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R. A. 9292 – Part 1
Republic Act No. 9292 9 32
Term of Office Integrated and Accredited
Professional Organization
Otherwise known as the Electronics and
10
Compensation and Allowances of
Communications Engineering Act of the
Philippines. Excel Review Center
the Board 33 Foreign Reciprocity

11
Positions in Government
Removal of Board Members
34
Requiring the Services of
Law Repealed R. A. No. 5734
Registered and Licensed PECE,
12
Approved April 17, 2004 Custodian of Board Records,
Secretariats & Support Services ECE and ECT
Gloria Macapagal
Approved by
Arroyo
Franklin Drilon 13 Licensure Examination 35 Penal Provision

36
Jose De Venecia Jr Assistance of Law Enforcement
Signatories
Oscar Yabes 14 Qualifications for Examinations
and other Government Agencies
Excel Review Center Roberto Nazareno
15 37
Scope of Examination for ECE Transitory Provision
House Bill No. 5224 and ECT
Senate Bill No. 2683
16 38
Excel Review Center Vested Rights: ECE when this
No. of Sections 43 Ratings
Law is Passed
No. of Articles 8
17
Release of the Results of
39
Implementing Rules and
Articles Excel Review Center Examination Regulations

1 18 40
General Provisions Qualifications and Schedule of Appropriations
Registration for PECE

2 19 41
Professional Regulatory Board or Issuance of the Certification of Separability Clause
Electronics Engineering Registration and Professional ID

3 42
Examination, Registration and
20
Registration without Repealing Clause
Licensure Examination for ECT

4 Practice of PECE, ECE and ECT

21
Non-issuance of a Certificate of
Registration and/or Professional 43 Effectivity
ID card for Certain Grounds
5 Sundry Provisions
Definition of Terms
22 Professional Oath Excel Review Center
6
Penal Provision and Assistance of
Law Enforcement Agencies Electronics – development and
Revocation & Suspension of
application systems involving
7 23
Certificate of Registration,
Transitory Provisions flow of electrons in any media.
Professional ID Cards and
Cancellation of Special Permits
8 Final Provision
Reinstatement, Re-issuance or
Computer – can record data, execute
programs.
24
Replacement of Certificate of
Sections Excel Review Center Registration and Professional ID Information and Communications
1 Short Title Card Technology – acquisition to storage

25
of
Roster of PECE, ECE and ECT
2 Statement of Policy data and info. By electronic
means in vocal, textual, etc.
26
Exemption from Examination
3
Definition and Interpretation of and Registration
Terms Communications – process of
27 Practice of the Profession sending/receiving information
4 Categories of Practices
Prohibitions and Limitations on
bet. 2 or more points by any
media.
5
Nature and Scope of Practice of 28 the Practice of ECE and ECT Excel Review Center
ECE and ECT Professions Profession Telecommunications – any

6 29 Seal of PECE transmission/reception of voice,

Composition of the Board
data, text, etc. by wire, radio,
light, electromagnetic and
7 30
Code of Ethics and Code of
Powers and Functions of the Board technological means.
Technical Standard of Practice

8
Continuing Professional
Qualification of Board Members Broadcasting – transmission of
Excel Review Center 31 Education (CPE) and/or
audio, video, etc. for reception of
Development Programs
broad audience via wired or
wireless.
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R. A. 9292 – Part 2
Republic Act No. 9292 Powers and Functions of continuation…
✓ Delegate hearing filed before it to
Continuation ….
the ECE Board authorized officers of the
✓ Administer provisions of RA9292 Commission except when the
Definition of Terms ✓ Administer oaths practice of the PECE, ECE and ECT is
Continuation… Excel Review Center ✓ Issue, suspend or revoke certificate involved then 1 member of the
Industrial Plant – manufacturing of registration and professional ID Board assisted by a Legal or Hearing
establishments and businesses of PECE, ECE and ECT Officer.
where electronic machineries are ✓ Roster of PECE, ECE, ECT ✓ Promulgate resolutions subject to
installed, used, sold, operated, etc. ✓ Issue, suspend or cancel special appeal within 15 days from receipt
permits to foreign PECE, ECE, ECT of Commission which may dismiss
Commercial Establishment – ✓ Prescribe or revise the syllabi of the case, deny the appeal, etc. If no
buildings used for business or subjects for licensure exam appeal is taken after 15 days, it will
profit where electronic or ✓ Make program for full be final and immediately
electronically-controlled computerization of licensure exam enforceable.
equipment are installed, used, sold, ✓ Registration without exam, subject ✓ Submit an annual action plan and
operated, etc. to review and approval of the report at the beginning and close of
Commission Excel Review Center the fiscal year on activities of the
Consulting Services – services ✓ Examine/Recommend schools, Board Excel Review Center
requiring technical expertise and colleges, and universities seeking ✓ Discharge such other powers of the
professional capability for advisory permission to open ECE-related Board may be necessary for
or review, design, etc. in the field of courses in accordance to CHED, development of PECE, ECE, ECT
electronics engineering TESDA, APO and other government profession. Except in administrative
agencies concerned. Provided that cases, all policies promulgated by
Accredited Professional Organization the Board shall redefine the the Board are subject for review by
(APO) – integrated/accredited curricula of the schools, colleges the Commission.
national organization of PECEs, universities to define the minimum
ECEs, ECTs (IECEP) requirements for the graduates to Qualifications of Board
qualify to take the licensure exam.
✓ Inspect educational institutions Members
Scope and Nature: ECE regarding the school permits, 1. Citizen and resident of Philippines
Includes ECE Principles, administration, authorization, opening, upgrading, at least 5 years prior to appointment
management, supervision of such and closure of such offering ECE and 2. Good moral character
principles, teaching and training ECT courses. 3. Holder of valid certificate of
activities ✓ Administer Code of Ethics and a registration and professional ID as
Scope and Nature: PECE Code of Technical Standards of PECE
Includes scope of ECE plus consulting Practice for PECE, ECE, ECT. 4. Member of good standing in APO
services, sign and seal design, plans, ✓ Promulgate rules for PECE, ECE, ECT 5. Active practice of ECE profession for
schematics, etc. ✓ Program for continuing professional at least 10 years (self-employed or
education or development of PECE, gov’t or private sector)
Scope and Nature: ECT ECE, ECT Excel Review Center 6. Must not have biases for any
Includes any non-engineering work ✓ Prescribe minimum manpower educational institution conferring
relating to installation, operation, requirements for PECE, ECE, ECT in admission to ECE/ECT or review
control, test, sales/marketing, etc. of any industrial and commercial plants. classes offering or be a member of
electronic devices on any location ✓ Formulate rules for electronics the faculty prior to oath
installations in buildings covered by 7. Must not be convicted
Board of ECE National Building Code of the Term of Office of Board
➢ Supervised by PRC Philippines in coordination with 3 years from appointment or until the
➢ Composed of chairman with 2 DPWH successors are re-appointed (vacancies
members ✓ Study conditions affecting PECE, can be filled w/in the term only if the
➢ Appointed by The President of ECE, ECT, adopt measures for member may be reappointed more than
Philippines from the 3 advancement of profession; conduct once and has a tenure less than 6
recommendees per position chosen ocular inspection to buildings where years). The President of the Philippines
by the Commission where the PECE, ECE and ECT are employed. upon recommendation of the
recommendees chosen were from 5 ✓ Hear violations on this Act, Code of Commission may suspend/remove a
nominees per position submitted by Ethics and Code of Technical member of the Board if rigging,
APO (IECEP). Standards of Practice, issue tampering, etc. in licensure exam took
subpoena ad testificandum and/or place.
Excel Review Center Excel Review Center
subpoena duces tecum.
✓
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R. A. 9292 – Part 3
✓ Foreigner shall not engage in
Republic Act No. 9292 private practice
Seal of PECE (Section 29)
Continuation… Excel Review Center ✓ 2 Filipino professionals shall be A dry seal consisting of two concentric
circles with the outer circle measuring
Qualifications for ECE and employed per foreigner hired
✓ The special permit is good for 48 mm in diameter and the inner circle
ECT Examinations only 6 months, and can be measuring 32 mm in diameter with the
appearance of an atom with a nucleus
✓ Citizen of the Philippines or foreign renewed every 6 months
and electron on the upper portion, a
country according to section 33 of this horizontal space bearing the word
Act Penal Provision (Section 35) LICENSE NO. and just below is the
✓ Good moral character The following will be penalized with not license number. The portion of the
✓ For ECE – BSECE graduate or less than PHP100,000 nor not more than inner circle below the diametral space
equivalent PHP1M or by imprisonment of not less shall bear the name of the person
✓ For ECT – graduate of associate, than 6 months nor not more than 6 years. holding the Professional Electronics
technician or vocational course; 1. Fraud Engineer license. The upper portion of
minimum 3rd year equivalent of BSECE 2. Using of others ID the annular space bears the words
3. Present revoked ID PROFESSIONAL ELECTRONICS
Qualifications for PECE 4. Pretend as certified PECE, ECE, ECT ENGINEER and the lower portion bear
✓ Valid certificate of registration and 5. Use seal with revoked ID the word PHILIPPINES.
professional ID as ECE 6. Violation of this act, code of ethics and
✓ Valid membership from APO the code of technical standards of
✓ Active self-practice/government practice Excel Review Center
service/private sector for 7 years with Other important Provisions
2 years of significant engineering All records of the Board
work from oath as ECE Section 12 shall be kept by the
✓ 3 certificates from 3 PECE’s stating the Commission
documents as factual Professional Oath – a
✓ En banc oral interview for verification Section 22 prerequisite to practicing Excel Review Center
✓ Provided that registered ECE’s for at
least 7 years may not submit the 3
as PECE, ECE and ECT Seal of Board (Section 29)
Reinstatement of The seal consists of two concentric
certificates Certificate of Registration circles, with the outside circle
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Section 24 and Professional ID is after measuring 48 mm in diameter and the
Board Examination 2 years inner circle measuring 28 mm in
✓ To pass the exam: average of more Excel Review Center diameter. The upper part of the
than 70% with the minimum of 70% All PECE shall obtain and annular space bears the words BOARD
each subject. use a seal of a design OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING and
✓ Conditionally passed: average of more prescribed by the Board lower half the words PROFESSIONAL
Section 29
than 70% of majority of subjects but bearing the registrant’s REGULATION COMMISSION. The inner
one subject has below 70% but above name, registration circle space has the symbol of an atom
60%. number, and title with a nucleus and electrons located at
✓ Release results within 15 days The Board shall adopt the middle portion. The outer and inner
Section 30 code of ethics ring is filled with orange with
Exemptions from promulgated by the APO boundaries in navy blue color, the text
There shall be only one is black with white background, the
Examinations (Section 26) Section 32
integrated and Accredited inner ring is filled with navy blue
Exam and registration are not required if Professional Organization background, the atom with white and
you are employed by government or (APO) in the country the nucleus and electrons in red color.
private company in the following cases: Foreigners are allowed to Excel Review Center
1. No other Filipino professional practice in the Philippines
available only if our professionals
2. Stated as temporary employment of a can also practice the
Section 33
foreign professional profession in their country
3. As defined on the Trade in Services as stated in foreign
provided: agreement
✓ The foreigner is qualified Excel Review Center
✓ The work of foreigner is limited to All Electronics and
what is stated in contract Communications
Section 36
✓ Secure a permit from commission Engineers will become
Foreigner shall not engage in Electronics Engineers
private practice
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Engineering Economy
Sampaloc, Manila 09176239235 Page 1

What is Economics? Simple Interest Where:

P = Principal
Economics is a social science This type of interest is computed i = interest per period
only on the principle and is I = Pin
concerned with the production, n = number of periods
distribution and consumption of goods commonly used in variable rate
and services and studies how consumer lending and in FUTURE AMOUNT, F
individuals, businesses, governments mortgage load where a borrower
and nations make choices on allocating pay interest only on funds used.
resources to satisfy their wants and Usually this type of interest is
needs and tries to determine how these used for a period less than one
groups should organize and coordinate year. Excel Review Center F = P(1 + in)
efforts to achieve maximum output.

