ORIGINAL RESEARCH

published: 09 September 2021

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.694057

Job Insecurity and Job Performance:

A Serial Mediated Relationship and
the Buffering Effect of Organizational
Justice
Marco De Angelis 1*, Greta Mazzetti 2 and Dina Guglielmi 2
1
Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, 2Department of Education Studies
“Maria Giovanni Bertin”, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

The study aimed to extend the current knowledge of the relationship between job insecurity
and performance. In line with traditional stress theories, work-family and burnout were
hypothesized as serial mediators of the negative link between job insecurity and job
performance. Also, the current study hypothesized that the association between job
insecurity and the mediators [i.e., Work-family conflict (WFC) and burnout] could be buffered
Edited by:
Monica Zaharie,
by perceived organizational justice among employees. Therefore, we empirically tested
Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania a moderated serial mediation model. Participants were 370 employees of an Italian
Reviewed by: multiservice social cooperative. Data were collected using a self-report questionnaire in
Stefania Fantinelli,
the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak. The obtained results indicated that
University of Studies G. d’Annunzio
Chieti and Pescara, Italy WFC and burnout mediated the association between job insecurity and job performance.
Antonino Callea, Furthermore, perceived organizational justice buffered the relationship between job
Libera Università Maria SS. Assunta,
Italy
insecurity and WFC. Concerning job burnout, the association with job insecurity was
Abi Sriharan, moderated only among employees perceiving medium and high levels of organizational
University of Toronto, Canada
justice. The moderated serial mediation index provided support to the role of organizational
*Correspondence:
justice in decreasing the association between job insecurity and job performance. This
Marco De Angelis
[email protected] study delves deeper into the variables explaining the relationship between job insecurity
and job performance by testing a serial process mechanism that involved WFC and
Specialty section:
burnout. Additionally, the obtained results provide suggestions to organizations and
This article was submitted to
Organizational Psychology, managers regarding the protective role of organizational justice to sustain employees’
a section of the journal mental health and performance. Practical implications at the organizational and managerial
Frontiers in Psychology
level are provided, along with a focus on the actual impact of the pandemic.
Received: 12 April 2021
Accepted: 09 August 2021 Keywords: job insecurity, organizational justice, work-family conflict, burnout, performance, moderated mediation
Published: 09 September 2021

Citation:
De Angelis M, Mazzetti G and
Guglielmi D (2021) Job Insecurity and
INTRODUCTION
Job Performance: A Serial Mediated
Relationship and the Buffering Effect
Recent years and mainly the 21st century have profoundly affected the labor market worldwide.
of Organizational Justice. Economic, technological, societal, and political upheavals have increasingly undermined the concept
Front. Psychol. 12:694057. of secure employment (Yeves et al., 2019). For instance, an increasing number of employees work
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.694057 outside the traditional workplace, just as work schedules are gradually flexible, making the boundaries

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

between work and personal life increasingly blurred and complex Debus et al., 2019; Pilipiec, 2020; Shin and Hur, 2020). The
to manage (Gerstel and Clawson, 2018). inconsistency of these findings suggests the need for a closer
In other words, a gradual change in basic assumptions look at this phenomenon. Recently, Stankevičiūtė et al. (2021)
toward work-life flexibility has led to significant changes in found that job insecurity harmed both task performance and
working conditions that, in turn, have fueled greater job organizational citizenship behavior. Also, Piccoli et al. (2021)
insecurity (Benach et al., 2014). The recent COVID-19 pandemic investigated the effect of job insecurity on job performance,
has further exacerbated this condition, bringing anxieties and hypothesizing a two-dimensional stressor framework where
concerns about one’s professional and financial future to the both hindrance and challenge effects were considered. The
surface (Wilson et al., 2020). This insecurity enhanced the result of the two studies conducted supported the negative
level of distress and concern among workers about their job relationship between job insecurity and job performance.
and financial futures (Menéndez-Espina et al., 2019). Also, the Therefore, building on previous research findings,
damage caused by the pandemic in several employment sectors we developed the first hypothesis as follows:
and the rising levels of unemployment (Blustein et al., 2020;
McKibbin and Fernando, 2020) put additional pressure on Hypothesis 1 (H1): Job insecurity would be negatively
employers and organizations in terms of being both competitive related to job performance.
and responsible for preserving the health and performance of
their employees (Wilson et al., 2020; Rasdi et al., 2021). Overall, In the literature, the focus has often been on highlighting
such changing working conditions require a better understanding the harmful effects of job insecurity on both personal health
of how employees respond to such changes and the consequences and job attitudes and outcomes. However, the link between
for employees’ psychological and physical health and job insecurity and job performance is still unclear (Stankevičiūtė
job performance. et al., 2021). Therefore, focusing on exploring the potential
Job insecurity is defined as the perceived fear of losing the mechanisms underlying the link between job insecurity, health,
current job for unexpected and uncontrollable events that can and job outcomes through intermediate drivers seems to be an
interrupt the continuity of one’s work experience (Sverke et al., area of research that needs to be addressed (De Witte et al., 2016).
2002; De Witte, 2005; Shoss, 2017). During the last few years, This focus becomes even more crucial when considering
job insecurity has received significant interest from academic the need for managers to gain a more comprehensive
research due to changes in the labor market and organizational understanding of the job-insecurity-performance relationship
settings. Unpredictable economic environments and increased to develop organization-wide strategies that can prevent stress
market competitiveness have led to company downsizing and reactions and support individual and organizational effectiveness
reorganization, thus increasing the perceived insecurity of (Piccoli et al., 2021). Therefore, the purpose of this study was
employees, who are worried about losing their jobs and concerned twofold: first, to provide a conceptual framework that identifies
about finding new job opportunities (Sverke et al., 2002). possible individual psychological mechanisms underlying the
Furthermore, job insecurity has received growing attention effect of job insecurity on employee performance and second,
due to its impact on workers’ mental health, wellbeing, and to hypothesize a possible organizational response that protects
organizational performance (Sverke et al., 2006; Shoss, 2017). against the adverse effects of job insecurity that could recommend
For example, job insecurity is negatively associated with job concrete responses for managers and practitioners.
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and wellbeing (Sverke
et al., 2002; Berntson et al., 2010; Green, 2011), which indicates
the stressor role of job insecurity. Furthermore, the harmful The Mediating Role of WFC and Burnout
outcomes of job insecurity include burnout symptoms, a conflict Gaining a deeper understanding of workers’ experience of job
between one’s job role and personal life, and a significant insecurity and its consequences on psychological health and job
reduction in life satisfaction (Richter et al., 2010). performance has become crucial. So far, the literature has been
In terms of work-related stress, the JD-R model (Bakker and focused on exploring the relationship between job insecurity on
Demerouti, 2014, 2017; Schaufeli and Taris, 2014) allows framing mental health outcomes (e.g., László et al., 2010; Griep et al.,
job insecurity as a stressful job demand that can deteriorate 2021) from one side, work attitudes, such as job satisfaction (Di
psychological health and individual energies if not balanced Stefano et al., 2020), counterproductive work behavior (Van den
with adequate work-related resources (Mauno et al., 2007). Broeck et al., 2014), and job performance (e.g., Stynen et al.,
Job insecurity may cause negative consequences in employees’ 2015) on the other side. However, there is a growing focus on
wellbeing, attitudes toward their job, and behaviors at work. exploring the underlying mechanisms of how job insecurity develops
However, research focusing on behavioral outcomes, especially into subsequent health and behavioral effects through intermediate
on employee performance at work, is still limited. drivers (De Witte et al., 2016). In other words, a specific concern
Meta-analytic evidence reported the negative impact of job is to understand the conditions under which job insecurity leads
insecurity on task performance (Sverke et al., 2002; Cheng to impaired performance (Di Stefano et al., 2020).
and Chan, 2008; Gilboa et al., 2008). However, while many Based on the resource-based model of stress (Lazarus and
previous studies have concluded that job insecurity has a Folkman, 1984), several studies have considered job insecurity
negative effect on task performance explicitly, some mixed a stressor that results in poor mental health outcomes. A recent
empirical findings can be found (e.g., Lee et al., 2018; meta-analysis suggested the deteriorating negative role of job

