Global Extraction Sequences in Sublevel Stoping

E Villaescusa1

ABSTRACT Temporary rib, crown and transverse pillars

A review of the most widely used global extraction sequences in sublevel One extraction option used in extremely competent rock masses
is undertaken. The review includes techniques used to extract massive as is to mass blast secondary stopes into adjacent primary stopes to
well as single or multiple steeply dipping tabular orebodies. The paper create very large, but stable openings. At Mount Charlotte
also deals with thick flat lying orebodies suitable for open stoping.
Techniques used to minimise the effect of stress redistributions on a
orebody top down mining was implemented by mining one or
global scale are discussed for all the extraction sequences analysed. two stopes along the strike followed by mass blasting of adjacent
rib and crown pillars allowing unconsolidated rock fill to cascade
from above onto the broken ores as shown in Figure 1. Ore was
INTRODUCTION extracted from drawpoints, located at the bottom of the stopes,
One of the limiting factors affecting the design of an and mucking stopped when dilution from the rock fill became
underground excavation is the maximum void space that a excessive. This procedure was repeated along a particular stoping
rockmass can sustain without failure. This failure may take place block until all ore was mined. Stoping then started on the
as a function of either movement along planes of weakness, or immediate lower block on a similar fashion, and fill (dry waste
through a combination of intact rock failures and geological rock) was continually added at a surface glory hole. Pillar
discontinuities. In most orebodies suitable to open stoping, the failures, arching of crowns, blasthole closure and fault movement
volume that may be safely excavated, such that stope wall were experienced with progressive stoping block depth at Mount
failures are avoided, is many times smaller than the orebody Charlotte (Ullah, 1997).
itself. Consequently, a series of individual stopes must be In order to increase recovery and achieve stability, the
excavated to achieve full orebody extraction. resulting voids can either be filled using consolidated fill or
One of the most important tools that a design and planning unconsolidated fill with the individual stopes separated by rib
engineer has for controlling the overall behaviour of a rockmass (longitudinal) and transverse pillars (see Figure 2). The latter
is the extraction sequence of the stopes contained within a given option leaves a high proportion of ore tied up in the rib and
area of an orebody. Extraction sequences are fundamental to transverse pillars, and methods such as sublevel caving retreat
achieve production targets safely and economically throughout a have been used to achieve complete recovery of these pillars
stoping life. In most underground mines, a number of sources in (Alexander and Fabjanczyk, 1982).
various stages of development, production and filling are being
extracted at anyone time. Stoping sources are likely to be
scheduled from a number of locations and extraction methods. Slots with continuous or discontinuous advance
In cases where fill is not used, the main concern is the The concept of a discontinuous strike slot for a 12 stope
sequencing of the stopes such that early over stressing of extraction sequence is shown in Figure 3. Assuming the main
permanent pillars is avoided. When fill is used, a number of principal stress to be normal to the long axis of the orebody, the
extraction strategies are available to optimise pillar recovery. In primary secondary and tertiary stopes are designed with an
general a stoping sequence is driven by ore grade requirements, overall stress management philosophy consisting of stress
operational issues such as existing development and fill shadowing and orebody abutment retreat. Once the strike slot has
availability as well as induced stress considerations. A been completed (stopes one to four), all the remaining stopes are
technically sound strategy is to avoid creating blocks of highly effectively stress shadowed from the main principal stress. The
stressed rock within an orebody. This can be achieved by number on the stopes relates to the extraction sequence and the
retreating stopes to an orebody abutment instead of creating fill masses are only exposed on a single wall at a time. In
pillars located within central orebody areas. In general, an overall addition, sufficient time is allowed for fill curing by carefully
stope extraction sequence is influenced by the nature of the sequencing the adjacent stopes. Stopes at the orebody corners are
orebody in question. sequenced last, such that cemented fill is not required.
Stress shadowing during stope sequencing occurs when two or
EXTRACTION SEQUENCES IN MASSIVE more excavations are aligned along a major principal stress
OREBODIES trajectory. Stresses redistribute, and some areas may be stress
relieved as the rock lies in the shadow cast by the excavations. In
Massive orebodies can be extracted using multiple stopes
addition, stress may be intensified in other areas, depending upon
(primary, secondary and when required tertiary) in conjunction
the distance between the excavations (see Figure 4).
with mass blasting techniques and cemented fill. A number of
sequencing options can be used including temporary rib, crown Consequently, in order to relieve stress at the early stages of an
and transverse pillars, strike slots with continuous or extraction sequence suggests that either transverse pillars or
discontinuous advance and chequer board sequences. Each discontinuous transverse/strike slots should be avoided, as stress
overall extraction sequence can be engineered to manage the concentrations are likely to develop within those geometries.
in situ stress redistributions on a global scale. Ideally, the initial At the Creighton Mine in Canada, a series of central stopes
stopes are extracted within a chosen area of an orebody and were extracted adjacent to each other to form a continuous slot
subsequent stopes are retreated systematically towards orebody within the initial mining block in order to create a stress shadow
abutments taking into account the stress redistributions, for the remaining stopes (see Figure 5). In order to form a
production tonnages requirements and access constraints. continuous strike slot, the fill from the initial stope must be cured
before extraction of the immediately adjacent stopes can proceed.
Production from the first three stopes is slowed by the
1. Western Australian School of Mines, PMB 22, Kalgoorlie WA 6430.
E-mail: [email protected] requirements to not expose the initial fill mass simultaneously in

