Jupiter

Jupiter captured by New Horizons space probe. The small spot on top

of Jupiter is the shadow cast by its moon Ganymede.

Designations

/ˈdʒuːpɪtər/ ⓘ[1]
Pronunciation

Named after Jupiter

Adjectives Jovian /ˈdʒoʊviən/

Symbol

Orbital characteristics[2]

Epoch J2000

Aphelion 5.4570 AU (816.363 million km)

Perihelion 4.9506 AU (740.595 million km)

Semi-major axis 5.2038 AU (778.479 million km)

Eccentricity 0.0489

Orbital period (sidereal)  11.862 yr

 4,332.59 d
  10,476.8 Jovian solar days[3]

Orbital period (synodic) 398.88 d

Average orbital speed 13.07 km/s (8.12 mi/s)

Mean anomaly 20.020°[4]

Inclination  1.303° to ecliptic[4]

 6.09° to Sun's equator[4]

 0.32° to invariable plane[5]

Longitude of 100.464°
ascending node

Time of perihelion 21 January 2023[6]

Argument of perihelion 273.867°[4]

Known satellites 95 (as of 2023)[7]

Physical characteristics[2][8][9]

Mean radius 69,911 km (43,441 mi)[a]

10.973 of Earth's

Equatorial radius 71,492 km (44,423 mi)[a]

11.209 R🜨 (of Earth's)

0.10045 R☉ (of Sun's)

Polar radius 66,854 km (41,541 mi)[a]

10.517 of Earth's

Flattening 0.06487

Surface area 6.1469×1010 km2 (2.3733×1010 sq mi)

120.4 of Earth's

Volume 1.4313×1015 km3 (3.434×1014 cu mi)[a]

1,321 of Earth's

Mass 1.8982×1027 kg (4.1848×1027 lb)

 317.8 of Earth's

 1/1047 of Sun's[10]

Mean density 1.326 g/cm3 (0.0479 lb/cu in)[b]

Equatorial surface gravity 24.79 m/s2 (81.3 ft/s2)[a]

 2.528 g

Moment of inertia factor 0.2756±0.0006[11]

Equatorial escape velocity 59.5 km/s (37.0 mi/s)[a]

Synodic rotation period 9.9258 h (9 h 55 m 33 s)[3]

Sidereal rotation period 9.9250 hours (9 h 55 m 30 s)

Equatorial rotation velocity 12.6 km/s (7.8 mi/s; 45,000 km/h)

Axial tilt 3.13° (to orbit)

North pole right ascension 268.057°; 17h 52m 14s

North pole declination 64.495°

Geometric albedo 0.503 (Bond)[12]

0.538 (geometric)[13]

Temperature 88 K (−185 °C) (blackbody

temperature)

Surface temp. min mean max

1 bar 165 K
0.1 bar 78 K 128 K

Apparent magnitude −2.94[14] to −1.66[14]

Absolute magnitude (H) −9.4[15]

Angular diameter 29.8" to 50.1"

Atmosphere[2]

Surface pressure 200–600 kPa (30–90 psi)

(opaque cloud deck)[16]

Scale height 27 km (17 mi)

