CSEC Biology STUDY NOTES UNITS UNIT 1-— CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS UNIT 2- FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS UNIT 3-— SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS UNIT 4— CARBON AND NITROGEN CYCLE UNIT 5- CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION UNIT 6- TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES (DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS, ACTIVE TRANSPORT) UNIT 7- PHOTOSYNTHESIS UNIT 8- ENZYMES UNIT 9—-—NUTRITION AND DIET UNIT 10 — RESPIRATION UNIT 11 — BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM UNIT 12 —- TRANSPORTATION IN FLOWERING PLANTS UNIT 13 —- EXCRETION UNIT 14 - HOMEOSTASISINTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT Biology (bios, life; logos, Knowledge) is a science devoted to the study of living organisms. The science has progressed by breaking down sections of the subject into their component parts, which today has lead to numerous branches of biology as shown below: ANATOMY(gross: structure) Ca Tisioloay (goss anc) oc eas Too ae Bisa BIOLOGY € Pom cells) (virus bacteria, fungi) There are certain observable features that distinguish living organisms from nor-living objects iCHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS These SEVEN characteristics can be observed to a greater or lesser extent in all living organisms 1. NUTRITION/FEEDING The ability of organisms to obtain food, which is used as a source of energy, and raw materials for life processes such as growth. Two sources of energy utilized by living organisms are light and chemical energy. Organisms specialized for using light energy carry out photosynthesis and contain pigments, including chlorophyll, which absorb light. These photosynthetic organisms include plants, algae and cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria). The organisms which use chemical energy obtain it from other living organisms and include animals and fungi. 2, RESPIRATION This is the process by which food is broken down for the continuous release of energy. The energy released is stored in special molecules called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP molecule is referred to as the ‘universal energy carrier’. 3. IRRITABILITY/SENSITIVITY Refers to the ability of living organisms to respond to changes (stimuli) in both internal and external environments and thus ensure that they maximize their chances of survival. For example, a plant will bend towards unilateral light ( light from one direction) ensuring sufficient exposure to light for photosynthesis. 4. MOVEMENT/LOCOMOTION Locomotion is the change in position of an organism from one place to another. Some living organisms, such as animals and some bacteria, have the ability to move form place to place, that is they locomote. This is necessary in order for them to obtainfood, unlike other organisms such as plants which make their own food and remain in one place. EXCRETION This is the removal of metabolic waste from the body. Metabolic wastes include carbon dioxide from respiration, urine, sweat. Metabolism refers to the series of chemical reactions occurring inside the body and is divided into catabolic and anabolic reactions. REPRODUCTION Reproduction refers to the production of a new generation of individuals of the same species. A species is a group of organisms that are closely related and capable of inter-breeding to produce fertile offspring. The resulting offspring have the same general characteristics as the parents, whether such individual is produced by asexual or sexual reproduction. GROWTH This is a permanent increase in size or complexity of an offspring. Living organisms grow from within, using food they obtain from nutrition.SECTION A: LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT UNIT 1 —- CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 4.4 Group living organisms according to observed similarities and differences. Classification is the placement of organisms into groups based on the features they have in common. The science of classification is called taxonomy. The science of taxonomy has two branches, the naming of organisms or nomenclature and the placing of organisms into groups. Biological nomenclature is based on the binominal system pioneered by the work Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus. In the binomial classification system each organism has two Latin names: a generic name beginning with a capital letter and a specific name beginning with a lower case letter. For example, humans are named Homo sapiens; the genus is Homo and the species is sapiens. The dog is given the name Canis familiaris. The smallest group of classification is the species (both singular and plural form).The classification hierarchy is as follows: Species are grouped into genera (singular genus) Genera are grouped into families Families are grouped into orders Orders are grouped into classes Classes are grouped into phyla (singular phylum) Phyla are grouped into Kingdoms Organisms are placed in into five kingdoms:1. Animalia — consists of animals (multicellular), heterotrophic motile organisms. Food is ingested into the body before being digested. 2. Plantae — consists of plants (multicellular), autotrophic non- motile organisms 3. Fungi—heterotrophic non-motile organisms (multicellular). Food is digested outside the body and the products of digestion absorbed. 4. Protista — unicellular organisms resembling the ancestors of plants, animals and fungi. Include algae, protozoa (amoeba), slime moulds 5. Monera- include bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria) which maybe autotrophic or heterotrophic. Viruses are not cellular and do not fit into any classification of living organisms and as a result are placed into a separate group. NUCLEUS Protozoan- Amoeba proteusKino inal] ans T jum Cla Papas Neola Mala Amelia Aros china Chrno ih tina pss ‘nnd at sme ie inti feisty eed. __ A | Sabha Vertebrata sec pel reel a (hs Seles Clokichhes Osetes Amie -Repia—Aes (Mama cating fit bay hangs pestis ams ‘wooo, ar ed than oil Taal Onter Soles — ones Trenkes 1Socer [Primates cies yee vel, gasping ha nt et wi vedi Fanily - Alam eames edn ite ‘ae faar-ile pes = Te Sais i bis eres [Sapiens] exit tlhe ect ri. aed ir pose Example of a hierarchy of taxonomic groups for the Animalia kingdom. Organisms can be placed into groups based on visible characteristics such as hairiness, shape, colour, venation in case of leaves, number of legs and wings.wings ceany white colar with lek aris ales lk spt, veins and iy see preset NY, An insect, large (cabbage) white butterfly Organisms belonging to the class of insects will have a pair of compound and simple eyes, three pairs of legs, usually one/two pairs of wings on thorax and one pair of antennae. Examples of organisms belonging to this group include: cockroach, bee, white buiterfly, bugs, grasshoppers, fleas, flies. Insects belong to the phylum arthropoda MOLLUSCA The organisms below can be group according to the presence of a shell, no limbs, soft fleshy body divided into head and muscular foot. These organisms fall into the phylum called mollusca. shell -spnly eile protec jg etc with sgans peor and desiczation ——_Emaeye at, /embe rere = ‘two valves = of shell foot for locomotion, =— be tentacle, = Land snail ClaniAnnelida These segmented worms have no distinct head, may or may not have a clitellum (eggs develop in) or chaetae that aids in locomotion CLASSIFICATION OF LEAVES Wed AC GThe above leaves may be placed in groups according to the following features: Shape- linear or not Venation — parallel or reticulate Leaf margin — serrated or entire Type — simple or compound Leaf apex — rounded or acute(pointed) PensUNIT 2 — FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 2.1 Identify the relative positions of producers and consumers in a food chain and relate the positions to their modes of feeding (construct simple pyramids). 2.2. Identify from a suitable habitat, a food chain containing at least four organisms. 2.3 Identify from the selected habitats, a herbivore, carnivore and omnivore. 2.4 Identify from the selected habitats, predator or prey relationships 2.5 Construct a food web to include different trophic levels. 2.6 Explain the role of decomposers. 3.1 Explain energy flow within a food chain or web. The energy containing organic molecules produced by autotrophic organisms are the source of food (materials and energy) for heterotrophic organisms. These animals may in turn be eaten by other animals, and in this way energy is transferred through a series of organisms, feeding on the preceding organism and providing raw materials and energy for the next organism. A food chain shows the sequence of energy transfer from successive feeding relationships among organisms. Each stage of the food chain is known as a trophic feeding level (trophos, food). The first trophic level is occupied by the autotrophic organisms, called producers. The organisms of the second trophic level are usually called primary consumers while those of the third level are called secondary consumers, and so on. A food chain is usually made up of four or five trophic levels, and rarely more than six. This is because at every feeding stage some energy is lost from the chain of animals feeding on each other. As a result the organism at the end of the chain receives the least amount 11of energy. The sun is the ultimate source of energy that drives chain the food chain and energy flows in one direction (unidirectional) ina food chain. When an animal feeds on a plant, it extracts only a small portion of the energy stored in the plant. Much of this energy is used for respiration and maintenance. Only about 10% of the energy is stored as new tissues and is available for transfer to the next feeding level. Hence, the amount of available energy in a food web decreases with each successive level. beat energy lost during respiration 6 ‘ : I sr Pps FP! nets [Pcs 2 ent exis vaseand se at nates ets feeders and decomposes 7 tei pitty anemic beat energy lst during respiration tailed! Seswlayomaecsl > orting of materi tein conse =) fw eneey Flow of energy and cycling of materials through a typical food chain TROPHIC LEVELS Producers: These are autotrophic (self-feeders) organisms which include green plants and algae that are able to capture light energy from the sun. Microscopic algae and blue-green bacteria are the main producers in aquatic environment and are known as phytoplankton. Primary consumers/ herbivores : Primary consumers feed on producers and are known as herbivores. On land, herbivores include insects (aphids), parasitic plants such as broomrape, reptiles, birds and mammals. In aquatic ecosystems (freshwater and marine)herbivores are small crustaceans such as water fleas, crab larvae together with microscopic animals (zooplankton) that feed on phytoplankton. Secondary consumers/carnivores: Secondary consumers feed on herbivores are called carnivores or “flesh eaters”. Tertiary and other higher order consumers that feed on secondary consumers are also carnivores. Secondary and tertiary consumers