Mine Planning and Equipment Selection Kalgoorlie, WA, 23 - 25 April 2003 9

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FIG 1 - Section view showing stoping blocks and details of top down extraction sequence at Mount Charlotte (after Ullah, 1997).

both sides. This means that the third stope within the strike slot
must wait until the second stope fill mass has cured. However,
later on the extraction sequence (stopes 7, 8, 10 and 11) are
sequenced to expose fill masses in both sides as shown in
Figure 5. A better alternative for stope sequencing is shown
conceptually before in Figure 3, where the fill masses are
exposed on a single surface and the adjacent stopes sequenced to
provide enough time for the filled stopes to cure.

Chequer board extractions

Another alternative for extraction of massive orebodies is to
adopt a chequer board pattern of extraction that starts with
primary stopes filled with consolidated fill followed by
secondary and tertiary stope extraction of stope pillars having
multiple fill mass exposures. The stoping front can either move
longitudinally or adopt a continuous retreat strategy depending
FIG 2 - Plan view showing rib and transverse pillars used to extract upon the level of in situ stress and the production tonnage
the massive 1100 orebody – Mount Isa Mines (Alexander and requirements. Figure 6 shows the massive 1100 orebody at
Fabjanczyk, 1982). Mount Isa Mines, in which a north to south global sequence has

FIG 3 - Plan view showing discontinuous strike slot sequence for a massive orebody.

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 GLOBAL EXTRACTION SEQUENCES IN SUBLEVEL STOPING

continuously stepped out to access primary stoping blocks. number of fill exposures as mine life progresses. A chequer
The extraction was designed with large, 40 m by 300 - 400 m board sequence is dependent upon successful mass blasting
east-west transverse pillars for access, ventilation and services practices and the development of stable fill masses that provide
(Grant and DeKruijff, 2000). support to adjacent rock masses with minimal dilution during
The advantages of a properly designed chequer board multiple fill exposures.
extraction sequence includes stable primary stopes which must
be timely tight filled to provide support to the remaining stopes EXTRACTION SEQUENCES IN STEEPLY DIPPING
and crown pillar (Alexander and Fabjanczyk, 1982). A OREBODIES
disadvantage is the large amount of ore tied up within the
remaining tertiary stope pillars, where localised stope design can In the case of steeply dipping and relatively narrow orebodies,
be complex and a function of existing development and the the most common orebody access is via crosscuts off access
drives that are connected to ramps usually located in the footwall
of the orebodies. The crosscuts intersect the orebodies from
footwall to hangingwall and ore drives are developed from the
crosscuts along the strike of the intersected orebodies.

FIG 4 - Plan view showing stress shadowing across a series of FIG 5 - Plan view showing continuous stoping sequence
stopes. (after Trotter, 1991).

FIG 6 - Plan view of the 1100 Orebody showing major faults, extracted and scheduled stopes. Stope extraction advancing to the south
(August 1993).

