RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

AN INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
 Research commonly refers to a search for knowledge
 The search is scientific and systematic, for pertinent
information on a specific topic
 According to Clifford Woody, research comprises
defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,
organising and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing
the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
 According to OECD is, "Any creative systematic
activity undertaken in order to increase the stock
of knowledge, including knowledge of man,
culture and society, and the use of this knowledge
to devise new applications.
 Research is, thus, an original contribution to the
.
existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement
CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH
 Empirical research and theoretical or conceptual
research

Empirical : It is a way of gaining knowledge by

means of direct and
indirect observation or experience
✓ Observational research
✓ Experimental research
 Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is
related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones.
 Empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment. Also
called experimental research. Working
hypothesis is formulated. Experimental design is
set up.
 The modern scientific method is really a
combination of empirical and conceptual
research. Using known experimental data a
scientist formulates a working hypothesis
 Einstein is often cited as an example of a
conceptual researcher, but he based his theories
on experimental observations and proposed
experiments, which would test his theories. On
the other hand, Edison is often considered an
empiricist, the “Edisonian method” being a by-
word for trial and error.
BASIC RESEARCH AND APPLIED RESEARCH
 Basic research: Search of knowledge without a
defined goal of utility or specific purpose.

 e.g. The microbiologist may conduct research in vitro,

in a laboratory on bacterial reproduction, growth and
endotoxin production without any direct application
clinically. Probably he may be interested in
monitoring endotoxins produced over the life cycle of
bacteria to determine pathogenicity
APPLIED RESEARCH
 Problem oriented and is directed towards a
defined and purposeful end. The central aim is to
discover a solution for some pressing practical or
general problem.
 e.g. An oral health researcher investigating the
relationship between periodontal disease and
myocardial infarction may use the findings of the
microbiologist as a framework to test the
relationship between bacterial endotoxins,
periodontal disease and myocardial infarction in
animal and then in human subjects.
DESCRIPTIVE VS. ANALYTICAL
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact
finding enquiries of different kinds. No control
over the variables, person can only report what
has happened or what is happening.
 Method used is survey methods of all kinds.

 In analytical research on the other hand

researcher has to use facts or information already
available and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
 Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount.
 It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or
kind. e.g. When we are investigating the reasons
for human behaviour (can use in depth
interviews). More common in behavioural
sciences
SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is
often better than overconfidence, for it
leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to
invention” by Hudson Maxim
 Research makes progress possible

 It inculcates scientific and inductive thinking.

More logical habits of thinking and organisation.
 Solves operational problems in business and
government. Acts as an aid to economic policy e.g.
government’s budget
 Research facilitates the decisions of the policy
maker. Government chalk out programmes for
dealing with all facets of the country’s existence
 Equally important for social scientists in
studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems
 Research is concerned both with knowledge for
its own sake and with knowledge for what it can
contribute to practical concerns.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 To discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures.
 The main aim of research is to find out the truth
which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
 Research objectives fall into a number of
following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or
formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in
view are known as diagnostic research studies)

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship

between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies)
RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY
 Research methods: All those methods/techniques
that are used for conduction of research
 A research method is simply a research tool, a
component of research – say for example, a
qualitative method such as interviews
 Research techniques refer to the behaviour and
instruments we use in performing research
operations such as making observations,
recording data, techniques of processing data.
 Type Methods Techniques

Library 1. Analysis of historical 1. Recording of notes, content

Research records analysis, tape and film listening
and analysis.

Laboratory Small group study of Use of audio-visual recording devices,

Research random behaviour use of observers, etc.