Engineering Economics Ordinary Simple Interest Exact Simple Interest

Based on one Banker’s year. Banker’s year is Based on the exact number of days in a
Refers to the analysis and evaluation of a year that consists of 12 months, each having given year.
monetary consequences by using the 30 days and amounts to a 360-day year.
Normal Year: Leap Year:
theories and principles of economics to Excel Review Center
engineering applications, designs
Excel Review and
Center d Where: d d
projects. n= d = number of days n= n=
Excel Review Center 360 365 366

Interest Compound Interest This type of interest is computed on

the principle as well as the interest already earned. The interest may be
Is the charge for borrowing of money or
compounded monthly, quarterly, semiannually or annually, etc.
the amount paid to the borrowed capital.
FUTURE AMOUNT, F PRESENT WORTH, P
Nominal Rate of Interest
Nominal Rate (NR) is the advertised rate
and is the sum of the periodic rates in
one-year period. Also known as Excel Review Center
Annualized Percentage Rate (APR). Where:
F
Excel Review Center F = P(1 + i) n P= i = interest per period
NR Where: (1 + i)n n = number of periods
i= m = number of time money
m Excel Review Center
earns interest in one year

n = Nm
N = number of years Continuously compounded Unlike compound interest
where the money earns interest quarterly or annually depending on how it was
compounded, money invested in continuously compounded interest earns interest
Example: Excel Review Center every second immediately starting from the time the money is invested.
12 % compounded quarterly for 5 years Where: Excel Review Center
FUTURE AMOUNT, F
P = Principal
NR = 0.12 e = Mathematical constant,
M=4 N=5 F = Pert Euler’s number = 2.718…
r = rate of interest
Mode of compounding: t = period in years
Annually –> m = 1 Monthly -> m = 12 Inflation It is the rate at which the
Semiannually -> m = 2 Semimonthly -> general level of prices for goods and Discount Refers to the
Quarterly -> m = 4 m = 24 services is rising and consequently, the difference between the future
Bimonthly -> m = 6 Daily -> m = 365 purchasing power of currency is falling. worth and the present worth.
Effective Rate of Interest Where:
The rate of discount, d is the
Effective Rate (ER) is the annual rate of F=P
(1 + i ) n
P = Principal
discount on one unit of principal
i = interest rate
interest earned during a one-year period. (1 + f ) n per unit time. Excel Review Center
f = inflation rate
Where:
m = number of time money 1
d = 1−
earns interest in one year 1+ i
Excel Review Center d
i=
1− d
Excel Review Center
 EXCEL REVIEW CENTER ENGINEERING SCIENCES

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Engineering Economy
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Review Center

Annuity A uniform series of payments Depreciation The reduction or fall of the

occurring at equal interval of time. value of an asset due to constant use and passage of time.

Types of Annuity Excel Review Center Methods of Computing Depreciation

1. ORDINARY ANNUITY 1. STRAIGHT LINE METHOD Annual dep. charge
A type of annuity where the payments are made at the end of
each period starting from the first period.
Sum:

Total dep after m years

Present worth:
Book value after m years

First cost – purchased price + all expenses to make

equipment operational
Salvage value – also called Second-hand value
Scrap value – also known as Junk value
2. ANNUITY DUE
A type of annuity where the payments are made at the 2. SINKING FUND METHOD
beginning of each period starting from the first period. In this method, interest is included in computing the depreciation.

Excel Review Center

Annual dep. charge Total dep. after m years Book value after m years
Excel Review Center

3. DEFERRED ANNUITY
A type of annuity that does not start immediately on the Excel Review Center
beginning of each period 3. DECLINING BALANCE METHOD
Also known as Constant Percentage Method
Matheson Formula This method cannot
For present worth,
have a salvage value
Use compound
of zero!
interest formula
k = constant percentage

4. SUM-OF-YEARS DIGIT (SYD) METHOD

Corresponding dep charges:
Excel Review Center
4. PERPETUITY
An ordinary annuity that continues indefinitely or forever.

Sum of perpetuity
Excel Review Center

is always equal to Sum of year:

infinity

Excel Review Center Excel Review Center

… and so on.
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Chemistry Part 1
What is Chemistry? The Scientific Method
are based on them (e.g. Big Bang
Theory). Theories can be proved or
Chemistry is the branch of It is a systematic approach to research disproved in new experiments. In
science that deals with the used in almost all types of engineering other words, it is flexible enough to
study of matter. It also sciences. This is the way scientists, be modified if new experiments and
deals with the processes chemists, physicists and biologists study findings are introduced
and the changes that everything around them.
matter undergoesmatter
and is the basis of other 4. Model – it is a visual, verbal, or
The scientific method is a process of mathematical explanation of
engineering sciences such as biology, defining a problem, making experiments,
physics, thermodynamics, just to name a experimental results that is only
collecting data, interpreting the data, accurate under certain conditions and
few. The concepts and principles in formulating a hypothesis, and
chemistry are integral to modern-day in certain environments. Unlike
summarizing the data in a way that is scientific laws, models are not
applications such as health and medicine, simple and precise.
alternative energy sources, development of universal. Excel Review Center
new materials and technologies, and food Any test or trial that is used to collect

Matter
and agriculture, even though its roots can information or data to answer a specific
be traced to hundreds of years as one of the set of questions or inquiries is called an
earliest, if not the earliest branch of experiment. Excel Review Center It is anything that
science. Excel Review Center
has mass and
Chemistry comes from
the Arabic word kimia,
Data occupies space.

which means alchemy. Data refers to the raw information Mass is a measurement of the amount of
collected from the experiments. Once the matter in a certain object.
Alchemy is usually considered as the data are organized, they are now referred
earliest form of chemistry. to as results. If one makes deductions Matter
from the results, they are now referred to Yes No
Branches of Chemistry
Can it be physically
as conclusions. separated?

1. Organic Chemistry – It deals with the Mixture

Matter Pure Substance
Two Types of Data:
study of the chemical substances that
Yes Is the composition No Yes Can it be chemically No
contains carbon-carbon bonds. 1. Qualitative Data – general uniform? decomposed?
Examples: Pharmaceuticals, plastics statements about one’s observation Homogeneous Heterogeneous Compound Element
(Solution)
on the system
2. Inorganic Chemistry – It deals with Examples: color, odor, shape Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples:
the study of the chemical substances air, steel, saline blood, dirt, milk, carbon dioxide, Oxygen, Gold,
solution, etc. oil and water, etc. salt, water, etc. Hydrogen, etc.
that do not contain carbon-carbon 2. Quantitative Data – numbers
bonds.
Examples: Studying metals, minerals,
obtained by measuring certain
parameters of the system
States of
Matter
semiconductors Example: mass, length, volume
Excel Review Center
3. Physical Chemistry – It deals with the Four Ways to Summarize the Data:
behavior and changes of matter and the Excel Review Center
related energy changes. 1. Hypothesis – it is a statement 1. Solid – molecules of matter at this state are
Examples: Reaction rates, reaction
produced out of few observations closely held together in an orderly sequence
mechanisms without much experimental evidence. such that they are not free to move. Solids are
It is a possible explanation for what rigid and are almost incompressible.
4. Analytical Chemistry – It deals with has been observed.
the study of the different components 2. Liquid – molecules of matter at this state are
and composition of substances. farther apart compared to molecules of solid.
2. Law – it is a statement produced out
Examples: Food nutrients Liquids can flow and it follows the shape of its
of thorough research and container. Like solids, they are hard to
experimentation that indicates the compress.
5. Biochemistry – It deals the study of
relationships between different
matter and processes in living phenomena that is always the same 3. Gas – molecules of mater at this state are
organisms. separated by large distances relative to the size
under the same conditions (e.g.
Examples: Metabolism, Fermentation Newton’s Law of Motions, Ideal Gas of the molecules. Hence, molecules are free to
Law, etc.). Scientific laws stand the move randomly at different directions. Gases
The Future of Education! test of time. also flow, and are easier to compress compared
Excel Review Center to solids and liquids. They follow the volume
and the shape of their containers. In general,
Like us on Facebook 3. Theory – it is a unifying principle liquids and gases are classified as fluids, or
alterguru.com that explains a body of facts and/or substances that have the ability to flow.
those laws that
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Chemistry Part 2
As heat is added to a substance, it
States of Matter Continuation... melts into a liquid at its melting
Matter occurs the in three different forms point, boils into a gas at its boiling
depending on the conditions of the point, and if heated high enough
surroundings. For example, water, which is would enter a plasma state in which
one of the most common substances we the electrons are so energized that
will ever see, can occur in different forms Excel Review Center they leave their parent atoms.
depending on the temperature. At normal
temperature, it is liquid in form. Raising Excel Review Center
the temperature above its boiling point, it
will be in gaseous form. Lowering its
temperature below its freezing point, it will
be solid ice. Thus, matter can be
transformed from one from to another and
this will involve the transfer of energy in
the form of heat. Excel Review Center Excel Review Center

Melting Vaporization
Solid Liquid Gas
Freezing Condensation

Two Special States

Excel Review Center

Measurable Properties
1. Extensive properties – these are properties
that depend on the amount or on the “extent”
1. Plasma – similar to gases except that of substance or matter being studied;
it is made up of free electrons and ions extensive properties are additive which
from the element. Under certain means that more matter equates to a higher
conditions, gases will behave like value of the extensive property
plasma. For instance, neon signs are Excel Review Center
glass tubes filled with gas. When 2. Intensive properties – these are properties
electricity flows through the tube (e.g. that are independent on the amount of
the light is turned on), the electricity substance or matter being studied; intensive
charges the gas and creates plasma properties are not additive which means that
inside the tube. Excelregardless
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of the amount of substance, these
properties have a fixed value
2. Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) –
the newest state of matter as it was Pure substances are matter that have definite
discovered only in 1995 by Cornell composition and properties. It cannot be
and Weiman, although Satyendra Bose separated into two or more substances by
and Albert Einstein predicted this state physical means. Examples: silver, gold, oxygen,
water, salt, ammonia
of matter in the 1920’s. It is the
opposite of plasma so this state of Excel Review Center Pure Substances
matter must be supercooled and will
occur a few billionths temperature
Yes Can it be broken down by No
within the absolute zero temperature. Compounds Chemical process? Elements

A compound is combination of two An element is a pure substance that

or more elements chemically cannot be broken down into a much
Excel combined in fixed proportions. It Excel simpler substance by chemical means.
can be separated by chemical Normally, elements are symbolized by
Review Ionization Review
Gas Plasma means into its respective one or two letters in which the first
Center components. Center letter is always capitalized.
Deionization
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Chemistry Part 3
7 basic SI units
Mixture
4. Mechanical separation – it is the
process involving the use of tools such
It is composed of as forceps, sieves, etc.
different substances Excel Review Center
that do not have 5. Centrifugation – it is the process that
constant composition. speeds up the settling of the
Mixtures can be separated into precipitates using a centrifuge which is
different substances by physical means a motor-driven apparatus
without changing the identities of the
components. Ex: Air, coffee, cement 6. Chromatography – it is the process
of using the difference in degree to
Homogenous Mixture which the substances are absorbed on The SI system is based on the decimal
This is the type of mixture that is uniform the surface of an inert substance system. Listed in the table below are
all throughout. Excel Review Center prefixes used to extend the range of SI
7. Solvent extraction – it is the process units. Excel Review Center
Heterogeneous Mixture of separating the mixture to its
This is the type of mixture in which the component substances by making use
components are not uniform. of the difference in solubility of the
substances
Colloids Excel Review Center
These are mixtures in which the particles 8. Amalgation – it is the process of
do not settle at the bottom upon standing. extracting gold from its ore

Suspension 9. Cyanidation – it is the process of

These are mixtures in which the particles extracting gold from its ore by using The Meter
settle at the bottom upon standing. cyanide

Mixture Measurements
Separation Measurement is
important in
For the meter, which is the standard
unit or metric unit of length, it is
engineering science usually defined at 10-7 of the
Excel Review Center as it allows distance from the equator to the
properties to be North Pole along a meridian passing
defined in a Paris, France. It is also defined as the
quantitative value. distance between two parallel marks
in a specially made platinum-iridium
Macroscopic properties are properties bar. Listed below are useful
1. Decantation or Floatation – it is the that can be measured directly while lengths/distances expressed in
process of separating large solid microscopic properties are properties meters: Excel Review Center
particles from liquids by allowing the that can be measured using an indirect
liquid to flow while the large solid method. Some typical measuring devices
used in chemistry are flasks, pipets, and
particles to settle.
graduated cylinders.

