3.07.

2019

Introduction

A large number of information sources (images, video, audio, etc.) produce

analog signals. Analog signals can be modulated and transmitted directly, or
they can be converted into digital data and transmitted using digital-
modulation techniques.
Amplitude modulation is one of the techniques we may use for modulating
the analog signals. We will study four linear modulation strategies that
constitute the amplitude modulation family:
Communications • amplitude modulation (AM)

Lecture 3 – Amplitude Modulation • double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)

• single sideband (SSB)

• vestigial sideband (VSB)

Amplitude modulation Amplitude modulation

Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave 𝑐 𝑡 defined by 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 envelope

where 𝐴𝑐 is the carrier amplitude and 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency. The We observe that the envelope of 𝑠 𝑡 has essentially the same shape as the
information-bearing signal or message signal is denoted by 𝑚 𝑡 . message signal provided that two conditions are satisfied:
Amplitude modulation (AM) is formally defined as a process in which the 1. The amplitude of 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 is always less than unity: 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 < 1, for all 𝑡.
amplitude of the carrier wave 𝑐 𝑡 is varied about a mean value, linearly with
2. The carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 is much greater than the highest frequency
the message signal 𝑚 𝑡 :
component 𝑊 of the message signal 𝑚 𝑡 : 𝑓𝑐 ≫ 𝑊

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 𝑘𝑎 𝑠 𝑡
+
envelope

where 𝑘𝑎 is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator 𝑐 𝑡

responsible for the generation of the modulated signal 𝑠 𝑡 . oscillator ~
𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

Amplitude modulation Amplitude modulation

The next issue for discussion is the frequency-domain description of AM. Let
𝑀 𝑓 = ℱ 𝑚 𝑡 . Taking into account the frequency-shifting property of
Fourier transform, namely,

𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓0 = ℱ 𝑚 𝑡 ej2𝜋𝑓0𝑡
we write

ej2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + e−j2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 1 1
ℱ 𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 =ℱ 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2 2 2

Also, considering ℱ 1 = 𝛿 𝑓 , we find

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2 2

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Amplitude modulation Amplitude modulation. Example

Example 1. Single-tone modulation.

transmission bandwidth Consider a modulating wave that consists of a single tone or frequency
𝐵𝑇 = 2𝑊 component; that is, 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
where 𝐴𝑚 is the amplitude of the sinusoidal modulating wave and 𝑓𝑚 is its
frequency.

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

𝜇 : modulation index (modulation factor or percentage modulation).
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝐴𝑐 𝜇 𝐴𝑐 𝜇
= 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝜇
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
2 4
𝐴𝑐 𝜇
+ 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
4

Amplitude modulation. Example Amplitude modulation. Example

𝑆 𝑓

𝐴𝑐
2
𝐴𝑐 𝜇
4

−𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑓 𝐴𝑐

2 𝐴𝑐 𝜇
4

𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝜇
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
2 4
𝐴𝑐 𝜇
+ 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
4

Amplitude modulation. Example Amplitude modulation. Envelope detection

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 In particular, the demodulation of an AM wave can be accomplished by
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 means of a simple and yet highly effective circuit called the envelope
𝑠 𝑡 detector, provided two practical conditions are satisfied:
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 1 − 𝜇
1. The AM wave is narrowband, which means that the carrier frequency is
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 + 𝜇
= large compared to the message bandwidth.
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝜇
2. The percentage modulation in the AM wave is less than 100 percent.
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜇=
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 1
Power analysis:
𝐴2𝑚 𝐴2𝑐 𝑟𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 𝐶 ≪
𝑓𝑐
Message power Carrier power
2 2 1 1
< 𝑅𝑙 𝐶 ≪
𝑓𝑐 𝑊
𝜇 2𝐴2𝑐 Modulated signal
Modulated signal – upper sideband power
8 power
𝐴𝑐2 𝜇 2𝐴𝑐2 𝑟𝑓 is the resistance of diode
𝜇 2𝐴2𝑐 + to current flow in the forward-
Modulated signal – lower sideband power 2 4
8 biased region

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Amplitude modulation. Envelope detection Limitations of amplitude modulation

1. Amplitude modulation is wasteful of transmitted power.

2. Amplitude modulation is wasteful of channel bandwidth.

To overcome these issues, below methods are developed:

• Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)
• Single sideband (SSB)
• Vestigial sideband (VSB)

Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)

Basically, double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation

consists of the product of the message signal 𝑚 𝑡 and the carrier wave 𝑐 𝑡
as shown in the equation
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡

Accordingly, the device used to generate the DSB-SC modulated wave is

referred to as a product modulator.
𝑚 𝑡 𝑠 𝑡

𝑐 𝑡
oscillator ~ 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

Spectrum of the DSB-SC AM signal Power of the DSB-SC signal

In order to compute the power content of the DSB-SC signal, we employ the
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 definition of the power content of a signal

𝑇 /2
𝐴𝑐 1
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 𝑃 = lim න 𝐴2𝑐 cos 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚2 𝑡 d𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2
2
𝐴𝑐2 1 𝑇/2
= lim න 1 + cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚2 𝑡 d𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2 𝑇 −𝑇/2

𝐴2𝑐
= 𝑃𝑚
2

Here 𝑃𝑚 indicates the power in the message signal 𝑚 𝑡 .

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DSB-SC AM Demodulation of DSB-SC AM signals

Example 2. Let the message signal be 𝑚 𝑡 = sinc 104 𝑡 . Determine the Suppose that the DSB-SC AM signal 𝑠 𝑡 is transmitted through an ideal
DSB-SC-modulated signal when the carrier is a sinusoid with a frequency of channel (with no channel distortion and no noise). Then the received signal
1 MHz. 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋106 𝑡 sinc 104 𝑡 𝑟 𝑡 is equal to the modulated signal
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡

For 𝐴𝑐 = 1 Suppose we demodulate the received signal by first multiplying 𝑟 𝑡 by a

locally generated sinusoid cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 , where 𝜙 is the phase of the
sinusoid. Then, we pass the product signal through an ideal lowpass filter
with the bandwidth 𝑊.

𝑟 𝑡 Low-pass 𝑦 𝑡
filter

t = 0:0.00000085:0.0005;
s = cos(2.*pi.*1e6.*t).*sin...
(pi.*1e4.*t)./(pi.*1e4.*t);
plot(t,s) local 𝐴𝑐′ cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙
xlabel('t') oscillator
~
ylabel('s(t)')

Demodulation of DSB-SC AM signals Demodulation of DSB-SC AM signals

𝑟 𝑡 𝑣1 𝑡 Low-pass 𝑦 𝑡
filter 𝐴𝑐 𝐴′𝑐
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜙
2

Note that 𝑚 𝑡 is multiplied by cos 𝜙 ; therefore, the power in the demodulated

local
~ 𝐴𝑐′ cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 signal is decreased by a factor of cos 2 𝜙 . Thus, the desired signal is scaled in
oscillator
amplitude by a factor that depends on the phase 𝜙 of the locally generated
𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 𝐴′𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 sinusoid. When 𝜙 ≠ 0, the amplitude of the desired signal is reduced by the
𝐴𝑐 𝐴′𝑐
= 𝐴𝑐 𝐴′𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 𝑚 𝑡 = cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 + cos 𝜙 𝑚 𝑡 factor cos 𝜙 . If 𝜙 = 45°, the amplitude of the desired signal is reduced by 2
2
and the signal power is reduced by a factor of 2. If 𝜙 = 90°, the desired signal
component vanishes.

This shows the need for a coherent detector or synchronous demodulator for
recovering the message signal 𝑚 𝑡 from the received signal. That is, the phase
𝐴𝑐 𝐴′𝑐 𝜙 of the locally generated sinusoid should ideally be equal to 0 (the phase of the
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜙
2 received-carrier signal). This can be achieved by using Costas receiver.

