RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION, MEASUREMENT AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING

MEANING OF RESEARCH
STEPS INVOLVED IN RESEARCH
IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM
STPES INVOLVED IN THE SELECTION OF A PROBLEM
RESEARCH DESIGN, MEANING AND TYPES
MEASUREMENT LEVELS/SCALES
SCALING TECHNIQUES
HYPOTHESIS MEANING, TYPES, TESTING PROCEDURES

UNIT 2: PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC TEST AND RESEARCH REPORT

INTRODUCTION TO t test, f test, chi – square test, ANOVA (ONE WAY & TWO WAY)
CONTENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION, MEASUREMENT AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Definition: According to Creswell, “Research is a procedure of steps used to gather and

analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”.

Characteristics of Research
Empirical: Research is based on direct experience/observation by the researcher.
Logical: Research is based on valid procedures and principles
Cyclical: It is a cyclical process because it starts with the problem and ends with the
problem.
Analytical: Research utilizes analytical procedures to gather data.
Critical: Research exhibits careful & precise judgement
Methodical: Research is conducted in a methodical manner without any bias
Replicability: The research design and process be repeated to arrive at valid and conclusive
result.

Objectives of Research
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights to it.
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual situation or a
group.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else.
 To test a hypothesis or a causal relationship between variables.

Importance of Research
1. The main importance of research is to produce knowledge
2. Research helps in problem solving
3. Research is important to society as it allows us to discover more and more that
helps make lives easier
4. Research helps in rapid economic development
5. It provides basis for government policies
6. It is useful to students, professionals, philosophers etc.

STEPS INVOLVED IN RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process consists of a series of actions/steps necessary to effectively carry out
research
1. Selection or Identifying of Research Problem:
The selection of topic for research is a difficult job. When we select a title or
research statement, the other activities would be easy to perform.
The research topic or problem should be practical, relatively important,
feasible and politically acceptable.
2. Literature Review:
The second step is that of literature review mostly connected with topics.
The availability of literature may bring ease in the research. For this purpose,
academic journal, conference and govt report & library must be studied.
3. Making Hypothesis:
 The development of a hypothesis is a technical work which depends on
experience of a researcher. It helps to draw positive and negative aspects of
a problem.
4. Preparing the research design:
The research design helps to draw a conceptual structure of a problem. It
depends on nature and purpose of the study.
5. Constructing devices for observation and measurement:
The next step is to construct or choose appropriate tools of research for
scientific observation and measurement. Depending on the nature of the
research problem the researcher may use any particular method
- Observation
- Experiment
- Case study
- Correlation and survey
6. Sample Selection and Data Collection:
After deciding the tools for the study, the researcher must also decide about
participants of the study for which purpose usually a small sample is drawn
which represents the population.
Then the actual study proceeds. Observations are made of variables where
all variables are carefully controlled.
7. Data Analysis and Interpretation:
After making observation data collected are analyzed with help of various
quantitative and qualitative statistical techniques. The data is carefully
scrutinized to gather findings, conclusions and provide suggestions.

STEPS INVOLVED IN SELECTION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Research problem to be undertaken for study must be carefully selected. A problem cam
spring in the mind of the researcher like a plant spring from a seed, A research guide can
help a researcher to choose the subject.

The following points may be observed by researcher in selection of research

problem.

 Subject overdone should not be chosen

 Controversial subjects should not be taken
 Too narrow or too wide problems should be avoided
 Subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible
 Subject should be within our limit
 Subject should be within our affordable budget

Steps in selection of research problem

 1. Defining the problem in a general way: The investigator can express the problem or
he can seek advice of a guide/subject specialist to define the problem. Often the guide
puts forth the problem generally, and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down
and raise the issue in operational terms.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem: The simplest way to understand a problem
is to talk about it with people who first raised the problem and also understand those
factors that prompted him to make a general statement, regarding the problem.
3. Survey of available literature: All possible literature related to the problem must be
reviewed, it will help to understand newer dimensions in the particular area and create
new knowledge.
4. Discuss to get ideas: One must discuss the problem with co-workers and others who
have experience in the area related to the problem. This is referred to as an experience
survey. People with experience can enlighten one on various aspects of the study and
give advice or comments in most cases.
5. Redefining the research problem: Last, but not the least, the researcher must sit
down to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Through rephrasing,
one will put the research problem in specific terms so that it can become operationally
viable and may help in the creation of a working hypothesis.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND STEPS IN RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is a master plan specifying methods and procedures for collecting and
analyzing data. Research design is a blueprint of action.
Broadly it is composed of elements like: - the purpose of study, the unit of analysis, time by
mention mode of observation, sampling, design, observational tools, data, processing, and
analysis.