2. Filtration – it is the process of

separating small solid particles from
liquid by passing the mixture through
a porous medium.
Excel Review Center
3. Distillation – it is the process of
separating the liquid by boiling the
mixture to vaporize the liquid and then
cooling the vapor to condense it.
The Kilogram
a. Fractional distillation – it is the For the kilogram, which is
process of separating liquid the standard unit of mass,
Excel Review Center it is defined as the mass
mixtures whose component
The SI system or the International System of a specially made cylinder
substances have narrow
of Units) is the revised metric system of of platinum-iridium.
differences in boiling point units proposed by the General Conference
b. Steam distillation – it is the of Weights and Measures in 1960. It has 7 The Future of Education!
process of separating volatile oils base units and all other units can be Like us on Facebook
from plants derived from these base units. alterguru.com
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Chemistry Part 4
3. A chemical reaction can occur
spontaneously without creation and
disappearance of new atoms. This is
Excel Review Center called the Law of Conservation of
Mass.
Low accuracy, High accuracy, Low accuracy,
The Atom
Significant figures or significant digits are high precision low precision
but high
the meaningful digits in a measurement. It is precision good bad
usually impossible to get the exact value of a systematic The atom is the
error Excel Review Center
quantity being measured, hence it is basic unit of all
important to indicate the margin of error by Error & Percent Error elements. However,
the atom can be
indicating which digits are significant. Error is the difference between the
subdivided further
Increasing the number of significant figures accepted value and the measured value. into smaller components that we
makes for a more accurate measurement Percent error, on the other hand, is the refer to as subatomic particles. The
though this usually depends on the type of ratio of an error to an accepted value. three subatomic particles are the
measuring device being used. electron, proton and the neutron.
Error = Accepted value − Measure value
Rules of Significant Figures Inside the Atom
using the Bohr
1. Non-zero digits are significant. Error Model of the
%Error = x 100 Atom
Accepted value
2. Zero between non-zero digits are Excel Review Center
significant.
The Atomic
Theory
3. Zeroes to the left of the first non-zero
digit are not significant.
Even before the formulation
4. If a number is greater than 1, all zeroes of the Atomic Theory by the English The atomic model used today (Bohr
after the decimal point are considered scientist, John Dalton, the Greek Model) describes the electron as subatomic
significant. philosopher Democritus already
Excel Review Center proposed the idea that all forms of
particles that surround the extremely small
matter can be divided into tiny
nucleus, which contains the protons and
5. If a number is less than 1, zeroes that are neutrons. The mass of the whole atom is
indivisible particles in the 5th
after and between the non-zero digits are concentrated in the nucleus since the mass
century BC. Democritus called these
considered significant. particles as “atomos”, which means of the proton and mass of the neutron are
“indivisible”. 1836 and 1840 times the mass of the
6. For numbers with no decimal points,
zeroes after the last non-zero digit may or John Dalton’s electron, respectively (mass of electron is
negligible relative to the mass of the whole
may not be significant. Excel Review Center Atomic Theory can be atom). However, in terms of the volume,
summarized using the
0.00062100 following points.
the nucleus occupies only about 1/1013 of
the volume of the whole atom. In other
1. Atoms make up an words, the atom consists of a central core
Zeros are not Zeros after which we call as the nucleus wherein the
significant after All nonzero nonzero
element, which is a substance
decimal before numbers numbers in a that can no longer be decomposed into a mass is concentrated and a large empty
non-zero numbers are decimal are space where electrons can be found.
significant significant
simpler substance by chemical means.
The atoms of one element are identical
Accuracy & while atoms of different elements are
also different. Excel Review Center
Precision
The degree of accuracy
2. Combining different atoms from two or
tells us that the more elements will make up a compound.
measurements are close When atoms combine to form
to the exact value while compounds, they follow the Law of
the degree of precision tells us of the Definite Proportions. This law states
consistency of the measurements. that when two elements combine to form
Accurate measurements are usually a distinct chemical compound, they
precise while precise measurements combine with a definite ratio of masses
are not necessarily accurate. Usually,
the devices or instruments used in
that is characteristic of the combining
measuring the different parameters elements and the compound that is
affect the accuracy and precision of formed. This was first proposed by
the measurement. Excel Review Center Joseph Louis Proust.

3. A chemical reaction can occur Excel Review Center

spontaneously without creation and
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Chemistry Part 5
Atomic Theories and Timeline
Solid Sphere Model Plum Pudding Model Nuclear Model Planetary Model Quantum Model

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640 BC 1803 1904 1911 1913 1926 1932
Democritus John Dalton J.J. Thompson Ernest Rutherford Niels Bohr Erwin Schrodinger James Chadwick

He proposed that
all forms of matter Excel Review Center He showed that He improved
He stated that He discovered
can be divided into He created the atoms have + Rutherford’s
He showed that electrons do not move the particles
tiny indivisible very first atomic particles in the model and
atom was made of in set paths around with no charge,
particles and theory. He viewed center and are proposed that
even smaller things the nucleus but in called neutrons
called these atoms as tiny and discover the mostly empty space. electrons move
particles as around the waves. It is
solid balls. electrons. He discovered the
“atomos”, which nucleus in specific impossible to know
proton and the
means “indivisible”. layers or shells. the exact location of
nucleus.
the electrons; instead,
a “cloud of
The Bohr Model probability” called
orbitals, in which we
are more likely to find
A further improvement of the Rutherford model, an electron
this atomic model still proposes that the atom
consists of a positively charged core where most Quantum Numbers continuation…
of the mass is concentrated. He added that electrons
can only travel around this core or nucleus in certain 3. The magnetic quantum number,
orbits that corresponds to the energy of the electron. m
Excel Review Center
These orbits are called energy levels or orbitals.
Electrons can only move from one orbital to another Excel Review Center The third quantum number
describes the orientation or orbitals
by losing or by gaining energy. The orbitals at which the electrons are found are designated by within a sublevel. It does not affect
letters. The orbital “k” is the energy level that is closest to the nucleus. These orbits will not hold the the orbital energy. Only integer
same number of electrons. For instance, the first shell can hold 2 electrons only, the second shell can value between –l and +l are
hold up to 8 electrons, the third shell up to 18, and so on. As a general rule, each shell can hold 2n 2 allowed. The number of m values
electrons where n is the number of the orbit. within a sublevel is the number of
orbital within a sublevel.

Quantum Numbers energy. All electrons in an atom with the same

value of n are said to belong to the same
One important part of the study of chemistry is principle energy level.
understanding how electrons behave in an atom and how
electrons interact among themselves between atoms and 2. The azimuthal quantum number, l
molecules. The properties of an atom’s electron
configuration depend on the 4 quantum numbers. Think This is also called the angular quantum number
of quantum numbers as addresses of the electrons: or the orbital angular momentum quantum
number. Each value of n (first quantum
Excel Review Center number) has multiple values of l ranging from
1. The principal quantum number, n 4. The spin quantum number, s
This is also called the energy level quantum 0 to n-1. This determines the shape of the
number. The lower the energy, the closer the electron cloud or the orbital within a shell.
There are names for each values of l listed This is the fourth quantum number.
electron is to the source of attraction. The higher its There are only two possible values
energy, the further out it goes. Hence, electrons below:
for s: +1/2 and -1/2. These are also
found on lower energy levels are closer to the referred to as “spin up” or “spin
nucleus than those that have higher energy levels. It down”. This quantum number is
also follows that the higher the energy level, the used to explain behavior of
higher is the value of n, the radius of the electron individual electrons as if they were
orbital also increases. The value of n can only take spinning clockwise or
integer values (i.e. from 1, 2, 3…). Moreover, counterclockwise.
larger value of n denotes a bigger orbit and higher
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energy. All
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Chemistry Part 6

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The Periodic Table is a chart Representative Elements

showing the different elements These are elements from Group 1A to Group 7A and are
arranged by their atomic found in the leftmost and rightmost part of the table.
numbers. The horizontal rows in Another term used is Main Group Elements. The group
number also gives out the number of the atom’s valence
the table are called periods while electrons, which are the outermost electrons of an atom
the vertical columns are called and are the electrons that are involved in chemical bonding.
groups or families. Naturally, For convenience in making a reference to a representative
because of this arrangement, element, groups or names are conventionally being named as
follows: →
elements in the periodic table are
grouped according to their Transition Elements Noble Gases Excel Review Center
properties. Nonmetals are found
in the right hand part of the These are elements found at the center of the These are elements (except for Helium) found
table. Another term used in Transition Metals. at the rightmost column of the table. Since all
table. Most of the elements These are elements that can have more than 8 of these elements have full outermost shells,
though in the table are classified electrons in their shells. For instance, Gold (Au) they rarely combine with other elements.
as metals, which are found in the has 18 electrons in its third shell. These elements Hence, they are also called inert gases.
can also use their two outermost shells when it
left part and central part of the bonds with other elements.
table. Between them are Excel Review Center Actinides
elements known as metalloids.
These are elements with Lanthanides these are elements that belong to the row
below the lanthanides in the periodic table.
properties that are intermediate these are 15 elements that are found from one of Most of these elements are radioactive and
between metals and non-metals. two rows that are usually separated from the are not naturally-occuring. In other words,
periodic table. It starts with Lanthanum (La) with they are just produced in the laboratory. It
The periodic table can also be an atomic number of 57 up to Lutetium (Lu) with starts with Actinium (Ac) with an atomic
divided into representative an atomic number of 71. Sometimes, these number of 89 up to Lawrencium (Lr) with an
elements, transition elements, elements are called rare-earth elements or inner atomic number of 103.
transition metals. These elements are found
noble gases, lanthanides and naturally in earth and of the 15 elements, only
actinides. Excel Review Center Excel Review Center
one is radioactive. Excel Review Center
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Chemistry Part 7
Historical Early 19th Century 1864 1869 1913
John Newlands (England) Dmitri Mendeleev (Russia) Henry Moseley (England)
Development Chemists arranged the
elements according to observed that by arranging and Lothar Meyer proposed that atomic
of the their atomic mass led the elements according to (Germany) produced a numbers are directly
to the development of their atomic masses, every tabulation that resembles related to the atomic
Periodic the first periodic 8th element have the same the modern day periodic mass
Table table. properties. This is called the
Law of Octaves.
table. Mendeleev’s table
included 66 elements only. Excel Review Center