Costas receiver Costas receiver

I-channel The detector in the upper path is referred to as the in-phase coherent
𝐴𝑐
𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜙 𝑦 𝑡
Low-pass 2 detector or I-channel, and the detector in the lower path is referred to as the
filter
quadrature-phase coherent detector or Q-channel.
cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙
We know that the I-channel output is proportional to cos 𝜙 and for small 𝜙;
phase hence, the I-channel output remains essentially unchanged so long as 𝜙 is
~ discriminator
voltage-controlled small. But there will now be some signal, albeit small, appearing at the Q-
oscillator
channel output, which is proportional to for small 𝜙. Thus, by combining the
𝑟 𝑡
I-channel and Q-channel outputs in a phase discriminator (which consists of
−90°
phase-shifter a multiplier followed by a time-averaging unit), a DC control signal
proportional to the phase drift 𝜙 is generated. With negative feedback acting
sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 around the Costas receiver, the control signal tends to automatically correct
for the local phase error in the voltage-controlled oscillator.
Low-pass
filter 𝐴𝑐
𝑚 𝑡 sin 𝜙
Q-channel 2

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Single-sideband modulation (SSB) Single-sideband modulation (SSB)

In suppressing the carrier, DSB-SC modulation takes care of a major Consider a DSB-SC modulator using the sinusoidal modulating wave

limitation of AM that pertains to the wastage of transmitted power. To take 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

care of the other major limitation of AM that pertains to channel bandwidth, With carrier
we need to suppress one of the two sidebands in the DSB-SC modulated 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

wave. This modification of DSB-SC modulation is precisely what is done in the resulting DSB-SC modulated wave is
single sideband (SSB) modulation. In effect, SSB modulation relies solely on
𝑠𝐷𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
the lower sideband or upper sideband to transmit the message signal across
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
= cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
a communication channel. Depending on which particular sideband is 2 2
actually transmitted, we speak of lower SSB or upper SSB modulation.
upper single-sideband lower single-sideband

𝐴𝑐 𝐴 𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑠𝑈𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑠𝐿𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2

Single-sideband modulation (SSB) Single-sideband modulation (SSB)

With known trigonometric identities, these can be rewritten as Consider a periodic message signal defined by the Fourier series

𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴 𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑠𝑈𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑛𝑡
2 2
𝑛

𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴 𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑠𝐿𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 which consists of a mixture of sinusoidal waves with harmonically related
2 2
frequencies. The modulated SSB signal will then be

So the single-sideband modulated signal can be expressed in a general form 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐

𝑠𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑛𝑡 ∓ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑛 𝑡
2 2
𝑛 𝑛
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴 𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑠𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ∓ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 Next, let us consider another periodic signal defined by the Fourier series
2 2

ෝ 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑎𝑛 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑛 𝑡
𝑚
𝑛
So we can write
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝑠𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 ∓ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚
ෝ 𝑡
2 2

Generation of an SSB modulated signal Generation of an SSB modulated signal

𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 Generation of an SSB-AM signal by filtering one of the sidebands of a DSB-

𝑠𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 ∓ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚
ෝ 𝑡
2 2
SC AM signal.

𝑚 𝑡

𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 Bandpass

filter
~ 𝑚 𝑡 𝑠𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡
voltage-controlled
Hilbert oscillator
transform +
𝑠𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡
𝑗 , 𝑓<0 −90° ~ 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
phase-shifter
H 𝑓 = −𝑗 , 𝑓>0

0 , 𝑓=0
𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

𝑚
ෝ 𝑡

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SSB Demodulation of SSB modulated signal

Example 3. Suppose that the modulating signal is a sinusoid of the form The demodulation techniques for DSB-SC modulated signals can be used
𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 , 𝑓𝑚 ≪ 𝑓𝑐
for SSB modulated signals as well.
𝑟 𝑡 Low-pass 𝑦 𝑡
Determine the two possible SSB-AM signals. filter
𝑚
ෝ 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝑠𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 ∓ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚
ෝ 𝑡
2 2 ~ 𝐴′𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝑠𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ∓ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2
𝐴𝑐 𝐴′𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝐴′𝑐
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜙 + 𝑚
ෝ 𝑡 sin 𝜙
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 2 2
𝑠𝑈𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑠𝐿𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2
Costas receiver can be preferred to have 𝜙 = 0. That will accomplish the
task. The result will be
𝐴𝑐 𝐴′𝑐
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡
2

Vestigial-sideband (VSB) amplitude modulation Vestigial-sideband (VSB) amplitude modulation

