Data Collection in Qualitative Research

Prepared by:
Essa Al Muharraq
Amal Amer
Sultan Alallah
Faisal Al aaraj
Bashaer Sayed
Hussein Abdulaziz
Yahia Alhaqawi
Abdulaziz Hudays

Under Supervision of:

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Objectives:

• Differentiate the basic concepts: data, datum, information

• Discuss types of data in research

• Explain data collection methods of qualitative research

• Compare between different methods of data collection

• Specify the advantages and disadvantages of each method

Introduction

Data collection in qualitative studies is more fluid than quantitative studies.

In qualitative research (data collection ) is a dialogical process between the researcher and

the participants.

This process includes participants, data ,the events surrounding the research process, and

the investigators as introspective individuals or as interacting team members. (Helen et

al., 2011).

What do you understand by the term “Data”?

Data

Data are a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables about one or more persons

or objects, or event, culture.

datum (singular of data) is a single value of a single variable.

Data and information

When data are processed, interpreted, organized, structured or presented so as to make

them meaningful or useful, they are called information (Rowley & Jennifer, 2014).

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Types of data

• Qualitative data commonly called attribute contain values that express a quality, a

state, of which we cannot calculate an average, a limit

• They do not answer the question “how much” but “what”

• Quantitative data or variables contain numerical values that refer to a recognized

unit of measure.

• They can answer the question “how much “

• The size, the weight, the distance, the income, the age, the turnover or even the

population.

Data collection Methods

• Conducting Interview

• Chat rooms

• Written narratives

• Observations

• Focus group

• Documentary analysis

• Case studies

• Questionnaires

• Data recording :

• Using field notes,

• Field Diaries,

• Audio recording

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Factors affecting choice of the method

• Each researcher will need to determine the method based on:

• The question asked

• The research goals to be met

• The research approach

selected(design)

• The sensitivity of the subject matter

• Available resources which methods of data generation are most appropriate. (Eaves&

Kahn. 2000).

When to use interview?

For answering these questions:

What does the study feel like to the participants?

What do participants know about the study?

Have any concerning researches, operations ,processes, and outcomes?

What are participants expectations ?

What changes do participants perceive in themselves as a result of their involvement in

the study?

A-Before Interview

Reflexivity

Before entering the field to conduct interviews, researchers have to be open to their

influence on the inquiry.

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 Reflexivity is defined as the responsibility of researchers to examine their influence

(one’s own values and views) in all aspects of qualitative inquiry.

This awareness readies them to enter the field and collect data. (Carolan,2003).

B- During interview

Whiting (2008) suggest that interview process pass these steps

1-apprehension

2-exploration

3-cooperative

4-participation

Robinson (2000) found in her work that the interview with elderly and children had six

distinct phases.

§ introducing

§ personalizing

§ reminiscing(pondering)

§ contextualizing

§ closing

§ reciprocating.

§ Time of interview

§ Conduct the interview at a time that is most convenient for the participants.

§ The actual interviews can be brief with a specific objective, such as verifying

previously reported information.

§ Or interviewing can cover a longer period, either in one setting or over a prolonged

time.

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 § A life history is an example of data collection that may continue for a long time at

each sitting and also over weeks, months, or even years.

§ Researcher should Make appointments with respondents. (Helen et al., 2011).

§ Researcher should be skilled in using an ethical decision-making model to determine

when to remain the researcher and when therapeutic intervention is required.

§ Establishing rapport once on the act is achieved by conveying a sense of interest and

concern for the research informant. There is importance of the therapeutic nature of

qualitative interviews for research participants. (Carolan,2003).

Focus Group

Focus groups are an extended way of the interview method, a more specific in-depth group

interview with discussion. In a structured and organized way with the help of a facilitator or

moderator the selected topics are explored. A focus group is, a group interview on a particular

topic, led by a trained moderator… the goal of the focus group is to provide useful insights on

the topic.