Definition of Research Design:

According to Kerlinger, “research design is the plan, structure and strategy of
investigation, conceived, to update, answers to research questions and control variance”.

Features/ Characteristics of Research Design

Objectivity: The findings obtained by the research should be objective. It is possible by
allowing more than one person to agree between the final scores/ conclusion ofthe research.
Reliability: If similar research is carried out time and again in a similar setting it must give
similar results. So, the researcher must frame the research questions to make it reliable and
provide similar outcomes.
Validity: Any measuring device can be said to be valid if it measures what it is expected to
measure and nothing else. To make the research valid the questionnaire framed before the
research must be framed accordingly.
Generalization: The information collected from a given sample must be utilized for
providing a general application to the large group from which the sample is drawn.

Steps in the Research Design Process

1. Define the Problem: The first step involves the proper selection and then carefully
defining the problem. By this researcher will be enabled to know about what he has to
search.
2. Objective of the study: The objective should be very clear in the mind of the
researcher to get needed data accordingly.
3. Nature of the study: The research design should be very much in relation to the nature
of the study, which is to be carried out.
4. Data sources: The various sources of the data or the information should be very clearly
stated by the researcher be it primary or secondary sources.
5. Techniques of data collection: For the collection of the required data, it sometimes
becomes very necessary to use some special techniques.
6. Geographical limit: This step becomes a necessity at this point in time as, with the help
of this step, research linked to the hypothesis applies only to a certain number of social
groups.
7. Basis of selection: Selecting a proper sample, acts as a very important and critical step
and this is done with the help of some mechanics like drawing a random stratified,
deliberate, double cluster or quota sample, etc.
8. Data Analysis and Interpretation: Analysis of data is a process of inspecting,
cleaning, transforming, and modelling data with the goal of highlighting useful
information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making
9. Data Interpretation: Data interpretation can be defined as "the application of statistical
procedures to analyze specific observed or assumed facts from a particular study".
10. Conclusions and Recommendations: Conclusion means the judgement reached after
consideration. Based on the research findings, the conclusion needs to be drawn and
suitable recommendations should be made to help improve the research problem.

MEASUREMENT LEVELS/SCALES
The term scale of measurement is derived from two keywords in statistics, namely;
measurement and scale.

Measurement is the process of recording observations collected as part of the research. In

research, it helps us gather some kind of conclusive and quantitative data. Measurement
involves the assignment of numerals to characteristics pertaining to an object, event, person,
etc. Analysis and interpretation of the data measured help us in presenting the research
results.

Measurement Scale
A measurement scale is used to qualify or quantify data variables in statistics. It determines
the kind of techniques to be used for statistical analysis.

Types/ Classification of Measurement Levels/Scales

It is easy to measure quantitative data but difficult to do so if the data is qualitative or of
abstract type. In the case of the measurement of attitude, the data belongs to the abstract or
qualitative type.
There are four widely accepted levels of measurement called Measurement Scales. These
are:
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
 4. Ratio Scale

1. Nominal Scale
The nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. This is applied to qualitative
data where objects are classified into various discrete/distinctive groups or categories
without any ranking or order associated with them.
Examples: Categorizing people according to their religion such as Hindu, Muslim, Sikh,
and Christian. Categorizing people as per blood group, eye colour.

Note: Here we assign different numbers to different objects the numbers do not have any
meaning. Ex: in research we categorise males as 1 and females as 2, this does not mean
males are better than females.

2. Ordinal Scale
This possesses the attribute of magnitude only. The various categories of items can be
compared with each other only in order of rank assigned to these categories.

Examples: Students categorized according to their grades of A, B, C, D, E, F, etc where A

is better than B and so on.
Socio economic status: Low, Medium, High
Education level: High school, Intermediate, Degree, PG, Ph.D.

Note: Here we have assigned numbers to objects as per a meaningful order.

3. Interval Scale
The interval scale is stronger than the ordinal scale because it possesses not only the
magnitude attribute but also the equal intervals attribute as it measures the values of the
quantitative random variables and identifies not only as to which category is greater or better
but also by "row much".