Composition by volume  89%±2.0% hydrogen

 10%±2.0% helium
 0.3%±0.1% methane
 0.026%±0.004% ammonia
 0.0028%±0.001% hydrogen
deuteride
 0.0006%±0.0002% ethane
 0.0004%±0.0004% water
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Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas
giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in
the Solar System combined, and slightly less than one one-thousandth the mass of the
Sun. Jupiter orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.20 AU (778.5 Gm) with an orbital
period of 11.86 years. Jupiter is the third brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky
after the Moon and Venus, and it has been observed since prehistoric times. It was
named after Jupiter, the chief deity of ancient Roman religion.
Jupiter was the first planet to form, and its inward migration during the primordial Solar
System impacted much of the formation history of the other planets. Jupiter is primarily
composed of hydrogen (90% by volume), followed by helium, which makes up a quarter
of its mass and a tenth of its volume. The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior
generates more heat than the planet receives from the Sun. Its internal structure is
believed to consist of an outer mantle of fluid metallic hydrogen, and a diffuse inner core
of denser material. Because of its rapid rotation rate of 1 rotation per 10 hours, Jupiter's
shape is an oblate spheroid: it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator. The
outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands, with turbulence and
storms along their interacting boundaries. The most obvious result of this is the Great
Red Spot, a giant storm which has been observed since 1831 and possibly earlier.
Jupiter is surrounded by a faint planetary ring system and has a
powerful magnetosphere, the second largest contiguous structure in the Solar System
(after the heliosphere). Jupiter forms a system of 95 known moons and probably many
more, including the four large moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in
1610: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Ganymede, the largest of the four, is larger
than the planet Mercury. Callisto is the second largest; Io and Europa are approximately
the size of Earth's Moon.
Since 1973, Jupiter has been visited by nine robotic probes: seven flybys and two
dedicated orbiters, with one more en route and one awaiting launch.
Name and symbol
In both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief
god of the divine pantheon: Zeus to the Greeks and Jupiter to the Romans.
[17]
The International Astronomical Union formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet
in 1976, and has since named its newly discovered satellites for the god's lovers,
favourites, and descendants.[18] The planetary symbol for Jupiter, , descends from a
Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke, ⟨Ƶ⟩, as an abbreviation for Zeus.[19][20]
In Latin, Iovis is the genitive case of Iuppiter, i.e. Jupiter. It is associated with the
etymology of Zeus ('sky father'). The English equivalent, Jove, is only known to have
come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century.[21]
Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial, employed by
astrologers in the Middle Ages, has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', moods ascribed to
Jupiter's influence in astrology.[22]
The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, which is used to form some
Jupiter-related words, such as zenographic.[c]
Formation and migration
Main article: Grand tack hypothesis
See also: Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System, having formed just one
million years after the Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth.[23] Current models
of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the snow line: a
distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold
for volatiles such as water to condense into solids.[24] The planet began as a solid core,
which then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. As a consequence, the planet must
have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed.[25] During its formation, Jupiter's
mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth, approximately half
of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents.[23] When
the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula.
[23]
Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4 million years.[23] Since
Jupiter is made of the same elements as the Sun (hydrogen and helium) it has been
suggested that the Solar System might have been early in its formation a system of
multiple protostars, which are quite common, with Jupiter being the second but failed
protostar. But the Solar System never developed into a system of multiple stars and
Jupiter today does not qualify as a protostar or brown dwarf since it does not have
enough mass to fuse hydrogen.[26][27][28]
According to the "grand tack hypothesis", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly
3.5 AU (520 million km; 330 million mi) from the Sun. As the young
planet accreted mass, interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and orbital
resonances with Saturn caused it to migrate inward.[24][29] This upset the orbits of
several super-Earths orbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively.
[30]
Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter, until
the two planets became captured in a 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately
1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun.[31] This changed the direction of
migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to
their current locations.[30] All of this happened over a period of 3–6 million years, with the
final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years.[29][32] Jupiter's
migration from the inner solar system eventually allowed the inner planets—including
Earth—to form from the rubble.[33]
There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting
formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured
elemental composition.[34] It is likely that Jupiter would have settled into an orbit much
closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula.[35] Some competing models
of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are
close to those of the present day planet.[25] Other models predict Jupiter forming at
distances much farther out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi).[36][37]
According to the Nice model, infall of proto-Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million
years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial
positions into a 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit,
disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering
the Late Heavy Bombardment.[38]
Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation
outside the molecular nitrogen (N2) snowline, which is estimated at 20–30 AU (3.0–
4.5 billion km; 1.9–2.8 billion mi) from the Sun, and possibly even outside the argon
snowline, which may be as far as 40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi).[39][40] Having
formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly
700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location,[36][37] during an epoch
approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn
would also have migrated inwards.[36]
Physical characteristics
Jupiter is a gas giant, meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and
helium. These materials are classified as gasses in planetary geology, a term that does
not denote the state of matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a
diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator, giving it a volume 1,321 times that of
the Earth.[2][41] Its average density, 1.326 g/cm3,[d] is lower than those of the four terrestrial
planets.[43][44]
Composition
By mass, Jupiter's atmosphere is approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium,
though, because helium atoms are more massive than hydrogen molecules, Jupiter's
upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium by volume.[45] The
atmosphere also contains trace amounts of methane, water vapour, ammonia,
and silicon-based compounds, as well as fractional amounts
of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur.[46] The
outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia.
[47]
Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and
other hydrocarbons have also been found.[48] The interior of Jupiter contains denser
materials—by mass it is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements.[49]
[50]

