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91 viewsIrrigation
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rakesh yadavCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 45
General Sr Tigation Engineering
1 Inigation may be defined as
ing crops. Nepal is an agri 1 Process of arti:
ising crops. Ne N agricultural Of artifig |
culture. Agriculture is playing <\ COUNty Where more tha sung water to soil for
ropet development of agriculture 8 Vital tole fo 1 develo +=<29. people are depended on
; © develo, ppuent of the country. For th
nor agency like ADB, WB, JICA te ype QP™Nt OF igation a aan of
‘he novessity of irrigation can be sam a re nvesting for the dein fin vtion
igation.
Mur points:-
i) Less Rainfall
ii) Non-uniform rainfall
iii) Commercial crops with addi
iv) Controlled water supply ete,
1, Salient Features (Accordin,
1 al area of the country? Antual Report ono,
Agriculturable area of the coun rs
Invigable area of the country
Surface irrigation
Under ground irrigation
Farmers water course
*Total imtigated area = 135d ale te
a ae tare
Inrigation cover about 79% of. irrigable area
1.2, Methods of Irrigation
a) Border strip method (10 to 20m x 100 to.300m)-
b) Basin floating (Suitable for root of ‘tree) af
¢) Contour lateral ( Suitable for steeper terrain)
4) Check flooding (Suitable for large discharge & level plots)
) *Drip irrigation:- Water is applied in the form of ‘drops directly near the base of the plant.
This technique is known as feeding bottle technique where by the soil is maintained in the
most congential form by keeping the soil —water — air proportions in the ‘optimum range.
This method is suitable where is scarcity of water. It is also known as trickle irrigation.
{) Free flooding:- In this method water is spread over the land, with proper methods to
control the depth of application. It is also known irrigation by plots. It is also known as
wild flooding. It is suitable for flat leveled land. os 3
8) Furrow method (cotton, potat \dnut, tobacco etc.):- In this method less evaporation
takes place since Vio xX th land surface is wetted by water,
4) *Lift irrigation:- The methods of irrigation the field with lifting water from the available
called Lift irrigation. : : :
i) ‘Spine iia ; ‘Applying water in the form of drop in case of quantity of water is
low and pressure is high. It is costly method but irrigate different topographies and slope
efficiently.
a Zig zag method
. Technical Terms aia scale Sti aae
‘i irrigation is must for agriculture is known as ari aie
i na ble ie a naw eo race bce field capacity of soil and permanent wilting
sae is X bebe tel yp
Point, is called available moisture. the t
391
Im the following fo
itional Water
05 101.5% slope.
Avie OY *Base Period:- It is whole period of crop starting from the time when irrigation wa...
first issued for preparation of ground for planting the crop to its last watering jen, ®
harvesting. It is denoted by B. The unit of base period is day. ore
Catchment area:- It is the area encircled by a water shed line. The rainfall falling gy,
this area is lead to a drain or river or lake. 3
©) Gross commanded area (G.C.A.):- It is total area bonded between total boundaries 1
contains unfertile barren land, alkaline soil, local ponds, villages etc.
1) *Culturable command area(C.C.A.):- The area utilized for growing the crops is knoyp,
as culturable command area.
g) *Cumec day:- It is the quantity of water flowing for one day, at the rate of 1 cumey is
known as cumec-day.
h) *Crop period:-The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant op
its harvesting is called the crop period. Crop period is slightly more than base period, by
for all practical purposes, they are taken as one and are same thing and is measured iy
9
@)
days,
i) Crop season:- It is the season starting from beginning to the harvesting.
J) Crop rotation:- It is the process of changing the nature of crop sown in a particular fileg
from year to year. A leguminous crop increases the nitrogen content of soil. Crop rotation
helps in increasing the fertility of soils.
Kk) Crop ratio:- It is the ratio of areas irrigated in Rabi season to the area irrigated in Kharig
season, Rabi area is normally twice of kharif area,
1) _ Types of crops:- There are four types of crop:-
1. Kharif Crops:- Kharif crops are sawn by the beginning of the south west monsoon and
harvested in autumn (1* April to 30" September). It is also known as summer crop,
Ex: Rice, Makai, Bajra, Jowar, Pulses, Ground nut etc.
2. Rabi corps:- Rabi crops are sown in autumn and are harvested in spring (1 October to
31" March). It is also known as winter crop. Ex: Gram, wheat, Barley, peas, mustard,
tobacco, potato etc.
3, Eight months crops (Cotton)
4. Perennial crops (sugar-cane).°
*Delta:- It is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period of the
crop in the field and is denoted by A .The unit of delta is cm or m.