Examples: Temperature in Fahrenheit.

4. Ratio Scale
The ratio scale is also used for the measurement of quantitative random variables from the
interval scale in that it has a true (absolute) zero point, meaning that the values of each
variable can be zero.
Examples: Physical measurements such as height, weight, distance, etc.

Criteria for a Good Scale

Any scale must satisfy the following criteria to prove its efficacy:
1) Validity: Validity establishes the extent to which the scale does what it is supposed
to do. Does it measure what it was intended to measure?
2) Reliability: This indicates whether or not the findings of a measuring instrument can
be relied upon. Researcher must answer questions if the outcomes accurate? Can
they be replicated? Are the findings consistent? etc.
3) Practicality: It refers to the ease and economy of constructing the measuring
instrument as well as the administration and interpretation of the test outcome. It
 measures the achievability and practicality of an instrument. The benefits or results
should justify the costs.
4) Sensitivity: This refers to how well the test is standardized. It tests how much an
instrument can measure accurately. For example, a test that requires respondents to
merely say 'yes' or 'no', may not be very sensitive. On the other hand, if the
respondent is asked to rate on a 5’-point scale, the scale may be considered to be
highly sensitive. It depends upon the requirement of the test.
5) Generalisability: It refers to whether or not one can generalize the findings, i.e.
Whether or not the sample or respondents selected can be said to represent a larger
population. For example, exit polls can be said to have a high degree of
generalisability.
6) Economy: This factor emphasizes the aspect that whether the instrument is
economical to construct and conduct. Tests are expensive to develop and administer.
Therefore, the results or benefits of the tests must justify or warrant the costs.
7) Convenience: A measuring instrument is convenient if it is easy to conduct. The
instruments that provide guidelines to use are much more convenient than those
instruments that do not include this feature. Generally, it is considered that the
requirement for convenience increases with the level of complexity of a measuring
instrument.

SCALING TECHNIQUES
Scaling is an extension of concept of measurement. The difference between measurement
and scaling is that measurement is the assignment of numbers to objects or respondents
and scaling is the process of placing them on a continuum with respect to the number
scored by them.
A) RANKING SCALE:
Ranking scales offers respondent is to select most preferred item of their choice between
two options. Example a researcher may ask a lady to choose among two variants of
toothpaste.
Option A: Colgate
Option B: Pepsodent

However, there may be more than 2 options, in such case respondents could get confused
leading to ties between options. Problem can be solved by using following techniques.

Paired comparison Scaling: In this method, the objects are paired with each other and
presented to respondents who select the item they prefer. It can be anything such as
products, services etc. Example following table shows paired comparison of personal
choices among seven different fruits.

Rank Order Scaling:

In this scale respondents are asked to rate an item in comparison to another item or group
of items based on some criteria.
Ex: A respondent may be asked to rate a car based on fuel efficiency, design, comfort etc.

Constant Sum Scaling: In this technique, respondents are provided with a sum of units,
points, credits, money and asked to distribute/allocate them to objects.
Ex: A respondent may be asked to allocate 100% among various activities in a day like
eating, sleeping, working, hobby etc. in a way that total is 100%.

Q-sort scaling: It is a technique where participants are asked to sort objects or statements
into several categories. Ex: a respondent is presented with 50 statements and asked to sort
them into 11 piles where in extremes are highly agree and highly disagree.

RATING SCALES:
Rating scales are non-comparative in nature. They are also called as monadic or
metric scales. Here respondents estimate one item at a time and these scales are useful for
measuring attitudes, perception etc.
Ex: Weather can be rated in terms of humidity and illness can be rated in terms of severity
etc.

Rating scales are broadly of two types: Graphic and Itemized rating scales.

Graphic Rating Scale:

 In this technique a scale is constructed with 2 extreme options and alongside other
options in between them. The respondents have to place the mark on their preferable
option. Graphic rating scales are also called “continuous rating scales”.