Types of focus group

Dual-moderator focus group:

There are two moderators for this event. One ensures smooth execution, and the other

guarantees the discussion of each question.

Respondent-Moderator:

One or more of the participants in the group takes the lead as moderator. This is done to

change the dynamics of the group and generate more varied responses.

Mini focus group:

This type of group restricts participants to 4-5 members instead of the usual 6-10
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Online focus group:

These groups employ online mediums to gather opinions and feedback. There are three

categories of people in an online focus panel: observer, moderator, and respondent.

Documentary analysis

Documentary approaches are the use of relevant documents as a method of data collection

when direct observation or questioning are inappropriate or impossible to conduct. It can be

written texts and recorded materials (Holloway & Galvin, 2016, p.118; Phillips & Stawarski,

2008; Chesnay, 2015).

Information from documents can be used to generate interview questions or identify events to

be observed.

Types of documents

Primary: sources comprise documents which have been written by the people involved in

the experience, action or event and can only be understood in the context of their time and

locality.

Secondary documents: documents have been written about these events at a later stage and

might be comments on primary sources (Holloway & Galvin, 2016)

Private

Scott (1990) differentiates between types of document by referring to them as:

Closed:

limited to a few people, namely their authors and those who commissioned them (e.g., secret

police files).

Restricted:

researchers can only gain access with the permission of insiders under particular conditions

(e.g., medical files and confidential corporate reports).

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Public

Open-archival documents are available to any person, subject to administrative conditions

and opening hours of libraries (e.g., census reports).

Open-published documents, of course, can be accessed by anybody at any time ((e.g.,

government budget statistics) (Holloway & Galvin, 2016)

Solicited documents: documents have been produced with the aim of research in mind (e.g.,

Government surveys and research projects).

Unsolicited documents: informal documents others have been produced for personal use

(e.g., diaries). A researcher cannot easily access these documents.(Holloway & Galvin,

2016)

Examples of documents

The study of health communication, where devices like film, posters, or social media

convey messages about desired health behavior. (Phillips & Stawarski, 2012)

Tips of using documentary method

Ask permission for access from the living authors of diaries and keepers of other

confidential documents.

Researchers must take care not to expose participant identifiers and ensure data security.

Use encryption to ensure additional security when it is necessary to e-mail documents

with sensitive information attached. Holloway & Galvin, 2016, p.119; Chesnay, 2015)

Researchers must be concerned about four major criteria that determine the quality of the

documents including authenticity, credibility, representativeness and meaning (Holloway

& Galvin, 2016, P.120).

Case Studies

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Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single entity or small number of entities.

The entity may be an individual, family, institution, or other social unit (Wood, Haber &

Titler, 2019, p.122).

Case study can be qualitative or quantitative or both, depending upon the question the

researcher wants to explore, the qualitative one which tends to be more common in health

research (Holloway & Galvin, 2016; Pope & Mays,2020).

Case studies enable researchers to explore particular phenomena in one or more real-life

settings (Pope & Mays, 2020, p.181).

Generally researchers who develop case studies are familiar with the case they explore

and its context before the start of the research.

A number of sources of data collection can be used, such as observation, documentary

sources and interviews so that the case can be illuminated from all sides.

The analysis of qualitative case studies involves the same techniques as that of other

qualitative methods.(Polit & Beck, 2018; Holloway & Galvin, 2010 & 2016).

Questionnaires

A questionnaire consists of a number of questions that is either mailed or handed over to

the respondents.

Researchers can use a questionnaire to measure knowledge levels, opinions, attitudes,

ideas, beliefs, perceptions, and feelings and to gather factual information about persons,

events, and other objects of interest. (Nursing Research Society of India,2013)

A questionnaire may contain any or all of these types of questions:

Open-ended questions allow unlimited answers.