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

insecurity on individuals’ physical and mental health (Jiang and one’s children, and marital tensions). In this sense, the job
Lavaysse, 2018). In line with these results, studies have tried preservation motivation strategies and proactive coping strategies
to link the impact of job insecurity on job outcomes, such (Shoss, 2017; Giunchi et al., 2019) could further explain the
as performance through levels of individual wellbeing. mechanisms underlying people’s active efforts in work. In other
Darvishmotevali and Ali (2020) investigated how job insecurity words, when faced with the possibility of losing their job,
affects employees’ subjective wellbeing and job performance people decide to devote more attention, effort, and energy to
in the hospitality industry. They found a mediating role of preserving their job or developing alternative strategies, such
subjective wellbeing, affirming that job insecurity negatively as finding a new job. Accordingly, the risk is that people may
impacts employees’ job performance via decreasing their have to take time and resources away from their family duties,
subjective wellbeing. thus negatively affecting the work-family balance. In other
Furthermore, these results show that employees with a high complex cases, the spillover turns into a crossover effect, in
level of psychological capital can cope with job insecurity. which the discomfort experienced by the worker is transferred
Parent-Lamarche et al. (2021) explored the mediating role of to his/her family members in a kind of contagion (e.g., empathy).
employees’ wellbeing in the association between organizational Recent studies have highlighted the potential negative impact
conditions and job performance. Job insecurity was indirectly of pandemic-induced work changes in the family environment
associated with lower professional efficacy and job performance (Fisher et al., 2020). School closures, working from home, and
levels through a negative association with employees’ wellbeing. the need to attend to family duties are some examples that
The results based on the stress-related mechanism highlighted may suggest how the pandemic has severely affected the family
the need for targeted changes in working conditions. domain, particularly in terms of time conflict where work and
According to the JD-R model (Schaufeli and Taris, 2014), home hours proceed simultaneously (Rudolph et al., 2020).
persistent exposure to excessive job demands (i.e., job insecurity) Against this background and in a climate of profound uncertainty
may trigger symptoms of emotional exhaustion that, in the about the future, work-family balance can therefore become
long run, may result in detrimental individual and job-related critical to workers’ wellbeing and performance.
outcomes (e.g., an impaired job performance). Consistent with In conclusion, while the evidence of job insecurity and
the health-impairment process, the enduring experience of job WFC on individual’s mental health is strong (De Witte et al.,
insecurity could engender a condition of chronic emotional 2016; Jiang and Lavaysse, 2018; Griep et al., 2021), the implications
exhaustion (e.g., burnout) and eventually translate into harmful of the relationship between job insecurity, WFC, and employee’s
outcomes for individuals and their work environment, thus mental health on work outcomes (i.e., job performance) still
deteriorating job performance. need to be clarified.
In exploring the impact of job insecurity at the individual Based on the existing related theories and research, the
level, previous research has focused on understanding the potential present study assumes that the subjective experience of job
consequences in the private life sphere. Indeed, the anxiety and insecurity and perceived actual working situation implies various
fears of losing a job and the related economic impact have employees’ reactions to a similar uncertain employment condition
negatively affected the work and family domains. Work-family (De Witte et al., 2015). As recently found by Piccoli et al.
conflict (WFC), also called work-family interference, has been (2021), people can cope with uncertainty passively, with adverse
defined as a type of inter-role conflict that occurs when job effects on their health and performance, or proactively, thus
demands and family needs are perceived as incompatible (Byron, finding new energy sources to improve their work performance.
2005). Empirical findings suggest that the negative relationship The results, however, showed that job insecurity does not lead
between job insecurity and subjective wellbeing was partially to reactive coping strategies and that, therefore, the direct and
explained by a greater occurrence of WFC (Hu et al., 2018). indirect impacts on job performance are likely to be negative.
Previous studies provide evidence for the spillover effect of The evidence reported so far confirms that experiencing
job insecurity on WFC. While investigating the long-term WFC can result from high job insecurity (Richter et al., 2010;
impact of perceived job insecurity, Rocha et al. (2006) had Mauno et al., 2017). Employees who perceive a threat to their
highlighted adverse effects on workers’ mental health and their employment will react accordingly by devising strategies to
families’ wellbeing, who were at risk of experiencing various safeguard their job position or seeking alternatives. In other
stress-related problems due to the individuals’ pressure faced words, if not managed appropriately, these coping strategies
from lack of control over their job future. Also, Richter et al. risk deteriorating personal resources and thus the work-family
(2010) highlighted how workers who experience job insecurity balance. Given the negative impact of both job insecurity and
also reported WFC, particularly among men. Interestingly, a WFC on individuals’ mental health (Mutambudzi et al., 2017;
recent systematic review on the consequences of job insecurity Griep et al., 2021), this study aims to advance the literature
on family-related outcomes (Mauno et al., 2017) outlined the on job insecurity by hypothesizing a potential underlying
different theoretical mechanisms underlying this relationship. mechanism in which intermediate drivers (WFC and mental
The relationship between job insecurity and WFC would thus health) could explain the negative impact of job insecurity on
be traced to direct or indirect spillover effects. Experiences job performance. Therefore, our model hypothesized how this
and events occurring in different domains (e.g., increased health-impairment process triggers coping strategies that
workload due to fear of losing one’s job) can mutually influence ultimately turn out to be maladaptive (Piccoli et al., 2021),
each other (e.g., difficulty managing family commitments, raising such as deteriorating workers’ mental health and job performance.