include predators (hunt, capture and kill their prey) and organisms that feed on corpses. The carnivores become fewer and larger in number at each successive trophic levels. DECOMPOSERS These are microorganisms, mainly fungi and bacteria , which live as saprotrophs on dead organic matter(DOM). They secrete digestive enzymes onto dead or waste materials and absorb the products of digestion. Decomposition is most rapid in warm and moist environments such as tropical rainforest, but takes place slowly in cool and/or dry conditions TERRESTRIAL (LAND) FOOD CHAIN plant (such as leaves)—> slug —> frog —> grass snake rosebush sap—> aphid ladybird spider > insectivorous bird —> hawk AQUATIC (WATER) FOOD CHAIN Water lily—>water beetle—> small fish — large fish Phytoplankton —> zooplankton —+ tilapia —» shark FOOD WEB A food web show interconnected food chains in an ecosystem (a community and its physical environment). Feeding relationships in ecosystems are never straight chains. Many types of organisms can occupy one level and one type of organism may feed at different levels. Depending on its prey an animal can be a second level consumer or a higher level consumer. Some animals includinghumans, feed on organisms at all trophic levels; plants, animals and fungi. These organisms are called omnivores. canivrostid canines ramal eg havi on 3 fox seid dsieg inetd pestle igetiows { sud git 1 rannaleg | bedehog, | ote | bod | spe. | (ng cathworm beetle sig -wood-bonng ‘wooddouse: poling \ bee 1 tos cae | hits and flowers eaves: ‘wood A terrestrial food web PYRAMID DIAGRAMS. Feeding relationships and the efficiency of energy transfer through the living parts of the ecosystem can be represented in pyramid diagrams. The THREE types of pyramids have been used and include: PYRAMID OF NUMBERS This is based on counting the number of organisms at each trophic level. The number of organisms present at each trophic level can be represented as a rectangle whose length is proportional to the number of organisms in a given area.<3 level carnivore << 2nd eve carnivore Ist level I herbivores producers + 10g umber, —— PYRAMID OF ENERGY Energy pyramids are considered the most important since they deal directly with the fundamentals of food chains, the flow of energy. It shows the relative amount of available energy at each trophic level. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: Biomass refers to the total mass of the organism and is estimated for each trophic level. It is usually the dry weight of organisms that is used in the pyramid. The biomass decreases with successively higher feeding levels. The lower feeding level has more organic matter available to the organisms feeding at the next level. herbivores ‘producers ——— Pyramid of energy pyramid of (aviday) biomass (e/a)UNIT 3 - SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 2.7 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of special relationships to the organisms involved. 2.8. Discuss the interdependence of organisms within a food web Symbosis (syn, together; bios, life) refers to the close relationship which exists between two or more organisms of different species living together. Three common types of symbiotic relationships are : Mutualism — both partners benefit from the association. Parasitism — one partner benefits and causes harm to the other. Commensalism — one partner benefits but the other receives no harm or benefit. MUTUALISM This is a close relationship between living organisms of different species which is beneficial to both organisms. For example, the sea anemone Calliactis attaches itself to a shell inhabited by a hermit crab. The anemone gains nourishment from the food scraps left by the crab, and is transported from place to place as the crab moves. The crab is camouflaged by the anemone and may also be protected by the stinging cells of the tentacles. It appears that the anemone is unable to survive unless attached to the crab's shell, and if the anemone is removed, the crab will place another anemone on its shellMutualistic association between a sea anemone and a hermit crab Ruminants such as cattle and goat that feed on plants, contain a vast number of cellulose digesting bacteria that convert the cellulose into simple compounds that the host is able to further digest, absorb and use. The bacteria gain shelter and protection. Leguminous plants (peas, beans) contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria living in root nodules. The nitrogen fixing bacteria converts the nitrogen in the air into a form that the plant uses to make protein and in turn gain shelter and protection. Roots of a leguminous plant PARASITISM This is a close relationship between two living organisms of different species which benefits one (the parasite) and harms the other (the host). The parasite gains food and shelter from the host.Ectoparasites are those which are found on the outside of the host e.g. ticks, leeches, fleas, lice. Endoparasites are found living inside the host e.g. tapeworm (found in human intestine), Plasmodium(protozoan that causes malaria). Parasites are highly specialized and possess numerous adaptations that allow to them survive inside or outside the host. The tapeworm is able to withstand the low oxygen levels of the gut and through the presence of suckers/hooks attaches to the gut wall absorbing digested food. hooks for attachment to ‘gut wall detail of head — four suckers for attachment gut wall Jotids formed id Adaptations of the head of an adult tapeworm The dodder plant (Love Bush) is a plant parasite that absorbs organic food from living plants by their sucking roots. COMMENSALISM This is a close relationship between two living organisms of different species which benefits one ( the commensal) and does not affect the other (the host). Example, of commensalism is the relationship between the remora and sharks or stingrays. The remora is a small fish that attaches itself to a shark obtaining a free ride and food scraps as the shark feeds. The hermit crab does not grow its own shell but rather move into shells abandoned by other organisms such as snails. Spanish moss (epiphytes) which grows on healthy oak trees Epiphytes : These are plants that grow upon other plants but do not suck them e.g. orchids. They possess hanging and absorbing roots that are able to remove atmospheric moisture.UNIT 4 - CARBON AND NITROGEN CYCLES LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 4.1 Explain with examples the continual re-use of materials in nature. In all ecosystems, materials are cycled between the environment and the organism. An understanding of biogeochemical cycling and maintenance of effective cycling is important. Human activity generally affects the movement of material through the cycles and in turn upset the balance of cycles. This may lead to a build up of material at one point in the cycle leading to pollution. THE CARBON CYCLE The main source of carbon for living organisms is the 0.03% of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the gas is also dissolved in surface waters. Carbon dioxide is incorporated into organic compounds during photosynthesis by green plants. Through successive feeding by organisms, carbon compounds move through the food chains in an ecosystem. Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere when living organisms respire. The decay activities of decomposers also release carbon dioxide.Carbon dioxide in air 0.03% - 0.04% Death & decay Photosynthesis Respiration |/ Death & decay Combustion of fossil fuels Carbon compounds in animals Carbon compounds > Eaten by in plants J =e Animals. Fossitgon Fos J Fossil fuels e.g peat, coal, oil, wood The Carbon Cycle Carbon may be trapped in limestone and fossil fuels only to be released by weathering and combustion. The conversion of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis and the counterbalancing release during respiration and decomposition of dead organic remains is an important mechanism helping to maintain the balance of the natural carbon cycle. 20THE NITROGEN CYCLE Nitrogen in the atmosphere is very unreactive and cannot be utilized by plants in the gaseous form. It must be converted into forms such as nitrates or nitrites to be used by plants. The only organisms capable of converting the nitrogen gas into nitrates or nitrites are a few bacteria through a process called nitrogen-fixation. Nitrogen fixation is therefore the process by which nitrogen-fixing bacteria form nitrogenous compounds from gaseous nitrogen e.g. symbiotic bacteria, Rhizobium living in root nodules of leguminous plants and free living soil bacteria. Nitrogen forms an essential part of molecules such as proteins and DNA. Nitrogen in the air 78-79% Nitrogen-f ing bacteria Lightning Free living in soil (e.g-Azobacter) Symbiotic in root nodules (eg. Rhizobium) 1 Denitrifying bacteria Nitric acid forms Protein in green plants (legumes) Death, excretion Absorption Protein in animals Death, excretion feeding | | Nitrogen compounds in si Ammonia Ammonium compounds nitrites nitrates (Nitrifying bacteria) 21The Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen is important for soil fertility and all nitrogen fixers convert nitrogen into ammonia, which is immediately used to make organic compounds, mainly proteins. Most plants depend on a source of nitrate from the soil. Animals in turn depend directly or indirectly on plants for their nitrogen supply. Proteins are decomposed into amino acids then ammonia when an organism dies. These nitrogen compounds are converted into nitrites and nitrates by nitrifying bacteria a process known as nitrification. Green plants then absorb the nitrates dissolved in soil water, as their nitrogen source. Nitrification can be reversed by denitrifying bacteria whose activities reduce soil fertility. Denitrifying bacteria are able perform this activity under conditions where the soil become low in oxygen content. Denitrification is the process of converting nitrogenous compounds into gaseous nitrogen. 22SECTION B: LIFE PROCESSES UNIT 5 - CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION Learning Objectives: 1.1 Draw and label simple diagrams to show the structure of unspecialized plant and animal cells 1.2 State the functions and explain the importance of the following structures: cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus and chromosomes, cytoplasm, mitochondria, vacuoles, chloroplast. 1.3 Differentiate between plant and animal cells. 1.4 Explain the importance of cell specialization in multicellular organisms. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms. The discovery of cells was due to the fact that during the nineteenth century there were dramatic improvements in the quality of lenses for use in microscopy and this in turn led to great interest in the structure of living things. Most of the cellular structures (organelles) were visible with the light microscope. However, the electron microscope allowed the smaller organelles to be more visible. 