Single-sideband modulation works satisfactorily for an information-bearing To overcome these two practical limitations, we need a compromise method
signal (e.g., speech signal) with an energy gap centered around zero of modulation that lies somewhere between SSB and DSB-SC in its spectral
frequency. However, for the spectrally efficient transmission of wideband characteristics. Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation distinguishes itself from
signals, we have to look to a new method of modulation for two reasons: SSB modulation in two practical respects:
1. Instead of completely removing a sideband, a trace or vestige of that
1. Typically, the spectra of wideband signals (exemplified by television video
sideband is transmitted; hence, the name “vestigial sideband.”
signals and computer data) contain significant low frequencies, which make
it impractical to use SSB modulation. 2. Instead of transmitting the other sideband in full, almost the whole of this
second ban is also transmitted.
2. The spectral characteristics of wideband data befit the use of DSB-SC.
Accordingly, the transmission bandwidth of a VSB modulated signal is
However, DSB-SC requires a transmission bandwidth equal to twice the
defined by
message bandwidth, which violates the bandwidth conservation requirement.
𝐵𝑇 = 𝑓𝑣 + 𝑊

where 𝑓𝑣 is the vestige bandwidth and 𝑊 is the message bandwidth.

Typically, 𝑓𝑣 is 25 percent of 𝑊, which means that the VSB bandwidth lies
between the SSB bandwidth, 𝑊, and DSB-SC bandwidth, 2𝑊.

VSB modulator VSB demodulator

VSB modulator using frequency discrimination VSB modulator using frequency discrimination
𝑣 𝑡 Ideal low-
pass filter
VSB shaping 𝑟 𝑡 𝑓 ≤𝑊
filter 𝑦 𝑡
𝑚 𝑡 𝐻 𝑓 𝑠𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑡

~ cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

~ 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
1
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑉 𝑓 = 𝑆 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2 𝑉𝑆𝐵
𝐴𝑐
𝑠𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑓 = 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 𝐻 𝑓
2
1 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑐 𝑉 𝑓 = 𝑀 𝑓 − 2𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 𝐻 𝑓 − 𝑓𝐶 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 2𝑓𝑐 𝐻 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐶
𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑓 = 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 𝐻 𝑓 2 2 2
2

low-pass filter rejects these terms

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VSB demodulator VSB filter characteristics

VSB modulator using frequency discrimination

𝑣 𝑡 Ideal low-
pass filter
𝑟 𝑡 𝑓 ≤𝑊 𝑦 𝑡

~ cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

𝐴𝑐
𝑌 𝑓 = 𝑀 𝑓 𝐻 𝑓 − 𝑓𝐶 + 𝐻 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐶
4

The signal at the output of the lowpass filter must be undistorted. Hence, the
VSB filter characteristic must satisfy the condition

𝐻 𝑓 − 𝑓𝐶 + 𝐻 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐶 = constant , 𝑓 ≤𝑊

VSB filter characteristics VSB in television signals

Frequency response of the VSB filter for selecting the lower sideband of the VSB plays a key role in commercial TV. The exact details of the modulation format used to
transmit the video signal characterizing a TV system are influenced by two factors:
message signals.
1. The video signal exhibits a large bandwidth and significant low-frequency content, which
suggest the use of vestigial sideband modulation.

2. The circuitry used for demodulation in the receiver should be simple and therefore
inexpensive. This suggests the use of envelope detection, which requires the addition of a
carrier to the VSB modulated wave.

Signal multiplexing Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

When we use a message signal m(t) to modulate the amplitude of a

sinusoidal carrier, we translate the message signal by an amount equal to
the carrier frequency fc. If we have two or more message signals to transmit
simultaneously over the communication channel, we can have each
message signal modulate a carrier of a different frequency, where the
minimum separation between two adjacent carriers is either 2 W (for DSB
AM) or W (for SSB AM), where W is the bandwidth of each of the message
signals. Thus, the various message signals occupy separate frequency
bands of the channel and do not interfere with one another during
transmission. Combining separate message signals into a composite signal
for transmission over a common channel is called multiplexing. There are
two commonly used methods for signal multiplexing:
(1) time-division multiplexing (TDM – mostly used to transmit digital info.)
(2) frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

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Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) Quadrature-carrier multiplexing