Field 1. Personal interview 1. Interviewer uses a detailed

Research schedule with open and closed
questions
2. Group interview 2. Small groups of respondents are
interviewed simultaneously.
 Research methods can be put into the following three
groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which
are concerned with the collection of data. These
methods will be used where the data already
available are not sufficient to arrive at the required
solution.
2. The second group consists of those statistical
techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns
3. The third group consists of those methods which
are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
 Why should research objectives be developed?
✓ Focus the study (narrowing it down to
essentials)
✓ Avoid the collection of data which are not
strictly necessary for understanding and solving
the problem you have identified
✓ Organise the study in clearly defined parts or
phases.
Properly formulated, specific objectives will
facilitate the development of research
methodology and will help to orient the collection,
analysis, interpretation and utilisation of data.
 Cover the different aspects of the problem and its
contributing factors in a coherent way and in a
logical sequence;
 Are clearly phrased in operational terms,
specifying exactly what you are going to do,
where, and for what purpose
 Are realistic and use active verbs that are specific
enough to be evaluated. Have active verbs such
as: (Determining, Measuring, Identifying,
Establishing, Evaluating, Assessing
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 Research methodology is a way to systematically
solve the research problem.
 Includes various steps that are generally adopted
by a researcher in studying his research problem
along with the logic behind them.
 Research methodology has many dimensions and
research methods constitute a part
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING HOW
RESEARCH IS DONE
 For one who is preparing himself for a career of
carrying out research
 Inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research
results with reasonable confidence.
 Satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool
which can become a way of looking at the world
and of judging every day experience.
 The knowledge of methodology helps the
consumer of research results to evaluate them
and enables him to take rational decisions
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH
 The purpose of the research should be clearly
defined and common concepts be used.
 The research procedure used should be described
in sufficient detail to permit another researcher
to repeat the research for further advancement,
keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.
 The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
 The researcher should report with complete
frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
STEPS IN RESEARCH

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 The analysis of data should be sufficiently
adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified
by the data of the research and limited to those
for which the data provide an adequate basis.
 Greater confidence in research is warranted if
the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
 Formulating the research problem

 Extensive literature survey

 Development of working hypotheses

HYPOTHESES
 Based on your experience with the study
problem, it might be possible to develop
explanations for the problem, which can then be
tested. If so, you can formulate hypotheses in
addition to the study objectives.
A HYPOTHESIS is a prediction of a relationship
between one or more factors and the problem
under study that can be tested.
FOLLOWING APPROACHES USED FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESIS

➢ Discussions with colleagues and experts about

the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
➢ Examination of data and records, if available,
concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues
➢ Review of similar studies in the area or of the
studies on similar problems
➢ Exploratory personal investigation which
involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals with
a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
 Preparing the research design

 Determining sample design

➢ Deliberate sampling
➢ Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is
also known as chance sampling or probability
sampling
➢ Systemic sampling: e.g. selecting every 15 th name on a
list. Used when sampling frame is in the form of a list.
➢ Stratified sampling: stratified random sampling
➢ Quota sampling:
➢ Cluster sampling and area sampling
➢ Multi stage sampling
➢ Sequential sampling
 Collecting the data
➢ By observation
➢ Through personal interview
➢ Through telephone interviews
➢ By mailing of questionnaires
➢ Through schedules

 Execution of the project

 Analysis of data
 Hypothesis-testing

 Generalisations and interpretation

 Preparation of the report or the thesis:

Report should have following parts:
➢ Title and date
➢ Acknowledgements and foreword
➢ Table of cotents
➢ Introduction
➢ Summary of findings
➢ Conclusion
➢ At the end of the report: Bibliography
CHALLENGES IN RESEARCH
 Choosing the right methodology: The lack of a
scientific training in the methodology of research.
 Insufficient interaction between the university
research departments on one side and business
establishments, government departments and
research institutions on the other hand.
 Overlapping research studies

 Choosing the right topic

✓ Development of a doable topic

 Finding the study participants

 Dealing with your data

 Most of the business units, hospitals in our
country do not have the confidence that the
material supplied by them to the researchers will
not be misused.
DEFINING THE RESEARCH
PROBLEM
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
 There must be an individual or a group which
has some difficulty or the problem.
 There must be some objective(s) to be attained
at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem.
 There must be alternative means (or the courses
of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes
to attain. This means that there must be at least
two means available to a researcher for if he has
no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
 There must remain some doubt in the mind of a
researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must
answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
 There must be some environment(s) to which the
difficulty pertains.
FACTORS MAKING THE PROBLEM
COMPLICATED