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

Hence, the second and third hypotheses of the current study The impact of organizational justice on how employees
were developed as follows: balance their work commitments, family duties, and
responsibilities has also been studied. Indeed, work-related
Hypothesis 2 (H2): WFC and job burnout mediate the experiences and perceptions can negatively affect employees’
relationship between job insecurity and job performance. life outside the workplace. Not surprisingly, several aspects of
Hypothesis 3 (H3): WFC predicts burnout in the serial the work environment result in significant interference with
mediation between job insecurity and job performance. the family (Grandey et al., 2007). In this sense, employees
perceiving an unfair working environment where personal duties
and constraints (e.g., family responsibilities) are not adequately
The Buffering Role of Organizational considered could suffer from an unsatisfactory work-family
Justice balance. In line with previous research (Kyei-Poku, 2014; Sánchez
Job insecurity has also been studied from a theoretical social et al., 2020), WFCs are more likely to occur when the organization
exchange perspective (Shoss, 2017). Employees perceive a and the way managers treat their employees are not perceived
threat to their job position due to the perceived imbalance as fair. In other words, it is mainly from an interpersonal and
in their exchange relationship with the organization. In other informational perspective that the concept of organizational
words, job insecurity might result from the mismatch between justice assumes its relevance with work-family balance. On
the individual’s investment in the organizational environment the contrary, in a working environment where the organizational
(e.g., performance) and the perceived fair treatment employees management pays attention to the way employees are treated
receive from the organization. Several studies have explored and justifies their decisions by sharing information openly and
the relationship between job insecurity and psychological transparently, employees could better manage their work demands
contract violations through the lens of organizational justice and thus have more resources available to manage private or
theory (Sora et al., 2010, 2021; Piccoli and De Witte, 2015). family commitments.
One of the core mechanisms underlying the negative impact Based on the job insecurity-related literature, the concept
of job insecurity on employees’ wellbeing entails the breach of organizational justice has often been assumed to play a
of the psychological contract (defined as the perceived mutual mediating role, thus explaining the underlying reason for adverse
obligations between two parties, the employee and the work-related behaviors (Shoss, 2017; Sora et al., 2021). However,
employer) and the perceived lack of fairness in organizational several studies have found that organizational justice can also
processes and decisions, with the latter having a greater moderate the negative effects of job insecurity (Lee et al.,
weight in explaining the negative impact on 2018). For example, Silla et al (2010) highlighted how an
employees’ feelings of emotional exhaustion (Piccoli and organization perceived as fair and equal moderates the adverse
De Witte, 2015). effects of job insecurity on aspects, such as commitment,
Accordingly, Sora et al. (2021) found that job insecurity satisfaction, or intention to stay. Following the theoretical
was indirectly related to self-rated performance through the perspective of social exchange, Di Stefano et al. (2020) showed
three types of organizational justice, namely, distributive (the how a supportive organizational context moderated the
perceived equity in terms of quality of the outcomes provided relationship between job insecurity, employee-leader relationships,
by the organization), procedural (the perceived fairness on and job-related outcomes, such as job satisfaction and
how decisions are taken, and results are assigned), and turnover intention.
interactional justice (refers to the perceived fairness in the Drawing on the concept of balancing job demands and
social exchange with the organization and managers). This resources, Bakker and Demerouti (2014) describe the direct
study also highlighted how these relationships varied depending and moderating processes that job resources can have on the
on the type of contract. health-impairment process. Several studies have showed that
Informational justice is defined as the perceived adequacy both personal and job resources can mitigate the impact of
of organizational and managers’ strategies employed in sharing job demands. Also, considering the pandemic’s impact on both
information about implemented organizational decisions, individuals and organizational performance, some job-related
processes, and outcomes. This component of organizational and organizational factors could play a crucial role in exacerbating
justice can balance the resources lost as a consequence of job or moderating people’s mental health (Giorgi et al., 2020).
insecurity. Schumacher et al. (2020) examined how job insecurity In the present study, we sought to further advance the
relates to job performance based on the Conservation of literature on job insecurity by investigating how the role of a
Resources theory. The authors assumed a reduced impact of perceived fair organization can moderate the stress–strain process
job insecurity on employees’ performance when exposed to triggered by job insecurity, thereby preserving employees’ work-
greater levels of informational justice. Employees reported lower family relationships, mental health, and, ultimately, job
levels of contextual performance and productivity during the performance. In this sense, drawing on the impact that
weeks they experienced higher levels of job insecurity than organizational justice may have on the emotional and mental
usual, except where the organization had adequately informed health of individuals and their work-family balance, the current
employees of any significant upcoming changes. In the latter study hypothesized a moderating role of organizational justice
case, contextual performance and productivity levels on the health-impairment process, which, in turn, might hamper
remained intact. the adverse effects of job insecurity on job performance. In other

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

words, perceived organizational justice might represent a company to comply with national legislation (d. lgs. no. 81/2008).
contextual boundary condition (i.e., a moderator) of the indirect In this sense, it was not necessary to request approval from
relationship between job insecurity and the two mediators with the University Ethics Committee. However, the questionnaire’s
job performance. A moderated mediation model (Figure 1) first page summarized the study’s contents and goal and reported
was tested to examine whether the indirect effect of job insecurity the informed consent form, emphasizing participant anonymity
on performance through WFC and burnout would be more and information confidentiality. This document complied with
considerable for employees who perceived a lower level of personal data treatment guidelines defined by the Italian privacy
organizational fairness. Thus, we hypothesized that as: law (Law Decree DL-196/2003) and the GDPR, Regulation
2016/679. Participants had to select the consent checkbox at
Hypothesis 4 (H4): Perceived organizational justice the end of this page as a prerequisite to access the questionnaire.
would moderate the effect of job insecurity on WFC. In The cover letter also declared that the employer would not
other words, employees perceiving a high level of be informed of participants’ decision not to complete the survey.
organizational justice are expected to experience a lower Concerning the ethical standards for research, the study complies
WFC when compared to those reporting a lower level with the latest version of Helsinki’s Declaration (World Medical
of perceived organizational justice. Association, 2013).
Hypothesis 5 (H5): Perceived organizational justice
would moderate the effect of job insecurity on burnout. Participants
To be specific, we hypothesize a more significant A total of 482 employees have accessed the survey link. Only
occurrence of burnout symptoms among employees questionnaires with a minimum of 70% of answers were retained.
perceiving low levels of organizational justice when Hence, the final sample consisted of 370 employees. Table 1
compared to those characterized by a higher perception provides a general overview of sample characteristics in terms
of organizational justice. Figure 1 displays the of frequencies and descriptive analyses.
hypothesized model. Among them, 74.1% (N = 274) were female, and 25.7%
(N = 95) were male.
The age of the participants ranged from 19 to 72 years old.
MATERIALS AND METHODS The mean age of the working population was 38 years old
(SD = 10.03), the mean women’s age was 37.58 (SD = 9.62), and
Procedure the mean for men was 40.17 (SD = 10.90). The survey also
Data were collected between December 2019 and January 2020 explored the job tenure of employees. On average, employees
using an online questionnaire as part of a psychosocial risk have been working for the current organization for 6 years
assessment project among employees from an Italian multiservice (SD = 5.80), with a mean job tenure substantially equal across
cooperative. The cooperative is multi-sectoral, operating in the genders (women’s job tenure M = 6.04 years; SD = 5.87; men’s
social and educational fields, managing cultural heritage, and job tenure M = 6.11; SD = 5.57).
communication and information. Participation in the Concerning the job contract, most of the sample (N = 190;
questionnaire was voluntary. 51.4%) had a permanent part-time contract, 25.9% (N = 96) had
This research study arose from the opportunity to collect a permanent full-time contract, 13.8% (N = 51) had a fixed-term
data as part of a psychosocial risk assessment required by the part-time, 4.9% (N = 18) had a fixed-term full-time contract, and

FIGURE 1 | Hypothesized moderated serial mediation model.