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Top down or bottom up bench stoping and allows for an optimised stress redistributions as the initial
stopes can be located in the centre of the mining block with
In cases where bench stoping is used (Villaescusa et al, 1994), subsequent retreat towards the abutments.
the stopes can be retreated towards the crosscuts using either a
top-down or a bottom-up sequence as shown in Figure 7.
A top down bench stope extraction sequences usually requires
Primary and secondary stope extraction
permanent rib pillars to minimise dilution between individual In cases where multiple lift sublevel stoping is used to mine
stopes along strike. In addition, a series of crown pillars maybe relatively wide orebodies, a series of primary and secondary
required to control overall stability, dilution and to isolate any stopes can be designed for extraction along the strike of a
unconsolidated fill that may be introduced into the upper stopes deposit. Stope extraction in multiple levels increases production
as extraction progresses downward (see Figure 8). A bottom up and flexibility. Primary stopes are excavated smaller than
sequence requires fill in order to provide a working floor as the secondary stopes (pillars) to minimise the use of cemented fill
extraction proceeds upward. The need for a crown pillar is and the secondaries are designed large enough to enable safe
minimised by the use of rib pillars along the strike of the orebody recovery between primary stopes. This method has been applied
and the beneficial impact of the fill masses (Villaescusa and widely in single tabular orebodies such as the Lead Mine in
Mount Isa Mines in Queensland and the Kanowna Belle gold
Kuganathan, 1998).
mine in Kalgoorlie. Figure 10 shows the stoping sequence for a
Flexibility and productivity in bench stoping can be greatly mining block where the extraction sequence was based upon a
enhanced with the introduction of two access crosscuts as shown primary stope extraction and filling with consolidated fill, before
in Figure 9. Although costly, this configuration increases tonnage the secondary pillars were extracted. The numbers on the figure
refer to the stope extraction sequence.

FIG 7 - Longitudinal view of top-down and bottom up sequences of FIG 9 - Longitudinal view of a sequence of extraction with double
extraction. access.

FIG 8 - Schematic of top-down up-hole bench extraction sequences, Osborne Mine (after Kasehagen and Boffey, 1998).

12 Kalgoorlie, WA, 23 - 25 April 2003 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection

 GLOBAL EXTRACTION SEQUENCES IN SUBLEVEL STOPING

In other cases, stope extraction in conjunction with

unconsolidated fill and separated by permanent pillars can be used
to extract low-grade orebodies (see Figure 11). In such cases the
value of the ore does not justify the use of cemented fill and the
stope retreat is towards the permanent pillars. The dates on Figure
11 refer to an actual extraction sequence, which is advancing to
the central portion of the orebody away from the abutment, and
likely to concentrate stresses on mine infrastructure such as
decline access which in this case are centrally located.
In excellent rock mass conditions, a pillar stope can also be
mass blasted into the void formed by one (forming a doublet) or
two (forming a triplet) adjacent primary stopes as shown in
Figure 12 (Bywater and Fuller, 1983).
The main advantages of primary and secondary stoping
sequences are an initial high degree of flexibility and
productivity and low cost during primary stoping. The overall
cost is minimised by the use of unconsolidated fill within the
secondary stopes. A disadvantage is that stress redistributions
may cause rock mass damage within secondary pillars late in the
extraction sequence. The effects of stress can be minimised by
avoiding undercutting of individual stopes and by mass blasting
those highly stressed regions within a stoping block. Multiple lift
primary and secondary stopes have been used very successfully
to achieve complete extraction with minimal dilution within the
steeply dipping lead orebodies at Mount Isa Mines (Bywater FIG 11 - Permanent pillars left between primary stopes showing
et al, 1985). extraction dates.

FIG 10 - Longitudinal view of a complete stoping block extraction using primary and secondary stoping geometries.

FIG 12 - Long section view of 8 and 5 orebodies at Mount Isa Mines showing layout and extraction sequence (after Bywater and Fuller, 1983).

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PILLARLESS, CENTRE-OUT SEQUENCES

Pillarless, centre-out mining sequences have been proposed to
eliminate the need for secondary stopes (Morrison, 1995). The
perceived advantage from such sequences is the slow rate of
convergence of the host rocks as extraction from small stopes
proceeds from the centre towards the orebody abutments (see
Figure 13). It is argued that the slow rate of convergence is likely
to minimise the magnitude of any local seismic events. In
addition, the small single lift stopes may reduce the amount of
released seismic energy. Such pillarless stoping sequence was
used in Block 3, at the Golden Giant Mine in Canada and named
pyramid retreat, as mining progresses in a triangular shape
(Potvin and Hudyma, 2000). The Golden Giant pyramid retreat
sequence is illustrated in Figure 14.

FIG 13 - Pillarless mining sequence, centre out extraction

(Morrison, 1995).