Ex: Customers are asked to rate online shopping experience as follows:

Itemized rating scale: Unlike graphic rating scale, itemized rating scales have a description
against every category of option. These categories are placed in certain order. The
respondents have to select a category that best describes the object.
They are of the following types:
a. Guttmann: In this scale few statements are arranged in accordance with their
specificity in an ascending manner. The respondents are asked to either agree or
disagree. The idea behind placing statements in increasing specificity is that,
respondents start to agree with statements up to a certain level after that they stop
agreeing. The scales determine the specificity of an attitude.

b. Likert: Likert scale is widely used in research in questionnaires or surveys. A scale is

constructed with a 5 point where the levels of agreement are mentioned regarding
a statement and the respondent is asked to select the level of agreement best
suited to him/her.
c. Schematic/Semantic Differential scale: This scale is constructed using 7 points. At
both ends the extreme values are associated with the object. The respondents are
asked to rate the object in the scale. It is usually suited to know perceptions about a
brand, company etc.

d. Thurstone: This technique works on principle of equi-appearing intervals. The

concept states that the difference between two options must be equal/same such
that the respondents are not able to assign quantitative measures to the options,
then the difference can be estimated and attitudes can be determined. The scale
was developed by Thurstone, here various statements are sorted into 11 piles, they
vary from most unfavorable to neutral to most favorable.

e. Stapel’s scale: it is it 10 item scale, where each item represents a word or

statement. The phrase or word is associated with center of scale and scale is
constructed vertically at both sides of the scale. Positive and negative ratings are
given that shows possibility of positivity and negativity of statement. Respondents
are asked to rate object using items on the scale, uses numerically represented.
 f. Multi-Dimensional scale: It is generally used to study consumer tastes &
preferences. In this technique respondents are asked to categories brands in various
groups like similar, very similar, not similar etc. This technique is used to find out
important attribute that matter to consumers.

UNIT 2 PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS

PARAMETRIC TEST
In statistics, the parametric test is a kind of hypothesis test, which case
generalizations for generating records regarding the meaning of primary/original
population.
Parametric test is one that makes assumptions about parameters (properties) of the
population distribution from which one’s data is drawn. In a parametric test, a sample
statistic is used to estimate population parameter.

POPULATION SAMPLE

A sample is a part of population. Parameter means properties of population and statistic

means property of sample. In t Test we estimate population properties based on sample
properties.
ASSUMPTIONS OF PARAMETRIC TEST
1) Observations are taken from general population
2) Size of sample is large
3) Population parameter and good condition

APPLICATIONS OF PARAMETRIC TEST

1) This test is used when data is quantitative and continuous.
2) When distribution is normal.
3) The parametric tests are helpful when data is estimated on approximate ratio or
interval, ratio scales of measurement

TYPES OF PARAMETRIC TEST

1. Z test 2. T – test 3. Chi square test d. ANOVA e. Pearson’s coefficient
of correlation

NON-PARAMETRIC TEST
The non-parametric test does not require any population distribution, which is
meant by distinct parameters. It is a kind of hypothesis test which is not based on
underlining hypothesis. Here the test is based on differences in median. So, this kind of test
is also called distribution free test. The total variables are determined on nominal or ordinal
level. If the independent variables are non-metric, the non-parametric test is usually
performed.

ASSUMPTIONS OF NON-PARAMETRIC TEST

1. The assumptions for the population, probability distribution hold true
2. Sample size is large enough for central limit theorem to lead to normality of
averages
3. Data is not normal, but can be transformed

APPLICATIONS OF NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS

1. These tests are use in case of solid mixing to study sampling result
2. The tests are helpful when data is estimated with different kinds of measurement
scales
3. The non-parametric test are used when distribution of population is unknown

TYPES OF NON-PARAMTRIC TEST

1. Mann whitney 2. Kruskal Wallis etc.

t – TEST
o The objective of any statistical test is to determine likelihood of a value in a sample
given that null hypothesis is true.
o T-test is typically used in case of small samples and where statistic of population
follows a normal distribution.
o t- Test was originally developed by WS Gossett in 1908 to monitor the stout quality
while working in a brewery.
 o t-Test is also known as student’s test.
o It is often used to test if “two samples are statistically different from each other.”
o The t-test, does this by comparing the means of both samples.

ASSUMPTIONS OF t-TEST
1. The population from which a sample is drawn is normal
2. The samples have been drawn at random
3. The population standard deviation is not known
4. Sample size should be small that is less than 30.

