2.3. Equivalent Circuits November 13,2014 65 Fig. 2-22(b), such thatthe current j, remains unchanged. For the equivalent circuit, a ie 2.28) If the two circuits in Fig. 2-22 are to function the same, as regards the source, then i, as given by Eg. (2.27) for the original citeuit should be equal to the expression for i, given bby Eq, (2.28) for the equivalent circuit. Thus, 2.29) z z F (2.30) ‘This result can be generalized to any N resistors connected in parallel (resistors in parallel). (2.31) a R Current division > Multiple resistors connected in parallel divide the input current among them, For Rp in Fig. 2-22(a), 2.32) By extension, fora current divider composed of N in-parallel resistors, the current flowing through Rj is a proportionate fraction (Ray/R;) ofthe input current It is useful to note that the equivalent resistance for a parallel combination of two resistors Ry and Ry (Fig. 2-23) is given by RR eS Re > Asa short-hand notation, we will sometimes denote such a parallel combination Rj | Rp. We also denote the series combination of Ry and Rz as (Rj +R). Current Division on “= (arm) Figure 2-23 Equivalent circuit for wo resistors in parallel ‘As was noted earlier in Section 2-1.5, the inverse of the resistance R is the conductance G; G = 1/R. For N ‘conductances connected in parallel, Eq. (2.31) assumes the form of a linear sum Guy=S.G, (conductances in parallel 234 ‘Two resistors always can be combined together, whether they are connected in series (sharing the same current) or in parallel (sharing the same voltage). Two voltage sources ‘can be combined when connected in series, but they cannot be connected in parallel, unless they have identical voltages (Fig. 2-24). Two current sources can be combined when ‘connected in parallel (as illustrated by Fig, 2-25), but they ‘cannot be connected in series. Example 2-10: Current Division Using Conductance For the circuit in Fig, 2-26: (a) Relate /; t0 Ig and resistances Ry to Rs (b) Relate F5 10 Jp and conductances Gy 10 Gs, where Gi=1/R, Solution: (a) Application of the expressions given in Fig. 2-22 leads 0 Ray b= (F)o66 November 13, 2014 Figure 2-24 This is an unrealizable circuit unless all voltage sources have identical voltages and polarities; that i, W=v=¥s. = RRs Ray = Ro | Ry = pe Ig=h-h+h Figure 2-25 Adaing current sources connected in parallel. CHAPTER 2 _ RESISTIVE CIRCUITS 45 hy Rh SR SR Figure 2-26 Circuit of Example 2-10, Hence, o-(B) (b) Rewriting the expressions for fy and Rey in terms of 0-(2) ‘conductances gives with =Gi+Gs+Gs, ares) ‘Current division using conductances assumes the same fune- tional form as voltage division using resistances (Eq, (2.22b)) Ga = Hence, Example 2-11: Realizable and Unrealizable Circuits Given that the voltage difference between any two nodes in a circuit has to be unique (cannot have multiple values, simultaneously), and thatthe current in any given branch also is unique, determine which of the three circuits in Fig. 2-27 are realizable and which are unrealizable. Solution: (a) Circuit of Fig. 2-2%(a): Circuit is not realizable From the perspective of the ideal voltage source V,, the voltage difference between nodes A and B is V,, ut according to the dependent source the voltage is 2V,,2.3. Equivalent Circuits November 13,2014 _67 aay wa <> © Figure 2-27 Circuits of Example 2-11 (b) Circuit of Fig. 2-27(b): Circuit is realizable, From the standpoint of the two voltage sources to the left of nodes CD, Vep = Vi +¥p = 20-5= 15. Also connected across nodes CD is voltage source V3, but its voltage is exactly 15 V, Two voltage sources can be connected in parallel if they have the same voltage. (€) Circuit of Fig. 2-27(c): Circuit is realizable. KCL at node E requires that the sum of the three currents centering the node be zero, Hence, 34+2h—h=0, which leads 10 La-3A. This means that the direction of fy is upwards and the dependent current source has a downward-moving current of 6A Example 2-12: Equivalent-Circuit Solution Use the equivalent-resistance approach to determine V3, 1,1 and fy in the circuit of Fig. 2-28a). Solution: In the circuit of Fig. 2-28(a), the part of the circuit connected 10 the volage source is equivalent 10 a resistor Rg = Ri +((Rs-+Rs) | (Ro-+Rs)]. Hence, our first Step is to combine the 2 @ and 4) in-sries resistances into 42.6 2 resistance and to combine the two 6 Q in-parallel resistances into a 3.9 resistance (by applying Eq. (2.33). ‘The simplifications lead to the circuit in Fig. 2-28(b, Next, we calculate the parallel combination of the 32 and 6 Q resistors, (3 || 6), again using Eq. (2.33), to get (3 x 6)/(3 +6) = 18/9 = 2 ©. The new equivalent circuit is, A voltage-source circuit and a current-source circuit are considered equivalent and interchangeable if they deliver the same input current (and voltage vj2 t0 the external circuit. < For the voltage-source circuit, application of KVL gives =v FIR) +O 2.35) from which we obtain the following expression for i: ae 2.36) RR Application of KCL to the current-source circuit gives, e2372.3. Equivalent Circuits November 13,2014 69 Source Transformation a4 oA @) on ’ External 5 | cireit SS Voltag® source a ® t =e foil le 2] extemal circuit iD ds om | SS Current source Z 1,= 04/R) RR © Figure 2-29 Realistic voltage and current sources connected to an external circuit. Equivalence requires that f, = v/R and R= Ry where we used Ohm’s law to relate i, to v2. Equivalence of Eqs. (2.36) and (2.37) is satisfied for all values of Zand v2 if and only if R= (2.384) and 2.380) In summary: > A voltage source v, in series with a source resistance R, is equivalent to the combination of a current source i, = 0,/R in parallel with a shunt resistance R,, ‘The direction ofthe equivalent current source is the same as the direction from (—) to (+) terminals of the voltage source. ‘This equivalence is called source transformation because it allows us to replace a realistic voltage source with a realistic ‘current source, or vice versa. ‘A summary of in-series and in-parallel equivalent circuits involving sources and resistors is available in Table 2-5, Example 2-13: Source Transformation Determine the current / in the circuit of Fig. 2-30(a). Solution: It is best to avoid transformations that would involve the 3 © resistor with the unknown current J. Hence, ‘we will apply multiple source-transformation steps, moving from the left end of the circuit towards the 3 © resistor ‘Step 1: Current to voltage transformation allows us to convert the combination (J,R.,) toa voltage source 6x Vay = BR xv, in series with R,, Step 2: Combining R,, in series with the 6 © resistor results Ry, =24+6=89, Hence, the new input source becomes (VR) ‘Step 3: Convert (Vs, ,Ry.) back into a current source k Vi, [Roy =32/8=4 A, in parallel with R,. Step 4: Combine R., = 8 Q in parallel with the other 8 0 resistor (8 8) fo obtain an equivalent resistance R, ‘Step 5: Convert again to a voltage source 6, Voy = IyRy 44