Although continuous advancing stoping is a good idea on

paper, it is very difficult to implement in practice, especially
when fill is introduced into the system. The overall productivity
is severely constrained by the individual stope cycle times as
stopes must be mined, filled and cured before an adjacent stope
can be extracted. With active mining on a large number of
sublevels, substantial development, scheduling and logistic
challenges are experienced throughout the stoping block (Potvin
and Hudyma, 2000). As an example, the extraction of stope #6
Figure 14, although very early in the stoping sequence, requires
seven operational sublevels.
A pillarless stoping sequence requires rapidly curing cemented
backfill with minimal drainage delays in all the stopes, which FIG 14 - Pyramid retreat at the Golden Giant Mine
may increase the operating cost. In addition, tight backfill of the (Potvin and Hudyma, 2000).
stope crowns is rarely achieved, especially when cemented
rockfill is used (see Figure 15). Introducing hydraulic fill to
achieve tight fill is time consuming, expensive and sometimes
not practical. Consequently, large crowns, which require
extensive rock reinforcement, are exposed by the method. In
some cases, damage from stress concentration (cracking through
intact rock or geological structures) at each stope brow is also
experienced. This may create difficulties during drilling and
blasting, and make the reinforcement schemes inefficient, as very
large slabs parallel to the stope edges are released.

Primary and secondary 1-4-7 and 1-5-9 stoping

sequences
A compromise to a pillarless sequence is to use a general
triangular retreat shape but using a short lift primary and
secondary stope arrangement. This system has been implemented FIG 15 - Continuous advance sublevel open stoping
at the Williams mine in Canada and is illustrated in detail on (after Grice, 1999).
Figure 16. This methodology allows for a number of primary
stopes to be mined simultaneously, hence increasing the early as possible in the extraction sequence. In general, no more
productivity within a mining block. Because of the detrimental than two sublevels are mined ahead of a pillar before recovering
effects of the stress redistributions on the pendant pillars formed it and both sides of a pillar cannot be mined simultaneously
in the sequence, secondary pillar stopes must be recovered as (Potvin and Hudyma, 2000).

14 Kalgoorlie, WA, 23 - 25 April 2003 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection

 GLOBAL EXTRACTION SEQUENCES IN SUBLEVEL STOPING

FIG 16 - Williams Mine long section view (Bronkhorst et al, 1993).

A variation to this method has been implemented for the A disadvantage of a 1-5-9 (or 1-4-7) extraction sequence using
George Fisher orebody in Australia, where a 1-5-9 stoping short lift stopes is their inefficient stope mucking characteristics.
sequence has been selected for extraction (Neindorf and The method effectively requires (a bottom up) moving drawpoint
Karunatillake, 2000). Stopes 1-5-9 are extracted as two lift sequence (even in primary stopes), which necessarily follows the
vertical retreat of the stopes as shown in Figure 18. This implies
primaries and filled with consolidated fill (see Figure 17). This is
that mucking is carried out in areas that had previously been
followed by another set of primary two lift stopes (3-7-11), also subjected to stress distribution and stope blasting at the stope
filled with consolidated fill. Following the fill cure within the crowns. Each stope access becomes a stope drawpoint and a
primary stopes 1-3-5-7-9-11, a set of single lift stopes (2-6-10) is significant amount of reinforcement using cablebolting is
then extracted and filled with unconsolidated fill. This creates a required in all the stopes access and exposed backs.
pendant pillar, which has many degrees of freedom and relies on Reinforcement can be largely inefficient within the bottom of
the fill support from the primary stopes for stability. Finally, pendant secondary pillars where remote mucking is required for
the single lift stopes 4-8-12 are extracted and filled with 100 per cent of the tonnage. Furthermore, additional footwall
unconsolidated fill before the entire sequence is repeated up-dip. development access in waste may be required on each sublevel,
The extraction of stopes 4-8-12 also creates pendant pillars. as more than one access may be required for effective mucking
of each individual stope.

FIG 17 - Longitudinal section view of George Fisher orebody (Neindorf and Karunatillake, 2000).

Mine Planning and Equipment Selection Kalgoorlie, WA, 23 - 25 April 2003 15

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FIG 18 - Isometric view of single lift sublevel stoping

(Potvin et al, 1989).