The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical
composition of the primordial solar nebula.[51] Neon in the upper atmosphere only
consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the
Sun.[52] Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due to precipitation of
these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's
interior.[53][54]
Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the
other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and
relatively more of the next most common elements, including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
and sulfur.[55] These planets are known as ice giants because during their formation
these elements are thought to have been incorporated into them as ices; however, they
probably contain little ice today.[56]
Size and mass
Main article: Jupiter mass

Size of Earth compared to Jupiter in true colors

Jupiter's mass is 318 times that of Earth;[2] 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the
Solar System combined. It is so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above
the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's centre.[57][58]: 6 Jupiter's radius is about
one tenth the radius of the Sun,[59] and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun,
as the densities of the two bodies are similar.[60] A "Jupiter mass" (MJ or MJup) is often
used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar
planets and brown dwarfs. For example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass
of 0.69 MJ, while the brown dwarf Gliese 229 b has a mass of 60.4 MJ.[61][62]
Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would
be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of
matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the radius would not change appreciably.[63] As
a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its
composition and evolutionary history can achieve.[64] The process of further shrinkage
with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved.
[65]
Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse
hydrogen and become a star,[66] its diameter is sufficient as the smallest red dwarf may
be only slightly larger in radius than Saturn.[67]
Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–
Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior.[68]: 30 [69] This process causes Jupiter to
shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in)/yr.[70][71] At the time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter
and was about twice its current diameter.[72]
Internal structure
 Diagram of Jupiter, its
interior, surface features, rings, and inner moons
Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the
formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a
dense core, a surrounding layer of fluid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending
outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet,[73] and an outer atmosphere consisting
primarily of molecular hydrogen.[71] Alternatively, if the planet collapsed directly from the
gaseous protoplanetary disk, it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting
instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen)
all the way to the centre. Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has a diffuse
core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30–50% of the planet's radius, and
comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth.[74][75][76][77][78] This
mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and
gases from the surrounding nebula.[79] Alternatively, it could have been caused by an
impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's
formation, which would have disrupted an originally solid Jovian core.[80][81]
Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of
hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular
hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of 33 K (−240.2 °C;
−400.3 °F).[82] In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said
to be in a supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward
from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly
resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids.
[68]: 22 [83][84][85]
Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases.[86]
[87]

Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower
atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.[53]
[88]
Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of
60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km (6,800 mi) below the cloud tops) and merge again at
50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km (14,000 mi) beneath the clouds).[89] Rainfalls
of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn[90] and the ice giants
Uranus and Neptune.[91]
The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of
planetary formation can only escape by convection.[54] At a surface depth where the
atmospheric pressure level is 1 bar (0.10 MPa), the temperature is around 165 K
(−108 °C; −163 °F). The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a
molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with
temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–8,130 °C; 8,540–14,660 °F), respectively. The
temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F)
with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa.[92]
Atmosphere
Main article: Atmosphere of Jupiter

Timelapse of Jupiter's cloud system moving over the

course of one month (photographed during Voyager 1 flyby in 1979)
The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium,
with a smaller amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide,
and ammonia.[93] Jupiter's atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately 3,000 km
(2,000 mi) below the cloud layers.[92]
Cloud layers
Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may
contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well.[94] The clouds are located in
the tropopause layer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as
tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The
interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind
speeds of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common in zonal jet
streams.[95] The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from
year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them.[58]: 6
View of Jupiter's south pole