*Duty:- It is the irrigation capacity of a unit of water. It is denoted by D. It is inversely
proportional to consumed water by crop. The unit of duty is hectare per cumec. The duty
of water is affected due to types of crop, climate and season, types of soil etc.
The relation among duty, delta and base period is given by
n)
A= 8,64 2 (metric system)
A = 1.985 2 (FPS system)
Where A= Total depth of water supplied in m(t)
B = Base period in day
D=Duty in hectare/ cumec(acre/cusec)
0) *Field capacity: It is the moisture content of soil when all the Bravity water is removed
from it after saturation. It depends upon surface ter well as porosity of soil.
p) Intensity of irrigation:- The percentage of C.C.A. proposed to be annually irrigated is
392 called the intensity of itrigation,
Kor depth & period:.
9 fea applied is known etait Watering in the eron
needed is known as kor ee The portion Crop is kaw as koe water
. d. Koy of base pes Watering and the
pelow: : depth a Period in whi oe
EN op nd Kor period for dest KOE Watetng is
ST ice Ket dent Teas sent crops are given
2 Wheat : = [atte Base period
Sem) zgeess_| 120
3 Sugareane [165 em Seeks 129 a
n Net command area(N.C,, A)» The 1 130 days
ike
directly production, is called net commen
) oe teh When the time fone cI
ree started, m¢ i . is qi
wes discharge mae reed inthe infgatig es te met hee
: 5 alled overlap all lannel due to overlap. This
*Paleo watering:- ap allowance, ap. This
9 A sufficient ee the first watering before soa th is i
te to the unsaturated zone of the gol oes dome in order 10
got ofthe mp Of the soil and is required for the initial
1 *Permanent wilting point:- The moistu
A re i ;
extract sufficient water for their growth, i Siete of soil below which plants can’t
4s wilting coefficiemt. ‘TManent wilting point. It is also known
¥) *Photosynthesis:- It is a process of, i :
wih tebelp of water nitenl, amo peer ee
w) Proposed area:- It is the area which is proposed he noe a .
be from 40% to 60% of the C.C.A. The size ofthe outlet anc cuneaes by aving
this area by the outlet factor assumed. This area can be calculated multiplying C.C.A. by
the intensity of irrigation:
x) Rain fall:- It is measured by depth in cms or mm falling over a certain area in a certain
period. Its volume is calculated by multiplying the area with the water depth.
y) Root zone depth:- The maximum depth in soil strata, in which the crop spreads its root to
tap water, is known as root zone depth.
2) Round year irrigation:-It is the capacity of irrigation channel, which provides irrigation.
facilities to the different crops whole period of year.
aa) *Saturation capacity:-The amount of water required to fill up the pore spaces in soil
particles by replacing ‘all air held in pore spaces, is called saturation capacity.
bb) Soil moisture deficiency:-It js the water required to bring the soil moisture content of the
soil to its field capacity. ee
¢e) Semi-arid zone:- The area where inferi
a) Sie, cefieat: itis defied asthe volume of water hat an aquifer leases lm of
takes in storage per unit surface area of aquifer per unit change in the component of head
normal to the surface. be :
¢®) Time factor: It is the ratio of ‘the num!
days of irrigation period.
ays of irrigation peri ale actually run
7 No of day th
Time factor = No.of day of irrigation period +
393
canal, di i
ope itch, bund ete, which does not give
ior crops can be grown without irrigation is known
of days a channel ‘actually runs to the number of 1) *Transpiration:- It is the process by which plants dissipate water from the surface oft,
leaves, stalks and trunks in the process of its growth. i ‘ir
f water transpirated by a plan,
gg) Transpiration ratio:- It is the ratio of the weight of I dun
its growth to the weight of dry matter produced by the plant exclusive of roo, 78
ind 680 respectively
average values of transpiration ratio for wheat and rice are 560 a
1.4. Tube Well wn
It is the media to trap water from the under ground source like aquifer.
1.3.1. Drilling of Tube Well |
Water jet boring method - soft soil (clay, sand, silt etc.)
2, *Percussion method hard soil (rock)
3. Hydraulic rotary (cable tool method) — unconsolidated soil
Note: Based on the data obtained during drilling bore Jog is prepared.