23Figure 1 cei asco a J tomas iohed sient inoldsin sean labs cman, cons seagrass sae a ie) apts inohed nc st soo srs te | itty beni ty rks 08 cel ora membrane. ‘aus fod games. Diameter: abut yo A typical animal cell as seen with the light microscope Cells are very small units; large organisms such as plants and animals contain millions of cells (multicellular). Some organisms are made up of a single cell (unicellular) like bacteria, protozoa and some algae. 24Figure2 —— nuclear membrane cytoplasm mitochondrion __- chloroplast A typical plant cell as seen with the light microscope 25Figure3 Structure of a plant cell as seen with the electron microscope *Please ask your teacher to properly label the diagram above! 26STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF CELL ORGANELLES 1, CELL MEMBRANE(PLASMA MEMBRANE) All cells have a membrane surrounding the cell. It is called the cell surface membrane or plasma membrane. In a plant cell, it is very difficult to see, because it is right against the cell wall. The cell surface membrane is a very thin layer of fat and protein. It is very important to the cell because it controls what goes in and out of it. It is a partially permeable membrane, which means that it will let some substances through but not others. 2. NUCLEUS This is the largest cell organelle, enclosed by a nuclear envelope of two membranes that is perforated by nuclear pores. It contains chromosomes (made up of protein and DNA, molecule of inheritance). DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is organized into genes and allows the nucleus to control all the activities of the cell. The nucleus also contains a nucleolus which manufactures ribosome. 3. CYTOPLASM Cytoplasm is a clear jelly. It is nearly all water; about 70% is water in many cells, containing dissolved substances such as ions ( eg. sodium ion), salts, sugars, amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids, gases and large molecules such as proteins. The cytoplasm also contain very fine thread-like fibres called microfilaments that aids in the movement of organelles or the cell itself. Apart from acting as a store of vital chemicals, it is the site for many chemical reactions in the cell. The living contents of most cells are divided into nucleus and cytoplasm, the two together forms the protoplasm. 4. MITOCHONDRION ( PLURAL : MITOCHONDRIA) Every cell has mitochondria (rod-like structures), because it is here that the cell releases energy from food. The energy is needed to help it move and grow. Mitochondria are sometimes called the ‘powerhouses’ of the cell. The energy is released by combining food with oxygen, in a process called respiration. The more active a cell such as muscle cells, the more mitochondria it has. 275. VACUOLES A vacuole is a fluid-filled sac bounded by a single membrane. Animal cells contain relatively small vacuoles which store food or water. However, plant cells when mature have a large central vacuole surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast (partially permeable). The fluid they contain is called cell sap. Cell sap is a concentrated solution of mineral salts, sugars, organic acids, oxygen, waste and pigments. The vacuole functions as a storage site for various substances including waste products and makes an important contribution to the osmotic properties of the cell 6. CHLOROPLASTS These are plastids (structure for storage of starch, pigments in plant cell) which contain the green pigment chlorophyll. The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis and largely present in plant cells while absent in animal cells. 7. CELL WALL Plant cells are surrounded by a relatively rigid wall which is secreted by the living cell (the protoplast) within. The cell wall is made from the polysaccharide cellulose , that forms fibres in a criss-cross pattern with spaces that allow free passage of water and other particles. Itis a fully permeable structure with a high tensile strength. The cell wall provides mechanical support and protection; prevents osmotic bursting of the cell and provides a pathway for movement of water and mineral salts. 8. RIBOSOMES These are very small organelles found in large numbers throughout the cytoplasm of living cells. They are the sites of protein synthesis and are either bound to the ER or lie free in the cytoplasm. 9. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) The ER is a system of flattened membrane bound sacs forming tubes and sheets. It extends from the nuclear envelope. If ribosomes are found on its surface it is called rough ER, and transports proteins 28made by the ribosomes. Smooth ER has no ribosomes present on its surface and is responsible for lipid and steroid synthesis. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS Plant cells Animal cells contain chloroplasts _| chloroplasts absent starch grains present _| starch grains absent; glycogen present (animal starch) Have large central vacuole with cell Have small temporary vacuoles sap Regular or rectangular in shape irregular in shape cellulose cell wall present cell wall absent The cytoplasm and nucleus maybe The cytoplasm fills the cell with a central positioned nucleus to the periphery of cell by the large central vacuole CELL SPECIALIZATION AND LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION In multicellular organisms, most cells are adapted for specialized functions, and the shape of the cell is modified accordingly. This leads to division of labour among body cells so that the different life processes can occur more efficiently. For example, nerve cells assume a shape and structure adapted to the functions of irritability and conductivity and these modifications enable them to react to stimuli and to transmit signals from one part of the organism to another. 29STRUCTURE OF SPECIALIZED CELLS IN THE BODY a 2 ee = tn = eat | | Gc Ranier Le satay [nish sem Se Nerve cell @u—__ Sperm cell [| | | ® Epithelia cells (form lining of stomach) oblet cell ~ secretes Granulocyte (white blood cell) Cells which perform the same function are similar in structure and form tissues. Group of similar tissues are organized into organs, organs are grouped into systems which form the entire organism. Cellular organization can be represented as: Cells ———*> Tissues ——> Organs ——> Systems Animal tissues are divided into four groups: Epithelia - cover the body and forms the lining of organs. Muscle - smooth, skeletal and cardiac Connective - cartilage, bone, blood Nerve — cranial, spinal 30Plant tissues include xylem tube (transport water, mineral salts) and phloem vessels (transport food). Examples of organs are — heart, stomach, brain, kidney; leaf, root and stem of flowering plants Examples of systems are — digestive, circulatory, nervous, muscular, reproductive systems. 31UNIT 6 - TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES (Diffusion, Osmosis, Active Transport) LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 1.4 Explain the processes of diffusion and osmosis using an experimental approach. 1.6 Discuss the importance of diffusion and osmosis in living systems. Cell membranes act as barriers to the movement of ions and molecules, thereby preventing the aqueous contents of the cell from escaping. Transport across cell membranes is important for the following reasons: Secretion of useful substances; maintaining a suitable pH; Excretion of waste substances and Obtaining nutrients DIFFUSION This is the movement of particles (molecules or ions) from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration down a diffusion gradient. The process does not require energy (passive) and occurs spontaneously. For example if a bottle of perfume were opened in a closed room, the perfume would eventually spread until it become evenly distributed throughout the room. This occurs by the random motion of particles which is due to their kinetic energy. Each type of particle moves down its own diffusion gradient independent of other particles. For example, ‘oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction Three factors affect the rate of diffusion: 1. Steepness of the diffusion gradient or difference in concentration between point A and B : the steeper the gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion.2. Surface area of the membrane: the larger the surface area (small cell size) the faster the rate of diffusion. 3. Rate of diffusion decreases with distance. Diffusion is therefore only effective over short distances. Examples of diffusion in living systems a. Oxygen and digested food diffuses from the maternal blood to that of the foetus during pregnancy. b. In plants during photosynthesis, carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf and oxygen diffuses out through the stomata of the leaf. c. Digested food in the ileum of small intestine diffuses through the epithelial cells then into the blood. OSMOSIS Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration through a partially permeable membrane. Itis viewed as a form of diffusion in which only water molecules move. =e Solutions separated by a partially permeable membrane. 33OSMOSIS IN ANIMAL CELLS Water enters and leave the body cells until the concentration of water on both sides of the cell membrane become the same. But the osmotic balance in animal cell is dependent on the type of ‘solution the cell is placed in. Solutions of different solute concentrations are : Hypotonic — The concentration of dissolved solutes in the water outside the cell is lower than the concentration inside the cell. If a red blood cell is placed in a hypotonic (pure water) solution water will enter the cell by osmosis since the water potential of the solution is higher than the cell. Eventually, pressure inside the cell increases as water enters causing it to swell and burst dispersing the cell contents. Complex animals have organs such as kidneys and sweat glands to help them get rid of the excess water. Hypertonic — The concentration of dissolved solutes is greater in the water outside the cell than the water inside the cell. Ifa red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic ( concentrated salt water) solution water will leave the cell by osmosis since the water potential of the solution is lower than the cell. Eventually, the cell shrinks. Isotonic — The concentration of dissolved solutes inside the cell is equal to the concentration outside the cell. If a red blood cell is placed in an Isotonic solution water will leave and enter the cell at equal rates by osmosis since the water potential of the solution is similar to that of the cell. The cell remains normal. Blood plasma must be kept isotonic for red blood cells and other body cells. less concentrated than same concentration more concentrated contents of red blood cell red blood cell bursts normal red blood cell red blood cell shrinks. 