectrum is commonly divided into several named
frequency ranges (bands). The following are the most common frequencies for wireless
data communication:
Radio—10 KHz to 300 MHz
Microwave—300 MHz to 300 GHz
Infrared—300 GHz to 400 THz (terahertz)

Note
Wi-Fi networks, as you can see, operate in the microwave category of frequencies.

The important principles to remember about a broadcast medium are the inverse
relationship between frequency and distance and the direct relationships among
frequency, data transfer rate, and bandwidth. It’s also important to understand that
higher-frequency technologies often use tight-beam broadcasts and require a clear line
of sight between sender and receiver to ensure correct delivery.
Wireless LANs make use of four main technologies for transmitting and receiving
data, as discussed in the following sections:
Infrared
Laser
Narrowband (single-frequency) radio
Spread-spectrum radio

Infrared LAN Technologies

Infrared (IR) wireless networks use infrared light beams to send signals between
pairs of devices. These devices typically generate signals strong enough to prevent
interference from light sources in most office environments. Infrared works well
for LAN applications because of its high bandwidth, which makes 10 to 100 Mbps
transmission rates easy to deliver. The four main kinds of infrared LANs include the
following:
Line-of-sight networks require an unobstructed view, or a clear line of sight,
between the transmitter and receiver.
Reflective wireless networks broadcast signals from optical transceivers
near devices to a central hub, which then forwards signals to their intended
recipients.
Scatter infrared networks bounce transmissions off walls and ceilings to deliver
signals from sender to receiver. TV remotes work in this fashion. This approach
limits maximum reception distances to approximately 30 meters (100 feet).
Because bounce technologies introduce signal delays, scatter infrared results in
lower bandwidth than line of sight.
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 207

Broadband optical telepoint networks provide broadband services. This

technology offers high speed and wide bandwidth, can handle high-end
multimedia traffic, and matches the capabilities of most wired networks.
IR transmissions are sometimes used for virtual docking connections that enable
portable computing devices to communicate with wired computers or peripheral
devices, such as printers. Even though infrared offers reasonable networking speeds
and convenience, infrared LANs are hampered by the typical 100-foot distance
limitation. Because infrared light is close in frequency to visible light (and most visible
light sources emit strongly in infrared frequencies), infrared is prone to interference
problems from fluorescent and other light sources in most work environments. These
devices are often called IrDA devices, named after the Infrared Device Association, a
trade association for designers and manufacturers of infrared equipment.

Laser-Based LAN Technologies

Laser-based transmissions also require a clear line of sight between sender and
receiver. Any solid object or person blocking a beam interrupts data transmissions. To
protect people from injury and excess radiation, laser-based LAN devices are subject to
many of the same limitations as infrared but aren’t as susceptible to interference from
visible light sources.

Narrowband Radio LAN Technologies

Narrowband radio (also called “single-frequency radio”) LANs use low-powered,
two-way radio communication, much like what’s used in taxis, police radios, and
other private radio systems. The receiver and transmitter must be tuned to the same
frequency to handle incoming and outgoing data. Unlike light-based communications,
such as infrared or laser, narrowband radio requires no line of sight between sender
and receiver, as long as both parties stay within the broadcast range of these devices—
typically, a maximum range of approximately 70 meters (230 feet).
In the United States, government agencies, such as the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC), regulate nearly all radio frequencies. Organizations that want
frequencies for their exclusive use in specific locales must complete a time-consuming,
expensive application process before being granted the right to use them. Because
of the difficulty in securing exclusive use, the FCC sets aside certain frequencies for
unregulated use, such as the ones at which cell phones and remote-control toys
operate. As wireless networking and other forms of wireless communication become
more popular, crowding of these frequencies could become a problem.
Depending on the frequency, walls or other solid barriers can block signals and
prevent transmission and reception. Interference from other radio sources is also
possible, particularly if the devices broadcast in the unregulated frequency ranges, as
most wireless LAN technologies do. As with any broadcast technology, anyone within
range of the network devices could eavesdrop on communications. For narrowband
radio technologies, this range is quite short. Table 4-6 summarizes the characteristics
of narrowband wireless LAN technologies.
208 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

Table 4-6 Narrowband wireless LAN characteristics

Characteristic Value
Frequency ranges Unregulated: 902–928 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 5.72–5.85 GHz
Maximum distance 50–70 m (164–230 ft)
Bandwidth 1–10 Mbps
Installation and maintenance Easy to install and maintain
Interference Highly susceptible
Cost Moderate
Security Highly susceptible to eavesdropping within range

Other single-frequency LAN technologies operate at higher power ratings.