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

TABLE 1 | Sample characteristics, descriptive, and frequencies. psychosocial risk factors and validated by Guglielmi et al.
(2011). The items asked participants to state how frequently
Frequency Valid percent
anxiety, worries, efforts, and time spent on their work negatively
Gender affect their family duties and responsibilities. Responses were
Female 74.3
provided with 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to
275
Male 95 25.7
5 (very often). Examples of items were, “I am so tired and
Job contract
stressed when I leave work that it is difficult for me to fulfill
my family duties.” The scale showed robust internal reliability
Permanent (full-time) 96 26.0
Permanent (part-time) 190 51.5
(Cronbach’s alpha = 0.89). Participants with higher scores
Temporary (full-time) 18 4.9 expressed more concern about being able to meet the demands
Temporary (part-time) 51 13.8 of their private life.
Temporary (other) 14 3.8
Education level
Job Burnout
Primary or lower secondary school diploma 15 4.1 To obtain a measure of burnout, we used the short version
Post-secondary school diploma 76 20.5
University degree 222 60.0
of the Burnout Assessment Tool developed by Schaufeli et al.
Post-graduate degree (Master’s degree, (2020); Italian version: Consiglio et al., 2021). In the present
57 15.4
Ph.D., etc.) study, participants replied to burnout’s four core subscale
Supervisory role dimensions: exhaustion, mental distance, cognitive impairment,
Yes 74 20.7 and emotional impairment. Examples of items were, “After a
No 283 79.3 day at work, I find it hard to recover my energy” (exhaustion),
“I struggle to find any enthusiasm for my work” (mental
the remaining 3.8% (N = 14) worked as seasonal or temporal distance), “At work, I have trouble staying focused” (cognitive
employees. Following De Cuyper and De Witte (2005), in the impairment), “At work I may overreact unintentionally”
analysis, we recoded the job contract into a binary variable (i.e., (emotional impairment). Each item was rated with 5-point
0 = permanent; 1 = temporary). Furthermore, frequency revealed Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). We used
that a small number of participants (20%) held a supervisory the composite score and compared the overall mean (M = 1.99;
role regarding work positions. The working population involved SD = 0.55) with the statistical norms for both Flemish and
in the survey has a bachelor’s degree (60.0%) or a higher qualification, Dutch employees (Schaufeli et al., 2020) revealed a general
such as a master’s degree or a Ph.D (15.4%). average level of burnout among the working population. The
scale showed robust internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85).
Participants with higher scores reported a greater occurrence
Measures of symptoms that might suggest experiencing burnout at work.
Socio-Demographic Characteristics
Participants’ gender (categorical variable), age, and job tenure Organizational Justice
(both as continuous variables) were asked to participants at To obtain a measure of the perceived organizational justice,
the beginning of the questionnaire. These variables were included we used the Italian Organizational Health Questionnaire
in the analysis as cofounding variables as previous studies developed by Avallone and Paplomatas (2005). Accordingly,
suggested the link of age (Yeves et al., 2019), gender (Menéndez- participants reported how managers and the organization treat,
Espina et al., 2020), job tenure (Cheng and Chan, 2008), and evaluate, and incentivize employees answering four items.
job contract (De Cuyper and De Witte, 2005) with job insecurity. Examples of items were, “The criteria for evaluating people
are fair and transparent” or “Managers treat employees fairly.”
Job Insecurity Participants were asked to rate how often the scenario described
We used a 5-item self-reported scale developed by Chirumbolo by each item occur with 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1
and Hellgren (2003) to measure job insecurity. The scale was (never) to 5 (always). The scale showed acceptable internal
aimed to assess participants’ perceived chance of losing their reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78). Participants with higher
job soon. Examples of items were, “I fear I will lose my job” scores perceived their organization as fairer and more transparent
and “I am concerned about keeping my job.” Participants in managing and evaluating their employees.
expressed their accordance with each item with 5-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree). The Job Performance
scale showed robust internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.81). The overall perceived job performance was rated using the
Participants with higher scores expressed more serious concern single item proposed by Shimazu et al. (2010): “On a scale
about the chance of keeping their current work. from 0 to 10, where 0 is the worst performance, and 10 is
the top performance, how would you rate your overall job
Work-Family Conflict performance during the past 4 weeks?” with 11-point Likert
To measure WFC, we administered a 3-item scale based on scale ranging from 0 (worst possible job performance a person
the Italian work-related stress questionnaire developed to assess could have on this job) to 10 (top job performance).

