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Definition
Hormones are chemical messengers secreted into blood by endocrine or ductless
glands. However many hormones are secreted by organs which are not ductless
glands. Hormone means to arouse or to excite. Major endocrine glands are pituitary,
hypothalamus, thyroid; adrenals, pancreas, ovaries and testes. Others are Thymus,
Pineal gland and gastro intestinal hormones. Hormones can be classified based on
their structure, mechanism of action, based on their site of production etc.
General functions of hormones
• Stimulation or inhibition of growth mood swings
• Induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell death)
• Activation or inhibition of the immune system
• Regulation of metabolism
• Preparation of the body for mating, fighting, fleeing, and other activity
• Preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty, parenting, and
menopause control of the reproductive cycle

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Classification
io of Hormones
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s Hormones can be classified in various ways based on different criteria such as
of chemical structure, their mode of action, and the organs or tissues they target.
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a basic classification:
m
o 1. Chemical Structure:
n • Peptide Hormones: These are made up of amino acids and include
e hormones such as insulin, growth hormone, and oxytocin.
s • Steroid Hormones: These are derived from cholesterol and include
•
hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol.
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 • Amino Acid Derivatives: These are derived from amino acids, such
as thyroid hormones (derived from tyrosine) and catecholamines (such
as adrenaline and noradrenaline).

2. Mode of Action:
• Endocrine Hormones: These are secreted into the bloodstream and
act on distant target tissues.
• Paracrine Hormones: These act locally on nearby cells.
• Autocrine Hormones: These act on the same cell that secretes them.
• Neurohormones: These are hormones produced and released by
neurons, such as oxytocin and vasopressin.
3. Based on Function:
• Metabolic Hormones: Regulate metabolism and energy balance, e.g.,
insulin and glucagon.
• Reproductive Hormones: Control reproductive functions, e.g.,
estrogen and testosterone.
• Stress Hormones: Respond to stress and regulate the body's response
to stressors, e.g., cortisol and adrenaline.
• Growth Hormones: Regulate growth and development, e.g., growth
hormone.
• Homeostatic Hormones: Maintain internal balance and regulate
physiological processes, e.g., thyroid hormones.
4. Target Tissue:
• Adrenal Hormones: Produced by the adrenal glands, such as cortisol
and adrenaline.
• Thyroid Hormones: Produced by the thyroid gland, including
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
 • Reproductive Hormones: Produced by the gonads (testes and
ovaries), such as estrogen and testosterone.
• Pancreatic Hormones: Produced by the pancreas, including insulin
and glucagon.
5. Duration of Action:
• Short-Term Acting Hormones: Have rapid effects but short
duration, e.g., adrenaline.
• Long-Term Acting Hormones: Have slower onset but longer-lasting
effects, e.g., thyroid hormones.
This classification system provides a framework for understanding the diverse
functions and actions of hormones within the body. However, it's important to note
that hormones often interact with each other and with various physiological
systems in complex ways.

Biosynthesis of Hormones
Biosynthetic mechanisms are many. Some protein hormones are synthesized as
precursors, which are converted to active form by removal of certain peptide
sequences.E.g. Insulin is synthesized as pre-proinsulin (m.wt11500).Removal of
some amino acids, peptides produce insulin (m.wt 5734).Thyroxine, a single amino
acid hormone. It is synthesized as a glycoprotein precursor called thyroglobulin,
which has 115 amino acids. Other hormones like glucocorticoids/ mineral
acorticoids from Adrenal gland are synthesized and secreted in their final active
form.
Pro-hormones: Some hormones are synthesized as biologically inactive or less
active molecules called pro-hormones. Usually they are polypeptides/ proteins.
Eg.Pre-proinsulin→Proinsulin.
Storage
Hormones are stored in secretory granules within the cytoplasm of endocrine cells.
eg. Thyroid hormones are stored in follicles filled with colloid particles.
Catechoamines of Adrenal medulla are stored in secretory granules of cytoplasm.
• Storage always protects the molecule from untimely inactivation.
• Steroid hormones are not stored in significant quantities.
• In response to stimulus they are synthesized and released immediately.
Release:
• When the target cells require free hormones, they are released immediately.
• The deficit in the bound form is replaced by the secretion of the endocrine gland.
Feed
back inhibition/stimulation controls hormone release .
• Protein, polypeptide hormones are released by exocytosis or pinocytosis. It
involves
fusion of granules and cellular membrane, followed by secretion in to blood stream.
• Stimulus excites the endocrine cell.
• The specific enzymes in the storage vesicle activate the hormone before release.
• Disruption of the process by certain drugs interferes with exocytosis.

• The secretory process is linked to the release of neurotransmitters.

Transport:
• Some hormones are soluble and do not require transport proteins.
• Free hormone is the fraction available for binding to receptors and therefore
represents the active form. Free Hormone concentration correlates best with the
clinical status of either excess or deficit hormone.
• Steroid hormones are lipid soluble. They diffuse through cell membrane.
• Specific transport proteins are found in blood for carrying steroid hormones and
thyroxine. Plasma globulins bind to thyroxine, cortisol and sex hormones. The
binding is noncovalent type. Some hormones bind loosely to proteins like albumin
for transport. Binding to plasma proteins protect them from inactivating systems.

• It also keep the hormones in readily available circulatory form to the target tissues.
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