34OSMOSIS IN PLANT CELLS Many plants survive best in conditions in which the water concentration is greater outside the cell than inside (hypotonic). As the plant cell absorbs more and more water, it accumulates in the vacuole and a certain amount of pressure is exerted on the surrounding protoplasm and cell wall. As a result, the protoplasm is forced against the cellulose cell wall which becomes stretched and a state of tension develops in cell allowing it to become turgid. A turgid condition is necessary for the movement of nutrient solutions from cell to cell. Turgidity is important for growth and also gives a certain amount of rigidity to the plant, particularly to the growing regions and the soft leaves which easily wilt in strong sunlight. Plasmolysis occurs when a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution (concentrated sugar solution). When observed under a microscope it is seen that the cell as a whole becomes smaller and the protoplasm together with the nucleus shrinks away from the cell wall and forms a rounded or irregular mass in the centre. The reason for such shrinkage of the protoplasm is that water leaves the cytoplasm and vacuole of cell by osmosis and enters the concentrated sugar solution (area of lower water concentration). This shrinkage of the protoplasm from the cell wall under the action of some strong solution- stronger than that of cell sap is known as plasmolysis. If the sugar solution is replaced by pure water soon after plasmolysis, the protoplasm is seen to return to its original position and the vacuole reappears. Plasmolysis in plant cell 35ACTIVE TRANSPORT This is the transport of molecules or ions across a membrane against a concentration gradient. The process requires energy supplied from respiration, because the substance must be moved against its natural tendency to diffuse in the opposite direction. Movement is usually in one direction only unlike diffusion which is reversible. Active transport is important in the movement of ions in nerve, muscles and blood cells. The diffusion of soluble nutrients from the intestine into the blood is enhanced by active transport. Active transport aids with the movement of nutrients from the soil into plant roots. Ton Blood plasma Human red blood cell cell surface membrane Nt sad Kt 5 cr ul = SS} dlteotion of active transport Active transport of Na* and K* in red blood cells 36UNIT 7 - PHOTOSYNTHESIS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 2.1 Distinguish between heterotrophic and autotrophic nutrition. 2.2 Describe photosynthesis as the process by which green plants manufacture organic substances from inorganic substances . 2.3 Relate the structure of the leaf of a flowering plant to its function in photosynthesis. 2.4 Carry out simple controlled investigations to demonstrate that light and chlorophyll are necessary conditions for photosynthesis. Nutrition is the process of acquiring energy and materials. Despite energy existing in several forms, only two are suitable as energy sources for living organisms , namely light energy and chemical energy. Organisms utilizing light energy are described as photosynthetic or phototrophic ( photos, light ; trophos, nourishment),while those using chemical energy are described as chemotrophic. Phototrophs contain pigments, including some form of chlorophyll, which absorb light energy and convert it into chemical energy. Photosynthesis is therefore the process by which green plants use radiant energy from the sun to manufacture food from simple inorganic substances. Organisms which have an inorganic source of carbon, namely carbon dioxide, are described as autotrophic (autos, self) and those having an organic source of carbon are described as heterotrophic (heteros, other ). Unlike heterotrophs, autotrophs synthesize their own organic requirements from simple inorganic materials. 37STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF In flowering plants the major photosynthetic organ is the leaf. The chemical equation for photosynthesis is as follows: sunlight 6 CO» + 6HO > CcHi2Os + 602 chiorophyll Carbon dioxide + | Water———> Glucose + Oxygen From the equation it can be deduced that first the leaf requires a source of carbon dioxide and water, secondly it must contain chlorophyll and be adapted to receive sunlight, thirdly oxygen will escape as a waste product and finally the useful product, glucose will have to be exported to other parts of the plant or stored as starch. The structure of the leaf is adapted to satisfy these photosynthetic requirements. ‘apex ® vein laminafleaf blade option External features of a dicotyledonous leaf RAW MATERIALS NEEDED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS 1. Carbon dioxide- diffuses from the atmosphere via stomata into leaf cells. 2. Water — transported from the soil by xylem vessels into leaf CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS 1. Sunlight- used in the light-dependent stage to split the water molecule. 382. Enzymes — catalyze the photosynthetic reaction. 3. Chlorophyll — traps light energy from the sun in the chloroplasts. PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS, 1. Glucose — later converted into starch and stored in the leaves. 2. Oxygen — gaseous product that diffuses from the leaf into the atmosphere. Internal structure of a dicot leaf. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN A DICOTYLEDONOUS LEAF. 1. UPPER EPIDERMIS This is a single layer of flattened cells with thick cuticle (made of cutin a waxy waterproof substance) which prevents excessive evaporation of water from the surface.It also protects the internal tissues from mechanical injury.There are usually no chloroplasts present except in special cases. 2. LOWER EPIDERMIS A single layer of cells with thin cuticle. It contains numerous stomata (pores) surrounded by a pair of guard cells which contain chloroplasts. The other lower epidermal cells do not contain chloroplasts. A large cavity, known as the respiratory cavity , may be seen internal to each stoma. The lower epidermis is responsible for the exchange of gases ( oxygen 39and carbon dioxide ) between the atmosphere and the plant body. Excess water in the plant body evaporates mainly through the stomatal pores in the lower epidermis. 3. MESOPHYLL The tissue lying inthe middle of the leaf between the upper and lower epidermis is known as the mesophylll. It is differentiated into : a) Palisade mesophyll (parenchyma) - contains column- shaped cells with numerous chloroplasts in a thin layer of cytoplasm. It is the main photosnthetic tissue and the chloroplasts may move towards light. b) Spongy mesophyll ( parenchyma ) - consists of irregularly shaped cells loosely packed together thereby leaving large air spaces. The cells contain a few chloroplasts, and manufacture sugar and starch to a small extent. The spongy mesophyll is largely responsible for gaseous exchange through the air spaces via stomata 4. VASCULAR BUNDLES Vascular bundles or veins extensively branch through the leaf- blade providing mechanical support and facilitating the distributon of water,mineral salts and food in the plant. It consists of xylem vessels, which lies towards the upper epidermis and phloem tube, which lies towards the lower epidermis. The xylem conducts and distributes water and mineral salts to different parts of the leaf blade. The phloem conducts food material from the leaf- blade to the growing and storage region SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis occurs in special organelles called chloroplasts. The chloroplasts contains the light absorbing pigment chlorophyll which is made up of a magnesium atom.This explains the need for magnesium by plants and the fact that magnesium 40deficiency leads to cholorophyll reduction and yellowing of leaves.The reaction occurs in two stages: 1. Light dependent stage (light is required) 2. Darkilight independent stage ( light is not requir LIGHT DEPENDENT STAGE The chlorophyll molecule absorb light energy from the sun. The absorbed radiant energy is used to split the water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen ,a process called photolysis. The oxygen produced then diffuses through the stomata into the atmosphere.Light energy is also converted into chemical energy to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ,an energy rich molecule synthesised for use later on. The equation for the reaction is as follows: 2H20 ——» 4H+O2 DARK/ LIGHT INDEPENDENT STAGE Carbon dioxide is converted to carbon compounds such as glucose, using the energy in ATP and hyrogen produced from the light stage. Water is also produced and diffuses into the atmosphere. The equation for the reaction is : 6CO2 + 24H ——» = CoH120s + 6H20 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS. The rate of photosynthesis is an important factor in crop production since it affect yields. Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis include: 1. LIGHT INTENSITY In low light intensities the rate of photosynthesis increases linearly with increasing light intensity. Very high light intensities may bleach chlorophyll and slow down photosynthesis, but plants exposed to such conditions are protected by structures such as thick cuticles and hairy leaves. 41Rate of Photosynthesis] Light intensity Effect of light intensity on rate of photosynthesis What do the points A, B and C on the curve represent? 2. CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION Carbon dioxide is needed in the light independent reactions for making sugar. Its concentration in the atmosphere varies between 0.03% and 0.04%, but increases in photosynthetic rate can be achieved by increasing this percentage 3. TEMPERATURE Photosynthetic reactions are enzyme-controlled and therefore temperature-sensitive. For temperate plants the optimum temperature is usually about 25 °C. FATE OF PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS The two most common carbohydrate products formed from photosynthesis are sucrose and starch. Sucrose is soluble in water and is the form in which carbohydrate is exported from the leaf in the phloem tube. Starch is a storage product and is the most easily detected product of photosynthesis. Carbohydrates (particularly glucose and fructose) are converted under the action of enzymes into fats and oils which often occur in abundance in seeds and fruits. 42Fats and oils are insoluble in water and cannot diffuse out of the cells in which they are formed. Proteins are also synthesized from carbohydrates but additional elements such as nitrogen and sulphur are required. Plants obtain these elements from the soil, or surrounding water if aquatic. MINERAL NUTRITION IN PLANTS Autotrophic nutrition involves not only the manufacture of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water, but also the subsequent use of minerals like nitrates, sulphates and phosphates to produce other useful organic substances such as proteins and nucleic acids. The mineral salts required are usually obtained from the soil or water. By way of diffusion or active transport the mineral salts enter the root hairs to the stem and then to the leaves. A deficiency of certain mineral salts leads to poor growth, yellowing of organs, e.g. leaves, mottled leaves and death of the growing tips. Common deficiency disease/ Element Mineral Salt Function symptoms Stunted growth and strong chlorosis synthesis of (yellowing) of Nitrogen Nitrates proteins, nucleic | leaves. acids and many Ammonium other compounds compounds eg. Coenzymes, chlorophyll. ‘Synthesis of nuleic acids, ATP and some | Stunted root Phosphorous | Phosphates _| proteins. growth Part of the Chlorosis Magnesium | structure of (yellowing of Magnesium _| salts chlorophyll. leaves) Potassium To maintain salt | Mottled leaves; Potassium salts balance in cells. | yellow and brown 4BPresent in cell sap of plant Leaf margins and vacuoles. premature death ‘Sulphate ‘Synthesis of Poor plant growth, Sulphur salts proteins. chlorosis. Stunted growth, Development of | death of growing Calcium Calcium salts | cell wall tips( meristems) Table showing minerals necessary for plant growth 44UNIT 8 - ENZYMES LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 2.7 Explain the role of and importance of enzymes. 