 The environment may change affecting the

efficiencies of the courses of action or the values
of the outcomes
 The number of alternative courses of action may
be very large
SELECTING THE PROBLEM
 Subject which is overdone should not be normally
chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any
new light in such a case.
 Controversial subject should not become the
choice of an average researcher.
 Too narrow or too vague problems should be
avoided.
 The subject selected for research should be
familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s
reach.
 The importance of the subject, the qualifications
and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved, the time factor are few other criteria
that must also be considered in selecting a
problem.
 The selection of a problem must be preceded by a
preliminary study. This may not be necessary
when the problem requires the conduct of a
research closely similar to one that has already
been done.
TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN DEFINING A
PROBLEM

Statement of the problem in a general way

Understanding the nature of the problem

Surveying the available literature

Developing the ideas through

Developing the ideas through discussions
discussions

Rephrasing the research problem

 Definition of problem in general way: Why is
productivity in Japan so much higher than in India”?

 Rethinking and discussions: “What factors were

responsible for the higher labour productivity of
Japan’s manufacturing industries during the decade
1971 to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing
industries?”
 Further rethinking and rephrasing: “To what
extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in
Japan exceed that of India in respect of 15 selected
manufacturing industries? What factors were
responsible for the productivity differentials between
the two countries by industries?”
RESEARCH DESIGN
RESEARCH DESIGN
 A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.
 It is the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
PARTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 Sampling design: deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the given study
 Observational design: which relates to the
conditions under which the observations are to be
made
 Statistical design: which concerns with the
question of how many items are to be observed
and how the information and data gathered are
to be analysed
 Operational design: which deals with the
techniques by which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and observational
designs can be carried out
FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.

 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be

used for gathering and analysing the data.

 It also includes the time and cost budgets since

most studies are done under these two
constraints.
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO RESEARCH
DESIGN

 Dependent and independent variables

 Extraneous variable (Source of error)

 Control

 Research hypothesis

 Experimental and non experimental hypothesis

testing research
 Experimental and control groups

 Treatments
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research design in case of exploratory
research studies
 Research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies
 Research design in case of hypothesis-
testing research studies
PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 Principle of replication
 Principle of randomization

 Principle of local control

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
 Informal experimental designs:
(i) Before-and-after without control design.
(ii) After-only with control design.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.
 Formal experimental designs:

(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).

(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
(iv) Factorial designs.
1. Before-and-after without control design:

Limitation: with the passage of time considerable

extraneous variations may be there in its treatment
effect
2. After-only with control design

Advantage: data can be collected in such a

design without the introduction of problems with
the passage of time
3. Before-and-after with control design

Superior to the above two designs as it avoids

extraneous variation resulting both from the
passage of time and from non-comparability of
the test and control areas
FORMAL DESIGNS
1. Completely randomized design (C.R.
design):
 Involves the principle of replication and the
principle of randomization
 When all the variations due to uncontrolled
extraneous factors are included under the
heading of chance variation, we refer to the
design of experiment as C.R. design
(I) TWO-GROUP SIMPLE RANDOMIZED
DESIGN
(II) RANDOM REPLICATIONS DESIGN

 In a random replications design, the effect of such

differences are minimised (or reduced) by providing
a number of repetitions for each treatment.
 Each repetition is technically called a ‘replication’.

 Random replication design serves two purposes

viz., it provides controls for the differential effects of

the extraneous independent variables and secondly,
it randomizes any individual differences among
those conducting the treatments
5. Randomized block design (R.B. design)

 In the R.B. design the principle of local control can

be applied along with the other two principles of
experimental designs.
 If each student separately randomized the order
in which he or she took the four tests
 The purpose of this randomization is to take care
of such possible extraneous factors (say as
fatigue) or perhaps the experience gained from
repeatedly taking the test
6. Latin square design (L.S. design)
 Treatments in a L.S. design are so allocated that
no treatment occurs more than once in any one
row or any one column.
 The two blocking factors are represented
through rows and columns (one through rows and
the other through columns).
7. Factorial designs: Factorial designs are
used in experiments where the effects of
varying more than one factor are to be
determined

a) Simple factorial designs

b) Complex factorial designs
 Simple factorial design: The effects of varying
two factors on the dependent variable is
considered
2X2 SIMPLE FACTORIAL DESIGN
 (ii) Complex factorial designs: Experiments with
more than two factors at a time involve the use of
complex factorial designs