Molecules vs. Compounds

Atomic Number vs. Mass Number
Combining atoms of the same element or atoms from different elements in fixed
The atomic number is just the The mass number is the sum of
number of protons inside the the number of protons and the
ratios using chemical bonds creates molecules. Molecules do not necessarily
nucleus of an element. This number of neutrons found inside make compounds, however all compounds are made up of molecules.
number serves as the identity of the nucleus of an atom. To get Excel Review Center
an element since no two the number of neutrons, just get
elements have the same atomic the difference between the mass Compounds are substances that are made from two or more elements. Examples
number. Moreover, neutral number and the atomic number. of molecules made up of atoms from one element only are diatomic molecules
elements will have the same
number of protons and Mass Number = No. of Protons + or diatomic gases. Examples of these gases are hydrogen (H2), helium (He2),
electrons. For these elements, No. of Neutrons oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), fluorine (F2), bromine (Br2), chlorine (Cl2) and
the atomic number can also be
used to indicate the number of Mass Number = Atomic No. + No. iodine (I2). Examples of molecules that are made of atoms from more than one
electrons. of Neutrons type of elements are compounds like water (H2O) and salt (NaCl).
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Types of Compounds
1. Ionic Compounds – these are compounds made up of cations and anions
(e.g. NaCl is made from Na+ cation and Cl- anion). Most ionic compounds
are binary compounds, which means that they are just composed of two
types of atoms.
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2. Molecular Compounds – these are compounds made up of molecules
formed from different elements (e.g. H2O, CO2). Unlike ionic compounds,
these are no longer made up of cations and anions. However, just like ionic
compounds, majority of molecular compounds are also binary compounds.
Excel Review Center
Mass number
= 6 + 6 = 12 When electrons are lost and gained by atoms that are electrically neutral,
What is an Ion?

ions are created. Losing electrons will cause the neutral atom to be
positively charged simply because there are more protons than electrons.
Atomic number
These positively charged atoms are now called as cations. Gaining
=6
electrons, on the other hand, will cause the neutral atom to be negatively
charged since there are now more electrons than protons. These negatively
charged particles are now called anions. Remember that the number of
Isotope vs Atomic Mass protons of every atom will never change; only electrons are allowed to
move into or away from the atom. Aside from cations and anions, ions can
Atoms of one element can have the same atomic number also be classified according to the number of atoms that it consists:
but different values of atomic weight. These are referred
1. Monoatomic ions – these are ions that contain only one type of atom
to as isotopes. Most elements have two or more isotopes
(e.g. Na+, Cl-)
(e.g. Hydrogen has 3 isotopes). Isotopes of one element
have the same number of electrons and protons, they only 2. Polyatomic ions – these are ions that contain more than one type of
differ in the number of neutrons. Hence, the chemical atom (e.g OH-, CN+) Excel Review Center
properties of isotopes on one element must be identical.

Knowing the different isotopes and the mass numbers of Allotropes

the different isotopes of an element, one can now get the
atomic mass of the element. The atomic mass is the If there are two or more
weighted average of the mass numbers of the different forms of one element,
isotopes of an element. then these are called as
allotropes. For example,
Isotopes can either be stable or radioactive. A radioactive O2 (oxygen gas) is an
isotope will naturally undergo a transformation to an allotrope of oxygen. O3
isotope of a different element. For hydrogen, tritium is its (ozone) is also an
radioactive isotope. Excel Review Center allotrope of oxygen.
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Chemistry Part 8
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Gases
Molecular weight of common substances in u
What is a Mole?
One of the 7 base units in Gases exist in nature
the SI system is the mole, under certain
which refers to the amount conditions, pressure
of substance, be it atoms, and temperature.
molecules or particles. Excel Review Center Most of these gases behave in such a way
A mole (abbreviated as mol) is defined as the that is more predictable compared to solids
number equal to the numberparticles
of carbon atom and liquids. Different theories and laws have
in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C. been formulated to quantify this behavior of
gases. Though it is sometimes used
interchangeably with “vapor”, gases and
1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 vapors are actually different. Gases exist in
its gaseous form at room temperature.
The Avogadro’s Number Chemical Vapors, on the other hand, exist in liquid
6.022 x 1023 is called the Avogadro’s form at room temperature and will only be
number, named after the Italian Formulas transformed to gas by increasing the
mathematician and scientist Lorenzo Amadeo Excel Review Center temperature of the substance.

Avogadro. This means that for every mole of Chemical formulas are used to designate Characteristics of gases
a specific element, say, Hydrogen, there the atoms present in different molecules
and compounds are these formulas show 1. Gases follow the volume and shape of
should be 6.022 x 1023 atoms of the same
the ratio in which they combine. their container
element. Excel Review Center 2. Gases have lower densities compared to
1. Molecular Formula – this type of solids and liquids
Molar Mass chemical formula shows the exact
number of atoms from each element
3. Gases have molecules that are far apart;
hence it moves randomly and freely,
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a that is present in the molecule or the unlike other phases of matter. These
substance. Naturally, the atomic mass of a compound. For example, H2O is the molecules are always in motion.
substance in grams per mole (g/mol) or in molecular formula of water. It means 4. Gases can be more easily compressed
atomic mass unit (amu) or in unified atomic that to form water, one atom of compared to solids and liquids.
mass unit (u) is also it’s molar mass (g). For oxygen must be chemically combined 5. Different gases will mix evenly if they
example, Carbon has an atomic mass of 12 with two atoms of hydrogen. are found on one container
g/mol or 12 amu or 12 u. Therefore, it’s molar Excel Review Center 6. Some gases are toxic and poisonous
2. Empirical Formula – this type of (e.g. hydrogen sulfide) while others are
mass should be 12 g.
chemical formula shows a simplified essential to sustain life (e.g. oxygen
ratio of the atoms from each element gas)
1 u = 1 amu that is present in the molecule or 7. Most gases are colorless although some
= 1 dalton compound. Unlike the molecular are visible (e.g. nitrogen dioxide is
= 1 g/mol formula, this will not show the exact visible in polluted air with its brownish
= 1.66 x 10-27 kg number of atoms present, thus it is color)
the simplest chemical formula. For 8. Gases exert pressure on surfaces that
Using these relationships, an amount of a example, HO is the empirical formula are in contact with them.
substance in moles or in atomic mass units can of hydrogen peroxide with molecular
be converted to its equivalent mass in grams (or
formula H2O2. There are instances, Gas Pressure Excel Review Center
however, when the empirical formula
kilograms) and vice versa. and molecular formula of one molecule The standard unit of pressure is
Pascal (Pa) or Newton per square
or compound are one and the same.
Excel Review Center meter (N/m2). Atmospheric
Molecular Mass For example, water has a molecular
formula and an empirical formula of pressure, first noticed by the
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses in Italian scientist Evangelista
H2O.
Torricelli, is the pressure exerted by
the molecule. To get the molecular mass, one
should multiple the atomic mass of an atom to
Percent the earth’s atmosphere. Since air is

Composition
denser near the surface of the
the number of similar atoms present in the
earth, pressure should be higher
molecule. For instance, if you want to get the The percent near the surface. Atmospheric
molecular mass of water (H2O), then just get composition by mass pressure depends on temperature
the sum of the atomic mass of two hydrogen gives the amount in and the altitude or location.
atoms (1 amu + 1 amu) and the atomic mass of Standard atmospheric pressure at 1
terms of percentage of
one oxygen atom (16 amu), giving you a atm is the pressure that supports a
an element in a
molecular mass of 18 amu. Naturally, the 760-mm column of mercury at 0°C
compound. at sea level. This can be tested
molecular mass should be equal to the molar Excel Review Center using a barometer, a common
mass of the compound. mass of an element device used to measure
The Future of Education! % compostion =
in the compound
 100% atmospheric pressure. Another
total mass of devise used to measure pressure
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the compound other than the atmospheric
alterguru.com pressure is the manometer.
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Chemistry Part 9
Different Laws in Chemistry “At constant pressure,
the volume of a gas is Gay-Lussac Law
Charles’
“At constant directly proportional “At constant volume,
Boyle’s temperature, the to the absolute the pressure of a gas

Law volume of a gas is

inversely proportional
Law temperature.” is directly proportional
to the absolute
to the pressure applied” V temperature.”
=k
T
PV = k V1 V2
P
=k
P1V1 = P2 V2 = T
T1 T2
P1 P2
=
Named after the British Named after the
T1 T2
Chemist, Robert Boyle
Excel Review Center
French Physicist,
Jacques Alexandre Named after the French Chemist,
Excel Review Center Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
Charles

Amontons’ Law Ideal Gas Law General Gas Law

“If the volume of a Combining the gas laws will result in Changing states (changing the values
gas is held constant, a single equation, called the ideal gas of pressure, volume and
increasing the law. This is the equation that relates temperature) will change the ideal
temperature of the all the four variables (P, V, n and T). gas law to the combined gas law or
gas increases its All gases whose behavior is the general gas law.
pressure” approximated by this equation are
called ideal gases. In this equation, P1V1 P2 V2
the proportionality constant R is Excel =
Named after the Review Center T1 T2
called the gas constant.
French physicist,
Guillaume Amontons.
This is just the same Excel Review Center PV = nRT Raoult’s Law
as Gay-Lussac’s Law “When a nonvolatile
R = 0.0821 Latm/molK. solute is added to water
Avogadro’s Law Dalton’s Law of
or another solvent, the
vapor pressure of the
“The volume of a gas solvent is depressed.”
and the number of Partial Pressures
moles present is
directly proportional “The total pressure Psoln = Xsolvent Posolvent
at constant exerted by a mixture
of gases is equal to Named after French chemist François-
temperature and
the sum of the partial Marie Raoult
pressure.”

Named after the Italian

pressures of all gases
in the mixture.” Henry’s Law
V
scientist, Lorenzo =k “The solubility of a gas in
Amadeo Avogadro n Ptotal = P1 + P2 + + Pn a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial
Excel Review Center Also known as Dalton’s Law, named pressure of the gas above
Le Chatelier’s after the English Chemist, John Dalton the liquid.”

Principle Graham’s Law S = kHP

“If a stress is imposed of Effusion Named after the English
on a reaction at Excel Review Center Chemist, William Henry
“The rates of effusion
equilibrium, the of two different
reaction will shift escaping, A and B, are Periodic Law
either left or right in inversely proportional “If the chemical
the way or direction to the square roots of elements are listed
that accommodates their molar masses.” in order of increasing
or relieves the stress.” atomic number,
Also known as the “Equilibrium Law”, Named after the many of their
Effusion rate A MM B properties go
named after the French Chemist, Henry = Scottish Chemist,
Louis Le Chatelier Excel Review Center Effusion rate B MM A Thomas Graham through cyclical
changes, with
Pauli “In an atom or molecule, no Excel Review Center elements of similar
properties recurring
two electrons can have the
Exclusion same four electronic Named after the Austrian
Physicist, Wolfgang Pauli
at intervals.” Excel Review Center
quantum numbers.” This principle was discovered by
Principle Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev
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Chemistry Part 10

CONCENTRATION Types of Solutions Types of Aqueous Solutions

Concentration is defined as the amount A solution is a homogenous mixture Solutes that are dissolved in water
of solute present in a certain amount of two or more substances. are called aqueous solutions. There
of solvent or solution. Solute is a Types of solutions according to how are two types of aqueous solutions:
substance that is dissolved in a solvent solutes are dissolved: Excel Review Center
to create a solution. Solvent is a 1. Electrolytes – these are substances
substance that dissolves a solute to 1. Saturated – a solution that has that can conduct electricity when
create a solution. maximum amount of solute that they are dissolved in water. A good
Excel Review Center are dissolved Excel Review Center electrolyte must dissociate or
Solvent must break into cations and anions
2. Unsaturated – a solution that has once it is dissolved. Most acids and
less amount of solute than the bases are also considered
solvent can possibly dissolve electrolytes, although some of
them are weak electrolytes.
3. Supersaturated – a solution that
Solute has an amount of solute greater 2. Non-electrolytes – these are
than the amount of solute in a substances that cannot conduct
saturated solution. electricity when they are dissolved
Solution in water.