2.8 Investigate the effect of temperature and pH on the activity of the enzyme catalase or amylase. Enzymes are biological catalysts. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction but remains unchanged in the end. Enzymes are protein molecules made by living cells and very important to the body, because in their absence reactions would be too slow to sustain life. The chemical which an enzyme works on is called its substrate. Once a reaction has occurred, the substrate breaks up into products. The enzyme remains unchanged at the end of the reaction and is free to interact again with more substrate. In many parts of the alimentary canal, digestive juices are secreted. These digestive juices contain enzymes which speed up the breakdown of large molecules into small ones. They are called digestive enzymes. PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES 1. Allare proteins. 2. They are very specific in their reaction this means that an enzyme will only catalyze a single reaction. Example, the enzyme catalase will only catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide in the body 3. They are very efficient. A small amount of the catalyst is needed to bring about the change of a large amount of substrate. One molecule of the enzyme catalase will catalyze the breakdown of approximately 600 thousand molecules per second of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen in the body. Catalase is found in living tissues and the presence of the enzyme can be demonstrated by dropping a small piece of “cho-cho’ or liver into 45a test tube containing hydrogen peroxide. The vigorous effervescence ( fizzing action) which occurs is due to the release of oxygen gas. 2H202,___» 02 + 2H20 Hydrogen peroxide ———poxygen + water 4. The catalyzed reaction is reversible. 5. Enzyme activity is affected by pH, temperature and substrate concentration. 6. Have active sites with specific shapes where the reaction occurs. ENZYME ACTION Enzymes possess active sites into which the substrate or substrates fit exactly. This is often referred to as the “lock and key” hypothesis, where the substrate is imagined being like a key whose shape is complementary to the enzyme or lock. Most enzymes are far larger molecules than the substrates they act on and the active site is usually only a very small portion of the enzyme, between 3 and 12 amino acids. Once the products are formed they can no longer fit into the active site and escape into the surrounding environment, leaving the active site free to receive more substrate molecules. Illustration of the “lock and key” Hypothesis Se ace sme <> 46ENZYMES ARE OFTEN NAMED ACCORDING TO THE SUBSTANCES WHOSE BREAKDOWN THEY ARE CATALYZING. Carbohydrases: break down carbohydrates Proteases: break down proteins Lipases: break down lipids (fats) FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY 1. TEMPERATURE Enzymes (proteins) are destroyed or denatured by high temperatures. This is because the active sites of the enzyme change shape and the substrate can no longer bind to the enzyme for catalysis to occur. The temperature at which an enzyme operates best is known as the optimum temperature. If the temperature is increased above this level, then a decrease in the rate of the reaction occurs despite the increasing frequency of collision between enzyme and substrate molecules. t ‘optimum sion ction ne AC Effect of temperature on enzyme activity 2. PH PH refers to how acidic, alkaline or neutral a solution is. Every enzyme has its own range of pH at which it works best or functions most efficiently. The optimum pH is that at which maximum activity occurs. When the pH is altered above or below 47this optimum value, the rate of enzyme activity becomes affected. A pH of 7 indicates neutrality, as the pH is lowered, acidity increases and as the pH is raised alkalinity increases. Excessive acidity or alkalinity leads to denaturation of enzyme. optimum pH Rate of reaction pH Effect of pH on enzyme activity Table: Optimum pH values for some enzymes Enzyme Optimum pH Catalase 7.60 (blood) Pepsin 2.00 (stomach) Trypsin 8.5 (duodenum) 48UNIT 9 — NUTIRTION AND DIET LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 2.5 Perform tests to distinguish among food substances. 2.6 Describe and relate to specific regions of the human alimentary canal, the intake of food, its breakdown into small molecules, its absorption and egestion. 2.8 Describe what happens to the products of digestion after their absorption. 2.10 Discuss the importance of a balanced diet in humans. Living organisms are composed of a limited number of types of atoms, which combine to form molecules, the building blocks of life. These molecules vary in size from simple molecules such as carbon dioxide and water to large molecules (macromolecule) such as proteins. The smaller molecules are soluble, easily transported and used in metabolic reactions in the body, while the macromolecules are used for storage or structural purposes. Macromolecules are known as polymers and are made from small repeating units called monomers. The monomers are joined by a chemical process known as condensation, which means removal of water and can be broken down by hydrolysis, addition of water. Polysaccharide a form of carbohydrate is a macromolecule used for food storage and is made from small molecules called monosaccharide. CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTION OF NUTRIENTS IN THE BODY CARBOHYDRATES These are substances which contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are divided into three main classes: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. 49CARBOHYDRATES SUGARS POLYSACCHARIDE Soluble in water, crystalline, Small, sweet molecules, insoluble in water, non-crystalline macromolecule, not sweet, Name ends with-ose | Made by joining many monosaccharides MONOSACCHARDES DIASACCHARIDES ‘Simple sugars’ made by joining two monosaccharides All reducing sugars some reducing and some non- reducing sugars ° aw All non-reducing MONOSACCHARIDES These include glucose, fructose and galactose having the formula CsH120s.Monosaccharides are single sugar units and are a source of energy during respiration. DISACCHARIDES They are formed when two monosaccharides are combined by a chemical reaction known as condensation. This means water is produced in the process as shown below: CsHi20s + CeHi20s condensation | Ci2H22011 + H20 _—_—E_SS a hydrolysis The common disaccharides are maltose, lactose and sucrose. 50Maltose = glucose + glucose Lactose (milk sugar) = glucose + galactose Sucrose (cane sugar) = glucose + fructose POLYSACCHARIDES They function as food and energy sources (example starch and glycogen) and as structural materials (example, cellulose). Carbohydrates are a good source of energy (17kJg") and easily oxidized during respiration and a deficiency leads to a condition called marasmus. The signs and symptoms of a child suffering from marasmus are: thin muscles, thin arms and legs, low body fat, shrunken features, and reduced resistance to infection. PROTEINS Proteins are made from amino acids and contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and in some cases sulphur. They are obtained from both plant and animal sources and are used to: make new cells for growth and repair, form enzymes, antibodies and hormones and a component of hair, nails and feathers. A deficiency of protein leads to Kwashiorkor, a disease suffered by children when removed from the breast and given a starchy diet. The signs and symptoms of child suffering from kwashiorkor are as follows: thin, straight, sparse hair; swollen abdomen (‘pot belly’) due to accumulation of gases; swelling of the body tissues with fluid (oedema); underweight and reduced growth. Proteins are used to supply energy (17kJg") only when carbohydrates and lipids have run out. LIPIDS Lipids are classified as fats and oils, according to whether they are solids (fats) or liquid (oils) at 20°C. A lipid molecule is made from glycerol and three fatty acids as shown belo SlLipids are made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen They are obtained from both plant and animal sources. A major function of lipids is to act as an energy source. They have a higher calorific value (39kJg") than carbohydrates, which means that a given mass of lipid will yield more energy than an equal mass of carbohydrate. This is because lipids have a higher proportion of hydrogen and an almost insignificant amount of oxygen compared with carbohydrates. Lipids are stored as oils in seeds and under the skin in animals. Fats act as an insulator (provide warmth) in animals during cold climatic conditions. WATER Without water, life could not exist on this planet. It is important for two reasons. Firstly, itis a vital chemical constituent of living cells, and secondly it provides an environment for those organisms that live in water. The functions of water include: - component of living cells - used as a solvent - support in the hydrostatic skeleton of worms - required for germination of seeds - important in growth and turgidity of cells - lubrication at joints - cools body by evaporation, such as sweating, panting ROUGHAGEIDIETARY FIBRE Roughage is a complex mixture of indigestible compounds derived from plant cell walls. It consists mainly of polysaccharides, cellulose. Its bulk stimulates the movement of food through the gut. Fibre helps to reduce blood cholesterol levels, and the risk of bowel cancer and gall stones. A lack of roughage in the diet leads to constipation (difficulty experienced in defaecation). 52VITAMINS These are organic substances required in small quantities for healthy growth and development. They cannot be made by the body (animals), so must be present in the diet. Plants manufacture their own vitamins. A set of characteristic symptoms will develop known as deficiency disease, if a particular vitamin is lacking in the diet. Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat- soluble and the rest water- soluble (B and C). Symptoms of Vitamins | Sources Functions deficiency Animal fats e.g. | Keeps skin | Dry, unhealthy skin A cod liver oil, and mucous | and cornea. Mucous egg yolk, membranes membranes butter, carrots, | healthy. Aids | degenerate. Reduced spinach, milk. vision in dim | resistance to light (night infection. Poor ‘night vision). vision’. Serious deficiency results in complete night blindness Unpolished rice | Assists in Beri-Beri : weak and B and cereals, respiration. __| painful muscles, yeast extract, nervous, skin and wholemeal digestive system flour, liver, disorders, paralysis kidney. Citrus fruits, Keeps tissues | Scurvy : bleeding c green healthy. from gums and other vegetables, membranes, loss of potatoes, teeth, wounds do not tomatoes. heal. 33D Fish-liver oil, Aids in the Rickets : this is the egg yolk, dairy | absorption of ‘| failure of growing products, calcium and bones to calcify. Bow margarine, phosphorous. | legs are a common manufactured Important in feature in young inthe body by | the formation | children and knock the action of of bones and _| knee in older ones. sunlight on teeth. Osteoporosis : an skin. adult condition where the bones are painful and break easily. MINERALS Mineral elements are inorganic substances required in small amounts for healthy growth and development. Element ‘Sources Functions ‘Symptoms of deficiency calcium Milk, cheese. Formation of Brittle bones bones and and teeth. teeth. Aids in Possibly cause blood clotting. _| rickets. Iron Liver, kidney, Formation of Anaemi red meat, haemoglobin reduction in the green leafy number of red vegetables. blood cells, tiredness, lack of energy. lodine Sea foods, Formation of Goitre in adults iodized salt. thyroxine. : swelling of the thyroid gland in neck, reduced metabolism. Sodium Table salt Conduction of Nervous system nerve impulses. | affected: poor transmission of nerve impulses. 54DIET The diet is the quantity and nature of the food we eat every day. BALANCED DIET A diet is balanced when all the different groups of food are eaten in the right proportion and in sufficient quantity to maintain good health. The six food groups are as follows: 1. Staples- yam, cassava, banana, other ground provisions. These groups are high in carbohydrates or starch. 2. Legumes- peas, nuts, beans which are high in protein. 3. Fats and Oils — cod liver, olive oil, margarine 4. Food from animals - milk, sausage, ham, cheese. 5. Vegetables — spinach, cabbage, lettuce. 6. Fruits — orange, apple, guava, grape. TESTS FOR THE DIFFERENT NUTRIENTS. Nutrient Test Observation Basis of test Starch lodine test A blue-black Starch forms a Add 2 cm’ of colour blue-black iodine solution to | develops. compound with food sample. iodine. Protein Biuret test A purple colour | Protein forms a Add 2cm of the | appears. purple compound food solution to a with alkaline test tube. Add an copper sulphate equal amount of solution. potassium hydroxide solution followed by sodium hydroxide solution. 55Reducing sugars Benedict's test Add 2 cm of the The blue colour of the solution Reducing sugars reduce the blue reducing sugar | change to copper (I!) solution to a test | green, then sulphate solution tube. Add an yellow with the | to an insoluble equal amount of | final formation | brick-red Benedict's of a brick-red compound. solution followed | precipitate by heating. Fats Emulsion test Add 2 cm? of fat_| A cloudy Lipids are or oil to a test emulsion forms. | immiscible with tube containing water and break alcohol. Shake up into tiny tube followed by droplets the addition of (emulsion) when water. shaken OR vigorously. A translucent Grease spot spot appears. test Rub food sample ‘on absorbent paper. Non- Add 2 cm3 of Effervescence | Disaccharide can reducing | food sample toa | seen with be hydrolyzed to sugars test tube. Add NaHCOs.The its dilute blue colour of monosaccharide hydrochloric acid | the solution components by and boil for one | change to boiling with dilute minute. green, then acids. The Neutralize with yellow with the | monosaccharide NaHCOs. Carry | final formation will give a out Benedict's test. of a brick-red precipitate with Benedict's reagent. Positive result with Benedict's test. 56FACTORS AFFECTING A BALANCED DIET The exact amount of food needed by an individual will differ based on the following factors: (a) Age- a growing boy needs more energy-giving food, proteins and calcium than an older man. (b) Body size- a person of bigger build requires more energy than a person of smaller build. (c) Sex- men normally eat more than females. (d) Daily activities- an active person uses more energy than a sedentary person. Ideally, about two-thirds of the energy requirement should come from a carbohydrate source and the remainder from fats. (e) A pregnant woman needs more proteins, vitamins and minerals such as calcium, phosphate and iron. VEGETARIANISM Individual that consumes mostly plant materials. Types of vegetarian include: 1. Pesco-vegetarian - eat fish and plants 2. Vegans — eat only plants 3. Lacto-vegetarian — consume milk products 4. Ovo-vegetarian — consume egg but not milk products 5. Ovolacto-vegetarian — eat egg, milk and milk products Vegetarian diets appear to be effective in lowering the risk of osteoporosis, kidney disease, gallstones, and dementia as well as heart attacks, stroke, and diabetes. In addition to lowering the risk of chronic degenerative diseases, vegetarian diets have also been shown to be useful in treating constipation in adults and children, and dysmenorrhea (painful menstrual periods) in women of 57childbearing age. The longstanding concern about vegetarian diets is the risk of nutritional deficiencies, particularly for such important nutrients as protein, minerals (iron, calcium, and zinc), vitamins (vitamin D, riboflavin, vitamin B12, and vitamin A) and iodine. A deficiency of vitamin B12 leads to pernicious anaemia in vegetarians. SOME ADVERSE EFFECTS OF A DIET THAT IS NOT BALANCED (MALNUTRITION) Malnutrition means bad nutrition and can refer to both under- nutrition and over-nutrition (overeating). 1. Obesity- the result of excess food. Carbohydrates and fats taken in excess of immediate requirements are stored as fat in the adipose tissues around organs and under the skin. A person gains weight if more energy food is taken in than is used up each day. He may become overweight and fat(obese) when he has too much fat or too many fat cells especially under the skin. 2. Constipation — the result of insufficient fibre in the diet. Fibre is made mostly of the indigestible cellulose cell wall of plants. It passes through the alimentary canal almost unchanged and forms the bulk of the food in the intestine. It stimulates peristalsis which moves food through the large intestine. Constipation can be prevented if the diet contains a sufficient quantity of fibre. 3. Starvation — the result of not eating, or eating insufficient food. The body uses its stored energy, first from the fat tissues, then from the muscles or other tissue proteins. 4. Heart disease — may result from overeating food high in saturated animal fat. This increases the level of blood cholesterol and the hardening and narrowing of blood vessels. PROBLEMS OF WORLD FOOD SUPPLIES 1. Uneven distribution of food exists throughout the world. Not only are there poor, hungry countries and rich, well-fed ones, but the same country may have rich and poor parts. 582. The human population is growing faster than the food supply. Our numbers are increasing, but many of the earth's resources are not. 3. Problems arise in utilizing food that is available. People tend to be conservative and traditional: they will not eat a new food, however nutritious it is. Only a small percentage of the over 80,000 species of known edible plants are eaten. 4. Proper storage of food is necessary to prevent spoilage and destruction by pests. 5, Famine may result from floods, drought and other natural disasters. HOLOZOIC NUTRITION This is the intake of solid organic food. The body system that is responsible for this function is the digestive system. The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and its associated organs (salivary glands, liver and pancreas). The alimentary canal is a long muscular tube within the body. It has specialized regions for handling the food that we eat changing it into a form usable by the cells of the body. GENERAL PATTERN OF ANIMAL NUTRITION [Ingestion ]——> |_Dige’ —— |_ Egestion ‘| eating + drinking making food soluble and diffusible eliminating undigested materials Absorption ‘aking in “ate nutrients [Assimilation getting nutients to where they ae needed and usin them 59salivary glands ‘anterior opening, ‘open into the mouth, secrete saliva, embedded in the jaws. tongue las: trachea muscular tube in the liver veck ad tha; eas secretes ile from mouth to stomach bile duct acises from bile duct; stores bile between eas, ‘is emptied when there is. stomach food in the intestine muscular sac below diaphragm pancreas teers pancreatic jnice mall inttine { dodenan cenitng of tn large intestine 44 The Human Digestive System 60DIGESTION Digestion is the breakdown of large organic molecules into smaller soluble ones. There are two types of digestion: 1. Chemical digestion — involves the activity of enzymes in converting large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules. 2. Mechanical digestion — involves mechanical breakdown of the food, for example by teeth or stomach. THE TEETH In humans there are two jaws, the upper fixed jaw and the lower movable jaw. Both jaws bear teeth which are used to chew or masticate food into smaller pieces. This is mechanical digestion and increases the surface area of the food for efficient attack by enzymes. There are two sets of teeth in humans: deciduous or milk teeth (20) appear first and are replaced by permanent teeth which once lost cannot be replaced. Humans possess up to 32 permanent teeth, consisting of eight incisors (i), four canines (c), eight premolars (pm) and up to 12 molars(m). The arrangement of teeth can be expressed in the form of a dental formula. Human permanent dentition is: 2fi2 c 4 pm 2 m 3 2 7 2 3 The letters indicate the type of teeth, the top number represents the type of each tooth in the upper jaw and the bottom number represents the number of teeth in the lower jaw. 61Human dentition molars _temporalis horny pad acini masseter diastema__GQ=— ——masset premolars. ~~ Dentition of a sheep STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE TYPES OF TEETH 1. Incisors — situated at the front of the mouth. They are chisel- shaped with flat, sharp edges which are used for cutting and biting food. Incisors have a single root embedded in the jaw bone. 2. Canines — positioned at either sides of the incisors. They are pointed having a single root and used for tearing food. The canines are poorly developed in humans, but highly developed in carnivores where they are designed for piercing and killing prey and tearing flesh. 3. Premolars - situated at the back of the mouth and possess one or two roots and two cusps(projections on surface of tooth). They are designed for crushing and grinding food. 4. Molars — situated at the back of the mouth and have more than one root; upper molars have three roots, lower molars two. Each has four or five cusps. They are used to crush and grind food. Molars are not present in the deciduous dentition of humans. 