Enhanced colour view of Jupiter's southern storms

The cloud layer is about 50 km (31 mi) deep, and consists of at least two decks of
ammonia clouds: a thin clearer region on top with a thick lower deck. There may be a
thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by flashes
of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[96] These electrical discharges can be
up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth.[97] The water clouds are
assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms,
driven by the heat rising from the interior.[98] The Juno mission revealed the presence of
"shallow lightning" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the
atmosphere.[99] These discharges carry "mushballs" of water-ammonia slushes covered
in ice, which fall deep into the atmosphere.[100] Upper-atmospheric lightning has been
observed in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4
milliseconds. These are known as "elves" or "sprites" and appear blue or pink due to the
hydrogen.[101][102]
The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling
compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun.
The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of
phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.[68]: 39 [103] These colourful compounds, known
as chromophores, mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured
zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides the
chromophores from view.[104]
Jupiter has a low axial tilt, thus ensuring that the poles always receive less solar
radiation than the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet
transports energy to the poles, balancing out temperatures at the cloud layer.[58]: 54
Great Red Spot and other vortices
 Close-up of the Great Red Spot imaged by
the Juno spacecraft in true color. Due to the way Juno takes photographs, stitched
image has extreme barrel distortion.
A well-known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot,[105] a persistent anticyclonic storm
located 22° south of the equator. It was first observed in 1831,[106] and possibly as early
as 1665.[107][108] Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more "red spots"
adjacent to the Great Red Spot.[109][110] The storm is visible through Earth-
based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger.[111] The oval object rotates
counterclockwise, with a period of about six days.[112] The maximum altitude of this storm
is about 8 km (5 mi) above the surrounding cloud tops.[113] The Spot's composition and
the source of its red colour remain uncertain, although
photodissociated ammonia reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation.[114]
The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth.[115] Mathematical models suggest that the
storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet.[116] However, it has
significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s
showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. By the time of
the Voyager flybys in 1979, the storm had a length of 23,300 km (14,500 mi) and a
width of approximately 13,000 km (8,000 mi).[117] Hubble observations in 1995 showed it
had decreased in size to 20,950 km (13,020 mi), and observations in 2009 showed the
size to be 17,910 km (11,130 mi). As of 2015, the storm was measured at
approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km (10,250 by 6,800 mi),[117] and was decreasing in
length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year.[115][118] In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission
measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around 300–500 kilometres
(190–310 mi).[119]
Juno missions show that there are several polar cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The
northern group contains nine cyclones, with a large one in the centre and eight others
around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is
surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one for a total of 7 storms.[120][121]
 Formation of Oval BA from three white ovals
In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in
appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white
oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals
were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was named Oval BA. It has since
increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the nickname "Little Red
Spot".[122][123]
In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north
pole. This feature is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and
200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and
intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for
more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot, and appears
to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed
by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic
field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow.[124]
Magnetosphere
Main article: Magnetosphere of Jupiter

Aurorae on the north and south poles

(animation)
 Aurorae on the north pole
(Hubble). False color image composite.

Infrared view of southern lights

(Jovian IR Mapper). False color image.

Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System,[104] with
a dipole moment of 4.170 gauss (0.4170 mT) that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the
pole of rotation. The surface magnetic field strength varies from 2 gauss (0.20 mT) up to
20 gauss (2.0 mT).[125] This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents—swirling
movements of conducting materials—within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. At about
75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar
wind generates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause,
located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock.
The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on
Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The
four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them
from solar wind.[68]: 69
The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide, forming a
gas torus along its orbit. The gas is ionized in Jupiter's magnetosphere, producing sulfur
and oxygen ions. They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of
Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-
rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a
magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with
short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6–30 MHz that are detectable from Earth
with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers.[126][127] As Io moves through this torus, the
interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of
Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism,
and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects
this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun.[128]
Planetary rings
Main article: Rings of Jupiter
Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an
inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer
gossamer ring.[129] These rings appear to be made of dust, whereas Saturn's rings are
made of ice.[68]: 65 The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the
satellites Adrastea and Metis, which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong
gravitational influence. New material is added by additional impacts.[130] In a similar way,
the moons Thebe and Amalthea are believed to produce the two distinct components of
the dusty gossamer ring.[130] There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of
collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon's orbit.[131]
Orbit and rotation

3-hour timelapse showing rotation of Jupiter and orbital

motion of the moons
Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the
Sun, though by only 7% of the Sun's radius.[132][133] The average distance between Jupiter
and the Sun is 778 million km (5.2 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This
is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance.
[134]
The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.30° compared to Earth. Because
the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun
at perihelion than aphelion,[2] which means that its orbit is nearly circular. This low
eccentricity is at odds with exoplanet discoveries, which have revealed Jupiter-sized
planets with very high eccentricities. Models suggest this may be due to there being
only two giant planets in our Solar System, as the presence of a third or more giant
planets tends to induce larger eccentricities.[135]
The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small, only 3.13°, so its seasons are insignificant
compared to those of Earth and Mars.[136]
Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on
its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen
through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper
atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is
about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere.[137] The planet is an oblate
spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter
measured between its poles.[87] On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,276 km
(5,764 mi) longer than the polar diameter.[2]
Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation,
particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to
latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System
II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s.[138] System III
was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet's
magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation.[139]
Observation
 Jupiter and four Galilean moons seen through an
amateur telescope
Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon,
and Venus),[104] although at opposition Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending
on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as
bright as −2.94 at opposition down to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun.[14] The
mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33.[14] The angular
diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds.[2] Favourable
oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit, bringing it
closer to Earth.[140] Near opposition, Jupiter will appear to go into retrograde motion for a
period of about 121 days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before returning to
prograde movement.[141]
Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as
viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully
illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft
missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained.[142] A small telescope
will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts
across Jupiter's atmosphere. A larger telescope with an aperture of 4–6 inches (10–
15 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.[143][144]
History
Pre-telescopic research