1.3.2, Types of Tube Well
1, *Strainer tube well -Flow is radial (Mostly used in Nepal)
2. Slotted tube well
3. Cavity tube well (Flow in cavity is radial)
13.3. Yield of Tube Well > ‘° 3
1, Constant'level pumping test
2, Recuperation test
1.3.4. Terms Related With Well i 3 33
a) *Abyssinian tube well:- It is a shallow tube well which are bored by simply driving iron
pipes 3.8 to 5 cm in diameter and 6 to 7.62 m deep to tap ground water. The strainer ig
provided only for length of 4 to 5 feet. oe
b) Karez:- It is an under ground tunnel driven into the hill side to tap water from the ground
water spring, The tunnel has certain inclination. :
©) *Logs:- It is defined as the records of the sub-surface investigations and provide useful
information about the materials occurring at various depths below the ground surface.
d) *Safe yield:-The maximum quantity of water that can be supplied from the reservoir with
full guarantee, during the worst dry period, is known as safe yield.
e) - Secondary yield:- The quantity of water available in excess of safe yield during period of
high flows is known as secondary yield.
1) Sick well:- When the discharge of a tube well is decreases than its designed quantity then
this type of tube well is known sick well.
g) Water Harvesting:- The harvesting of rainwater: simply involves the collection
of water from surfaces on which rain falls, and subsequently-storing this water for later
use. Normally water is collected from the roofs of buildings and stored in rainwater tanks.
h) *Well development:- It is the process of removing fine material from the aquifer
formation surrounding the strainer pipe. It is done for:-
i) Increasing the capacity of tube well
if) Preventing sand flow :
iii) To increase the life of tube well
i) Well interference:- Well interferencel is the accident occuring in well due to lowering of
water table in surrounding well resulting in.dgcrease of well yield. A tube well should be
located within an area of 1.5 Sq. km area to avoid the interference.
) *Well shrouding:- It is the process of interposing coarse material such as gravel and
coarse sand between the well pipe and the’ aquifer soil to prevent finer particles of soil
coming-in contact with the strainer & chocking it.
394 . +*Method of Well Develo,
ie Following are the method of me I
i) Pumping ‘Velopment;.
ii) Surging
jit) Development by compresseq air
wv) Deon y back Washing
y) Development by dry ice i
va heser0i Ary ioe ca Solid Nao.)
14. Types of Reservoir
j) Storage reservoir
ii) loo contr reservoir.
iii) Distribution reservoir (Within a cj
3 Multipurpose oe Say for wate supply system)
142. Reservoir level
1, Minimum pool level:- Th:
sere 7 ion as mininnm pat eval pth of water available during even dry
2, Normal pool level:- The depth of water i
maximum pool evel (MEL)'s es a aoe a ii pool level to
3, Maximum pool level:- The depth of water available above maximum pool
level (MFL) is known as normal, pool level ae
4.43. Zone of Storage in Reservoir
a) *Dead storage- Below minimum
capacity used for silting)
b) Useful storage- Between normal pool level-minimum pool level
¢) Surcharge storage-Between maximum pool level-normal pool level
d) Bank storage
e) Valley storage (Natural valley storage)
Cores:- It is a layer of sufficient thickness of impervious material provided in dam to resist
the under seepage. and
minimum depth of extension sl be
inimum dey
Pool level(Its capacity is about 1/4th of total storage
2. Flow Irrigation Canal
21, Canal Losses p
i) Loss due to evaporation ip) fyorn COMead
ii) Loss due to seepage =>. — 5? “fe | Twoige fen Weler f ae ’
iii) Loss due to transpiration er Dh.
~S Iteanbe minimized by lining ofeanal.(Ucduvng Leepede bet a 4 d ag
22, Cross Section of Canal Se pena e «cated
‘A most desirable section of the canal is one which is partly in cutting and party in filling.
2) *Berm: It is the narrow width of land left atthe G.L between the inner toe of the bank &
top edge of the cutting. The width of the berm is variable but itis kept such that the bed
‘i . i lel:
ee ee ‘of bank is to store water. It may also be used as service
init ‘over saturation line should be 0.5m
9 meee bp onen his It is a horizontal benching provided on the outer slope to
rmaintain soffcient eover over saturation lin even bank embankment width is ala
‘Sorrow pit When the E/W in filling exceeds the E/W in excavation, then the pit whi
395
b)
q) °)
d
wy
oad.
23, Minimum and Maximum Velocity
ingit it, It should be external
are dug for bringing earth, are known as borrow pit. It sl al 2s we
intemal, The width of intemal pit < 4 of the width of canal. It should be disconti of
imum gaps between two consecutive pits should be L/2 (where L=Length of pip, ™
It is normally provided along the
center line of the canal. -
Bed bars:- Bed bars are those masonry/conc. toe wall which are constructed at Suitable
intervals, so as to serve as permanent marks to indicate the correct alignment ang
theoretical bed level of the canal. .