PROPERTIES OF t-TEST
1. The t-distribution curve is similar to normal distribution that is a bell-shaped
frequency called which is symmetrical in nature. Degrees of freedom is the only
parameter which determines shape of the curve. The shape of the curve changes
with degrees of freedom.
2. Similar to normal curve, the mean of t-distribution is zero.
3. The value of variance of t-distribution is usually greater than one and as the sample
size increases its shifts towards unity.
4. It can also be useful for large samples.
5. The value of the distribution ranges from -1 to +1

APPLICATION OF THE t-TEST

Following our cases where t-test is generally used:
1. To test the significance of mean of random sample.
2. To test the difference between means of two samples (independent samples)
3. To test is the difference between means of two samples (dependent samples) or
paired t-test

1. Test of significance of mean of a random sample: Here, the test is used to determine
whether sample Man drawn from normal population deviate significantly from the
population, mean, when the variance of population is unknown.

X−μ
t=
Formula: s
√N

Where, X= mean of a sample,

μ=¿ actual or hypothetical mean of population
S = Standard deviation of sample
N= Sample size

2. t-test (Means of two independent samples)

Independent sample refers to that sample in which values and form solutions in one
sample does not depend on other. Given, two independent samples of size m with means
X1 and X2 and standard deviations S1 and S2 Titus will be calculator for the following formula.
Where, X1 = mean of first sample
X2 = mean of second sample
S = combined standard deviation
n1 = Number of observations in first sample
n1 = Number of observations in second sample

3. Paired t-test
Th two samples are said to be to be dependent when, elements in one sample are
related to the other in some significant or meaningful manner. In fact, dependent sample
may consist of pairs of observation made on same person or object. It is helpful to pursue
experiments to find out impact of training on some employees, effectiveness of coaching
on students, effectiveness of medicine and treatment of patient, effect of advertisement on
boosting sales etc.

F-Test
o Another important parametric test is F-test which is used to test significance of
population variance for independent estimates.
o The term variance was first used by statistician R A Fisher.
o This test is particularly useful well when multiple sample cases are involved and the
data has been measured on interval or ratio scale.
o This test is useful in economics, business education, agriculture etc.
o The F test can be used to test the quality of variance of two normal populations,
analyze variance for more than two independent samples as well as analysis of
covariance.

F-test is used to test the quality of variance of two normal populations to find whether two
samples can be regarded as drawn from normal population having same variance.

ASSUMPTIONS OF F-TEST
o Normality: the population is normally distributed
 o Homogeneity: the variance within age group should be equal for all groups.
o Randomness: the sample item should have been drawn randomly from the
population.
o Independence of error: this implies that variation of each item around the group
name should be independent for each item value.

F-test Formula:

CHI-SQAURE TEST
o Chi-square test statistic is commonly used for testing relationships between
categorical variables.
o The null hypothesis of chi-square test is that no relationship exists on categorical
variables in population that is they are independent.
o Alternate hypothesis states that there is relationship between the categorical
variables.

Characteristics of chi-square test

1. This test is a non-parametric test. It is based on frequencies and not on the
parameters. Let mean and standard deviation.
2. It is used for testing hypothesis and is not useful for estimation
3. This test possesses the additive property
4. The test can be applied to complex contingency table with several classes and it is
useful for research work
 5. This test is important nonparametric test and not as it as I am Sansar necessary in
regard to the type of population, parameter values etc.

RESEARCH REPORT
A report is a detailed description of what has been done and how that been done with
respect to a particular area or topic. A research report is a presentation or research
findings in the form of report. It is a necessary part of the research process. It is the
oral or written presentation of evidence. Research report writing is the culmination of
the research investigation. Reporting is the end product of a research activity. (Indeed,
its practical application will follow.)

Characteristics of a Good Report

1. Simplicity: The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is
easily understandable. Jargons and technical words should be avoided. Even in
a technical report there shall be restricted use of technical terms if it has to be
presented to laymen.
 2. Clarity: The language shall be lucid and straight, clearly expressing what is
intended to be steps expressed. For that the report has to be written in correct
form and following correct
Brevity: A report shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the
reader is not lost and there is no confusion of ideas. But, at the same time, a
report must be complete. A report is not an essay.
3. Positivity: As far as possible positive statements should be made instead of
negative ones. For example, it is better to say what should be done and not
what should not be done.
4. Punctuation: Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise
the meaning of sentences may be misunderstood or misrepresented
5. Approach: There are two types of approaches:
a) Person: When a report is written based on personal enquiry or
observations, the approach shall be personal and the sentences shall be
in the first person and in direct speech,
b) Impersonal: When a report is prepared as a source of information and
when it is merely factual (e.g. a report on a meeting), the approach shall
be impersonal and the sentences shall be in the third person and in
indirect speech.
6. Readability: The keynote of a report is readability. The style of presentation
and the diction (use of words) shall be such that the readers find it attractive
and he is compelled to read the report from the beginning to the end! Then only
a report serves its purpose. A report on the same subject matter can be written
differently for different classes of readers.
7. Accuracy: A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be
biased with personal feelings of the writer.
8. Logical Sequence: The points in a report shall be arranged with a logical
sequence, step by step and not in a haphazard manner. A planning is necessary
before a report is prepared.
9. Proper Form:A report must be in the proper form. Sometimes there are
statutory forms to follow.
10. Presentation: A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the
quality of typing or printing as well as quality of paper used. Big companies
make very attractive and colourful Annual Reports.