Model in the Almagest of the longitudinal motion of Jupiter

(☉) relative to Earth (🜨)
Observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the Babylonian astronomers of the 7th or
8th century BC.[145] The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as the "Suì Star" (Suìxīng 歲星)
and established their cycle of 12 earthly branches based on the approximate number of
years it takes Jupiter to rotate around the Sun; the Chinese language still uses its name
(simplified as 歲) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these
observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac,[146] and each year became
associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite
Jupiter's position in the night sky. These beliefs survive in some Taoist religious
practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals. The Chinese historian Xi
Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer,[147] reported a small
star "in alliance" with the planet,[148] which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter's
moons with the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two
millennia.[149][150]
A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule was used by Babylonians before 50 BC for
integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic.[151] In his 2nd century work
the Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed
a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's
motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or
11.86 years.[152]
Ground-based telescope research

Galileo's drawings of Jupiter and its "Medicean Stars"

from Sidereus Nuncius
In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter
(now known as the Galilean moons) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first
telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon
Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his
discovery in a book until 1614.[153] It was Marius's names for the major moons, however,
that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery was a major point in
favour of Copernicus' heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets; Galileo's
outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by
the Inquisition.[154]

Letter of Francesco Fontana to the grand duke of

Tuscany Ferdinando II de' Medici
In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm
telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's
atmosphere.[155]
During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots in Jupiter's
atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period.
[156]
In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential rotation.[157]
The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in
1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced
the earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831.[158] The Red
Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708
before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878.[159] It was recorded as fading again in 1883
and at the start of the 20th century.[160]
Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter's
moons, which allowed predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the
planet. By the 1670s, Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of
the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than
expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion
that Cassini had earlier rejected),[50] and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate
the speed of light.[161][162]
In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch (910 mm)
refractor at Lick Observatory in California. This moon was later named Amalthea.[163] It
was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by a visual observer through a
telescope.[164] An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of
the Voyager 1 probe in 1979.[e]

Jupiter viewed in infrared by JWST

(July 14, 2022)
In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the
spectra of Jupiter.[165] Three long-lived anticyclonic features called "white ovals" were
observed in 1938. For several decades they remained as separate features in the
atmosphere, sometimes approaching each other but never merging. Finally, two of the
ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in 2000, becoming Oval BA.[166]
Radiotelescope research

Image of Jupiter and its radiation belts in radio

In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin discovered that Jupiter emits bursts of
radio waves at a frequency of 22.2 MHz.[68]: 36 The period of these bursts matched the
rotation of the planet, and they used this information to determine a more precise value
for Jupiter's rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms:
long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts (or S-bursts)
lasting less than a hundredth of a second.[167]
Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter:

 Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the
rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter's
magnetic field.[168]
 Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was
first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959.[68]: 36 The origin of this
signal is a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator, which
 generates cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's
magnetic field.[169]
 Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[68]: 43
Exploration
Main article: Exploration of Jupiter
Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973, when the space
probe Pioneer 10 passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its
properties and phenomena.[170][171] Missions to Jupiter are accomplished at a cost in
energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v.
Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a
delta-v of 6.3 km/s,[172] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low
Earth orbit.[173] Gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy
required to reach Jupiter.[174]
Flyby missions
Closest
Spacecraft Distance (km)
approach