FDM is widely used in radio and telephone communications. In telephone Another type of multiplexing allows us to transmit two message signals on
communications, each voice-message signal occupies anominal bandwidth the same carrier frequency. This type of multiplexing uses two quadrature
of 4 kHz. The message signal is single-sideband modulated for bandwidth- carriers, 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 and 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 . To elaborate, suppose that 𝑚1 𝑡
efficient transmission. In the first level of multiplexing, 12 signals are stacked and 𝑚2 𝑡 are two separate message signals to be transmitted over the
in frequency, with a frequency separation of 4 kHz between adjacent carriers. channel. The signal 𝑚1 𝑡 amplitude modulates the carrier 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 , and
Thus, a composite 48-kHz channel, called a group channel, transmits the 12 the signal 𝑚2 𝑡 amplitude modulates the quadrature carrier 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 .
voice-band signals simultaneously. In the next level of FDM, a number of The two signals are added together and transmitted over the channel.
group channels (typically five or six) are stacked together in frequency to Hence, the transmitted signal is
form a supergroup channel. Then the composite signal is transmitted over
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚1 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑚2 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
the channel. Higher-order multiplexing is obtained by combining several
supergroup channels. Thus, an FDM hierarchy is employed in telephone Therefore, each message signal is transmitted by DSB-SC AM. This type of
communication systems. signal multiplexing is called quadrature-carrier multiplexing. Quadrature-
carrier multiplexing results in a bandwidth-efficient communication system
that is comparable in bandwidth efficiency to SSB AM.

Quadrature-carrier multiplexing AM radio broadcasting

AM radio broadcasting is a familiar form of communication via analog signal
transmission. Commercial AM radio broadcasting utilizes the frequency band
535-1605 kHz for the transmission of voice and music. The carrier-frequency
allocations range from 540-1600 kHz with 10 kHz spacing.

The receiver most commonly used in AM radio broadcast is the so-called

superheterodyne receiver shown in Figure. 𝑓𝐼𝐹 is 455 kHz.

𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝐼𝐹

𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝐼𝐹

Problems Problems

Example 4. The message signal 𝑚 𝑡 = 2 cos 4000𝜋𝑡 + 5 cos 6000𝜋𝑡 is used Example 5. In a DSB system, the carrier is 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 and the
to modulate the carrier wave 𝑐 𝑡 = 100 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 where the carrier message signal is given by 𝑚 𝑡 = sinc 𝑡 + sinc 2 𝑡 . Find the frequency-
frequency is 50 kHz. Write down the time-domain expression of the DSB-SC domain representation and the bandwidth of the modulated signal.
modulated signal. Determine and sketch the spectrum of the DSB-SC signal.

𝑆 𝑓

Bandwidth of
the bandpass
filter is 2

𝑓
−𝑓𝑐 − 1 −𝑓𝑐 + 1 𝑓𝑐 − 1 𝑓𝑐 + 1

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Problems Problems

Example 6. A message signal 𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2000𝜋𝑡 + 2 cos 4000𝜋𝑡 modulates Example 7. An AM signal is generated by modulating the carrier 𝑓𝑐 = 800
the carrier 𝑐 𝑡 = 100 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 where 𝑓𝑐 = 1 MHz to produce the DSB signal kHz by the signal 𝑚 𝑡 = sin 2000𝜋𝑡 + 5 cos 4000𝜋𝑡 . The AM signal
𝑚 𝑡 𝑐 𝑡 . Determine the expression for the upper-sideband (USB) signal. 𝑠 𝑡 = 100 1 + 𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
Determine and sketch the spectrum of the USB signal.
is fed to a 50-Ω load. a) Determine and sketch the spectrum of the AM signal.
b) Determine the average power in the carrier and in the sidebands. c) What
is the modulation index? d) What is the peak power delivered to the load?

Problems Problems

Example 8. An SSB-AM signal is generated by modulating an 800 kHz Example 9. The message signal 𝑚 𝑡 , whose spectrum is given below, is
carrier by the signal 𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2000𝜋𝑡 + 2 sin 2000𝜋𝑡 . The amplitude of the passed through the system shown below. Find the spectrum of 𝑦4 𝑡 . The
carrier is 𝐴𝑐 = 100. a) Determine the signal 𝑚
ෝ 𝑡 . b) Determine the (time- bandpass filter has a bandwidth of 2 W centered at 𝑓0 (𝑓0 ≫ 𝑊), and the
domain) expression for the lower sideband of the SSB-AM signal. c) lowpass filter has a bandwidth of W.
Determine the magnitude spectrum of the lower-sideband-SSB signal.

Problems

𝑌4 𝑓

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