Closed-ended Questions

Multiple-choice Questions (MCQ)

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Dichotomous Questions

Rank-order Questions

Rating Questions

Checklists—Visual Analogue Scales (VAS)

Survey

Survey studies are investigations in which self-report data are collected from samples

with the purpose of describing populations on some variable(s) of interest. However, self-

report responses may be unreliable because people may provide socially acceptable

responses.

Surveys may be conducted by phone, mail, the Internet, or through personal contact with

the subjects.

The most common data-collection techniques used in survey research are questionnaires

and interviews (Nieswiadomy & Bailey, 2018; Polit & Beck , 2018).

In addition to thinking about the types of data to be gathered, qualitative researchers need

to plan ahead for how data will be recorded and stored (Polit & Beck, 2017).

Data recording

Tools of recording data

Interview transcript

Field diary (Logs)

Field notes (notes taken in the field being studied)

Audio and Video recordings

Photograph /Images (Nursing Research Society of India,2013, Polit & Beck, 2018)

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1- Logs

Log (or field diary) is a daily record of events and conversations in the field.

A log is a historical listing of how researchers have spent their time and can be used for

planning purposes, for keeping track of expenses, and for reviewing what work has

already been completed (Polit & Beck, 2018).

Personal diaries have long been used as a source of data in historical research (Polit &

Beck, 2018).

2- Field Notes

Field notes are the notations taken by researchers (mainly ethnographers) that generally

describing the unstructured observations and researchers’ reflections about the people,

places, and things under study and how their presence may be affecting the data

collection.

These notes also can be used by qualitative researchers using approaches other than

ethnography for their research (Polit Beck, 218,P.549; Streubert & Carpenter, 2011).

These notes can be very important during data collection and analysis as it provides

validation for important points made by the participants and facilitates appropriate

emphasis on emerging themes (Streubert & Carpenter, 2011).

In addition field notes can be useful in subsequent analyses including secondary analyses

and metasynthesis (Phillippi & Lauderdale, 2017).

Tips for successful field notes writing

Try to find a quiet, undisturbed place for recording field notes.

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Try to jot down unobtrusively a phrase or sentence that will later serve as a reminder of

an event, conversation, or impression.

Write field notes as soon as possible after an observation to avoid losing or distorting the

data.

Schedule enough time for properly recording field notes after an observation (Polit &

Beck, 2003).

It is useful to give observational sessions a name that will trigger a memory (e.g.,

“Emotional Outburst by a Patient With Ovarian Cancer”).

Try to give each entry the date and time the observation was made, the location, and the

name of the observer (if several are working together as a team).

It is preferable to distinguish different levels of accuracy in recording dialogue (e.g., by

using quotation marks and italics for true verbatim recordings, and a different designation

for paraphrasings).

3- Audio–recording

Images

Images are increasingly becoming part of qualitative inquiry. They have the potential to

add value to data collection, analysis, and reporting.

Photos are commonly used in ethnography as part of the ethnographic record. In

addition, photos are included in research presentations to illustrate certain lived

experiences.

Visual information generates primary data or can be used to supplement other data

collection methods, although care must be taken in its use. (Streubert & Carpenter , 2011)

Tips for successful images/video recording

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Researchers must ask for permission before taping or imaging.

Respect participants opinion to not to be recorded or pictured.

Asking factual questions first to help participants to relax and make them feel more

secure for continuing recording.

Keep the recorder at area near enough but not so prominently that it intimidates the

hesitant person

Use lapel microphones to allow a better quality of sound as possible (Keep recorded

materials in a locked file cabinet. Destroy after three years. (Streubert & Carpenter, 2011;

Holloway & Wheeler, 2010)

Record in a room away from noise and disturbances to enhance the quality of recording

and interview itself.

Try out the recorder-device at the beginning of the interview and after it has been

recorded.

Researchers should remember to pack some extra batteries and tapes.

Label and date the tape, video material and images with their locations.

Do not write the participants’ names on the recorded materials. (Streubert & Carpenter,

2011)

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