Different Types of Concentration Units

Percent by Mass Molarity Molality Normality
It is the mass of the solute in It is the number of moles of It is the number of moles of It is the molar
a specific mass of a solution. solute present in a liter of solute present in 1 kg of concentration divided by
It is unitless. It is independent the solution. It has units of solvent. It has units of an equivalent factor or it
of variations in temperature mol/L or M. mol/kg or m. Like percent is a measure of
since this involves mass. by mass, this is also concentration equal to the
moles solute independent on changes in gram equivalent weight
Molarity = temperature. per liter of solution.
mass solute vol. solution in liters
% by mass = x 100
mass solution equivalent weights
moles solute
molality = normality =
Excel Review Center Excel Review Center mass of solvent in kg liters of solution

Acid vs. Base Electronegativity is the measure of

Any substance which can Any substance which can the ability of atoms to attract electrons toward itself. The Pauline
dissolve into the water dissolve into the water scale is the most commonly used. Fluorine is the most
electronegative element with a value of 4.0 while Francium is
produces hydrogen ions. produces hydroxide ions.
the least electronegative with a value of 0.7
Excel Review Center
✓ Acids taste sour
✓ Acids changes color of
✓ Bases taste bitter
✓ Bases changes color of The Tyndall Effect
litmus paper to red litmus paper to blue Named after the English physicist, John Tyndall, this is one
✓ Acids react with some ✓ Bases feel slippery method of distinguishing a colloid from a solution. It states that
metals to produce ✓ Aqueous base solutions are when light passes through a colloid, it should be scattered by the
“The rates of effusion dispersed particles. This scattering will not occur in solutions
hydrogen gas electrically conductive.
of two different because the solute molecules are too small to affect the light
✓ Acids react with escaping, A and B, are
Excel Review Center passing through it.
carbohydrates and inversely proportional
bicarbonates to produce
Normality
carbon dioxide gas
to the square roots of
their molar masses.” Dilution is the process of making a concentrated
✓ Aqueous acid solutions are solution into a less concentrated one. This process is done by
electrically conductive Excel Review
Effusion rate A Center
MM B adding more solvent to the given solution without changing the
= number of moles of the solute present. Excel Review Center
Effusion rate B MM A
Concentration is > 1.0 x 10-7 Concentration is < 1.0 x 10-7
Moles of solute before dilution = Moles of solute after dilution
pH < 7 pH > 7

Chemical reactions between acids and bases will always

Molalityinitial Volumeinitial = Molarityfinal Volumefinal
produce water and salt.
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• Examples include glass, porcelain, What are alloys?

Engineering alumina, and silicon carbide.
Materials • Used in applications such as Alloys are metallic materials that are
electronic components, cutting tools, composed of a combination of two or
Combines principles from materials and heat shields. more elements, at least one of which is a
science and engineering to study the metal.
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structure, properties, processing, and
performance of materials used in Composites Alloys are created to enhance specific
engineering applications. properties of the individual metals, such
• Combination of two or more different as strength, hardness, corrosion
materials to achieve desired resistance, or conductivity.
Common Types of
Engineering Materials properties.
• Consist of a matrix material and Steel
reinforcement fibers.
• Can have high strength-to-weight Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, with
Metals Excel Review Center
ratios and tailored properties. carbon content typically ranging from
• Commonly used engineering • Examples include carbon fiber 0.2% to 2.1% by
materials due to their excellent reinforced polymers (CFRP) and weight. It is one of the
strength, durability, and conductivity. fiberglass most widely used
• Properties can be modified by alloys and offers
• Used in aerospace,
alloying and heat treatment. excellent strength,
automotive, and
durability, and
• Examples include steel, aluminum, sporting goods
versatility. Various
copper, titanium, and nickel. industries.
alloying elements such as
• Used in applications such as
chromium, nickel, and manganese can be
structural components, electrical
added to steel to enhance its properties
wiring, and heat exchangers.
further.
Semiconductors
Polymers Bronze
• Large molecules made • Materials with electrical conductivity
Bronze is an alloy primarily
up of repeating between conductors and insulators.
composed of copper and
subunits. • Important for electronic devices and tin. It has been used for
• Lightweight, integrated circuits. thousands of years and is
versatile, and can • Examples include silicon and gallium known for its strength,
have excellent arsenide. corrosion resistance, and
chemical resistance. • Properties can be altered through attractive appearance.
• Can be classified as doping to control electrical behavior.
thermoplastics or
thermosetting Brass
plastics.
• Widely used in packaging, Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, with
automotive parts, electronics, and varying compositions depending on the
medical devices. Excel Review Center desired properties. It is valued for its
excellent malleability, corrosion
Ceramics Biomaterials resistance, and
acoustic
• Non-metallic, inorganic • Materials used in medical and properties.
materials. biological applications.
• Generally brittle • Should be biocompatible, capable of
but can have interacting with living tissues without Stainless Steel
excellent heat causing adverse reactions.
resistance and • Examples include metals, ceramics, Stainless steel is an alloy of iron,
electrical polymers, and composites used in chromium, and often other elements such
insulation implants, prosthetics, and drug as nickel and molybdenum. It is highly
properties. delivery systems. resistant to corrosion.
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Mechanical Properties Hardness Creep Resistance

of Materials
The resistance of a material to The ability of a material to resist
The mechanical properties of a material indentation, scratching, or penetration. It deformation under long-term exposure to
refer to its response to applied forces is an important property for materials constant stress or load at elevated
or loads. that need to resist wear, abrasion, or temperatures. It is crucial for materials
deformation. Hardness is commonly used in high-temperature applications.
Strength measured using tests such as the
Rockwell hardness test or the Vickers
The ability of a material to withstand or hardness test. Fracture Toughness
resist applied forces without permanent
deformation or failure. A measure of a material's resistance to
Excel Review Center Elasticity the propagation of cracks. It indicates
how well a material can resist the growth
Stress-Strain Diagram The ability of a material to deform under of pre-existing flaws or cracks without
A diagram that shows the relationship applied stress and then return to its sudden failure.
between the stress and the strain is original shape when the stress is Excel Review Center
known as the stress-strain diagram. removed. The elastic modulus or
Young's modulus measures a Electrical Properties of
material's stiffness and its Materials
Stress ability to resist deformation.
F Conductivity
•
D 
• Ductility The ability of a material to conduct
B
 •E electric current. Good conductors have
••
• C  The extent to which a material can high conductivity, allowing electrons to

 undergo plastic deformation without flow easily through them.
fracturing. Ductile materials can be
A elongated or stretched under tensile
stress without breaking. This property is Resistivity
O important for materials that need to be
Strain
shaped or formed, such as wires or Refers to the material's resistance to the
A → proportionality limit sheets. flow of electric current. Insulators have
B → elastic limit Excel Review Center high resistivity and do not allow the flow
C → yield point of electric current easily.
D → ultimate strength Toughness
E → rapture strength
F → actual rapture strength The combination of strength and Dielectric constant
ductility, representing a material's ability
Elastic limit : the stress beyond which to absorb energy before fracture. It is a Also known as relative permittivity,
the material will not return to its original measure of a material's resistance to measures how well a material can store
shape when the load is removed cracking or breaking under impact or electrical energy in an electric field. It
sudden loads. describes the ability of a material to
Ultimate stress/strength : the highest polarize in response to an applied
ordinate in the stress-strain diagram. electric field.

Yield point : the point where there is an Fatigue Resistance

appreciable elongation or yielding of the
material even without any corresponding Piezoelectricity
The material's ability to withstand
increase of load. repeated or cyclic loading without Piezoelectric materials generate an
failure. It is particularly important for electric charge in response to applied
Rupture strength : the stress at failure materials subjected to dynamic or mechanical stress, or they exhibit
fluctuating loads over time. mechanical deformation when an electric
Resilient material : a material that field is applied.
absorbs and release strain energy without
permanent deformation. Excel Review Center

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Magnetic Properties of Curie Temperature Absorption

Materials
The temperature at which a The process by which materials absorb
These are material properties ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material certain wavelengths or colors of light.
that describe their behavior undergoes a phase transition and loses its Materials absorb light energy, which can
and characteristics in the magnetic properties. Above the Curie cause an increase in temperature
presence of magnetic fields. temperature, the material becomes or excitation of electrons.
paramagnetic.
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Magnetic Susceptibility
Magnetization
Reflection
The process of aligning the magnetic A measure of the material's response to
moments of atoms or domains within a an applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic Occurs when light bounces off the
material. Materials can be classified as materials have positive susceptibility, surface of a material. The reflection
diamagnetic, paramagnetic, while diamagnetic materials have properties of materials determine their
ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, or negative susceptibility. appearance and how they interact with
antiferromagnetic based on their incident light.
response to an external magnetic field.
Magnetostriction
Scattering
Magnetic Permeability The phenomenon in which a material
changes its shape or dimensions in The process by which light is
Measures the ability of a material to response to an applied magnetic field. dispersed or redirected in
allow the flow of magnetic flux. various directions due to
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Materials with high permeability, such as interactions with the
ferromagnetic materials, enhance material's microstructures
magnetic fields and are used in Optical Properties of or impurities.
applications like transformers and Materials
magnetic cores.
Transparency & Opacity Refractive Index

Magnetic Saturation Transparency refers to the ability of a A measure of how much light bends or
material to allow light to pass through it changes direction when it passes through
The point at which a material can no without significant scattering or a material. Different materials have
longer increase its magnetization in absorption. Transparent materials, like different refractive indices, which
response to an applied magnetic field. glass or certain plastics, transmit light influence their ability to refract light and
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit with minimal loss. Opaque materials, are important in optics and lens design.
saturation behavior and are used for such as metals or wood,
permanent magnets. do not transmit light
and absorb or reflect Luminescence
it.

Magnetic Hysteresis The emission of light from a material

after it absorbs energy from an external
Dispersion source.
The lagging of magnetization behind an
applied magnetic field during the It refers to the separation of light into its It includes phenomena like fluorescence
magnetization and demagnetization component colors (wavelengths) as it (short-lived emission) and
process. It causes energy losses in passes through a material. phosphorescence (long-lived emission).
magnetic materials and is an important
consideration for magnetic storage Excel Review Center
devices and transformers.

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Crystalline Solids
Optical Properties Body-Centered
vs Cubic
Amorphous Solids Crystalline Solids
In a body-centered cubic lattice, the
Crystals typically exhibit well-defined atoms or ions occupy the corners of the
Atomic/Molecular Arrangement and characteristic optical properties due cube as well as one atom at the center of
to their regular and periodic arrangement the cube.
Crystalline Solids of atoms or molecules.