& For smaller canals, bed bars are generally of masonry wall partly extended into bed ang
partly with the bank in flush position. . :
& For larger canals, bed bars generally of masonry or concrete block Provided at suitable
interval along the center line of the canal and flush with theoretical bed level at tha
int.
Ca Bed bars help in keeping a continuous watch on the behaviour of the canal.
Critical velocity:-It is defined as the velocity where neither scouring nor silting occurs is
known as critical velocity. The ratio of critical velocity & mean velocity is known as
critical velocity ratio(m). 4 7
Counter balance:- A counter balance is a vertical benching provided on the inner edge of
the bank
*Dowla:- It is a structure/construction provided on the bank of canal for the safety of
automobiles during inspection of canal. It is provided on the side of roadway towards the
canal. Its width vary 0.3 to 0.6m and . It is also known
as dowel.
*Free board: It is the difference between FSL and bank level which depends upon the
capacity of the canal. It depends upon the size of canal, water surface fluctuations, location
of canal etc. The main purpose of free board is to keep the saturation gradient line below
the top of bank.
*Spoil bank:- When the E/w in excavation exceeds E/w in filling, then excess soil is
disposed of normally parallel to the canal on the edge of embankment which is known as
spoil bank, It may be continue or discontinue.
Service road :- The road provided either one side or both side of canal bank for inspection
as well as maintenance works, in known as service road. It is:also-known as inspection
given by,
vel pasgie
n
Where V= Velocity (m/s)
‘N= Rugosity coefficient
Re Hydraulic mean depth
S= Hydraulic gradient
2.3.1. Permissible Velocity in Canal
SNo | Types of soil/Lining Velocity | Remarks
aries (m/sec) |
1 | Light loose sand to 0.3-0.6
average sandy soil “| 588
396 7 J Sandy loam, BC soi,
fordinarysoll___" |
Mooram, hard soil ete,
{ Boulder lining |
| Stone masonry lining
[ Bumt clay tle ining
*Cement concrete linin;
malolun| ales
Fis |
| is
pay
18
Lined
canal
8
14. The Value of Rugosity Co, efficient
od
very good Go
0.0225 0.025
it .0275
25. Rugosity Coefficient of Different Materials 0.03
2.0-2.5
L
ow Pate
Wood 0.011-0.013 NO
Concrete 0.012-0.022
Asphalt 0.013-0.015
Brick 0.014-0.017
Gravel . 0.017-0.033
2,6, Comparison between Kennedy and Lacey theory
‘S.No. | Kennedy theory Lacey theory
1 Kennedy assumed that silt is | Lacey assumed that silts in suspension
in suspension due to the | due to the vertical eddies raised from
vertical eddies raised from the | the bottom as well as side of channel,
bottom of channel only.
2 [Kennedy introduced a term|TLacey introduced a silt factor, f =
cvrim) =, | 1-76,fm,
v
Vy = 0.55mD"*
3 [Kennedy did not give | Lacey gave longitudinal slope formula
longitudinal slope formula ;
4 __| He uses Kutter formula Lacey gave own formula
5 Regime channel Initial (Bed slope changes but not c/s)
and final regime’ (Permanent stability
and resistance is neglected)
27, *Spillway 5 ; .
Itis the overflow portion of dam, over which surplus discharge flows from the reservoir to
the down stream. :
2.7.1. Need.and Location of Spillway 4
A spillway is the overflow parte of
Teservoir to the down stream. Normally i Oe be cad ately
or at one end of it or entirel ly away from it.
2.7.2, “Component of Spillway
®) Control structure: Major
the reservoir. .
») Discharge channel:- Main
lam over which surplus discharge flow from the
ater
the body of
‘component of 2 spillway which regulates the outflows from
function of this is to convey the water safely ffom the
397 reservoir downward to the river.
c) Terminal structure: Energy dissipators provided on the downstream side
spillway. of te
4) Entrance and outlet channels:~ Entrance channels to draw water from the resery9,
convey it to control structure outlet channels to convey the spillway flow from the er, *%
structure to the river channel below the dam. =
2.1.3, Types of Spillway
1. Straight drop gpillways 2. Ogee or overflow spillways
3. Side channel spillways 4, Chute or trough spillway
5. Conduit spillway 6. Shaft spillway
7. Siphon spillway
2.7.4, Spillway Crest Gates
1. Flash boards 2. Radial gates
3. Drum gates 4.Vertical lift gates
5. Bear trap gates 6.Rolling gates
2.8. Head Works . S
Any hydraulic structures which supply water to take off taking canal is called a head wor,
It is of two types:- :
a) Diversion head work:- It serves to divert the required supply into the canal from the rive,
b) Storage head work: It stores water during the period of excess supplies in the river ang
releases it when demand overtakes available supply. :
2.8.1. Components of a Diversion Head Work
XS
ne
Marginal Band 1a" bw
zy os
Divide Wall
“Nowa weir pentio b.