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

Statistical Analysis Job insecurity was negatively correlated with gender (1 = male),
The hypothesized model was tested using the PROCESS macro job tenure, overall job performance, and organizational justice,
v3.5 (Hayes, 2017) on SPSS (version 23). Several steps were whereas it correlated positively with WFC and burnout. As
involved in the data analysis. Firstly, we examined the variables expected, organizational justice revealed a significant negative
under investigation regarding their normality, kurtosis indices, correlation with all the study variables except for job insecurity.
and skewness. Also, means, standard deviations (SDs), Cronbach’s The hypothesized model was tested using Model 6 described
alpha, and bivariate correlation coefficients between the key by Hayes (2017), in which an independent variable (i.e., job
variables were calculated to examine the association between insecurity) is directly associated with the dependent variable
all study variables (Table 2). Cohen’s guidelines allowed us to (i.e., job performance) and indirectly associated through a serial
establish the magnitude effects (Cohen, 1988) for “small” (0.10), mediation relationship (i.e., WFC and burnout, respectively).
“medium” (0.30), and “large” (0.50) correlation effects. Next, In this sense, the model explores both the direct effect of job
using the PROCESS macro, it was possible to test the hypothesized insecurity on job performance and the indirect effect in a
models, the serial mediation, and the further moderated serial serial sequence. Table 3 displays the standardized regression
mediation model. The advantage of using PROCESS is to coefficients, standard errors (SE), and model summary
analyze the index of moderated mediation with simple soles information for the hypothesized serial mediation model. In
results (standard error, t-value, and value of p), thus deepening the model, age, gender, job tenure, and job contract were
the understanding of the relationship between variables. The included as controlling variables.
serial mediation model was quantified to determine whether Results showed a significant direct effect of job insecurity
WFC mediated the effects of job insecurity on job performance on both WFC [b(se) = 0.24 (0.05), p < 0.001, CIs (0.11;0.30)]
and whether WFC and burnout serially mediated the relationship and burnout [b(se) = 0.16 (0.03), p < 0.001, CIs (0.04;0.13)],
between job insecurity and job performance. whereas no direct effect was found on job performance
Moreover, the model tested whether organizational justice [b(se) = −0.08 (0.06), p = 0.15, CIs (−0.21;0.03)]. At higher level
moderated the association between simple and serial mediation of job insecurity, there is a significant positive association with
effects. The moderated serial mediation model is based on higher level of WFC and burnout. Moreover, WFC showed a
three linear regression analyses (Hayes, 2015). In the first significant direct effect on burnout [b(se) = 0.61 (0.03), p < 0.001,
regression analysis, the first mediator (WFC) is predicted by CIs (0.31;0.40)] but no direct effect on job performance (p > 0.05).
the independent variable (job insecurity), the moderator Burnout, in turn, revealed a significant direct and negative
(organizational justice), and the interaction between the effect on job performance [b(se) = −0.33, p < 0.001, CIs (−1.34;
independent and moderating variable (job insecurity × −0.45)].
organizational justice). In the second regression analysis, the The analysis of the indirect effects (Table 4) indicated that
second mediator (burnout) is predicted by the independent burnout mediates the relationship between job insecurity and
variable (job insecurity), the moderator (organizational justice), job performance [b(se) = 0.05 (0.02), CIs (−0.10; −0.02]. In
their interaction (job insecurity × organizational justice), and other words, job insecurity reported a positive association with
the first mediator (WFC). Finally, in the third regression analysis, job burnout that, in turn, is negatively related to employees’
the dependent variable (job performance) is predicted by the job performance. Similarly, job insecurity is related to a greater
independent variable, the moderator, their interaction, the first perception of WFC, which is negatively associated with burnout
mediator, and the second mediator (Figure 1). and, in turn, job performance. Indeed, the serial mediation
All variables in the model were centered before the analyses model was confirmed [b(se) = 0.05 (0.02), CIs (−0.08; −0.02].
to compute the interaction terms. The interaction between the The direct effect analysis revealed a non-significant relationship
independent and moderator variables was examined with simple between job insecurity and performance, thus suggesting a
slope analyses (Aiken and West, 1991). In particular, the full-serial mediation model.
conditional effects were examined at low (mean - 1 SD), medium The predictors hypothesized in the serial mediation model
(mean), and high (mean + 1 SD) values of organizational covered approximately 16% of job performance variance
justice. Indirect effects and the moderated mediation effect (R2 = 0.16). Furthermore, the results confirm the mediating role
were assessed with 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals of WFC on burnout, which, in turn, mediated the relationship
(CIs) based on 5,000 bootstrap samples (Hayes, 2015, 2017). between job insecurity and job performance. In other words,
This type of analysis allowed us to estimate the lower and the greater the job insecurity, the greater the likelihood of
upper CIs within which the indirect effect can be considered experiencing a conflict between work and family demands.
statistically significant (i.e., CIs different from zero). This discomfort becomes increasingly associated with burnout,
which may ultimately deteriorate the employee’s job performance.
The hypothesized moderated serial mediation model was
RESULTS tested using Model 84 described by Hayes (2017), in which
the independent variable (i.e., job insecurity) is directly associated
Table 2 displays the means, standard deviations, internal with the dependent variable (i.e., job performance) and indirectly
consistencies (Cronbach’s alpha), and correlations between the associated through a serial mediation relationship (i.e., WFC
study variables. All variables showed satisfactory reliability, with and burnout, respectively). In addition, the relationship between
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.70 or higher. the independent variable and the two hypothesized mediators

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

is moderated by an external variable (i.e., organizational justice).

In this sense, the model explores job insecurity’s direct and

(0.78)
indirect effects on job performance in an overall moderated

9
serial mediation path. Organizational justice was hypothesized
as a positive organizational factor that can buffer the negative
effect of an uncertain labor market. Table 4 displays the

0.26**
standardized regression coefficients, standard errors (SE), and
8

–
model summary information for the moderated serial mediation
model of job insecurity on the perceived job performance.
Table 5 presents the results of the hypothesized moderated
effect of organizational justice on the multiple mediated

−0.38**
−0.40**
(0.85)
7

relationship between job insecurity and job performance. The

regression coefficients showed a similar pattern to the previous
model, with slight effect variations. In the additional hypothesized
model, organizational justice showed a negative direct effect
0.63**
−0.26**
−0.29**
(0.81)

on both the mediators (i.e., WFC and job burnout). In other

6

words, higher level of perceived organizational justice is

significantly correlated with lower level of WFC [B(se) = −0.31
(0.06), p < 0.001, CIs (−0.43; −0.19)] and lower level of burnout
0.14**
0.20**
−0.10*
(0.89)

symptoms [B(se) = −0.14 (0.03), p < 0.001, CIs (−0.20; −0.09)].

−0.08
5

The interaction between job insecurity and organizational

justice was significant only on the first mediator (i.e., WFC)
[B(se) = −0.11 (0.05), p < 0.05; CIs (−0.22; −0.01)]. Nonetheless,
0.33**

0.23**

the conditional direct and indirect effects analysis and indices

0.12*
−0.12*
0.07
4

for the moderated serial mediation model supported the buffering

effect of organizational justice (Table 6). In more detail, the
analysis of the conditional direct effects of the total predictors
at values of the moderator (Table 7) revealed a significant effect
−0.45**

−0.16**

−0.16**
0.04
0.06
−0.08
3

at low [B(se) = 0.24 (0.07, p < 0.001; CIs (0.11; 0.37)] and
–

medium level [B(se) = 0.15 (0.05), CIs (0.05; 0.25)] of organizational

TABLE 2 | Means, SDs, Cronbach’s alpha, and correlations of the variables used in the study (N = 370).

justice. The analysis further highlighted an interesting hampering

effect at medium [B(se) = 0.07 (0.02), CIs (0.02; 0.11)] and high
−0.12*
0.01

−0.02

−0.09
0.04
−0.08
−0.10

level [B(se) = 0.10 (0.03), CIs (0.04;0.16)] of organizational justice

2

on the relationship between job insecurity and burnout. Figure 2

shows the conditional effects of low, medium, and high level of
equity on the relationship between (1) job insecurity and WFC
0.42**
**
0.11*

−0.10*

and between (2) job insecurity and burnout. Finally, the index
−0.41

−0.03
−0.01
0.04
0.05
1

of moderated mediation is a significant moderating effect of

organizational justice on the serial mediation between job insecurity
and job performance [B(se) = 0.03 (0.02), CIs (0.01; 0.06)].
These results confirmed the moderated role of organizational
Range

1–10
0–1

0–1

1–5
1–5
1–5

1–5
–

justice on the serial association between WFC and burnout,

which mediated the relationship between job insecurity and
job performance. In other words, employees reporting a high
5.79

1.07
0.94
0.60
1.22
0.80
10.0
–

level of job insecurity combined with a low level of perceived

SD

organizational justice in their work environment reported a

more significant deterioration in their job performance.
38.28
0.26
6.08

0.22

2.36
2.48
1.96
8.41
2.52
M

p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

DISCUSSION
The purpose of the current study was to extend knowledge of
Organizational justice
Work-family conflict
Gender (0 = female)

the relationship between job insecurity and job performance and

Job performance
(0 = permanent)

provide a theoretical framework that accounts for the underlying

Job insecurity
Job contract

Job burnout

variables involved in this relationship and its effects. Accordingly,

Job tenure

the general aim of this study was to explore the serial mediating
Age

role of WFC and job burnout in the relationship between job

*

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

TABLE 3 | Regression coefficients, SE, and model summary information for the serial mediation model.

