Population vs.

Sample | Definitions, Differences & Examples

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.

A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is always
less than the total size of the population.

In research, a population doesn’t always refer to people. It can mean a group containing
elements of anything you want to study, such as objects, events, organizations, countries,
species, organisms, etc.

Collecting data from a sample

When your population is large in size, geographically dispersed, or difficult to contact, it’s
necessary to use a sample. With statistical analysis, you can use sample data to make estimates
or test hypotheses about population data.

Example: Collecting data from a sample

You want to study political attitudes in young people. Your population is the 300,000
undergraduate students in the Netherlands. Because it’s not practical to collect data from all of
them, you use a sample of 300 undergraduate volunteers from three Dutch universities who
meet your inclusion criteria. This is the group who will complete your online survey.

Ideally, a sample should be randomly selected and representative of the population. Using
probability sampling methods (such as simple random sampling or stratified sampling) reduces
the risk of sampling bias and enhances both internal and external validity.

For practical reasons, researchers often use non-probability sampling methods. Non-probability
samples are chosen for specific criteria; they may be more convenient or cheaper to access.
Because of non-random selection methods, any statistical inferences about the broader
population will be weaker than with a probability sample.
Population:

Think of the population as the entire group you want to study or learn something about. It's like
the big picture.

For example, if you want to know the average height of all people in your country, the
population would be every single person in the country.

Sample:

A sample is like a smaller group taken from the population. It's like a slice of the big picture.

Instead of measuring the height of every single person in your country, you might just measure
the height of a few hundred or thousand people. These few people represent your sample.

The idea is that if you study a well-chosen sample, you can make conclusions about the entire
population without having to measure everyone. It's like tasting a spoonful of soup to know
what the whole pot tastes like.

So, in short, the population is the whole group you're interested in, and the sample is a smaller
group from that population that you study to make educated guesses or draw conclusions
about the whole group. Sampling is a way to make studying large groups more manageable and
cost-effective in statistics.

Here are some common sampling methods in statistics:

Simple Random Sampling:

In this method, every individual or item in the population has an equal chance of being
selected.

You can use random number generators or drawing lots to select your sample.

Stratified Sampling:

The population is divided into subgroups or strata based on certain characteristics (e.g., age,
gender, income).

A random sample is then selected from each subgroup in proportion to its size in the
population.

This method ensures that each subgroup is represented in the sample.

Systematic Sampling:

In systematic sampling, you select every nth individual from the population after a random
start.
For example, if you want a sample of 100 from a population of 1,000, you might select every
10th person starting from a random point.

Cluster Sampling:

The population is divided into clusters, often based on geographic regions or other groupings.

A random selection of clusters is made, and then all individuals within the selected clusters are
included in the sample.

Convenience Sampling:

This method involves selecting individuals or items from the population that are easiest to
reach or most convenient.

It's often used when it's difficult or expensive to obtain a truly random sample, but it can lead
to biased results.

Purposive Sampling:

Researchers choose specific individuals or items from the population based on certain criteria
or characteristics.

This method is useful when you want to study a particular subgroup of the population.

Snowball Sampling:

This method is commonly used in situations where it's hard to identify and reach specific
individuals or groups.

You start with one or a few participants who meet your criteria, and then they help you identify
and recruit others for your sample.

Quota Sampling:

Quota sampling involves dividing the population into groups based on certain characteristics
and then setting quotas for each group.

Researchers select individuals to fill the quotas until they have a representative sample.

Random Sampling with Replacement:

In this method, individuals or items are randomly selected, and after each selection, they are
put back into the population before the next selection.

This allows for the possibility of the same individual or item being selected more than once.

Each of these sampling methods has its advantages and limitations, and the choice of which
method to use depends on the research question, available resources, and the level of precision
required in your study.
Random sampling in R programming refers to the process of selecting a random subset of data
or elements from a dataset. This is a common operation in statistics and data analysis when you
want to work with a representative sample from a larger dataset. R provides several functions
and methods to perform random sampling. Two commonly used functions for random sampling
in R are sample() and sample.int().

sample() Function:

The sample() function is used to randomly select elements from a given vector, data frame, or
list. It can be used to create a random sample of a specified size from the input data.

# Syntax:

sample(x, size, replace = FALSE)

# Parameters:

# - x: The data from which to sample (vector, data frame, or list).

# - size: The number of random samples to select.

# - replace: A logical value indicating whether sampling should be done with or without
replacement (default is FALSE).

# Example:

data <- c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)

random_sample <- sample(data, size = 5, replace = FALSE)

In this example, sample(data, size = 5, replace = FALSE) randomly selects 5 elements from the
data vector without replacement.

sample.int() Function:

The sample.int() function is similar to sample() but is typically used when you need to sample
integers within a specified range.