Crystals have a highly ordered and Amorphous Solids

repetitive arrangement of atoms or
molecules in a three-dimensional lattice Amorphous solids have more random
structure. and disordered atomic or molecular
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arrangements, resulting in a lack of well-
Amorphous Solids defined optical properties.
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The arrangement of atoms or molecules
is more random and disordered, lacking Face-Centered
a well-defined repeating pattern. The Mechanical Properties Cubic
absence of long-range order gives
amorphous solids a more irregular Crystalline Solids In a face-centered cubic lattice, the
structure. atoms or ions occupy the corners and the
Crystals tend to have anisotropic centers of each face of the cube.
mechanical properties, meaning their
Atomic/Molecular Mobility mechanical behavior varies with
different crystallographic directions.
Crystalline Solids
Amorphous Solids
In crystals, atoms or molecules are
arranged in fixed positions within the Amorphous solids often exhibit isotropic
lattice structure. This arrangement mechanical properties, meaning their
restricts atomic or molecular mobility, mechanical behavior is relatively
and the solid tends to have a rigid uniform in all directions.
structure. Number
Excel Review Center Coordination
of
Amorphous Solids Number
atoms
Types of Crystal Lattice
Structures Simple
In amorphous solids, atoms or molecules 1 6
Cubic
are not confined to specific lattice Body-
positions. They have more freedom to Simple Cubic, Face-Centered Cubic, and Centered 2 8
move or vibrate within the material. Body-Centered Cubic are three common Cubic
crystal lattice structures found in metals. Face-
Centered 4 12
Melting Behavior Cubic
Simple Cubic
Crystalline Solids Atomic
In a simple cubic lattice, the atoms or Packing
Crystals have a distinct and well-defined ions occupy the corners of a cube, with Factor (apf)
melting point. one atom per lattice point.
Simple Cubic 52.4%
Amorphous Solids Body-Centered
68%
Cubic
Amorphous solids do not have a sharp Face-Centered Cubic 74%
melting point.
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Physics Part 1

P H YS I C S Newton’s Laws of Motion

If a ball were rolling on a
First Law The ball will no move
unless there is a force
frictionless surface, it
would keep moving
(Law of Inertia) to cause it to move. unless met with an
“A body at rest will remain at rest, and a outside force.
Physics is the branch of science that studies body in motion will remain in motion
how nature behaves. It relates to all other types unless it is acted upon by an external
of sciences: chemistry, biology, geology, force.”
astronomy, mechanics, etc. Since the Because the mass of each ball is
knowledge that we have about the behavior of
nature is constantly growing and changing, so is
Second Law different, each ball will travel a
different distance and at a different
this branch of science. (Law of Acceleration) speed when it is hit with the same
“The force acting on an object is equal force.

FORCE and to the mass of that object times its

acceleration.” F = ma

MOTION
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When there is a force by
Third Law
Excel Review Center one side, there will be
opposite and equal force
Force is any interaction that, when (Law of Reaction) by the other side, cause
unopposed, will change the motion of “For every action, there is an equal and each to move in
an object. Force can cause an object opposite reaction.” opposite direction.
with mass to change its velocity
(which includes to begin moving from
a state of rest), i.e. to accelerate. Force
can also be described intuitively as a Newton’s “The gravitational force between two masses is directly
proportional to the product of the two masses (m1 and
push or a pull. The SI unit of force is
newton (N). Its SI base units is kg-
m/s2. Other units are dyne, poundal,
Law of m2) and inversely proportional to the square distance, d,
between them.”
pound-force and kip.
Universal d
m1m2
1 N = 1 kg (1 m/s2)
1 dyne = 1 g (1 cm/s2)
1 lbf = 1 slug (1 ft/s2)
Gravitation F F=G
d2

G = gravitational constant = 6.673 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2

Motion is the phenomenon in which an
object changes its position over time.

Inertia is the property of matter that

Work, Power and Energy
causes it to resist a change in its state Work is the product of the force applied to an object and the displacement through which the force
of motion. Excel Review Center acts on an object.

SCALAR and W=Fxd or W = Fd cos θ (if displacement makes an angle θ with the force)

VECTOR
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The standard unit of work and energy is joule (J).

1 J = 1 N-m = 1 kg-m2/s2 1 erg = (1 dyne)(1 cm) 1 ft-lb = (1 lbf)(1 ft)

Scalar quantity is a quantity that has
only magnitude. Energy is the capacity to do work. Potential energy (PE) is the energy in a body due to its
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position. Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy in a body due to its motion.
Examples: Length, Area, Volume, Speed,
Distance, Mass, Density, Temperature, 1 1
Pressure, Energy, Work, Entropy, KE translational = mv 2 KE rotational = I2
Power, Resistance, Charge, Mechanical 2 2
Advantage, Electric and Magnetic PE = mgh v = r
Potential, Angle, etc.
Where: I = rotational inertia of an object, ω = angular velocity, v = linear velocity
Vector quantity is a quantity that has
both a magnitude and a direction.
Power is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is expended. Unit of power is
watt (W). Another unit of power is horsepower (hp).
Examples: Displacement, Direction,
Velocity, Acceleration, Momentum,
1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N-m/s 1 hp = 746 W = 550 ft-lb/s
Impulse, Force, Electric Field, Magnetic
Field, Weight, Torque, Moment of
Force, Dipole moment, etc. Excel Review Center
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Physics Part 2
Forms of Energy
Energy
Important Laws Excel Review Center
Can be

Kinetic Energy Potential Energy

Law of Conservation of Energy
“Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed
Energy due to motion Energy due to position
from one form to another or transferred from one system to another.”
Energy comes from moving Energy stored to be used later

Thermal Energy Energy experienced Chemical Energy

Law of Conservation of Mass
in different ways “Mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions." The mass
Energy due to heat Energy due to heat
at the beginning of the reaction will equal to the mass at the end of the
Mechanical Energy Elastic Energy Excel Review Center reaction.
Sound Energy
Energy of object in motion Energy we can Energy of object in motion
hear
Electrical Energy Nuclear Energy Law of Conservation of Momentum
Energy of particles Light Energy Energy of particles “The total momentum before a collision is equal to the total momentum
moving through a wire Energy our eyes moving through a wire after the collision if no external forces act on the system.”
can detect
Magnetic Energy Gravitational Energy
Energy causing push or
pull
Excel Review Center Energy causing push or
pull
Impulse – Momentum Theorem
“When a net force acts on an object, the impulse of the net force is

Momentum
equal to the change in momentum of the object.”

Elastic & Inelastic Collisions

Momentum (p) is the product of the object’s mass and its velocity.
It is also a vector quantity. It will always have the same direction
as the direction of velocity. Normally, the term linear momentum
An elastic collision is a collision between two bodies in which the
is used to differentiate it from angular momentum. The SI unit of
total kinetic energy of two bodies after the collision is equal to
momentum is kg-m/s.
their total kinetic energy before the collision. Elastic collision
occurs only if there is no net conversion of kinetic energy into other
Momentum refers to the “amount of motion” that an object has.
forms. Example: Movement of swinging balls
Since it is a function of velocity, it is a property of a moving object
only. An object that is stationary has no momentum. An object that
An inelastic collision is a collision in which kinetic energy is not
is moving, and is moving fast at that, has a large momentum. The conserved. Perfectly inelastic collision is where objects join together
larger the momentum an object has, the more difficult it can be
after the collision to form one mass. Example: Automobile collision
stopped.
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Momentum = p = mv

Impulse
Impulse (J or Imp) refers to the change in momentum of the
object. It is a function of both force and time and is also a vector
quantity. The bigger the momentum change needed for an object to

Coefficient of Restitution
be stopped, it will take larger force to be applied and the time that
the force is applied should also be longer. The SI unit of impulse is
N-s. Excel Review Center It is the negative ratio of the relative velocity between the objects
after collision to the relative velocity between the objects before
Impulse = Ft = mv = mv f − mv i collision. If the coefficient of restitution is 1, then the collision is
perfectly elastic. If the coefficient of restitution is 0, then the
collision is completely inelastic. Excel Review Center
Newton's cradle is a device that
demonstrates conservation of
v 2A − v 2 B
momentum and energy using a series e=−
of swinging spheres. When one sphere v1A − v1B
at the end is lifted and released, it
strikes the stationary spheres,
transmitting a force through the Another way to get the coefficient of restitution is in terms of the
stationary spheres that pushes the initial height and the bounce height:
last sphere upward. The last sphere
h bounce
swings back and strikes the still nearly e=
stationary spheres, repeating the h initial
effect in the opposite direction. Excel Review Center
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Physics Part 3
Periodic Motion Simple Pendulum Waves A wave is defined as
a repeating and periodic disturbance that
Another system Excel Review Center
Periodic motion is a type of motion that regularly travels through a medium. A medium is
that follows
repeats, meaning the object returns to its initial any substance or material that carries the
simple harmonic
position after some time or simply motions that wave. As a wave travels through a certain
motion is a
repeats on a regular cycle. medium, energy is being transported from
simple pendulum.
one point to another with transporting
A simple
A special type of vibratory or periodic motion is matter. Excel Review Center
pendulum
Mechanical Waves
called simple harmonic motion. Simple harmonic
consists of a
motion is a motion that occurs when the restoring
concentrated Mechanical waves are waves that requires
force on an object is directly proportional to the
bob, with mass
object’s displacement from equilibrium. For simple certain medium in order for them to be able
m, attached to a to transport energy. Two types of mechanical
harmonic motion, the acceleration of the object is
string, with waves are transverse waves and longitudinal
proportional to its position and is oppositely
length L, of waves.
directed to the displacement from equilibrium.
negligible mass.
Excel
The period, the time required for the
Transverse Wave
k Review
a=− x system to proceed through one complete When the paths in which the particles of
m Center the medium vibrate are perpendicular to
cycle, is:
the motion of the wave, it is said to be a
L transverse wave.
An example of a T = 2
system that g
follows simple where:
harmonic motion
L – length of the pendulum’s string (m)
is the motion of a
block on a g – acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
frictionless
surface connected The angular frequency of the pendulum
to a spring. is: Excel Review Center
Figure shows a g
Spring and Block
 = 2 f =
system of Simple
where:
L
Longitudinal Wave
Harmonic Motion
f – frequency of oscillation (Hz) When the paths in which the particles of
L – length of the pendulum’s string (m) the medium vibrate are parallel to the
g – acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2) motion of the wave, it is said to be a
longitudinal wave.
Period (T) is the time required for the system to Notice that the period, frequency and
proceed through one complete cycle. angular frequency of the pendulum is
independent of the mass of the bob.
m
T = 2
k Torsional Pendulum
The value of the spring constant, k, can be derived Another system
using Hooke’s Law: Excel Review Center that follows simple
Electromagnetic Wave
harmonic motion is Electromagnetic waves are waves that are
F = kx a torsional capable of transporting energy in free space.
pendulum. This
The frequency of the motion indicates how type of pendulum
frequently the motion repeats itself. It has a unit twists back and
Hertz, named after the German scientist, Heinrich forth with respect
Hertz. to its equilibrium
1 1 k position.
f= =
T 2 m The period, the time required for the
system to proceed through one complete
cycle, is: Excel Review Center
I
The frequency can also be expressed in terms of T = 2
angular frequency: 
where:
Transverse WaveMechanical wavesLongitudinal
are waves thatwave
requires
 = 2 f =
k Speed
I – moment of inertia
κ – torsional constant v=
certain medium
T Excel Review Center in order
transport energy. v =
for
E hem to be able to
m  
Excel Review Center
of wave
where: where:
T - tension the string is stretched (N) E - modulus of elasticity (N/m2)
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 - mass per unit length of string (kg/m)  - density (kg/m3)
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Physics Part 4
Mechanical Wave Electromagnetic Wave
Can travel
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“Every point on a wave front may
be considered as a new source of
Reflection
and Refraction
Requires a
through a medium disturbance, sending wavelets in
medium to travel
or through the vacuum forward directions.”
of space Reflection is the bouncing off of a wave as it
Longitudinal wave Can hits a barrier. The angle that the wave hits the
Transverse wave transmit barrier should be the equal to the angle at
Transverse wave only
energy but This is known as which it bounces off the barrier. That is the
Examples: not matter Huygen’s Principle.
most basic premise of the Law of Reflection.
Sound wave
Examples: Named after the
Seismic wave
Light Dutch mathematician Refraction is the changing in the direction of
Ropes and springs a wave as it travels from one medium to a
and physicist,
Water waves Christiaan Huygens different medium. Every medium or material
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has a property known as the index of
Excel Review refraction which is the ratio of the speed of

What is Frequency
Center light in free space to the velocity of the wave
in the actual medium.
c
Frequency (f) is the number of waves per unit time n=

Snell’s Law
v
that pass a point. Period (T) is the time required for
one wave to pass a point. Just like simple harmonic