WFC (M1) Burnout (M2) Job performance

b SE p b SE P b SE p

(Intercept) 2.46 0.24 < 0.001 0.90*** 0.12 < 0.001 9.73*** 0.36 <0.001
Job insecurity 0.24*** 0.05 < 0.001 0.16*** 0.03 < 0.001 −0.08 0.06 0.15
WFC – – – 0.61*** 0.03 < 0.001 −0.02 0.08 0.70
Burnout – – – −0.33*** 0.15 <0.001
Age −0.10* 0.01 0.01 −0.02 0.01 0.70 0.12* 0.01 0.04
Gender (0 = female) −0.06 0.11 0.26 0.10* 0.05 0.02 −0.08 0.14 0.14
Job tenure 0.04 0.01 0.50 0.04 0.01 0.40 −0.09* 0.01 0.11
Job contract −0.17* 0.15 0.01 −0.06 0.07 0.22 0.06 0.19 0.31
(0 = permanent)
R2 = 0.07 F(5,343) = 4.942 p < 0.001 R2 = 0.43 F(6,342) = 42.825 p < 0.001 R2 = 0.16 F(7,341) = 9.357 p < 0.001

*
p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

threats outside the organization) cannot carry out their work

TABLE 4 | Indirect, direct, and total effects of job insecurity on job performance.
tasks successfully. Also, the indirect nature of such a
95% Bootstrap relationship might be an exciting approach to adopt in future
Effect SE
CI research to deepen the understanding of how job insecurity
affects job performance, thus potentially overcoming the
Indirect effect (INS→WFC→P) −0.01 0.01 −0.04|0.03 inconsistent findings gathered so far (Lee et al., 2018). How
Indirect effect (INS→B→P) −0.05* 0.02 −0.10|−0.02
organizations respond, adapt, and react to external
Indirect effect (INS→WFC→B→P) −0.05* 0.02 −0.08|−0.02
Direct effect (INS→P) −0.09 0.06 −0.21|0.03 environment disruptions can impact the organization (e.g.,
Total effect (INS→P) −0.11*** 0.03 −0.16|−0.05 procedures, sustainability, and economics) and the individual.
The results of this study are even more interesting if viewed
INS, job insecurity; WFC, Work-family conflict; B, burnout; P, job performance. CI,
confidence interval and SE, standard error; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 or CI does
in the aftermath of the pandemic outbreak. Many have
not cross zero. recognized the pandemic as a significant stress factor for
organizations and individuals (Rigotti et al., 2021). Forced
insecurity and job performance. Additionally, a further goal was remote work may have led to experiencing the transition
to test whether organizational justice could buffer the negative negatively, with feelings of technostress (Molino et al., 2020),
association of job insecurity with WFC and burnout. little support from the supervisors (Vaziri et al., 2020), which
During the last decades, characterized by the growing in turn, may have negatively affected how people manage
instability resulting from the rapid socioeconomic and their family responsibilities, as our results might suggest.
technological changes in the labor market worldwide, job Based on our results, it is not unreasonable to hypothesize
insecurity has gained significant relevance as one of the that levels of job insecurity may have reached unsustainable
prominent antecedents of impaired job performance (Piccoli peaks during the pandemic that could have had a considerable
et al., 2021). Moreover, the subjective feeling of a threat impact on the work-family balance, ultimately deteriorating
to job stability seems progressively triggered by external job performance. Milliken et al. (2020) also discussed that
contextual pressures on organizations, which are increasingly the shift to remote work during the pandemic might have
forced to react quickly by changing processes, structures, dissolved the boundaries between work and family, creating
and activities (Lee et al., 2018). The recent pandemic has new gender dynamics. Despite the greater presence of women
severely strained various occupational sectors, many companies in the sample, the hypothesized model involved both genders,
have experienced downsizing, many more have closed, and suggesting how the job insecurity, already present in the
unemployment has risen dramatically (Rudolph et al., 2020). aftermath of the pandemic, may have exacerbated WFC in
These dynamics raise crucial questions about the impact the months that followed where both partners might have
of such insecurity on job performance, given past ambiguous shared the working remotely together. Different needs for
findings on the topic that have not helped untangle this childcare, housework, and longer working days might suggest
issue (Debus et al., 2019). the need for organizational support in this direction.
The current study provided additional insights on the Indeed, in the occupational health field, job insecurity
relationship between job insecurity and job performance, has also been a concern of most companies and academic
highlighting the potential mechanisms explaining how research due to its critical impact on employee wellbeing
performance might be impaired due to inadequate individual (Richter et al., 2014), burnout, and emotional exhaustion
and organizational responses. The obtained results suggested (De Cuyper et al., 2012; Jiang and Probst, 2017). Building
that job insecurity was negatively related to job performance, on this, the present findings revealed that job burnout
thus corroborating the assumption that employees repetitively mediated the association between job insecurity and
exposed to a perceived threat on their job’s stability (e.g., performance. In other words, employees perceiving the future

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

TABLE 5 | Regression coefficients, SE, and model summary information for the moderated serial mediation model.

Antecedent Consequent

WFC (M1) Burnout (M2) Job performance

Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p

(Intercept) 2.88*** 0.22 <0.001 1.14*** 0.12 <0.001 9.52*** 0.38 <0.001
Job insecurity 0.15** 0.05 < 0.01 0.07** 0.02 < 0.01 −0.09 0.06 0.15
WFC – – – 0.32*** 0.02 < 0.001 −0.03 0.08 0.70
Burnout – – – −0.74*** 0.14 <0.001
Organizational justice −0.31*** 0.06 < 0.001 −0.14*** 0.03 < 0.001
INS × JUS −0.11* 0.05 < 0.05 −0.04 0.02 0.09
Age −0.01 0.01 0.15 −0.01 0.01 0.90 0.01* 0.01 < 0.05
Gender (0 = female) −0.19 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.09 −0.21 0.14 0.14
Job tenure 0.01 0.01 0.90 0.01 0.01 0.60 −0.01 0.01 0.11
Job Contract −0.24 0.15 0.10 −0.03 0.07 0.63 0.19 0.19 0.31
(0 = permanent)
R2 = 0.14 F(7,341) = 7.742 p < 0.001 R2 = 0.47 F(8,341) = 38.259 p < 0.001 R2 = 0.16 F(9,340) = 10.956 p < 0.001

INS × JUS, job insecurity × organizational justice. M1 (organizational justice on the relationship between job insecurity and WFC). M2 (organizational justice on the relationship
between job insecurity and burnout); *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

TABLE 6 | Conditional direct, indirect effects, and indexes for the moderated serial mediation model.