‘weir proper
Weir divided ints
“bays with pers
ut
ick t also
*Weir:- It is a solid barrier constructed across the river over which water may flow.
ises the water level upstream in order to supply a canal taking off. : vera
b) ‘Divide wall:- It is built at perpendicular to the axis of the weir separating the 1
398
g under sluices/ scouring sluices,
ladder:- It is fet
0 sine migrating te, '0 facilitate the migration op
beginning of winter and in mongeyu® © in search of yest UF 6 around the
cant travel in the opposite direct ons they travel ds to Ws ‘Telatively warm water in the
4) Approach channel ‘on tthe velocity is greater thas Doe ue oe Mae Fish
) Scouring eee The under-stui O3misec.
front of the head regulator and di haere ;
the dls side of the barage, “SPOS ofthe heavy sit Sopris rma
p Silt Prevention devices:. To control the si lood discharge on
1, Silt excluder:-Itis placed at the bed ot
2, Silt extractor/ejector:- {¢ i.
Sntry in canal. It is of two 5
r L types:~
ben By i Tiver and up stream of head regulator.
a bed of the canal and down stream of ‘head
g) Canal head regular:- It is concemed with th i
nae subicay to main canal ete Piers wi pore © pve for wse af shuts
to regulate the water for the distribution, Tee
29, Canal Regulation Works
Any structure constructed to regulate i
js known as a regulation work, Sucha Sree mee sae se = soy Soa cna
igation channel. TI i for efficient working and safety of
flows nel. The various types of regulation works used in irigation channel are as
a) one eee inrigation structure constructed across a canal to.lower down its
Wordle onic Rea ea neteylibersted fom the fling water which may
s of the canal, It is of followii =
i) Ogee fall (Combination of convex and concave cue)
ii) Rapid fall (slope 1 in 10 to 20) :
iii) Stepped fall
iv) Notch fall
v) Vertical drop fall
vi) Glacis type fall which is also known as montague type
vii) Meter and non meter fall
viii) Contracted and full width fall
b) *Head regulator or head sluice:- Provided in parent canal.
©) *Cross regulator:-Provided in branch canal. :
4) Canal escape:- A canal. escape, is a structure constructed on, a irrigation canal for the
purpose of wasting some of its water. Depending upon the purpose, there are three types of
escapes:
i) Canal scouring escape _
ii) Surplus escape 2 F
ii) Tal escape Itis a channel between silt extractor and, river (Head regulator) through
extra water is discharged. Its gradient is steeper than canal. It carries water away
through a water wheel.
3. Classification of Irrigation cases
A) Bi source of supp! ; :
3 pocket ‘canal in which water flows throughout the year, is known as
js also known as;perennial canal, 2
db) ates psenea tec jn which water does not flows through the year, is ‘Known as
399 B)
°
D)
a)
FE)
a)
>)
F)
a)
b)
9)
a)
b)
H)
a)
b)
inundation canal. It is also known as non-perennial canal. In this canal, Water is
during monsoon s only. STi fy
Based on function of canals
i) Feeder canals
ii) Carrier canals
iif) Irrigation canal
iv) Navigation canal
v) Power canal :
Based on discharge and relative importance
i) Main canals
5 cumec)
ii) Branch canal (Discharge>
iii) Major distributary (Discharge
iv) Minor distributary (Discharge < %
v) Field canal/water course
ignment
‘The dividing line between the
s watershed and the canal aligned a}
ross drainage work as tena
10 5 cumec)
cumec)
Watershed canal
areas of two drains/streams is known a
watershed is known as watershed canal. It avoids the ct
drainage will never cross watershed. eee
“Contour canal:- This canal is aligned parallel to the area. It irigates one side only sng
other side is higher. Cross drainage work is provided. It is also known as single ba
canal,
#*Side slope canal:- Side slope canal is provided perpendicular to contours and paral,
natural drain hence cross drainage work is avoided.
@ Canal should align straight as far as possible, A curve causes disturbance of flow aj
results in silting on convex side and scouring in concave side.
Based on financial output
Productive canal:-The canal which is constructed on the for revenue, is called productive
canal.
Protective canal:- The canal which is constructed on the interest of public and withou
any revenue expected, is called protective canal. The main purpose of this types of cals
to protect the live as well as non-live properties of public. Reape:
Based on the soil through which constructed
Alluvial canal:- The canal which pass through the alluvial soil is known as alluvial soil.