Pioneer 10 December 3, 1973 130,000

Pioneer 11 December 4, 1974 34,000

Voyager 1 March 5, 1979 349,000

Voyager 2 July 9, 1979 570,000

February 8, 1992[175] 408,894

Ulysses
February 4, 2004[175] 120,000,000

Cassini December 30, 2000 10,000,000

New
February 28, 2007 2,304,535
Horizons

Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft performed planetary flyby manoeuvres that

brought them within observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the
first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered
that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both
spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft
were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system. Radio occultations by the
planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polar
flattening.[58]: 47 [176]
Six years later, the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean
moons and discovered Jupiter's rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was
anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Spot had changed hues since the
Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus of ionized atoms was
discovered along Io's orbital path, which were found to come from erupting volcanoes
on the moon's surface. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes
of lightning in the night side atmosphere.[58]: 87 [177]
The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe. In February 1992, it
performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun. During this pass,
the spacecraft studied Jupiter's magnetosphere, although it had no cameras to
photograph the planet. The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six years later, this time at a
much greater distance.[175]
In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided higher-
resolution images.[178]
The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto.
[179]
The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all
four Galilean moons in detail.[180]
Galileo mission
Main article: Galileo (spacecraft)

Galileo in preparation for mating with the rocket, 1989

The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo mission, which reached the planet on
December 7, 1995.[64] It remained in orbit for over seven years, conducting multiple
flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the
impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 when it collided with Jupiter in 1994. Some of the
goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction in Galileo's high-gain antenna.
[181]

A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July
1995, entering Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7.[64] It parachuted through 150 km
(93 mi) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km/h (1600 mph)[64] and collected
data for 57.6 minutes until the spacecraft was destroyed.[182] The Galileo orbiter itself
experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into
the planet on September 21, 2003. NASA destroyed the spacecraft to avoid any
possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon
Europa, which may harbour life.[181]
Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's
atmosphere.[64] The recorded temperature was more than 300 °C (570 °F) and the
windspeed measured more than 644 km/h (>400 mph) before the probes vaporized.[64]
Juno mission
Main article: Juno (spacecraft)

Juno preparing for testing in a rotation stand, 2011

NASA's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, with the goal of studying the
planet in detail from a polar orbit. The spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter
thirty-seven times over a period of twenty months.[183][76][184] During the mission, the
spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation from Jupiter's magnetosphere,
which may cause future failure of certain instruments.[185] On August 27, 2016, the
spacecraft completed its first fly-by of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever images of
Jupiter's north pole.[186]
Juno completed 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan, ending July 2018.
[187]
In June of that year, NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021, and in
January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar
flybys: one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of Io.[188][189] When Juno reaches the
end of the mission, it will perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter's
atmosphere. This will avoid the risk of collision with Jupiter's moons.[190][191]
Cancelled missions and future plans
There is great interest in missions to study Jupiter's larger icy moons, which may have
subsurface liquid oceans.[192] Funding difficulties have delayed progress,
causing NASA's JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) to be cancelled in 2005.[193] A
subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ESA mission
called EJSM/Laplace, with a provisional launch date around 2020. EJSM/Laplace would
have consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA-led Jupiter
Ganymede Orbiter.[194] However, the ESA formally ended the partnership in April 2011,
citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable. Instead,
ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic
Vision selection.[195] These plans have been realized as the European Space
Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), launched on April 14, 2023,[196] followed by
NASA's Europa Clipper mission, scheduled for launch in 2024.[197]
Duration: 9 minutes and 39 seconds.9:39Views of Jupiter from JunoCam
Other proposed missions include the Chinese National Space
Administration's Tianwen-4 mission which aims to launch an orbiter to the Jovian
system and possibly Callisto around 2035,[198] and CNSA's Interstellar Express[199] and
NASA's Interstellar Probe,[200] which would both use Jupiter's gravity to help them reach
the edges of the heliosphere.
Moons
Main article: Moons of Jupiter
See also: Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons and Satellite
system (astronomy)
Jupiter has 95 known natural satellites,[7] and it is likely that this number would go up in
the future due to improved instrumentation.[201] Of these, 79 are less than 10 km in
diameter.[7] The four largest moons are Ganymede, Callisto, Io and Europa (in order of
decreasing size), collectively known as the "Galilean moons", and are visible from Earth
with binoculars on a clear night.[202]
Galilean moons
Main article: Galilean moons
The moons discovered by Galileo—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are among
the largest in the Solar System. The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede form a pattern
known as a Laplace resonance; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter,
Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one. This resonance
causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into
elliptical shapes, because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbours at the
same point in every orbit it makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, on the other hand, works
to circularize their orbits.[203]
The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, with
Jupiter's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring
back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. The friction created by this tidal
flexing generates heat in the interior of the moons.[204] This is seen most dramatically in
the volcanic activity of Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces),[204] and to a
lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa's surface, which indicates recent
resurfacing of the moon's exterior.[205]
The Galilean moons compared to the Earth's Moon
Diameter Mass Orbital radius Orbital period
Name IPA
km D☾ kg M☾ km a☾ days T☾
1.2
Io /ˈaɪ.oʊ/ 3,643 1.05 8.9×1022 421,700 1.10 1.77 0.07
0
0.6
Europa /jʊˈroʊpə/ 3,122 0.90 4.8×1022 671,034 1.75 3.55 0.13
5
 Ganymed 2.0
/ˈɡænimiːd/ 5,262 1.50 14.8×1022 1,070,412 2.80 7.15 0.26
e 0
1.5
Callisto /kəˈlɪstoʊ/ 4,821 1.40 10.8×1022 1,882,709 4.90 16.69 0.61
0