Indirect effect (INS → WFC Direct effect (INS → JP)

Indirect effect (INS → B → JP) Indirect effect (INS → WFC → B → JP)
→ JP)
Organizational
Justice
95% 95% 95%
Effect Effect Effect Effect SE p
Bootstrap CI Bootstrap CI Bootstrap CI

−0.09 0.06 0.15

Low (−1 SD) −0.01 −0.05|0.04 −0.02 −0.08|0.03 −0.02* −0.11|−0.02
Medium (mean) −0.01 −0.03|0.02 −0.05* −0.10|−0.01 −0.01* −0.07|−0.01
High (+1 SD) −0.01 −0.02|0.01 −0.07* −0.13|−0.03 −0.02 −0.05|0.01
Index of moderated 0.01 −0.01|0.03 −0.03 −0.08|0.01 0.03* 0.01|0.06
mediation

INS, job insecurity; WFC, WFC; B, burnout; P, job performance; CI confidence interval and SE, standard errors; *p < 0.05 or CI does not cross zero.

TABLE 7 | The conditional direct effects of the focal predictor at values of the moderator.

Direct effect (INS→WFC) Direct effect (INS→B)

Organizational
justice
Effect SE 95% Bootstrap CI Effect SE 95% Bootstrap CI

Low (−1 SD) 0.24*** 0.06 0.11|0.37 0.03 0.03 −0.03|0.09

Medium (mean) 0.15** 0.05 0.06|0.25 0.07** 0.02 0.02|0.11
High (+1 SD) 0.06 0.07 −0.06|0.19 0.10*** 0.03 0.04|0.16

INS, job insecurity; Work-family conflict, WFC; B, burnout; CI, confidence interval and SE, standard errors.*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

of their current job position as highly uncertain also experience As suggested by Piccoli et al. (2021), uncertainty derived
a more significant occurrence of burnout symptoms and, from the fear of losing the job seems more likely to
consequently, a reduced ability to perform properly at work. be experienced as a hindering stressor. From the results of
The mediating role of burnout agrees with earlier empirical the present study, a mechanism could thus be delineated
findings that identified job insecurity as one of the most whereby the emergence of a feeling of job insecurity
substantial hindrance stressors that deplete employees’ energies experienced as an impeding factor is predominantly associated
and resources, thus progressively undermining employees’ with negative emotions and attitudes (e.g., burnout) that
wellbeing (Darvishmotevali and Ali, 2020). Accordingly, the may ultimately lead to behavioral withdrawal and passive
negative relationship between job insecurity and performance coping strategies (e.g., impaired performance) rather than
was mediated by burnout symptoms in the present study. reactive coping strategies.

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

A B

FIGURE 2 | Conditional effects of low, medium, and high levels of equity on the relationship between (A) job insecurity and WFC and between (B) job insecurity
and burnout.

Our findings suggest that employees perceiving solid levels forced to make difficult choices due to external pressures or
of job insecurity are more prone to experience a higher WFC, constraints that could undermine employees’ job security, the
which is related to a greater occurrence of burnout symptoms organization is perceived as fair if it puts in place clear and
and, subsequently, decreased job performance. The full-serial transparent processes to explain these choices. This can protect
mediation opens interesting future research by considering the employees’ work-family relationships and mental health and
way job insecurity is experienced at home as a key mechanism ultimately prevent reduced job performance. How the individual
influencing people’s health and wellbeing, and thus indirectly perceives and interprets these external pressures and the
their work performance. People may experience this uncertainty organization’s strategies play a crucial role in the overall
even more strongly given the potential negative impact on hypothesized process. The greater the perceived job insecurity,
work-family balance, thus undermining the health of those the greater the likelihood that employees will experience this
involved. A vicious circle in which energy is drained, and situation negatively, thus creating a vicious and potentially
performance is eventually reduced. In other words, this draining cycle over time. The role of an organization perceived
contribution could provide further insights into the underlying as fair and transparent can only mitigate the uncertainties of
conceptual dimensions of work performance, considering factors an unstable and sometimes unpredictable environment, as was
located at different levels of analysis (i.e., environmental, the case during the pandemic.
organizational, and individual). In conclusion, these results show that perceived job insecurity
In detail, external environmental pressures define the potential could lead to a lower ability to manage the family role. In line
degree of organizational instability and perceived job insecurity. with previous findings (Mauno et al., 2017), the spillover effect
It should be noted that in this sample, more than half declared transfers the fear of job loss within the family context, thus
to be employed with a permanent contract. Nevertheless, the promoting work-family imbalance (Nauman et al., 2020). The
hypothesized model is significant, suggesting a potentially pivotal present study suggests further insights to the literature by highlighting
role of the environment. Concerning this point, the organization how the relationship between job insecurity and performance
might play a crucial role on two fronts. On the one hand, can be influenced by a detrimental mechanism that initially
the way the organization reacts to external challenges and propagates at the individual level, affecting the work-family balance,
pressures defines its success and, conversely, the degree of and later impacts the mental health of individuals. In this case,
insecurity perceived by its employees (i.e., job insecurity). the significant serial mediation model suggests that the risk of
On the other hand, the way the organization internally job-related outcomes (e.g., reduced performance) cannot
manages, explains, and clarifies to employees its response to be excluded.
the external challenges plays a crucial role in terms of perceived Further evidence of the current investigation involves the
organizational justice. For example, Rodwell and Gulyas (2015) buffering role of organizational justice as a protective
highlighted how the clarity and transparency of the process organizational factor that can weaken the WFC and job burnout
behind breaches of the psychological contract allowed employees experienced by those employees perceiving a significant level
to understand the reasons for such breaches, accepting the of job insecurity. Findings suggest that perceived high levels
consequences. In other words, the level of transparency or of organizational justice may reduce the strength of the association
perceived fairness in the information shared and explanation between job insecurity and WFC. The role that an organization
given about organizational decisions are processes that and its managers can play in a climate of uncertainty becomes
organizations cannot ignore. hugely influential in terms of its impact on employees’ private
Especially in the face of the “new normal” emphasized by lives (Kyei-Poku, 2014; Nauman et al., 2020; Sánchez et al.,
the COVID-19 pandemic, this study may suggest that even if 2020). Indeed, in this study, the sense of being part of a fair

