WHAT IS RIBONUCLEI ACID(RNA)?

Ribonucleic acid, or RNA. I often think of RNA as being the less

well-known cousin of DNA, particularly for people outside the field
of biology or genomics. But really, when you think about it, RNA,
in so many ways, is the actual functional form of nucleic acids that
really the body uses to do the business of, you know, constructing
cells or responding to immune challenges, of carrying amino acids
from one part of the cell to the other, that quite often I feel that
RNA doesn't get the respect it deserves. So what I think we can
share is that the different forms of RNA -- mRNA, tRNA, rRNA --
each in their own way have absolutely fundamental functions
without which the biology of the genome could not be translated
into practice. And I guess the most obvious one here might be
mRNAs, because these are the transcribed forms of genes, the
form in which a gene gets read by the cell. But really, I would
encourage everyone to learn about the unique roles that tRNAs
and rRNAs have as well, because each of these fits into the
puzzle of life in a wonderfully unique way.
Ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA) is a nucleic acid present in all
living cells that has structural similarities to DNA. Unlike DNA,
however, RNA is most often single-stranded. An RNA molecule
has a backbone made of alternating phosphate groups and the
sugar ribose, rather than the deoxyribose found in DNA. Attached
to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), uracil (U),
cytosine (C) or guanine (G). Different types of RNA exist in cells:
messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer
RNA (tRNA).

TYPES OF RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis. They are
messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA
(rRNA).
mRNA
mRNA is transcribed from DNA and contains the genetic blueprint to
make proteins. Prokaryotic mRNA does not need to be processed and
can proceed to synthesize proteins immediately. In eukaryotes, a freshly
transcribed RNA transcript is considered a pre-mRNA and needs to
undergo maturation to form mRNA. A pre-mRNA contains non-coding
and coding regions known as introns and exons, respectively. During
pre-mRNA processing, the introns are spliced, and the exons are joined
-methylgu

refers to the process where a poly(A) tail, which is a sequence of

mRNA from deg

stability of mRNA and aids it in transport. Researchers are also studying
mRNA as an anti-cancer treatment due to its ability to modify cell.

tRNA
tRNAs are RNA molecules that translate mRNA into proteins. They

phosphate, D arm, T arm, and anticodon arm. The primary function of a

tRNA is to carry
complex with the help of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. Aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetases are enzymes that load the appropriate amino acid onto a free
tRNA to synthesize proteins. Once an amino acid is bound to tRNA, the
tRNA is considered an aminoacyl-tRNA. The type of amino acid on a
tRNA is dependent on the mRNA codon, which is a sequence of three
nucleotides that codes for an amino acid. The anticodon arm of the
tRNA is the site of the anticodon, which is complementary to an mRNA
codon and dictates which amino acid to carry. tRNAs also regulate
apoptosis through acting as a cytochrome c scavenge .
rRNA
rRNA forms ribosomes, which are essential in protein synthesis. A
ribosome contains a large and small ribosomal subunit. In prokaryotes, a
small 30S and large 50S ribosomal subunit make up a 70S ribosome. In
eukaryotes, the 40S and 60S subunit form an 80S ribosome. The
ribosomes contain an exit (E), peptidyl (P), and acceptor (A) site to bind
aminoacyl-tRNAs and link amino acids together to create polypeptides.
MOLECULAR COMPOSITION

The primary structure of RNA is composed of nucleotides attached by

-
molecular formula, C5H10O5, and has a naturally occurring D-ribose
form and a less common L-ribose. The D and L designations refer to the
hydroxyl group positions. The nucleotide bases consist of adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and uracil. Two hydrogen bonds form between
adenine and uracil, while three bonds form between cytosine and
guanine. The base pairing via hydrogen bonds is the basis of RNA
secondary structure. The RNA tertiary structure is the result of RNA
folding, which creates a three-dimensional shape consisting of helices
and grooves. RNA differs from DNA in that it contains a uracil
nucleotide instead o

hydroxyl group contributes to RNA conformation.

How is it made?
RNA polymerases synthesize RNA from DNA through a process called
transcription. In prokaryotes, a single RNA polymerase catalyzes
transcription for all types of RNA. In eukaryotes, there are different
types of RNA polymerases, each responsible for synthesizing a specific
RNA. RNA polymerase I synthesize rRNA. RNA polymerase II creates
mRNA, and RNA polymerase III makes tRNA. To initiate transcription,
an RNA polymerase enzyme binds to a promoter region on DNA, and
the DNA double helix unwinds into a template strand and non-coding
strand. During transcripti -
-
nucleotides. The newly synthesized RNA strand is nearly identical to the
non-coding strand of DNA except for uracil substituting thymine. In
eukaryotes, each RNA polymerase has a unique mechanism to terminate
transcription. For example, RNA polymerase II transcribed RNA has an
AAUAAA poly(A) site that recruits a group of factors to cleave the
transcript.
Prokaryotic RNA undergoes Rho-dependent or Rho-independent
termination. In Rho-dependent termination, a Rho factor helicase binds
to C-rich sites on the RNA, and ATP hydrolysis powers Rho to unwind
the DNA-RNA complex and release the RNA transcript. On the other
hand, Rho-independent termination utilizes a hairpin loop that causes the
RNA polymerase to stall and allows the RNA transcript to be released.
FUNCTION

The primary function of RNA is to create proteins via translation. RNA

carries genetic information that is translated by ribosomes into various
proteins necessary for cellular processes. mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA are
the three main types of RNA involved in protein synthesis. RNA also
serves as the primary genetic material for viruses. Other functions
include RNA editing, gene regulation, and RNA interference. These
processes are carried out by a group of small regulatory RNAs, which
include small nuclear RNA, microRNA, and small interfering RNA.
Small Nuclear RNA
Small nuclear RNAs (snRNA) are non-coding RNAs that are responsible
for splicing introns. The snRNAs join with proteins to form small
nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP), which most commonly contain U1,
U2, U4, U5, and U6 snRNA molecules. Spliceosome assembly and
activity begins once U1 of the snRNP binds a complementary sequence
-mRNA transcript. Introns are then removed
from the pre-mRNA transcript by the spliceosome complex and mature
mRNA forms.
MicroRNA
MicroRNAs (miRNA) are non-coding RNAs mainly involved in gene
regulation. They are mostly processed from introns and are transcribed
into primary miRNA from the host gene by RNA polymerase II. They
are then modified by endonucleases, such as Drosha and Dicer into a
mature miRNA. Studies have shown that miRNAs that bind to an
untranslated regi
miRNA binding to promoter regions can upregulate transcription.
miRNAs can also function similarly to hormones. They are released into
the extracellular fluid and taken up by target cells for regulation of
cellular activity. Additionally, researchers are studying these
extracellular miRNAs as ideal biomarkers for various diseases. Research
has already shown circulating miRNAs to be involved in cancer through
its role in controlling oncogenes and tumor suppressor.
Small Interfering RNA
Small Interfering RNAs (siRNA) are double-stranded, non-coding
RNAs that inhibit gene expression through RNA interference. They
interfere with gene expression by degrading mRNA and preventing the
translation of proteins. siRNAs form from long double-stranded RNAs
with the assistance of Dicer. Once fully formed, siRNA binds to an RNA
induced silencing complex (RISC) and cleaves mRNA through a
catalytic RISC protein, Argonaute.Small interfering RNAs have the
potential to be therapeutic agents for diseases due to their potency and
ability to knock down genes. Unlike miRNAs, siRNAs can specifically
target a gene of choice, and a single siRNA guide strand can function
multiple times