62material) crown 4 entice (Visible part) (hard material with tiny neck, Jaw bone: inl (contains small blood ot ‘vessels and nerve) (embedded in jaw bone) cement {vith peridoual fibres ‘0 bold tooth in socket) STRUCTURE OF A MOLAR TOOTH The visible part of the tooth, known as the crown is covered with enamel, the hardest substance in the body. The enamel is made of calcium salts and is relatively resistant to decay. The neck of the tooth is surrounded by the gum, while the root is embedded in the jawbone. Below the enamel is the dentine, which forms the bulk of the tooth. The dentine though tough is not as hard as the enamel or as resistant to decay. It contains dentine-producing cells. The pulp cavity contains nerve endings, blood vessels which deliver nutrients to the living tissues of the tooth and remove their waste products. The root of the tooth is covered with cement, a substance similar to bone. Fibres connected to the cement helps to anchor the tooth in the jawbone. DENTAL CARE Proper care of teeth as recommended include the following: 1. Brush teeth well and regularly, if possible after each meal. Use a toothbrush with fluoride tooth and dental floss to remove particles that may be between the teeth. Small amounts of fluoride, especially in the diet e.g. water, improves resistance to tooth decay. 2. Eat fresh vegetables and fruits. Reduce intake of sweet and sticky food. 633. Visit a dentist regularly (at least once every six months). This allows early treatment of any dental decay (cavities in teeth), gum disease and malocclusion (wrong position of teeth), and removal of plaque (deposit on teeth of bacteria, minerals and other constituents of saliva). DENTAL DECAY The microorganisms in dental plaque convert sugar in the mouth to acid. Initially the enamel is slowly and painlessly dissolved acid. However, when the dentine and pulp are exposed to bacterial attack, this is accompanied by severe pain or ‘toothache’ and the possible loss of teeth. Factors which contribute to dental decay include: lack of oral hygiene, low levels of fluoride in drinking water and prolonged exposure to sugary food items. (2) Healthy tooth canst crown: eating p= lp ROOT: ieeezicar (©) Diseased tooth: toothache desta decay — ca cpp) abscess (os may form) Dental Decay 64ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE Absorption is the diffusion of soluble nutrients (after digestion) through the wall of the small intestine into the blood and lymph. Absorption of the end-products of digestion occurs through the vili of the ileum. The adaptive features of the small intestine that allows it to carry out absorption are i) Long colied tube - provides sufficient time for digestion and absorption of food as it moves through the intestine. Wall folded, has villi (finger-like projections) and microvilli (microscopic projections on the surface of intestinal cells) — provides large surface area for absorption of digested food iii) Wall of each villus is one cell thick — facilitates diffusion of digested food into the cells of the villi. iv Within each villus are small blood capillaries and a lacteal(small lymph vessel) — absorb simple sugars and amino acids (blood capillaries). Absorb fats (lacteal). | Popes poh VILLI IN SMALL INTESTINE The small intestine is the primary site of absorption of digested nutrients. The substances absorbed from the intestinal lumen by the villi cells include water, ions, vitamins and the products of carbohydrates, fats and protein breakdown. These substances enter 65the villi by diffusion and active transport. From the villi, the nutrients either enter the blood capillaries or the lacteals 1. Blood capillaries- most of the absorbed nutrients, including the simple sugars and amino acids, move into the blood capillaries of the villi. They are transported by the hepatic portal vein to the liver before entering the general circulation. 2. Lacteals — fatty acids and glycerol reassemble into small fat globules and enter the lacteals. From the lacteals, the globules move through the lymphatic capillaries into the main lymphatic vessel that leads to the veins of the neck. The blood distributes the fat globules to the body cells. LGiyeect | 3Faty acids spire, 1 Fat 23 Water molecale malecoles * molecule * — molecales ASSIMILATION Assimilation is the incorporation of absorbed nutrients into the body cells to form new tissues. Fat is stored in the adipose tissues, commonly under the skin, between muscle fibres, betweeen the folds on the intestine and around organs such as the heart and kidneys. Since a given mass of fat provides about twice as much energy as the same mass of carbohydrate or protein, fat is the most compact store of energy. When necessary, the stored fats are converted into fatty acids and used as a source of energy. LIVER Besides secreting bile which is important in the digestion and absorption of fats, the liver regulates the concentration pf nutrients in the blood. 1. SIMPLE SUGARS The liver regulates the amount of glucose that is transported in the blood. Any excess glucose is stored in the liver cells (under the influence of insulin), in the form of glycogen. When the level of glucose in the blood falls, the liver cells break down glycogen and release glucose back into the blood. 662. AMINO ACIDS Liver cells synthesize many of the blood proteins, e.g. albumins which are released into the blood when needed. ’ One Many ee ‘Many glucose molecules — glycogen + water molecule molecules Excess amino acids undergo deamination. The nitrogenous groups are removed as ammonia. The liver cells convert the toxic ammonia into harmless urea and release it into the blood to be excreted by the kidneys. The remaining part of the amino acid is retained in the liver and is converted into carbohydrates or lipids. mec aming aide amnion, Nitiogeaoes Remaining —— (emino) group + coup (ato acid) 4 i (excreted) (retained) 3. ALCOHOL Within the liver cells are enzymes that can remove alcohol and other drugs from the blood. Through a series of reaction, alcohol is broken down eventually into carbon dioxide and water. Alcohol —2222 9S. Corson dione + Water Alcohol in small amounts may serve as a stimulant. However, its continual use, or use in excessive amounts, interferes with normal liver functions. In addition, liver cells may become damaged and be replaced by fibrous scar tissues. This condition is known as cirrhosis of the liver and is most commonly associated with alcoholism. Egestion: The elimination of undigested material from the gut. 67Summary of the fate of absorbed nutrients 68UNIT 10 — RESPIRATION LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 3.1 State that respiration takes place at the level of the cell. 3.2 Describe the process of aerobic respiration. 3.3 State the function of ATP in energy transfer. 3.4 Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration. 3.5 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the products of respiration 3.6 Describe and explain the importance of breathing in humans and gaseous exchange in flowering plants. 3.7 Identify characteristics common to gaseous exchange surfaces. 3.8 Discuss the effects of cigarette smoking. Respiration is the process by which energy is released from the oxidation (reaction with oxygen) of organic molecules (food). The energy released is made available to living cells in the form of ATP. This process occurs in living cells and is controlled by respiratory enzymes. The organic molecules most commonly used as substrates in cell respiration are carbohydrates, for example glucose, or fats. They are broken down gradually by a series of enzyme-controlled reactions. Each releases a small amount of energy, some of which is transferred to molecules of a chemical called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The rest of the energy is lost as heat. ATP is the energy carrier of cells and can be converted to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate, thereby releasing energy in the cell when required ATP +H,0 » ADP +P; + energy 69TYPES OF RESPIRATION There are two types of respiration: 1. AEROBIC RESPIRATION In aerobic respiration glucose is broken down in the presence of ‘oxygen (oxidized) into carbon dioxide, water and energy. This reaction takes place in the mitochondria of cells. During aerobic respiration 38 ATP molecules are produced for every molecule of glucose that is oxidized CsH120s +602» 6CO2 + GH20 + 38 ATP Sugar (glucose) + Oxygen —* Carbon dioxide + Water+Energy 2. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION In anaerobic respiration glucose is broken down in the absence of ‘oxygen producing a small amount of energy. Anaerobic respiration is often referred to as fermentation. A variety of microorganisms use anaerobic respiration as their major source of ATP. Some bacteria are actually killed by normal atmospheric levels of oxygen and have to live where there is no oxygen. Other organisms, such as yeasts and gut parasites (such as tapeworms), can exist whether oxygen is available or not. Some cells that are temporarily short of oxygen (such as muscle cells) are able to respire anaerobically. Anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IN FUNGI, E.G. YEAST (ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION) During alcoholic fermentation, two molecules of ATP are produced for every molecule of glucose used. CoH120s ——» 2C2Hs0H + +=2CO2 + 2ATP Glucose ————+ Ethanol + Carbon dioxide +Energy Ethanol is the alcohol found in alcoholic drinks and the occurrence of fermentation in yeast is made use of in the manufacture of beer, 70wine and other alcoholic drinks. Production of carbon dioxide by yeast is used in bread making, to make dough rise. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS, E.G. MUSCLE TISSUE When there is a shortage of oxygen in an athlete’s muscle cells, the energy required has to be obtained anaerobically. CoHi205 = ———® 2CsH,O; + 2ATP Glucose = ———+ lactic acid + Energy Note that in anaerobic respiration in muscle cells no carbon dioxide is produced, unlike in fungi. Also, alcohol is not made, instead the product is lactic acid whose build up in muscles contribute to the sensation of fatigue and can contribute to cramp OXYGEN DEBT AND THE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE There is only a small store of ATP in cells. Normally the body can replace the ATP as fast as it is used, but if a sudden change is made from rest to exercise, it takes a little while to adjust. The body has evolved mechanisms by which it can supply energy to the muscles at the required rate until the rate of aerobic respiration has increased sufficiently. One of these mechanisms is anaerobic respiration. It is important to realize that it is a supplement to aerobic respiration (an extra) rather than an alternative. Following strenuous exercise deep rapid breathing usually follows to replace the oxygen debt and to ensure the breakdown of lactic acid by oxygen. The oxygen debt refers to a shortage of oxygen which occurs during muscular activity, when additional energy is required but the heart and lungs are unable to supply oxygen to the muscles any faster. WHTHE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM rings of cartilage around trachea bronchioles alveoli HX pleural HY “Tnembranes diaphragm The respiratory surface of a mammal consists of many air sacs called alveoli inside a pair of lungs. The lungs are situated next to the heart in the thoracic cavity and are connected to the atmosphere by tubes. Twelve pairs of bony ribs surround and protect the lungs and heart. Each lung is surrounded by a pleural cavity. This is a space lined by two tough, flexible, transparent membranes (pleura). These protect the lungs, stop them leaking air into the thoracic cavity and reduce friction between the lungs and the wall of the thorax. Intercostal muscles are attached to the ribs, and a large sheet of muscle called the diaphragm separates the thorax (chest) from the abdomen (belly) Air enters the body through the two nostrils, each of which possesses a border of large hairs which trap particles in the air and filter them out of the system. While passing through the nasal passages the air is warmed and moistened and its odour detected. Air from the nasal passages passes through the pharynx and into the trachea. The wall of the trachea (windpipe) is held open and strengthened by C-shaped bands of cartilage. The cartilage prevents 72collapse of the trachea during inspiration (breathing in). At its lower end the trachea splits into two bronchi. Within the lungs each bronchus subdivides many times into much smaller tubes called bronchioles. These in turn branch into finer and finer tubes, ending with tiny air sacs called alveoli. BREATHING Breathing refers to the movement of diaphragm and ribs which cause inhalation and exhalation. Air is passed in and out of the lungs by movements of the intercostal and diaphragm muscles which alter the volume of the thoracic cavity. There are two sets of intercostal muscles between each pair of ribs. The external intercostals are outside the internal intercostals. INHALATION (BREATHING IN) This is an active process and involves the following events: 1. The external intercostals muscles contract and the internal intercostals relax. 2. This pulls the rib cage up and out. 3. At the same time, the diaphragm muscles contact so that it flattens (moves down). 4. These changes result in an increase in the volume of the thorax. 5. Asa result the pressure in the thorax is reduced to less than atmospheric pressure. 6. Air enters the lungs, inflating the alveoli, until the air pressure in the lungs is equal to that of the atmosphere 73air loaves ribcage moves down and in saphragm movos up Inhalation Exhalation MECHANISM OF BREATHING EXHALATION (BREATHING OUT) This is a passive process under resting conditions, and is brought about by the elastic recoil of the lung tissue, respiratory muscles and the weight of the rib cage. The following events take place during expiration: 1. The external intercostals muscles relax and the internal intercostals contract. 2. The rib cage drops, mainly due to its weight. 3. At the same time, the diaphragm relaxes. The dropping of the rib cage forces the diaphragm into a domed shape, pushing it up into the thoracic cavity. 4. As aresult the volume of the thorax is reduced. 5. The pressure in thorax is raised above that of the atmosphere. 6. Airis forced out of the lungs, thereby deflating the alveoli. 74GASEOUS EXCHANGE Gaseous exchange refers to the exchange of respiratory gases between the cells of the organism and the environment. Aerobic organisms require oxygen for respiration whilst both aerobic and most anaerobic organisms must get rid of carbon dioxide, a waste product of respiration. The area where gaseous exchange with the environment actually takes place is called the respiratory surface. Gaseous exchange takes place in all organisms by the physical process of diffusion. In order for this to effectively occur, the respiratory surface must have the following properties: 1. It must be thin, because diffusion is more efficient over short distances. 2. Permeable, so that gases can pass through with ease. 3. It should possess a large surface area so that sufficient amounts of gases are able to be exchanged according to the organism's needs. 4. It should possess a good blood supply in those organisms which use blood as a transport medium. This helps to maintain a steep diffusion gradient, that is, a large difference in concentration across the respiratory surface. ‘Types of Respiratory Surface in Animals Respiratory Suirface Organism Gils Fish, tadpole Cell surface membrane Amoeba (single-celled) Epidermis (skin) Earthworm, fog Lungs Human, frog GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN MAMMALS The respiratory surface of a mammal consists of many tiny air sacs called alveoli, inside a pair of lungs. Surrounding the alveoli is a dense network of blood capillaries, all of which originate from the 75pulmonary artery and rejoin to form the pulmonary vein. Lining each alveolus is moist epithelial tissue. Collagen and elastic fibres allow the alveoli to expand and recoil easily during breathing, When inspired air reaches the alveoli, it is in close contact with blood in the surrounding capillary network. Oxygen in the alveoli, at a high pressure comes in contact with oxygen in the venous blood at a lower pressure and therefore the gas diffuses into the blood until the pressures are equal. At the same time, carbon dioxide in the blood at a higher pressure comes in contact with alveolar carbon dioxide at a lower pressure, and therefore the gas diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli The gaseous content of expired air is therefore altered to contain less oxygen and more carbon dioxide. The nitrogen content remains the same. The oxygen which has diffused into the blood is carried in the haemoglobin- now called oxyhaemoglobin to the tissues. The ‘oxygen then diffuses out of the blood into the tissues; the amount depending on the activity in the tissue. At the same time, carbon dioxide, produced in the tissues, is carried away by the blood. Airmovesint lung c= pumonay vein pulmonary artery ome i 7 (exgeatdtlond y (deoxygenated blood) ~ 4 iy alveolar wal oe cl hick ‘moisture ning alveolus ‘ed blood cell Gaseous change nthe aveolsin the lungs 76Gas Inspired Air Expired Oxygen 200% 184% Carbon dioxide 0.04% 4.0% Nitrogen [z001% 798% ‘Table: Percentage composiion of gases in inspired and expired ar. GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN FLOWERING PLANTS Flowering plants exchange gases by diffusion through pores called stomata in their leaves and on their green stems, or if the stem is woody, through cracks in the bark or slits called lenticels. Leaves are thin and have a large surface area and so they are the main sites of gaseous exchange. Inside the leaf of a dicotyledon, there is a spongy mesophyll with large air spaces which allow for efficient diffusion. Once inside the plant, movement of oxygen is determined by the diffusion gradients that exist in the intercellular air spaces. In this way oxygen travels towards the cells and dissolves in the surface miosture of their walls. From here it passes by diffusion into the cells themselves. Carbon dioxide leaves in the plant by the same pathway but in the reverse direction. Flowering plants respire at all times, however, the rate of photosynthesis occurs at a faster rate during the daytime than respiration and so carbon dioxide will be taken in from the air and the excess oxygen will be released. At night when photosyhthetic activity ceases, the reverse occurs where oxygen is taken up and carbon dioxide produced is released. SHORT -TERM EFFECTS OF SMOKING ON BREATHING AND GASEOUS EXCHANGE Smoking has some relatively short-term effects on breathing and gaseous exchange, as well as long term effects. Short-term effects of smoking include: 1. Nicotine causes constriction of the finer bronchioles, increasing resistance to air flow. 2. Nicotine paralyzes the cilia which removes dirt and bacteria: the accumulation of extra material in the air passages can restrict air flow. ea,3. Smoke acts as a irritant; this causes secretion of excess mucus from the goblet cells and excess fluid into the airways, making it more difficult for air to pass through them LUNG CANCER Cancer is caused by cells dividing repeatedly out of control. It is caused almost entirely by smoking and starts in the epithelium of the bronchioles. It then usually spreads throughout the lungs. The tars in the smoke are responsible- they contain chemicals which cause cancer (‘carcinogens’). The irritation causes thickening of the epithelium by extra cell division and it may be this that triggers the cancer. 78UNIT 11 - BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 4.1 Explain the need for transport systems in multi-cellular organisms. 4.2 Identify the type of materials which need to be transported in animals and plants. 4.3 Describe the structure and function of the circulatory system in humans. 4.4 Describe the composition and functions of the blood in transport. The flatworm, sea anemone and unicellular organisms such as the Amoeba proteus lack specialized transport system. These organisms possess a large surface area to volume ratio and diffusion of gases over the whole body surface is sufficient to meet their needs. Internally the distance that materials have to travel is short enough for them to move by diffusion. As organisms increase in size and complexity, the amount of materials moving in and out of the body also increases. The distance that materials have to travel within the body increases and so diffusion becomes inadequate as a means for their distribution. As a result a transport or blood system becomes necessary to provide rapid mass flow of materials from one part of the body to another over distances where diffusion would be too slow. The transport system consists of three main parts: * Acirculating fluid tissue, the blood; * Muscular, pumping organ to push the blood around the body, the heart; * Tubes through which the blood can circulate, the blood vessels. 79THE COMPOSITION OF BLOOD Blood is a liquid tissue and makes up approximately 5 litres of an average adult. It is made up of several types of cell which are found bathed in fluid medium called plasma. If a sample of blood is spun in a centrifuge for a few minutes it separates into parts. The cells form a red pellet at the bottom of the tube and make up 45% of the blood volume, while the straw-coloured plasma settles at the top and represents the remaining 55% of the blood. Plasma from which the blood protein fibrinogen has been removed is called serum. The pH of the blood is maintained in the range 7.35 -7.45. PLASMA Liquid straw-coloured portion of the blood consisting of 90% water and 10% dissolved substances. Components of plasma include: + Proteins such as fibrinogen and prothrombin which aid in blood clotting. * Enzymes * Mineral ions such as Na* (sodium ion), Mg?* (magnesium ion), K’ (potassium ion) and Cl(chloride ion). These ions help to maintain the pH of the blood. * Products of digestion e.g. glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol. + Vitamins * Excretory products such as urea * Dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen. * Hormones e.g. insulin, sex hormones, growth hormone. 80