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

working environment appears to play a crucial protective role showed that one factor explained less than 50% of the variance
in employees’ ability to balance their efforts between private (i.e., 27.4%), suggesting a non-significance of the CMB (Podsakoff
and work life. In this sense, in a climate of uncertainty about et al., 2003). In contrast, future research that would replicate
own working and economic future, the possibility of relying the current study design adopting objective measures of job
on the management, capable of initiating positive social exchanges insecurity and job performance are highly encouraged.
or available to share the criteria used to evaluate the performance As a further limitation, in the present study, job insecurity
of employees, seems to promote employee’s ability to positively was assessed exclusively in terms of quantitative job insecurity,
deal with such a scenario, both at work and home. which entails the perceived threat of losing one’s job (Låstad
On the other hand, the current results indicate that the et al., 2015). In order to extend the current findings, future
detrimental association between job insecurity and burnout research implies testing the model also including a measure of
symptoms is solid when employees perceive their organizational qualitative job insecurity is also highly encouraged. Qualitative
setting as unfair, thus characterized by an inadequate level of job insecurity is defined as the employees’ concerns over loss of
justice. This result contributes to the current understanding valued conditions of the employment relationship, such as career
of organizational justice as a workplace characteristic related development opportunities and the allocation of stimulating work
to significant outcomes regarding employees’ attitudes and tasks (Chirumbolo et al., 2020). This line of research would assess
behaviors in the work environment (e.g., Yang et al., 2014). whether different facets of job insecurity exhibit a diverse impact
Consistent with previous studies, the more employees perceive on employees’ wellbeing and work outcomes.
an organizational environment that provides fair treatment, Moreover, the current study assessed organizational justice
the less the condition of job insecurity translates into adverse as an overall concept through a unidimensional scale. On the
individual and professional outcomes (Chirumbolo et al., 2020). other hand, academic literature recognizes several dimensions
of organizational justice: procedural, distributive, and
interpersonal justice (Cropanzano et al., 2007). Future studies
Study Limitations and Directions for could delve deeper into the current results by exploring whether
Further Research organizational justice’s protective role could vary across different
The current study has some limitations that should construct’ components. This focus would narrow the design
be acknowledged. The main weakness comes from employing of organizational interventions by targeting those aspects of
a cross-sectional design to assess a serial mediation model, justice more likely to deter harmful outcomes (i.e., WFC and
thus preventing the opportunity to draw definite conclusions burnout symptoms) among employees.
on the causal link explaining the relationships among the study
variables. Hence, future studies could replicate the hypothesized Practical Implications
model using a longitudinal research design with different The obtained findings contribute to the current understanding
measurement time points. These data could provide robust of organizational justice’s protective role and might help
evidence of the causal impact of perceived job insecurity on developing related interventions. Our results suggest that
WFC, burnout symptoms, and the resulting impairment of organizational justice can prevent employees’ inadequate
employees’ job performance, thus deepening the understanding responses to job insecurity from deteriorating work-family
of both the health-impairment process and the spillover effect. relationships and mental health.
An additional limitation of the current research lies on our Accordingly, employees working in an organization that
data, which are based on self-reported measures. This choice could is embedded in an unpredictable environment but promotes
have enhanced the likelihood of common method variance effects organizational fairness are less likely to experience related
among the variables under investigation (Podsakoff et al., 2003). harmful outcomes and more likely to adequately perform
Nevertheless, this limitation should be considered with prudence. the assigned tasks (i.e., job performance). These findings
First, recent research suggests that Common Method Bias (CMB) suggest that organizational justice must be carefully considered
due to self-reports is not necessarily a problem and is sometimes in the implementation of HRM practices. For instance,
overestimated (Brannick et al., 2010). In particular, WFC refers companies should provide clear guidelines on the organizational
to the perceived difficulties in managing multiple demands stemming goals that employees are supposed to meet and the procedures
from one’s roles in the work domain and private life simultaneously, to evaluate their performance. A further strategy entails
thus experiencing a perceived imbalance between these life spheres allocating suitable rewards and compensation for employees’
(Fotiadis et al., 2019). performance as an outcome of fair and equal procedures
Similarly, job burnout represents a psychological condition that guarantees equal access to these rewards (Bryant and
characterized by severe and persistent exhaustion and related Allen, 2013). The present findings become even more interesting
symptoms, mainly referred to as mental distancing from work given the pandemic’s impact on individuals and organizations.
and cognitive-emotional impairment. Therefore, subjective In a climate of uncertainty in which even organizations and
measures could be considered the most reasonable and proper managers may not have an adequate and ready counterstrategy
way to evaluate these constructs. Furthermore, it has been to deal with the unexpected and continuous changes induced
noted that several methods used to tackle CMB do not have by the external context, adopting an approach based on
the desired effects, and none answer the question definitively transparency, fairness, and clarity in communication, allocation
(Spector et al., 2019). Nevertheless, Harman’s single factor of resources and interpersonal relations could prove successful

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De Angelis et al. Job Insecurity and Job Performance

in safeguarding the health and performance of their employees. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Through role modeling, managers and supervisors might play
a pivotal role in protecting the employees’ work-family balance The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will
and performance. A family-friendly culture might mitigate be made available under request by the first author.
stressors (i.e., job insecurity) and strains (Meyer et al., 2021)
and increase perceived support from the organization and
supervisor (French and Shockley, 2020). As Vaziri et al. (2020) ETHICS STATEMENT
suggested, organizations and managers who support and
Ethical review and approval were not required for the study
provide tips to handle the boundaries between work and
on human participants in accordance with the local legislation
home to employees (i.e., interactional justice) might prevent
and institutional requirements. The patients/participants provided
a lower level of job satisfaction and job performance and
their written informed consent to participate in this study.
higher turnover intent.
Moreover, as also suggested by Giorgi et al. (2020), providing
clear and rapid information (i.e., informational justice) on how AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
to deal with the pandemic scenario and its consequences (even
if hostile) about their daily job activities and their mental MDA and GM contributed to the conceptualization, methodology,
health may prove more effective than avoiding sharing such and writing of the original draft. MDA contributed to the
information. Also, providing organizational resources, such as formal analysis. MDA, GM, and DG contributed to the
adequate protection or equipment for working from home to investigation and writing. DG contributed to the review and
all employees (i.e., distributive justice), could prove to be a editing. All authors contributed to the manuscript and approved
compelling investment in preserving employees’ mental health the submitted version.
and performance. Stanhope and Weinstein (2021) introduced
that working with employees to find the most suitable solutions
and procedures to manage workload or prioritize all available FUNDING
resources (i.e., procedural justice) should be considered a
winning strategy instead of a barrier. This paper has received funding from the European Union’s
These measures are crucial among workers experiencing a Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the
great fear of job loss. Organizations and management that are project H-WORK—Multilevel Interventions to Promote Mental
receptive to employees’ concerns (e.g., job insecurity) become Health in SMEs and Public Workplaces (grant agreement no.
an essential strategy for maintaining a high level of employee 847386). The material presented and views expressed here are
engagement and commitment to work (Wang et al., 2015). the responsibility of the authors only.
Therefore, organizations providing a significant involvement in
decision-making processes can help workers manage their
uncertainty, enabling them to remain competitive and perform ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
accordingly, particularly in complex and uncertain times as
experienced nowadays. The ways organizations treat their The authors would like to express their gratitude to Prof. Luca
employees during these times will have a crucial impact on Pietrantoni, who provided expertise and supportive comments,
their future (Rudolph et al., 2020). which significantly improved this paper.

Blustein, D. L., Duffy, R., Ferreira, J. A., Cohen-Scali, V., Cinamon, R. G., and
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Shin, Y., and Hur, W. M. (2020). When do job-insecure employees keep Publisher’s Note: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
performing well? The buffering roles of help and prosocial motivation in authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations,
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future research. J. Manag. 43, 1911–1939. doi: 10.1177/0149206317691574
Silla, I., Gracia, F. J., Mañas, M. A., and Peiró, J. M. (2010). Job insecurity and Copyright © 2021 De Angelis, Mazzetti and Guglielmi. This is an open-access
employees’ attitudes: the moderating role of fairness. Int. J. Manpower 31, article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
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