Non alluvial canal:- The canal which pass through the non-alluvial soil (i.e. rock pli
areas) is known as alluvial soil.
Based on linin; :
Unlined canals:-The canal whose surface is left unlined with any types impervve
materials, is called unlined canal. Z
materials like brit
Lined canal:- The canal whose surface is lined/hard with impervious
stone, PCC etc., is called unlined canal. Lining of canal decreases the seepage los.
about nil. So ene
Other types
Drain canal- A canal, constructed to drain off water fiom water logged area is nov" ®
parent oo!
drain canal.
Ditch canal:- A canal , constructed by the side of and generally parallel to the
is known as ditch canal. ;
400 pesign of Canal
1. Canal designed by Lacey's
i) Silt factor, f =1.76)m, poe
where m, = Average particle se
ii) Velocity of flow, v =| Q7 ly
140
iii) Area, A= g
iv) Wetted perimeter, P= 4.75,(5
v) Assuming the side slopes of irrigation channel
lel as
2
A=Bp+ 2
2
1
+y (horizontal) (vertical), hence
P=B+DV5
vi) Hydraulic mean depth R =o At, R= BD+D?/2
2f “Ba Ds
pe
33400"
Formula used in Kennedy's method
i) *Velocity, V =0.55mD°* 3
i =2
ii) Area, A= v
vii) The slope, S =
42.
ii) Assuming the side slopes of irrigation channel as } iorizona): vertical Area,
2
A=BD+
2
iv) Perimeter, P = B+. pvs
2
BD+ =
v) Hydraulic mean depth, R=5 =p Ig
43, Side slopes :
| Types of sol Cutting | Filling
Hard rock, 1/8:1 to Yl é
Soft rock 1/4:1 to 1 7 =
Gravel 34:1 tol:l_ | 1. 1
Soft clay tl [sil 02:
Sandy loam. 2:1 2:1 to 3:1 Ea ype shales aiarmiod of canal
a) ‘outine or
ie tention tien rent maintenance:-It includes all work necessary tg
‘dae peaally ae dese ictioning satisfactorily and is normally done annually, ed
done general two year pr anum before rabi and khariff crop. Maintenance ofiagt
Denes eae al of weeds, rodents and debris come under regular maintenanes’®
aain te ia ance:- Deferred maintenance including any work necessary.
lost flow capacity in canals, reservoirs and structures when compared tone
¢
original design:
©) Special maintenance:- Special maintenance including. repairs of damage caused
major disasters, such as floods, earthquakes and typhoons. The unforeseeable “rate,
such natural phenomena make it’ very difficult to take specific preventive acts:
although general safeguards can be installed in particularly prone areas, eg. ri
drainage dykes in flood areas. In irrigation schemes located in places subject to the
hazards, a "special reserve fund" or budget allocation. It is also known as emerpena.
maintenance.
4) Periodic maintenance:-Periodic maintenance is done quarterly, half yearly ot yeatly basi
to get the proper service from the canal. Reshaping of canal, lining of canal, maintenance
Of structure , necessary structure construction, removal of excessive vegetation, removal of
sediment deposits etc. come under this maintenance.
Following activitied are carried out during maintenance:-
S.No. | Problems Action
1 Silting of canal Desisting of canal
Weed and plant growth _| Removal of plant
2
5 [ Failure of weaker banks | Maintenance by inspection |
4 Canal breaches ‘Opening/Crack ‘created in canal bank
4,5. Irrigation efficiency
ce:- It is the ratio of water delivered into the fields from the
a) Efficiency of water conveyant
outlet point of channel to the water supplied into the channel at starting point.
b) *Efficiency of water application:- It is the ratio of water stored into the-root zone of
crops to the quantity of water actually delivered into the field.
©) Efficiency of water storage:- It is the ratio of water stored into the root zone of crops to
the water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation.
eficially needed to quantity of water
d) *Efficiency of water use:- It is the ratio of water ben
delivered.
5. Water Logging
where the water table is at or near the ground level which
It is a condition of land
becomes detrimental to the plant. The depth of water-table at which it tends to make the soil
water-logged and harmful to the growth and subsistence of plant lif end upon the heig of
5.1. Effects of water logging
ii) Decrease in capillary water
i) Soil bacteria
iii) Fall in soil temperature iv) Defective air circulation
v) Rise of salt
ffect on community health
vi) Adverse ¢!