MULTIPLE STEEPLY DIPPING OREBODIES

The extraction sequence for multiple, steeply-dipping parallel
orebodies, which are accessed by a common crosscut off a FIG 19 - Footwall stope extracted ahead of other stopes in the
footwall ramp, requires additional consideration as the extraction same lift (Villaescusa, 1997).
of the orebodies at any particular location is inter-related. The
extraction of a stope in a series of closely spaced orebodies is
likely to influence the other orebodies in the sequence. In the
case of orebodies separated by ‘thin’ pillars (ie thickness between
orebodies less than half the stope height) the stope hangingwall
conditions are usually best protected by extracting the orebodies
from footwall to hangingwall, filling after each stope, before
extracting the following orebody. A permanent crosscut is
required to access the hangingwall orebodies following
extraction of the footwall orebody.
The extraction of the closely spaced orebodies shown in
Figure 19 is aimed to minimise the effects that stopes might have
on each other. The stopes interact as the block extraction
sequence advances up-dip towards a region of high induced
stress below a mining block extracted earlier. Within this
sequence the footwall stopes are always extracted one or two lifts
ahead of the hangingwall stopes, effectively creating a ‘leading’
stope geometry. The sequence is devised to stress shadow the rest FIG 20 - Typical panel stoping layout (Kaesehagen and Boffey,
of the stopes in a particular lift from excessive induced stress 1998).
damage, as well as to minimise the effects of blasting, as most
hangingwalls are mined in undisturbed ground. In some cases,
the leading orebodies may experience stress-related crown reinforcement is provided from the hangingwall drives located
damage, and adequate rock reinforcement must be provided to within the primary stopes. In addition, permanent pillars can be
minimise failures. Alternatively, the leading orebody must be left within the secondary stopes to provide additional
selected following considerations of rock mass strength, orebody hangingwall support.
width and orebody grade. In cases where very high stress is Flat lying orebodies can also be extracted by individual stopes
experienced it may be advisable to select a narrow orebody in conjunction with cablebolting drives and mine fill operations.
(located anywhere on the sequence) as the leading orebody. The stopes are extracted by developing a trough undercut horizon
in waste to allow the flow of ore to the stope drawpoints.
EXTRACTION SEQUENCES IN SHALLOW Downhole drilling is undertaken from a series of hangingwall
DIPPING OREBODIES drives, where cablebolt reinforcement is also provided (see
Figure 21). This method results in an increased lead time in stope
Large tabular orebodies where the dip angle does not allow the preparation as well as additional costs, as non-economical
flow of broken ore utilising gravity can be extracted using a type material is developed.
of sublevel stoping called uphole retreat panel stoping The overall stope extraction retreats up-dip and towards the
(Kaesehagen and Boffey, 1998). Typically, an orebody can be access end of the drilling drives. Experience indicates that only
divided into panels, running parallel to the strike of the orebody half of the back of a previously extracted stope (down-dip) can
and defined down dip as shown in Figure 20. The stopes are be filled effectively. The methodology consists on extracting
extracted by developing a footwall extraction drive where stopes having either single or double drilling drives, depending
drilling, blasting and mucking operations can be carried out. The upon their location with respect to the orebody abutment and
stopes are accessed from a footwall drive, with a slot established with respect to each other in the extraction sequence. Alternating
at the far end of the panels, and the stopes are progressively single and double drilling drives is likely to optimise
blasted retreating back to the access end of a panel. Cablebolt hangingwall reinforcement, as the extraction progresses up-dip.

16 Kalgoorlie, WA, 23 - 25 April 2003 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection

 GLOBAL EXTRACTION SEQUENCES IN SUBLEVEL STOPING

FIG 21 - Overall extraction sequence and cross-section showing cablebolt reinforcement.

CONCLUSION Grice, T, 1999. Introduction to mining with fill, Minefill Geoemchanics

and Practice Workshop (The Australian Centre for Geomechanics:
Global extraction sequences in sublevel stoping are fundamental Perth).
to achieve production targets safely and economically throughout Kaesehagen, M and Boffey, R, 1998. Development of the Osborne Mine
an entire stoping life. For massive orebodies a number of – with focus on technical operational aspects, in Proceedings
sequencing options can be used including temporary rib, crown Underground Operators’ Conference, pp 29-37 (The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
and transverse pillars, strike slots with continuous or
Morrison, D, 1995. Fragmentation – the future, in Proceedings Explo
discontinuous advance and chequer board sequences. For tabular ’95, pp 11-18 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
orebodies extraction sequences that use primary and secondary Melbourne).
or pillarless approaches can be used. In general, the sequences Neindorf, L B and Karunatillake, G S B, 2000. George Fisher Mine –
are driven by the orebody nature and geometry, ore grade feasibility and construction, in Proceedings MassMin 2000, pp
requirements, operational issues and induced stress 601-609 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
considerations. Melbourne).
Potvin, Y, Hudyma, M and Miller, H, 1989. Design guidelines for open
stope support, CIM Bulletin, 82(926):53-62.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection Kalgoorlie, WA, 23 - 25 April 2003 17