Networks of this type can usually transmit as far as the horizon and even farther
by using repeater towers or signal-bouncing techniques. This kind of technology is
well suited for communicating with mobile users but much more expensive than
lower-powered alternatives. In addition, transmission equipment is more expensive
and usually requires FCC licensing. Most users of this technology, even in the largest
organizations, purchase this service from a communications carrier instead of
operating their own facilities.
Lack of security can be a serious concern with this kind of networking technology.
Anyone with the correct receiver can eavesdrop on communications, which explains why
encryption of traffic is common for networks operating at these frequencies. Table 4-7
summarizes the characteristics of high-powered single-frequency radio networks.

Table 4-7 High-powered single-frequency LAN characteristics

Characteristic Value
Frequency ranges Unregulated: 902–928 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 5.72–5.85 GHz
Maximum distance Line of sight, unless extension technologies are used
Bandwidth 1–10 Mbps
Installation and maintenance Difficult, highly technical, requires licensing
Interference Highly susceptible
Cost Expensive to very expensive
Security Highly susceptible to eavesdropping

Spread-Spectrum LAN Technologies

Spread-spectrum radio addresses several weaknesses of single-frequency
communications, whether high or low power. Instead of using a single frequency,
spread-spectrum uses multiple frequencies simultaneously, thereby improving
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 209

reliability and reducing susceptibility to interference. Also, using multiple frequencies

makes eavesdropping more difficult.
The two main kinds of spread-spectrum communications are frequency hopping
and direct-sequence modulation. Frequency hopping switches data between
multiple frequencies at regular intervals. The transmitter and receiver must be tightly
synchronized to maintain communication. The hardware handles the timing of hops
and chooses the next frequency without sending any information about this activity,
so eavesdropping is nearly impossible. Because frequency-hopping technologies use
only one frequency at a time, however, their effective bandwidth is usually 1 Mbps or
lower and seldom exceeds 2 Mbps.
Direct-sequence modulation breaks data into fixed-size segments called “chips”
and transmits the data on several different frequencies at the same time. The receiving
equipment knows what frequencies to monitor and how to reassemble the arriving
chips into the correct sequences of data. It’s even possible to transmit dummy data on
one or more channels, along with real data on other channels, to make it more difficult
for eavesdroppers to re-create the original data. Typically, these networks operate in
unregulated frequencies and provide bandwidths from 2 to 6 Mbps, depending on the
number of dummy channels used. The original 802.11 and 802.11b specifications use
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). Table 4-8 summarizes the characteristics of
spread-spectrum LAN technologies.

Note
Orthogonal frequency divisional multiplexing (OFDM) is a spread-spectrum technology used
by 802.11g and 802.11n running at 2.4 GHz and by the 802.11a 5 GHz and 802.16 WiMAX
standards.

Table 4-8 Spread-spectrum LAN characteristics

Characteristic Value
Frequency ranges Unregulated: 902–928 MHz or 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz
Maximum distance Limited to cell boundaries but often extends over several miles
Bandwidth 1–2 Mbps for frequency hopping, 2–6 Mbps for direct-sequence
modulation
Installation and maintenance Depends on equipment; ranges from easy to difficult
Interference Moderately resistant
Cost Inexpensive to moderate
Security Not very susceptible to eavesdropping
210 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

Note
The term “cell boundary,” as used in Table 4-8, refers to the service area or the radius of a
viable signal produced by a wireless transmitter.

LAN Media Selection Criteria

In LANs and internetworks, there are three main media choices: UTP, fiber optic, and
wireless. For UTP, the choices are usually Cat 5e, Cat 6, or Cat 6a for most applications,
although you might opt for a shielded version. Fiber-optic cabling is often the top
choice for connecting wiring closets and buildings, and possibly in electrically noisy
environments and for ultra-high-speed connections to servers. Wireless networks
typically supplement a wired network to accommodate mobile users or are used for
SOHO networks that don’t need the higher bandwidth wired networks can provide.
Following is a summary of criteria to explore when you’re having difficulty choosing
between media types:
Bandwidth—How fast must the network be? Higher bandwidth means more
expensive cable and higher installation costs, which usually means fiber-optic
cable. If you need a 40 or 100 Gigabit Ethernet network, fiber optic is really your
only choice.
Budget—How much money can you spend on cabling? Sometimes budget
alone dictates a choice. A typical UTP cable installation costs $100 to $200 per
cable run, whereas fiber optic might cost twice this much. Wireless media have
no physical installation costs, but you need to install access points and verify
connectivity from all locations.
Environmental considerations—How electrically noisy is the deployment
environment? How important is data security? Sometimes high-EMI
environments or security requirements can dictate cable choices, regardless
of other factors. The more weight either factor has, the more likely you are to
choose fiber-optic cable (or in lower-bandwidth applications, a secure wireless
network).
Span—What kind of distance must the network span? Longer spans might
require fiber-optic cabling or wireless technologies used between buildings.
Strategic placement of small switches for use with UTP wiring gives UTP
surprising reach in many office environments where workers tend to cluster in
groups, even if these groups are widely scattered.
Existing cable plant—For a new installation, only the previously listed criteria
need to be considered, but for an upgrade, the existing cable plant must be
considered. For example, if some existing cable is to remain, is it compatible
with the speeds and new equipment that are planned?
 CHAPTER 4 Network Media 211