Sound
motion, the period is reciprocal with the frequency Named after the Dutch astronomer and mathematician, Willebrord Snellius.
and vice versa. Sometimes known as the Law of
1 Refraction, it states that the ratio of
f= the sines of the angles of incidence and
T
the angle of refraction is a constant It is a mechanical wave that
Wavelength is the distance between one particle in that depends on the ratio of the indices carries disturbances from
a wave and the corresponding particle in the next of both media. one location to another
wave. Two particles are in the same phase if they through a certain medium.
have the same displacement and are moving in the n1 sin i = n2 sin r Most of the time, this
medium is air, though it
same direction. Relation between speed v, where:
frequency f and wavelength : could be any other media
n1 – refractive index of medium 1
such as water or steel.
Excel Review n2 – refractive index of medium 2
Sound is also classified as a
Center v = f  i - angle of incidence =  1
Excel Review Center longitudinal wave since the
Intensity of wave refers to the energy transferred
 r - angle of refraction =  2 particles of the medium
through which the sound
per unit time per unit area through a surface moves vibrate parallel to
Frequency and Pitch of Sound
perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the
the direction of the sound.
wave.
I = 2 vf A
2 2 2 For sound, the particles of the medium that moves back and forth will determine its frequency. 1
Hertz is 1 vibration per second. The human ear is capable of detecting sound waves with a very
where: wide range of frequencies, ranging from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Sound with frequencies below 20 Hz
v - speed of wave (m/s)  - density (kg/m3) is called infrasound while sound with frequencies beyond 20 kHz is called ultrasound. These
f – frequency (Hz) A – amplitude (m) frequencies are now outside the audible range for the human ear. Pitch is synonymous with
frequency.
Excel Review Center Speed of Sound
Intensity of Sound The speed of the sound wave is the rate at which the disturbance in the medium is carried on from
The intensity of sound refers to the amount
one particle to the next. The faster the sound travels, the more distance it covers in a certain
of energy that is transferred per unit are period of time. There are different factors that can affect the speed of sound. First, the properties
and per unit time. The SI unit of intensity is of the medium in which the sound travels greatly affects the speed of sound. The phase of the
W/m2. medium affects the speed as well. It is established that sound travels fastest in solids and slowest
in gases. Aside from that, if the medium is air, the temperature and even the humidity can also
Energy Power
Intensity = = affect the speed of sound. With E = elastic constant of medium,  = density of medium or gas, T
Area  Time Time = temperature of gas, P = pressure of gas, R = universal gas constant, M = molecular mass of gas.
The lowest intensity that the human ear E
Speed of sound if the medium is a thin rod: v =
can detect is around 1x10-12 W/m2. This is 
also known as the threshold of hearing. A
P RT Excel Review Center
more practical way to measure intensity is
Speed of sound if the medium is a gas: v = =
to do it in the decibel scale, with 1x10-12  M
W/m2 being 0 dB.
Intensity At standard temperature of 0°C, the speed of sound in air is v  331 m/s  1,100 ft/s
Intensity ( dB ) = 10log
W At any other temperature: v = 331 + 0.6T
1  10−12 2
m Where: T - temperature of air in degrees Celsius
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Physics Part 5
What is Doppler Effect It is the variation of the pitch heard from a moving source of sound or by a moving
observer. Named after Austrian Physicist, Christian Andreas Doppler.

As the source approaches an observer, Long wavelength Excel Review Center Shortwavelength Relation between apparent frequency and
the frequency or pitch of the wave will the frequency of the source is expressed as:
appear higher than it actually is. As the V − vo
source moves away from the observer, fo = fs
the frequency or pitch of the wave will V − vs
appear lower than it really is. where:
fo - frequency of the observer
This is sometimes known as Doppler fs - frequency of the source
shift. V - speed of wave relative to medium
Excel Review Center vs - speed of source
vo - speed of observer
Excel Review Center
LIGHT Mirrors and Lenses
Light is to the aspect of radiant energy of which
an observer is visually aware. The range of
Plane Mirrors
wavelength that is visible as light is from 3900 Plane mirror is a mirror with a flat or planar
A to 7600 A. The speed of light in vacuum is reflective surface. This is the simplest mirror
approximately 3.00 x 108 m/s. around. The flat surfaces reflect a beam of light
in one direction instead on either scattering it
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT widely in many directions or absorbing it. The
angle of reflection of this mirror is equal to the
Luminous flux is the amount of visible radiation Convex mirror
angle of incidence
passing per unit time. The SI is lumen. Lumen is Principal rays for convex mirrors:
defined as the flux emitted by a point source of Properties of Plane Mirrors: 1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is
1 candela through a solid angle of 1 steradian. reflected as if it comes from a focal
point.
1. Plane mirrors produce virtual images. 2. A ray along a radius is reflected back
F
I= 2. Plane mirrors produce upright images. upon itself.
 3. The presence of the left-right reversal 3. A ray directed toward the focal point is
where: phenomena. reflected parallel to the principal axis.
I – luminous intensity (candela) 4. A ray incident on the vertex of the
F – luminous flux (lumen)
4. Images produced are of the same size as
mirror reflects at an equal angle to the
ω – solid angle (steradian) object.
axis.
5. Images produced are with the same distance
The total luminous flux emitted by a point as object. A concave mirror curves toward the viewer
Excel Review Center with its center of curvature in front of the
source is:
F = 4I Spherical Mirrors mirror. A
concave
A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the
mirror is also
Illuminance is the luminous flux per unit area. shape of a piece cut out of a spherical surface. called
Its unit is lumens per square foot or lumens per In a spherical mirror, the reflecting surface is a converging
square meter. Illuminance is sometimes referred section of a sphere. There are two types of mirror since it
to as illumination. spherical mirrors, namely concave and convex. makes parallel
F A convex mirror curves away from the viewer rays converge
E= to a point.
A with its center of curvature is behind the mirror. Concave mirror
where: A convex mirror is also called a diverging Principal rays for concave mirrors:
E – illuminance (lumen/m2) mirror since the reflection of a set of parallel 1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is
F – luminous flux (lumen) rays is a set of diverging rays. The focal point of reflected through the focal point.
A – area (m2) a convex mirror is on the principal axis a 2. A ray along a radius is reflected back
Excel Review Center upon itself.
distance 0.5r behind the mirror where r is the
For light from a point source, the illuminance 3. A ray along the direction from the focal
on the surface is given by the inverse-square
radius of the sphere. Excel Review Center point to the mirror is reflected parallel
law, as follows: to the principal axis.
4. A ray incident on the vertex of the
1
E= cos  mirror reflects at an equal angle to the
s2 axis.
1 1 1 r
Luminance is the luminous intensity per unit The mirror equation: + = f=
p q f 2
projected area emitted by an extender source.
image size q
B=
I Magnification: M= =−
A object size p
where:
B – luminance (candela/m2) where:
I – luminous intensity (candela) p = object distance f = focal length
A – area (m2) q = image distance r = radius of curvature
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Physics Part 6
Key words
Mirrors & Lenses
Linear magnification is the ratio of the size of the
image to the size of the object.
Aberration the convergence to different
Continuation… foci, by a lens or mirror, of rays of light
image size q emanating from one and the same
SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL MIRRORS M= =−
object size p point, or the deviation of such rays from
a single focus; a defect in a focusing
Power of a lens (D) is the amount by which the mechanism that prevents the intended
lens can change the curvature of a wave. It is focal point Excel Review Center
equivalent to the reciprocal of the lens’ focal length. Achromatic doublet a type of lens made up
The unit of the power of a lens is diopter. of two simple lenses paired together
designed so that the chromatic
aberration of each lens partially offsets
Excel Review Center 1
P= the other; in this way light in a range of
f wavelengths may be brought to the
Excel Review Center same focus
Properties of Concave Mirrors (Converging): Properties of Concave Lenses (Diverging): Afocal system an optical system that
produces no net convergence or
1. Image produced by diverging lenses are
1. As the object is moved closer, image distance always upright, virtual (same side of lens divergence of the beam, i.e. has an
increase and image height increases. as object) and reduced in size. infinite effective focal length
2. When the object is at the focal length, there is 2. As the object moves closer to the lens, Thin lens one whose thickness allows rays
no image. the image moves closer to the lens as to refract but does not allow properties
3. Within the focal length, the image is upright, well. such as dispersion and aberrations.
virtual. 3. As the object moves closer to the lens, Airy pattern the diffraction pattern formed
the image size is increased. by a perfect lens with a circular
4. As the object approaches the mirror, image
height becomes very close to the object height. Excel Review Center aperture, imaging a point source
Properties of Convex Lenses (Converging): Coma an off-axis lens aberration resulting
Properties of Convex Mirrors (Diverging): from a variation of lens focal lengths as
1. As object is moved closer to the lens, the
image distance and height increases. a function of aperture zone or annulus
1. Field of view of convex mirrors is wider 2. At twice the focal length, image and Complex lens a lens assembly consisting of
2. Image is always virtual, upright and smaller object distance and height are equal. several compound lenses
3. As object approaches the mirror, the virtual 3. As object approaches one focal length, Compound lens a lens assembly consisting
image distance and height approaches of a number of simple lens elements
image on the other side approaches the mirror
infinity Condenser lens a lens assembly designed
and becomes larger 4. When object is at focal length, there is to collect energy from a light source
Excel Review Center no image.
Thin Lenses 5. Within the focal length, image is upright,
Diffraction limited lens a lens with
negligible residual aberrations
When a ray of light passes through a lens, it bends virtual and same side as object.
Dispersion the variation in the refractive
toward the thicker part of the lens if the lens has an
index of refraction greater than that of the Lensmaker’s Equation index of a medium as a function of
wavelength; the property of an optical
surrounding medium. Principal focus is the point The lensmaker’s equation is used to relate the radii system which causes the separation of
through which rays parallel to the principal axis of of curvature, the thickness, the refractive index and mononochromatic components of
the lens pass. Focal length is the distance from the the focal length of a thick lens. radiation.
lens to the principal focus. Optical center is a point Effective focal length the distance from the
1  1 1 (n − 1)d 
on the principal axis through which rays pass For thick lens: = (n − 1)  − +  principal point to the focal point
without changing direction. When the rays actually f  R 1 R 2 nR 1R 2  Hyperfocal the distance at which a lens
pass through the image after refraction, the image where: may be focused to produce satisfactory
formed is known as real image. When the rays only f = focal length Excel Review Center image quality over an extended range of
appear to come from the image after refraction, the R1 and R2 = radii of curvature object distances. Excel Review Center
image is known as virtual image. n = index of refraction Image distance the distance of the image
d = thickness of lens from the center of the lens
Converging lens makes a set of parallel rays 1  1 1  Petzval curvature the natural tendency for
converge after refraction. It forms real images when For thin lens: = (n − 1)  −  a lens to produce its final image on a
the object is farther from the lens than the principal f  1
R R 2 curved rather than flat surface
focus and virtual images when the object is between Ray tracing a technique used in optics for
the lens and the principal focus. Diverging lens The focal length f is positive for converging lenses, analysis of optical systems
makes a set of parallel rays divergent after and negative for diverging lenses. The reciprocal of Surface vertices the points where each
refraction. It forms a virtual image of any object. the focal length, 1/f, is the optical of the lens. If the surface crosses the optical axis
The position, size and nature of an image can be focal length is in meters, this gives the optical Thick lens lenses whose thickness are not
determined by the use of the following lens power in diopters (inverse meters). negligible, i.e. one cannot make a
equation: simple assumption that a light ray is
1 1 1 The signs of R1 and R2 indicate whether the refracted only once in the lens
+ = Thin lens one whose thickness allows rays
p q f corresponding surfaces are convex or concave. If
R1 is positive the first surface is convex, and if R1 to refract but does not allow properties
where: such as dispersion and aberrations.
p - object distance q - image distance is negative the surface is concave. The signs are
Throughput a measure of the efficiency of
f - focal length reversed for the back surface of the lens: if R2 is
Excel Review Center an optical system in terms of the
positive the surface is concave, and if R2 is negative
For the sign convention for lens, it is exactly the same as luminous flux collected and delivered
the surface is convex. If either radius is infinite, the
the sign convention for mirrors. corresponding surface is flat.
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Mechanics Assumptions made when Conditions for Equilibrium

solving board problems in
The branch of physics that considers the Mechanics
action of forces on bodies or fluids that are A body is in equilibrium when both
both at rest and in motion. Rigid body : It represents the definite the resultant force and the sum of
amount of matter, the parts of which are the moments of all external forces
Engineering Mechanics fixed in position relative to one another. If about any random point are equal
the deformation is negligible, it is to zero. if it satisfies the following
assumed to be rigid. conditions.
The branch of engineering that applies the
principles of mechanics to any design that Particle : A body whose dimensions are
must take into account the effect of forces. negligible when compared with the Graphical Method
distances or the length involved in the
Branches of Mechanics of Solids: discussion of its motion. Under this condition, the forces or vectors
are transformed into a force polygon. For
A. Statics : It deals with bodies in the Concentrated Force : It is a force that equilibrium, the force polygon must close.
state of rest. represents the effect of a loading which is F1
assume to act at a certain point on a
B. Kinetics : It deals with bodies in body.
motion under the action of forces. F2
C. Kinematics : It refers to the study of
motion without reference to the forces F1
F3
which causes the motion
F2 F3