# Syntax:

sample.int(n, size, replace = FALSE)

# Parameters:

# - n: The upper limit of the integer range.

# - size: The number of random samples to select.

# - replace: A logical value indicating whether sampling should be done with or without
replacement (default is FALSE).
# Example:

random_numbers <- sample.int(10, size = 5, replace = FALSE)

In this example, sample.int(10, size = 5, replace = FALSE) generates 5 random integers between
1 and 10 without replacement.

Remember that setting replace = TRUE in either sample() or sample.int() allows for sampling
with replacement, meaning the same element can be selected multiple times in the sample.
Conversely, setting replace = FALSE ensures sampling without replacement, where each
element can be selected only once in the sample.

Random sampling is a fundamental tool for generating representative subsets of data for
various statistical analyses and simulations in R.

Sample from list

# Create a list of items

my_list <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry", "date", "fig", "grape", "kiwi", "lemon", "mango",
"orange")

# Specify the size of the random sample you want

sample_size <- 3

# Generate a random sample from the list

random_sample <- sample(my_list, size = sample_size, replace = FALSE)

# Print the random sample

print(random_sample)

samples from dataframe

To generate a random sample from a dataframe in R, you can use the sample_n() function from
the dplyr package or simply use the sample() function on the row indices of the dataframe.

# Load the dplyr package

library(dplyr)

# Create a sample dataframe (replace this with your own dataframe)

df <- data.frame(

Name = c("Alice", "Bob", "Charlie", "David", "Eve"),

Age = c(25, 30, 22, 35, 28)

)

# Specify the size of the random sample you want

sample_size <- 2

# Generate a random sample from the dataframe

random_sample <- df %>% sample_n(sample_size)

# Print the random sample

print(random_sample)

Method 1: Using sample_n() from the dplyr package (Recommended when working with
dataframes):

First, make sure you have the dplyr package installed and loaded. You can install it if you
haven't already by running install.packages("dplyr"). Then, you can use the sample_n() function
as follows:

# Load the dplyr package

library(dplyr)

# Create a sample dataframe (replace this with your own dataframe)

df <- data.frame(

Name = c("Alice", "Bob", "Charlie", "David", "Eve"),

Age = c(25, 30, 22, 35, 28)

# Specify the size of the random sample you want

sample_size <- 2

# Generate a random sample from the dataframe

random_sample <- df %>% sample_n(sample_size)

# Print the random sample

print(random_sample)
Method 2: Using sample() on row indices (Applicable without additional packages):

You can also use the base R sample() function to randomly shuffle and select rows from the
dataframe based on their indices:

# Create a sample dataframe (replace this with your own dataframe)

df <- data.frame(

Name = c("Alice", "Bob", "Charlie", "David", "Eve"),

Age = c(25, 30, 22, 35, 28)

# Specify the size of the random sample you want

sample_size <- 2

# Generate a random sample from the dataframe

random_indices <- sample(1:nrow(df), size = sample_size)

random_sample <- df[random_indices, ]

# Print the random sample

print(random_sample)

Random & Continuous Variables

In statistics, random variables and continuous variables are fundamental concepts used to
describe and analyze data. Let's explain each of them:

Random Variable:

A random variable is a mathematical concept used to describe the possible outcomes of a

random process or experiment. It assigns a numerical value to each possible outcome. Random
variables can be categorized into two main types:

Discrete Random Variable:

A discrete random variable is one that can only take on specific, distinct values.

These values are often counted, such as the number of students in a classroom, the number of
heads when flipping a coin, or the number of cars passing through an intersection in a minute.
Discrete random variables are typically described using probability mass functions.

Continuous Random Variable:

A continuous random variable is one that can take on an infinite number of values within a
specified range.

These values are often measured, such as the height of a person, the temperature in degrees
Celsius, or the time it takes for a computer to process a task.

Continuous random variables are typically described using probability density functions.

Continuous Variable:

A continuous variable is a type of variable that represents a measurable quantity that can take
on any value within a given range. Continuous variables are used to measure things that can
change continuously, such as time, distance, weight, and temperature. These variables can take
on an infinite number of values, often with great precision, and they are typically represented
as real numbers.

Here are a few key points to remember:

Continuous variables are associated with continuous random variables, while discrete variables
are associated with discrete random variables.

When working with continuous variables, we often use probability density functions (PDFs) to
describe the likelihood of specific values occurring within a range.

Continuous variables can be measured with varying degrees of precision, while discrete
variables are counted and take on specific, distinct values.

In practical statistical analysis, it's important to understand whether the variable you're dealing
with is continuous or discrete because it affects the choice of statistical methods and tools used
for analysis. For example, when dealing with continuous variables, techniques like probability
distributions and integration may be more applicable, whereas discrete variables may involve
probability mass functions and counting methods.

Understanding these concepts helps statisticians and data analysts appropriately model and
analyze data, making meaningful inferences and predictions based on the nature of the
variables they are working with.