Need/Purpose of Research Report

It helps to communicate to the interested person the methodology and the
results of the study.
1) It serves as a means for presenting the problem studied, methods and
techniques used for collecting and analysing data me findings conclusions and
recommendations in an organised manner Thus, it helps to evaluate the
researcher's ability and competence to research
2) It serves as a basic reference material for future use m developing research
proposals in the same or relevant area
3) It serves as a means for judging the quality of the completed research project
 4) It provides actual base for formulating policies and strategies relating to the
subject matter studied
5) It provides systematic knowledge or problems and issues analysed.

Importance of Research Report

1. Decision Making Tool: Today's complex business organizations require thousands
of information. Â reports provide the required information a large number of
important decisions in business or any other area are taken on the basis of information
presented in the reports. This is one of the great importance of report.
2. Investigation: Whenever there is any problem, a committee or commission or study
group investigates the problem to find out the reason behind the problem and present
the findings with or without the recommendation in the form of a report. It is another
importance of report.
3. Evaluation: Large scale organizations are engaged in multidimensional activities. It
is not possible for a single top executive to keep personal watch on what others are
doing. So, the executive depends on reports to evaluate the performance of various
departments or units.
4. Quick Location: There is no denying the fact that business executives need
information for quick decision-making. As top executives are found to be busy for
various purposes), they need vital sources of information. Such sources can be
business reports.
5. Development of skill: Report writing skill develops the power of designing,
organization coordination, judgment and communication.
6. Neutral presentation of facts: Facts are required to be presented in a neutral way;
such presentation is ensured through a report as it investigates, explains and evaluates
any fact independently.
7. Professional advancement: Report also plays a major role in professional
achievement. For promotion to the rank-and-file position, satisfactory job
performance is enough to help a person. But for promotion to high level position,
intellectual ability is highly required. Such ability can be expressed through the report
submitted to higher authority.
8. Proper Control: Whether activities are happening according to plan or not is
expressed through a report. So, controlling activities are implemented based on the
information of a report.
9. A managerial Tool: Various reports make activities easy for the managers. For
planning, organizing, coordinating, motivating and controlling, manager needs help
from a report which acts as a source of information.
10. Encountering Advance and Complex Situation: In a large business organization,
there is always some sort of labour problems which may bring complex situations. To
tackle that situation, managers take the help of a report.

Limitations in Research Report

1. Sample size/sample bias
For example, let's say 100 hundred people should participate in your survey. Each
person may give you individual results, but it does not mean that the same results
belong to the whole population.
2. Access to data
You will not always be able to go through all the resources. You can't gather all the
data you want for your research since it will take a lot of time. Because of it, your
work might not cover each aspect.
3. Lack of time
Often deadlines are the reason why your study and research might not be complete.
When we get a task, we have a limited amount of time to do it. To get a good grade,
we need to submit the assignment prior to the deadline.
4. Financial resources
Sometimes we need some equipment or additional software to conduct the research.
This might be a problem since we don't always have the sum we need.
5. Data collection
There are different ways to collect data: interviews, surveys, questionnaire, etc. The
way you collect data might be a real limitation since the answers and the results vary.
6. Method
When you are finding new information, you use a specific research method. Different
methods give you various opportunities. Quality of the datum you get often depends
on the method you choose.

Contents of a Research Report

A general format of report has following layout:
1)Title Page
This is the first page of a research report, where the title of research is mentioned
When deciding the title, it should be kept in mind that it should be able to explain the
objective of research. It should also be able to get the attention of a reader instantly.
Along with the title, the topic of research, the name of researcher, the agency or
institution for which it has been prepared, date, and place of submission of report
should also be mentioned.