The Galilean satellites Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto (in order of increasing distance from Jupiter) in
false color
Classification
Jupiter's moons were traditionally classified into four groups of four, based on their
similar orbital elements.[206] This picture has been complicated by the discovery of
numerous small outer moons since 1999. Jupiter's moons are currently divided into
several different groups, although there are several moons which are not part of any
group.[207]
The eight innermost regular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of
Jupiter's equator, are thought to have formed alongside Jupiter, whilst the remainder
are irregular moons and are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured
asteroids. The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin, perhaps
as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.[208][209]

Regular moons

The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km, orbit at
Inner group
radii less than 200,000 km, and have orbital inclinations of less than half a degree.[210]

These four moons, discovered by Galileo Galilei and by Simon Marius in parallel, orbit
Galilean moons[211] between 400,000 and 2,000,000 km, and are some of the largest moons in the Solar
System.

Irregular moons

A tightly clustered group of prograde-orbiting moons with orbits around 11,000,000–

Himalia group
12,000,000 km from Jupiter.[212]
 A sparsely populated group of small moons with highly inclined prograde orbits around
Carpo group
16,000,000–17,000,000 km from Jupiter.[7]

This group of retrograde-orbiting moons has rather indistinct borders, averaging

Ananke group
21,276,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees.[209]

A tightly clustered group of retrograde-orbiting moons that averages 23,404,000 km

Carme group
from Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees.[209]

A dispersed and only vaguely distinct retrograde group that covers all the outermost
Pasiphae group
moons.[213]

Interaction with the Solar System

As the most massive of the eight planets, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has
helped shape the Solar System. With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the
system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane.
The Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter,[214] and the planet
may have been responsible for the purported Late Heavy Bombardment in the inner
Solar System's history.[215]
In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that
have settled around the Lagrangian points that precede and follow the planet in its orbit
around the Sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided
into Greek and Trojan "camps" to honour the Iliad. The first of these, 588 Achilles, was
discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then more than two thousand have been
discovered.[216] The largest is 624 Hektor.[217]
The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have a semi-major axis smaller than
Jupiter's; most short-period comets belong to this group. Members of the Jupiter family
are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During close
encounters with Jupiter, they are perturbed into orbits with a smaller period, which then
becomes circularized by regular gravitational interactions with the Sun and Jupiter.[218]
Impacts
Main article: Impact events on Jupiter
 Brown spots mark Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9's impact
sites on Jupiter
Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner[219] because of its
immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. There are more impacts
on Jupiter, such as comets, than on any other planet in the Solar System.[220] For
example, Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than
Earth.[64] In the past, scientists believed that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system
from cometary bombardment.[64] However, computer simulations in 2008 suggest that
Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the
inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as
it accretes or ejects them.[221] This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some
think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt, while others believe that
Jupiter protects Earth from the Oort cloud.[222]
In July 1994, the Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 comet collided with Jupiter.[223][224] The
impacts were closely observed by observatories around the world, including the Hubble
Space Telescope and Galileo spacecraft.[225][226][227][228] The event was widely covered by the
media.[229]
Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced eight examples of
potential impact observations between 1664 and 1839. However, a 1997 review
determined that these observations had little or no possibility of being the results of
impacts. Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered
by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar.[230]