402 acauses of Water logging
sh ; Jnadequate surface drainage
D seep age from canal system
jyover irrigation of fields
Obstruction of natural drainage
4) Obliteration of natural drainage
wc ‘onstruction of water Teservoir
gs Cross Drainage Work
It is a structure carrying the dis
I stream across a canal intercepting the
iB
am.
a. xTypes of Cross Drainage
Aqueduct:- When the canal flow ove i
9) tthe i
Syphon aqueduct:- When the canal flow ae then itis called aqueduct.
drainage touches the bed of canal, e drainage but full supply water level of
Super passage:- When the natural drai
9 ae nage flow over the canal’ then it is called super
Canal siphon:- When the natural draina;
ofthe canal is much above the bed level vaca canal and full supply water level
«) Level crossing: It is constructed in the circumstance when the beds of the canal and
rings ane Draccally meet a the same level. A regulators provided across the drainage
ae . atn side of the crossing so as to control the discharge passing into the
f) Inlets and outlet:- A canal inlet is provided when cross-drainage flow is small but canal
outlet is provided when canal is small, to pass out the additional discharge which has
entered the canal.
9)
7, River and River Training
River is natural stream in which water flow under the action on gravitational force. It is of
following types:-
A) Classification of River Based on Topography
a) Rivers in hill (upper reaches);-The river generally take off from the mountain and flow
through hilly regions before reaching in plain. It has two stages-
viii) Rocky river stage
ix) Boulder river stage
Rivers in alluvial plain (lower reaches):-The river flow through plain area. The main
characteristics are meandering.
B) Classification of River Based on Sediment
@) Aggrading:-River collecting sediment. _ ee ;
b) Degrading:-River bed/bank getting scouring’to reduce and dissipate available excess land
slope. [Aggrading and degrading causing change in alignment.)
©) Stable- A river which does not change alignment, :
4) Deltaie:- A river before it joins the sea, gets divided into branches, thus forming a triangle
shaped delta,
Meandering type:- Meander
Which varies V4 to % ofthe maximum discharge.
403
&3
pattern. of river is developed due to. dominant discharge hydrograph
ver in which f
of river arid zone
©) Classification based on flood
iverst= The types of #
b) Virgin rivers- If some portion
8.1. Terminology
flood rise and fall occur sud
(desert) is dry. nly,
i 1 broken up river channel j
sel is a pro ol L chan nto
Ati nr aos 81008 lien do My
inthe middle’ ofits channel /
» inthe ane meander ica by astral aces then itis called eut of
the length of river
©) Dominant discharge:-
‘The discharge which determines the meander length a ‘
width, is called dominant discharge which varies ne 6 ae maxim dis te
4) Degree of sinuosity:- It is the ral sf actual length along the channel to the Stig
Jue is always greater than 5
.@) Ee pr Tbe ‘ia of successive bends a revere order may lead tg ‘he
of a complete S-curve, which is called meander and this process is Known 2s meg
It increases the actual length of river. Meandering is governed by valley slope, ae
and charge discharge and bed & side materials. A ' Ri
f) _*Meander length:- It js the axial length of one meander i.e, tangential stance by
the corresponding points of a meander. ta
g) Meander width/belt:- It is the distan
clockwise loops of the meander.
hy Meander ct thesia eae
i) River Rejuvenation: [tis the renewal of te river's energy in response to a relate
base level.
j)° Tortuosity- [isthe ratiovof actual length along the'river to the direct axial lenght,
river.
8.2. Stages of river
There are four stages of rivér:~ ‘
a) Rocky stage:- In this stage, the slope of the bed of the river is steep and shaped ite
‘The water in this stage river is clear.
b) Boulder stage:- In this stage, the slope of the bed of the river is steep and bed contis
sand, gravel, boulders, shingles etc. The water in this stage river is clear.
©) *Trough stage:- In this stage, the path of the river is well defined wide section. Medilt
isthe main characteristics. It is the most suitable location for canal head work
d) Delta stage:- It is the last stage of the river where i
8,3. *River Training
ILis the process adopted on river to direct and guide the river flo, to tran and ne
the bed orto increase the low water depth, It is of three types:-_ ~
ice between the outer edges of clockwise and ag
1, High water training - for discharge ~
2. Low water training - for depth
3. Mean water training - for sediment control
aye ali the various kindof traning, mean water ning is the os impor
rk is general] i * ;
a Typed af Tralaing War ee eee meaning YP
a) Bandalling
b) Closure bunds
e) Cut-off predging
ad sGroyne oF Spur :~ Groynes are
sitar stu
) extend from the bank into river upt aun
res cons
oa lini, nstructed traverse to the river flow and
1, Repelling groynes (60° to 80° yi
m0 With upstream bank ie, 10°
d Deflecting groynes ( perpendicul, i
3, Attracting groynes (45? to 69) with ee ane
4, Deheny's groyne ( T-shaped) ream ban
5, Hockey groyne ( curved shape gToyne)
A spacing of groyne should be 2o2.Stimes the ligthoferoyne
while spacing equal to the length oft is generally adopted at
4) Guide bank It is also known as
structure S0 as to confine it ina reasonable width 14 provided to guide the river near a
g) ‘Marginal band:~ An embankment constructed a
* the margin with the object of Preventing inundatic
etc, It is constructed roughly parallel to the
Pitching of bank.
