General Mathematics Notes

2nd Quarter
Symbolic Logic (11-9-22) Basic Concepts of a proposition (11-
Logic 10-22)
- The study of techniques and principles A. Structure of a proposition.
used to differentiate accurate from - Subject, predicate, and copula
inaccurate reasoning. 1. Subject Term - the part designating
- Aims to find and create a standard used the idea about which the assertion is
to evaluate arguments and to classify made.
good arguments from bad ones. 2. Predicate Term - the part
- Additional Notes: Used to evaluate designating the idea which
arguments which may be valid, invalid, asserted/denial of the subject.
good, or bad. 3. Copula - expresses the present act
of the idea, hence the verb is used in
What makes an argument valid or invalid? the present tense even though the
How are arguments formed? assertion is past or yet to be made.
Example:
Proposition Every even number is divisible by two
- Building block of an argument Subject Copula Predicate
- Something that may be asserted or
denied B. Quality and Quantity of a proposition
- A sentence that can be identified either 1. Quality - quality of a proposition is
true or false but not both determined using the copula of the
proposition. It can be identified as
Types of Sentences: either affirmative or negative.
Declarative Sentence - Statements that A. Affirmative Proposition -
tells/describes/narrates. Statements that asserts the relationship of the
inform. (Proposition) subject and predicate.
Interrogative Sentence - In the form of a B. Negative Proposition - denies
question. Sentences that ask. Meant to be the relationship between the
answered. (Not a Proposition) subject and predicate.
Imperative Sentence - 2. Quantity - quantity of a proposition is
Command/Request .Sentences that instruct. determined using the subject terms. It
Meant to be followed. (Not a Proposition) can be identified as either universal
Exclamatory Sentence - An expression. or particular.
Sentences that express. Not subject for A. Universal Proposition - asserts
arguments (Not a Proposition). inclusion/exclusion which holds
for every number of the class
Additional Note: Only declarative designated by its subject term.
sentences are used to argue since it’s the B. Particular Proposition - asserts
only type that can be identified as true or inclusion/exclusion which holds
false for at least one number of the
class designated by its subject
Take Note: All propositions are declarative term.
sentences but not all declarative sentences
are propositions. E.g. “This proposition is
true”.

Follow @AkhikoM
 General Mathematics Notes
2nd Quarter
C. Types of proposition when at least one of the disjuncts is
- In symbolic logic, propositions are true. Is symbolized by “V”.
usually represented using any letter - Exclusive Disjunction - a compound
from the English alphabet. proposition asserting it is true when
P: Four is an even number exactly one of the disjuncts is true. It is
Q: Four is divisible by 2 symbolized by “⊕”.
- Propositions can be divided into 2
categories, simple or compound. 4. Conditional / Implication
- Written in the “if-then” format. It has
1. Simple (atomic) proposition two parts: Premise and Conclusion.
- Short statements and doesn’t - The symbol “→” is used to symbolize this
contain any other statements as kind of proposition.
parts. - P→Q wherein P is the (Premise/
Condition/ Hypothesis) and Q is the
2. Compound proposition (Promise/ Conclusion/ Consequence).
- A proposition that contains two (2)
or more atomic propositions 5. Bi-conditional / Equivalence
- Formed with logical operators - Written using the phrase “if and only if”
(Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction, The symbol “↔” is used to symbolize bi-
Conditional/Implication, conditional propositions.
BiCondition/Equivalence). - Additional Note: P↔Q are the condition
and conclusion of one another.
The Five Logical Operators (11-14-22)
1. Negation Symbolizing Propositions - Verbal
- a denial, symbolized by the tilde “⌐” or Translation
curl “~”. 1. ~P
- ~p: Simply means that it is not the - Not P/ it is not the case that P/ it is
case that p, and may be read as not P. false that P/ It is not false that P
- Takenote: When proposition P is true, 2. P^Q
it follows that ~P is false. - P (and/ but/ moreover/ however/
still/ yet/ although/ furthermore/
2. Conjunction also/ nevertheless/ at the same
- A truth-functional connective which time) Q
means “and” and symbolized by “^”. 3. PvQ
- A statement of the form P^Q means - P or Q / Either P or Q/ P unless Q
that P and Q. 4. P→Q
- Takenote: P^Q will be true if P and Q - If P then Q / P implies Q / P is a
are both true sufficient condition for Q / P only of
Q / Q only if P / Q is a necessary
3. Disjunction implication of P / Q follows from P /
- A truth-functional connective which means P follows Q / Q if P / Q provided that
“or” and is symbolized by the wedge “V” P.
and “⊕”. 5. P↔Q
- The propositions connected are called - P if and only if Q / If P then Q and if
disjuncts. Q then P.