Networks combining fiber-optic, UTP, and wireless media have almost become
the norm, with fiber-optic cables providing a backbone that ties together clusters of
devices networked with UTP cable through switches and wiring centers. With wireless
networks, users can stay connected with their Wi-Fi-enabled phones, laptops, and
tablets. Table 4-9 condenses the most important information for the cable types
covered in this chapter.

Table 4-9 Comparison of LAN media characteristics

Maximum cable
Type length Bandwidth Installation Interference Cost
UTP 100 m 10–10,000 Mbps Easy High Cheapest
STP 100 m 16–10,000 Mbps Moderate Moderate Moderate
Fiber optic 2–100 km 100 Mbps–10 Gbps Moderate None Most expensive
Wireless 100–300 feet 11–300 Mbps Easy Moderate None for physical
media

Chapter Summary
Wired networking media come in two main Fiber-optic cable uses pulses of light
categories: copper and fiber optic. Cable to represent bits and is immune to
characteristics include bandwidth rating, EMI, RFI, and electronic eavesdropping.
maximum segment length, susceptibil- Commercial implementations of up
ity to interference and eavesdropping, and to 100 Gbps are in use. Each network
cable grade. connection requires two strands of
Twisted-pair cabling comes in shielded or fiber-optic cable: one for transmitting
unshielded varieties. Most networks use and one for receiving. Fiber-optic cable
UTP, but STP can be used in electrically comes in single-mode or multimode;
noisy environments. Cat 5e and Cat 6 are single-mode uses lasers and can carry
the most common cable types in networks data longer distances, and multimode
today. uses LEDs.
Twisted-pair cabling components consist Wireless networks can be subdivided
of connectors, patch cable, jacks, patch into LANs, extended LANs, and mobile
panels, and distribution racks. A structured computing. The components of a
cabling plant consists of work areas, wireless LAN are a NIC, an antenna, and
horizontal wiring, telecommunications a transceiver or an access point. Wireless
closets (IDFs), equipment rooms (MDFs), networks send signals in the form of
backbone cabling, and entrance facilities. electromagnetic waves. Different network
212 CHAPTER 4 Network Media

types use different frequencies for signal Narrowband radio uses low-powered,
transmission. two-way radio communication and
Different technologies are used to is highly susceptible to interference.
transmit and receive data, including Spread-spectrum LANs are the most
infrared, laser, narrowband radio, and common and are used for 802.11 b/g/n
spread-spectrum radio. Infrared can Wi-Fi networks.
deliver speeds up to 100 Mbps and is Criteria for choosing LAN media include
used in some LAN applications. Laser- needed bandwidth, budget, environmental
based technologies require line of sight factors, the distance the network must
between sender and receiver, as does span, and the existing cable plant, if any.
infrared, but laser isn’t as susceptible to Networks combining fiber-optic, UTP, and
interference from other light sources. wireless have become the norm.

Key Terms
backbone cabling fiber-optic cable radio frequency
cable plant hertz (Hz) interference (RFI)
cable segment horizontal wiring RJ-45 jack
crossover cable infrared (IR) RJ-45 plug
crosstalk intermediate distribution spread-spectrum radio
datagrade frame (IDF) straight-through cable
demarcation point IrDA devices structured cabling
differential signal main distribution frame telecommunications closet
electromagnetic (MDF) (TC)
interference (EMI) MDI crossed (MDI-X) devices termination
encoding medium dependent transceiver
entrance facility interface (MDI) devices twisted-pair (TP) cable
equipment room narrowband radio voicegrade
extended LAN patch cable work area

Review Questions
. Which of the following is a common and requires only one connector for two
characteristic of a networking medium? cables?
(Choose all that apply.) a. SC
a. Bandwidth rating b. ST
b. Interference susceptibility c. MT-RJ
c. Broadband rating d. RJ-45
d. Maximum segment length . Which of the following conditions
. Which of the following types of fiber- requires cables not to exceed a
optic connectors provides high density recommended maximum length?