2) Table of Content
Table of content enlists various sections of research report along with their
corresponding page numbers. It includes various sections and subsections in a
sequence of their appearance in the report. It allows the readers to directly go to a
certain topic of their interest rather than searching the entire report for it.

3) List of Tables and Graphs

The tables and graphs are listed in this page along with their page numbers. This list
helps the readers to directly go to certain table or graph of their concern.

4) Proposal and Letter of Authorisation

The proposal or letter of authorisation shows the objectives, plan, cost and duration of
the project. It helps to assess the value of a project. When the proposal is very long, an
extract is written in the proposal and the complete proposal is included in annexure.

5) Executive Summary
Executive summary is that part of the research report where the researcher writes a
brief summary of a complete research. It gives an overview about the research. This
section introduces them with the objectives and contents of the research report briefly,
which helps the decision making.

6) Introduction
The main section of the research report starts with the introduction. This part of the
research report describes the purpose, need, and importance of the research project. It
introduces the reader with the research problem and related questions. It also
highlights the previous related researches. It aware the readers about the problem in
broader perspective as well as the related concepts and terms that make familiar with
the background.

7) Methodology
In this section, a brief description about the complete methodology is given. It is kept
in mind that the researcher should avoid using technical jargons. This part should
neither be too detailed nor too brief. Research methodology includes the description
about following aspects:
i) Research Design: Research design illustrates the type of research design, i.e.,
exploratory, descriptive, and causal, chosen for the research work and reasons behind
the selection.
ii)Sampling: Here, the researcher describes about the nature of population, sample
frame, sampling units, sample size, sampling technique, etc., and reasons behind these
selections, so that the readers get familiar with the sample taken for research. iii) Data
Collection: Here, the researcher needs to mention the details about data collection in
the research work. In this section, the researcher is required to discuss whether he has
opted primary data sources or secondary sources, and the reasons behind the selection.
The researcher also explains all the possible methods with the help of which the data
has been collected, i.e., questionnaire, interview, observation, etc. If the questionnaire
is used in data collection, then a copy of it should be attached in the annexure of
report.
iv) Fieldwork: In this section, the complete procedure of fieldwork is discussed. The
researcher explains many things about the fieldwork, such as, the number of
fieldworkers employed, type of training provided to them, monitoring and controlling
of fieldwork, precautions followed during fieldwork, etc.
v) Data Analysis: In this section of research methodology, the researcher describes
the method adopted for analysing the data, and the suitability of selected method.
The complete description is given about the process applied for analysing the data
with proper calculations. Various charts and graphs can also be used to explain the
data easily. The formulae which are complex should be mentioned in the annexure.
Which formula is being used, when, and why, can also be mentioned as footnotes
along with the calculations.
vi) Findings: In findings, the researcher generalises or interprets the findings from the
data analysis. While making generalisations or interpretations, the researcher needs to
keep in the mind that findings should be presented in a logical manner, so that it can
help in decision-making process. The findings should be made in a way that can
answer the research questions. The findings should be represented effectively with the
help of various charts, graphs, and diagrams.
vii) Limitations of Research Project: Any research project is not completely correct
and may have some limitations. In this section of the report, the researcher highlights
the potential limitations that influence the reliability of the findings of a research.
These limitations can be related to anything such as errors in data collection,
sampling, data analysis, etc.
Researchers should always remember that they should not overstate these limitations,
as these may harm the positive effects of the research work.

8) Conclusions and Recommendations:

Conclusions are made on the basis of approval or disapproval of hypothesis. These
either verify or deny the assumptions or hypotheses set for the data analysis. After
deriving conclusions, researchers are also required to give recommendations, so that
future researches can be done more effectively. These recommendations include
various possibilities and decisions that can be applied so that the limitations can be
minimised and credibility can be enhanced.

9) Appendix
Appendix is the set of all those materials that are supplementary to the main research
work, such as, formulae, computations, questionnaire, statistical tables, etc. The
readers can refer to supplementary materials while reading a particular section for
better understanding

10) Bibliography and References

Bibliography and references are the lists that highlight the books, reports, journals,
articles, etc., which have been referred while conducting the research work. These lists
mention the name of author, publication, year of publication, volume/ edition, etc., in
a certain format. When only citations of the entire research work are listed
chronologically with the last name of the author, it is called "reference". Bibliography
and references validate the research work conducted by the researcher.