- Inclusive Disjunction - a compound

proposition asserting that it is true

Follow @AkhikoM
 General Mathematics Notes
2nd Quarter
Symbolizing Propositions - Grouping - Negation: If p is true then ~p is false.
Symbols Conversely, if p is false then ~p is
- The parenthesis is used whenever the true.
word “both” goes with “and” and
p ~p
“either” goes with “or”.
T F
Verbal Translation Symbolic Form F T
Both P or Q and R (P v Q) ^ R
- Conjunction: Both atomic
P or both Q and R P v (Q ^ R) propositions must be true for the
Both P and Q or R (P ^ Q) v R conjunction to be true, else it’s false

P and both Q or R P ^ (Q v R)
P Q P^Q

- Since “neither P nor Q” is the same as T T T

“not either P or Q” and “both P and Q
T F F
are not”, then it is denoted by ~(PvQ)
- The order of the word “both” and “not” F T F
should be considered.
F F F

Verbal Translation Symbolic Form

- Disjunction: At least one of the
P and Q are not both ~ (P ^ Q) disjuncts is true for the disjunction to
be true, else it’s false.
P and Q are both not ~P ^ ~Q

P Q PVQ
- The parenthesis, brackets, and braces
are used in symbolic logic in the same T T T
manner as mathematical expressions.
T F T
Truth Values of a Proposition (11-15- F T T
22)
- Used to determine whether a F F F
proposition is true (t or 1) or false (f
or 0) - Conditional: If the premise is true
- Uses the truth table: summarizes all and the promise is false, then the
possible combinations of truth values condition is false. Otherwise, it’s true.
of a certain proposition
- Systematic counting - ways of
P Q P→Q
writing outcomes from an event in an
organised way with none of the T T T
possibilities missed out or repeated.
- No. of rows for truth table is T F F
expressed as: 2 ^ n, where n is the F T T
number of atomic proposition
Truth values of logical operators F F T

Follow @AkhikoM
 General Mathematics Notes
2nd Quarter
Hence, the proposition is tautology
Forms of Conditional Proposition (11-
- Bi-Conditional: The premise and the 22-22)
promise must be the same for the bi- - Conditional propositions have 2
conditional to be true, otherwise it’s parts: premise and
false. consequence/conclusion.
P Q P↔Q
P→Q
T T T
Premise Conclusion
T F F

F T F 1. Converse of a Conditional
Proposition
F F T - It is formed when the premise and
Examples: conclusion interchange.
1. P→(PVQ) 2. Inverse of a Conditional
P Q PVQ P→(PVQ) Proposition
- It is formed when the premise and
T T T T conclusion are both negated.
3. Contrapositive of a Conditional
T F T T
Proposition
F T T T - It is formed when the premise and
conclusion are both interchanged and
F F F T negated.

Types of proposition according to the Example:

truth values (11-17-22) 1. Two vertical angles are congruent
1. Tautology
- When the final outcomes of the main Hypothesis (P): Two angles are vertical.
operator are all true Conclusion (Q): Two angles are congruent.
2. Contradiction P→Q
- When the final outcomes of the main
Converse: If two angles are congruent
operator are all false then they are vertical.
3. Contingency
- When the final outcomes of the main Inverse: If two angles are not vertical,
operator are a mix of true and false. then they are not congruent.
Examples:
2. P→(PVQ) Contrapositive: If two angles are not
congruent, then they are not vertical.
P Q PVQ P→(PVQ)
Logical Equivalence (11-23-22)
T T T T - Two statements are logically
equivalent if and only if they have
T F T T identical truth values for each
possible substitution for their
F T T T
statement variables.
F F F T - The logical equivalence of statement
forms P and Q in writing is P ≡ Q

Follow @AkhikoM
 General Mathematics Notes
2nd Quarter
- It follows that if P can replace Q 5. De Morgan’s Law:
and vice versa, then P is a - For conjunction:
sufficient condition for Q.
- To prove that P ≡ Q, we must show
~ (P ^ Q) ≡ ~P v ~Q
that P ↔ Q is a tautology.

- For disjunction:
P ^ P ↔ P

T T T T T ~(P v Q) ≡ ~P ^ ~Q

F F F T F
6. Idempotent Laws:
- For conjunction:

Rules of replacement / Logical

Equivalence Laws (P ^ P) ≡ P

1. Double negation: - For disjunction:

~(~P) ≡ P (P v P) ≡ P

2. Commutative Laws: 7. Identity Laws:

- For conjunction: - For conjunction:

P^Q ≡ Q^P P^1 ≡ P

- For disjunction: - For disjunction:

PvQ ≡ QvP Pv0 ≡ P

3. Associative Laws: 8. Domination Laws:

- For conjunction: - For conjunction:

P ^ (Q ^ R) ≡ (P ^ Q) ^ R P^0 ≡ 0

- For disjunction: - For disjunction:

P v (Q v R) ≡ (P v Q) v R Pv1 ≡ 1

4. Distributive Laws: 9. Absorption Laws:

- For conjunction: - For conjunction:

P ^ (Q v R) ≡ (P ^ Q) v (P ^ R) P ^ (P v Q) ≡ P

- For disjunction: - For disjunction:

P v (Q ^ R) ≡ (P v Q) ^ (P v R) P v (P ^ Q) ≡ P

Follow @AkhikoM
 General Mathematics Notes
2nd Quarter
10. Law of Contradiction: {A ^ (A ^ ~B)} v (A ^ B) Double Negation

P ^ ~P ≡ 0 {(A ^ A) ^ ~B} v (A ^ B) Associative Law

(A ^ ~B) v (A ^ B) Idempotent Law

11. Law of Tautology:
A ^ (~B v B) Distributive Law
P v ~P ≡ 1
A ^ (B v ~B) Commutative Law

12. Switcheroo Law: A ^ (1) Law of Tautology

- Also known as material implication
law / arrow law A Identity Law
3. [(P → Q) ^ (P → ~Q)]
P→Q ≡ ~P v Q
Statement Reason
13. Equivalence Law:
- Also known as Bi-conditional law / [(P → Q) ^ (P → ~Q)] Given
double arrow law.
(~P v Q) ^ (~P v ~Q) Switcheroo Law
P↔Q ≡ (P→Q) ^ (Q→P) ~P ^ (Q v ~Q) Distributive Law

14. Contrapositive Law: ~P v 0 Law of Contradiction

~P Identity Law
P→Q ≡ ~Q → ~P

Application of Symbolic Logic in

Simplifying Complex Propositions
Electronics (11-28-22)
(11-24-22)
Boolean Algebra
1. ~[(P ^ Q) v ~(~P v Q)]
- Branch of Mathematics that deals
with operations on logical values with
Statement Reason binary variables. The boolean
variables are represented as binary
~[(P ^ Q) v ~(~P v Q)] Given numbers to represent truths. 1 =
~[(P ^ Q) v (~~P ^ ~Q)] De Morgan’s Law True, 0 = False.
- Useful in analysis and synthesis of
~[(P ^ Q) v (P ^ ~Q)] Double Negation digital logical circuits.
- Input and output signals can be
~[P ^ (Q v ~Q)] Distributive Law
represented by boolean
~(P ^ 1) Law of Tautology variables.
- Functions of the digital logic
~P Identity Law circuits can be represented by
2. {A ^ [~(~A v B)]} v (A ^ B) logical operators. Ie. boolean
functions.
- From a boolean function, a
Statement Reason
logical/schematic diagram can be
{A ^ [~(~A v B)]} v (A ^ B) Given constructed using AND, OR, and
1.
{A ^ (~~A ^ ~B)} v (A ^ B) De Morgan’s Law

Follow @AkhikoM
 General Mathematics Notes
2nd Quarter
Boolean functions Application of Boolean in Logic Circuits
● The OR operation “+” written A+B - A logic circuit contains two or more
● The AND operation “*” written A*B or basic logic gates.
AB. - Logic circuits have the properties of
● The complement called “not”/inverse Boolean Algebra.
written Ā or A’. - AND OR logic circuits are called sum
Truth Table of products.
- Most elementary specification of the
function of a digital logic circuit. Why use logic gates?
- A table that describes the output - Control the transmission of input
values for all the combination of input pulses.
values, called MINTERMS. - Building blocks of electronic circuits.
n
- n input variables -> 2 .
- And operator (^,+) A+B=C

A B A+B=C

1 1 1

1 0 1

0 1 1

0 0 0

Application of Boolean in circuits.

● Series Switching Circuits

- Represent “and” operation

● Parallel Switching Circuits

Image Source: https://twitter.com/circuitmix0/status/1122591781814665224

Introduction to Arguments (12-5-22)

Definitions
Argument - A sequence of propositions of
which one is intended as a conclusion and
the others, as the premises; are intended
- Represent “or” operation. to prove or at least provide some
evidences for the conclusion.

Follow @AkhikoM
 General Mathematics Notes
2nd Quarter
conclusion. Deriving an explicit contradiction
from the augmented set of premises.

Rules of Inference:

Premise - A statement in an argument

that provides reason/support for the
conclusion. There can be one or more
premises in an argument.

Conclusion - The statement that the

argument is trying to prove.

Arguments, based on the definition, follows

the concept of conditional proposition.
Thus, the general form of the argument
P1, P2, …, Pn; ∴Q
can be transformed as symbolic logic
(P1 ^ P2 ^ … ^ Pn) -> Q

Validating Arguments Through Truth

Table

Step 1: Identify the premises and the

conclusion and write the general form of the
argument
Step 2: Transform the general form to
symbolic logic
Step 3: Prove the validity through truth table

Common Fallacies:
Validity of Arguments and Rules of
Inference (12-6-22)
Valid Argument - An argument is valid
whenever the premises are all true, and the
conclusion is also true. If an argument is not
valid, we say that it is invalid or a fallacy.

Direct Method of Proof - way of showing

truth or falsehood of a given statement by a
straightforward combination of established
facts, without making further assumptions

Indirect Method of Proof (Reductio Ad

Absurdum) - constructed by assuming, as
an additional premise, the negation of the

Follow @AkhikoM