i) Pitehing island
j) Revetments and rock riprap
t0.30° to the normal to the
long the river at a short distance from
hundation of the area behind the embankment
river, Itis also called
8 Quality of Water
8.1. Sodium absorption Ratio(SAR);:- It is expressed as a ratio given below
Na*
SAR=
'Ca** +Mg™*
2
‘S.No. |___ Types of water Suitability
1. | $\(0-10) Suitable for all types of soil & crops
2. $,(10-18) Suitable for coarse textured of organic soil with
ood permeability
3, | S(18-26) “Harmful for almost all types of soils & requires
good drainage.
4 [Si@26) ‘Unsuitable for irrigation
82, Standard for irrigation water _
8. ‘Water class Electrical Total salt ‘Sodium Boron
No conductivity. (Be | content (PPM) (%) (PPM)
x10)
i 0-100 0-700 60 00-05
2, a Tor 1000-3000 700-2000 60-65 052.0
injurious plant i
‘aluious plant gg n000_— [>So
3.
83. Related Terms With Quality
9) Alkaline soil:- The phenomenon
crust on the surface, after evapor™
of salts coming up in solution and forming a layer of
tion of water is called efflorescence. Land affected by «
405 b)
°)
4a)
°)
8.4, Bandhara Irrigation
The irrigable area under bandhra is called thal and
ali salt present in the soil is called leaching. _;
*Leaching:~ The process of removing all c
ipsum (CaSO) is also added before
done by flooding method. For removing of Na,COs, By!
leaching. .
is the process by which an unculturable land is made fit for Cultivation
*Reclamation:- F
like water logged and saline soil(NaxCOs, Na,SOs, NaCl etc.). NaxCOs is also known ag
rocess of increasing the salt
Salination
ses such as mineral weathering or by the gradual
through artificial processes such
Salinization:- Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil. The p'
content is known as salinization.
can be caused by natural proces
withdrawal of an ocean. It can al
as irrigation. oh
hat increasing in detrimental salt (NajCo3) in soil having adverse effect
Salinity indicates tl 0
on fertility while leaching is the process of. ‘removal of salt from soil.
Iso come about
hich a no, of dams are constructed in a river to take off water,
It is a type of irrigation in wl
|. One phad may
contain a number of fields owned by a number of cultivators.
8.5. Method of measurement for discharge and velocity _
Discharge Measurement Velocity Measurement
i) *Area-velocity method i) *Surface float
ii) Chemical method ii) Sub surface float
iii) Weir method iii) Twin float
iv) Meter flume method iv) Velocity rod
v) Stage discharge curve method v) *Pitot tube
vi) *Current meter J
Salient points
c
The function of launching apron is to protect-the d/s pile from the scour holes progressing
in the ws direction.
= supers power is proportional to the bed width of the stream and not to its wetted
T.
When a distributing channel takes off from the parent channel, their. off-take channel
Should be very carefully designed. The best alignment of an off-take is when it makes zero
wees fs barat channel which is maintained by providing a transition curve.
-gulator and cross regulator i i
ic ua arcane gulator regulate the supplies of the off taking channel and the
‘The mean velocity of the channel should never be less than critical velocity. Qhiective ii
ac Tentta stig
Toe ee tion in reuirea ™
a) less rainfa ue to
¢) commercial crops ®)non-wniform anf
intensity of irrigation Dallofthe above
}) is always more than 100% ded area proposed to
c) is the percentage that could be ideatly ier
d)all of the above Y trrigated
Water found on the surface of thy
or capillary and can only be eve soit which sn
‘ot capable of movi
) water Vapour * ae heat, is called shett elber by gravity
c) hygroscopic water d ite ans
*The water utilized by plants is available in soils above:
a) capillary water b)stavit mainly in the form of
¢) hygroscopic water dpa % wae
‘The top of the capillary zone mee
a) lies below the water table at every poit
i Ty point
b) lies above the water table at every i
c) coincides the water table at every point
d) none of the above
*The operation during the infiltration of water below the is
i ground surface, is
a) adsorption 'b) absorption :
) ozonization 4) sedimentation
Lands or climate that lack sufficient water for agriculture without artificial irigation, are
called
a) dry zone