Force Polygon
Excel Review Center

Directional Method
If three or more non-parallel forces or
vectors are in equilibrium, then they must
Excel Review Center be concurrent.
F1
Useful Principles
in Mechanics
F2

Parallelogram Law:
Two forces acting on a particle
may be replaced by a single force point of concurrency F3
History of Mechanics (resultant) which can be obtained by
drawing the diagonal of a parallelogram,
Scientist Area of Development which has the sides equal to the given
forces. Analytical Method
Lever, Center of
Aristotle gravity, basic
Principle of Transmissibility:
mechanics If forces or vectors are in equilibrium,
The conditions of equilibrium or motion of then it must satisfy the three static
Archimedes Buoyancy a rigid body remains unchanged if a force equations; namely
Mathematical analysis, acting at a given point of the rigid body is
Galileo
experimentation replaced by a force of the same
Kepler
Planetary motion,
Kepler’s laws
magnitude and direction, but acting at a
different point provided that the two F x
=0 =
Laws of Motion, Law of forces have the same line of action.
Newton
Gravitation

F
Resolution of Forces into
Bernoulli
Principle of Virtual
Work Components: y
=0 =
Rigid bodies, moment It is the process of replacing a single
Euler force acting on a particle by two or more
 Mx = 0
of inertia, momentum
D’alembert Dynamic equilibrium forces that have the same effect as that
=
of a single force.
Planck and
Quantum Mechanics
Bohr Excel Review Center

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where: r = radius of circle

Force is a very D = diameter of circle
common concept
used in D. Ellipse y
Engineering
Mechanics. There ab3
Ix =
are different types b 4
and classifications a • a x
of forces.
b
a3b
where: N = normal force
Iy =
Gravitational Force 4
F = frictional force
A force that is exerted by the earth’s R = resultant force
gravity on a certain object. Normally, this  = coefficient of friction where: a = length of semi-major axis
force is represented by the weight of the  = angle of friction b = length of semi-minor axis
object, a force that is directed towards
the center of the earth. Dynamic friction is the friction for a With Respect To The Base
body in motion. It is always less than the
The weight of the object is defined as: static friction. A. Rectangle Excel Review
Center
W = mg g = 9.81 m/s2
g = 32.2 ft/s2 Moment of Inertia
bh3
h Ib =
3
Moment of inertia is also called the
Normal Force b-axis
second moment of area.
A force that is perpendicular to the
b
surface of contact, if there are two With Respect To Centroid Axis:
objects or planes that are in contact with
each other. B. Triangle
Excel Review Center Centroidal moment of inertia is the
C.
moment of inertia of the figure with
bh3
respect to an axis passing through the Ib =
Friction Force centroid. h 12
A force that is parallel to the surface of
contact, if there are two objects or planes A. Rectangle b-axis
that are in contact with each other. It is b
y
also defined as the limited amount of
resistance to sliding between the bh3 For composite figures and for axis not at
surfaces of two bodies in contact. Friction Centroid Ix =
12 the centroid nor at the base, moment of
is oftentimes defined as the force that
tends to oppose the motion, hence its h • x inertia may be calculated using the
transfer formula, which is as follows;
direction is opposite the direction of the
actual motion (for kinetic friction) or the b3h
impending motion (for static friction). Iy =
12
Kinetic friction is the friction against a b
I = Ig + Ad2
moving object while static friction is the
friction against a stationary object.
B. Triangle where: d = distance from the centroid
to the axis
The coefficient of static friction A = area of the figure
depends upon the type of materials or h bh3
the nature of surfaces in contact. It is • x Ix =
36
independent of normal reaction, length
and area of contact. b

C. Circle
y r 4 D4
tan =  Ix = =
4 64

• x
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Ix = Iy

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The following formulas will be used: V0 = 0

Rectilinear Motion
1
S = V0 t  at 2 V = V0  at
Rectilinear translation is a motion in a 2 g 1 2
plane or one dimension. y= gt
V 2 = V02  2aS y 2
Types of Rectilinear Translations:
where:
V0 = initial velocity (time = 0) V
1. Horizontal translation
2. Vertical translation V = final velocity (time = t)
3. Curvilinear translation S = distance traveled after time, t
a = acceleration
Horizontal Translation: Curvilinear Motion
Horizontal translation (motion) is a
straight motion along a horizontal plane. Vertical Translation:
If acceleration is zero (a = 0), the velocity Curvilinear translation (motion) is a
of the body remains constant throughout Vertical translation (motion) is a straight motion along a curve path either on the
the motion, thus: motion along a vertical plane. In this type vertical plane or on horizontal plane. This
of motion, acceleration cannot be equal type of motion includes a trajectory or
to zero since the velocity of a body projectile, which is a curve path on the
Not this path moving in vertical motion, increases as it vertical plane and rotation on horizontal
goes down and decreases as it goes up. plane.
Excel Review
A projectile is a body whichCenter
after being
The following formulas given an initial velocity with an initial
will be used: V0 angle of release is allowed to travel
This path
Excel Review under the action of gravity only. A
(straight line)
projectile is a trajectory which is a graph
Center of a parabola.
Top View V 2 = V02  2ay
a
(x,y)
a=0 V
V = V0  at y V0
•
(0,0)  y
• x
1
y = V0 t  at 2 V
2

Let: Vx and Vy be the horizontal

S where: component and the vertical component,
Elevation View V0 = initial velocity (time = 0) respectively of the initial velocity, V0.
V = final velocity (time = t)
S = distance traveled after time t Vy
V0
a = acceleration Vx = V0 cos
V = V0 S = Vt
• Vx
If the acceleration of the body is not Vy = V0 sin
given, then it is presumed that the
where: acceleration to be used is the
V0 = initial velocity (time = 0) acceleration due to gravity (gravity on Since the horizontal component of the
V = final velocity (time = t) earth). velocity is constant throughout the
S = distance traveled after elapsed time t projectile, then the value of x is
g = 9.81 m/s2 or g = 32.2 ft/s2 calculated as follows:
If acceleration is constant, the initial
velocity, V0 is not equal to the final
velocity, V. x = V0 cost
Free-Falling bodies
So the time of flight, t is:
V0 a V
A body is said to be free falling if the x
initial vertical velocity is zero. The t=
V0 cos
acceleration of a free-falling body is due
to gravity which is equal to 9.81 m/s2 or
32.2 ft/s2.
S
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In the figure, the value y is obtained 6. The time for the projectile to travel
1 from the apex of its flight path to S = r V = r a = r
using the formula: y = V0 sint  gt 2 impact is the same time as initially
2
stationary object would take to fall a
Substituting the value of the time of flight distance of maximum altitude. For variable angular acceleration, the
“t” in the above equation: following formulas must be used.
If the initial point of the projectile is not on
the same elevation as the point of
 x  1  x 
2
 2 =  02  2  =  0  t
y = V0 sin   g impact, the following formulas for range,
 
 V0 cos  2  V0 cos  R may be used: 1
 =  0 t  t 2
Highest Point 2
Simplifying the above equation will •
Impact Point
produce the “General Equation of
Projectile”. •
V0 R Banking of Curves


gx 2 • •
y = x tan − Initial Point
2V cos2 
2
0 In order for the weight of the car to help
the frictional force resist the centrifugal
Since the variable “x” is in second degree
R=
2V02 sincos  +  ( ) force, banking of highway curve is
while the other variable “y” is in the first necessary. Once banked, a car can
gcos  2
degree, then the graph is a parabola. move at higher speed due to bigger
Highest Point resistance of the centrifugal force.
Note: The vertical component of the
•
velocity decreases as it goes up and is
zero at maximum point of the projectile Initial PointV0 
• 
and increases as it goes down, while the
horizontal component is constant. R
If the initial point of the projectile is on the •
Impact Point
same elevation as the point of impact, e
the following formulas may be used:

Highest Point
R=
2V02 sincos  −  ( )
• gcos2 
The ideal angle of banking,  may be
ymax calculated using:
V0
 Rotational Motion
• • V2
Initial Point Impact Point tan =
gr
xmax = Range = R Rotation is a motion along a circular path.

Excel Review For greater velocity without skidding,

Maximum height, ymax: ymax =

(V sin)
0
2
Center
2g r V
(
tan  +  =) V2
gr
V02 sin2 •
Range, xmax or R: R =
g S tan = 
r
In the absence of air drag, the following where:
rules apply to the case of a level target:  = angle of friction
 = coefficient of friction
1. The trajectory is parabolic. Let: S = linear distance in meters
2. The impact velocity is equal to initial V = linear velocity in m/s The superelevation, e, is the rise in the
velocity. a = linear acceleration in m/s2 outer edge of the roadway.
3. The impact angle is equal to the initial  = angular distance in radians
launch angle.  = angular distance in rad/s Excel Review
4. The range is maximum when  = 45.  = angular acceleration in rad/s2
5. The time for the projectile to travel Center
from the launch point to the apex is
equal to the time to travel from apex to
impact point.

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my.excelreviewer.com Thermodynamics Part 1
What is
Phases of Substances
Normally, there are three phases of a
substance, i.e. solid, liquid and gas,
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with along with two added phases, i.e.
the relationship between heat and other forms plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate.
This was discussed in Chemistry. Since
of energy. Earlier, in 1824, the French
different substances have different
engineer, Nicolas Sadi Carnot, published the
properties and behave differently,
“Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire”, a the following are the more specific
discourse on heat, power and engine efficiency. phases of substances: Analog Digital thermometer
Later, he became known as the “Father of Excel Review Center thermometer
Thermodynamics”. 1. Solid - In this phase, the substance Excel Review Center
The word “thermodynamics” does not take the shape or volume
of the container.
Temperature Scales
comes from the Greek words
The 4 common temperature scales used are:
“therme” and “dynamics”,
2. Subcooled liquid - In this phase the
which means “heat” and liquid is non-saturated. Non- 1. Celsius scale - Also known as the
“power”, respectively. This term was coined saturated means that it is not at is Centigrade scale, this is perhaps the most
by the English physicist, James Prescott boiling point. widely accepted temperature scale used
Joule, in 1849. Excel Review Center globally. In this scale, there are 100
3. Saturated liquid – In this phase the degrees of separation between the boiling
In 1824, Nicolas Sadi liquid that can absorb as much heat point and the freezing point of water,
Carnot, published the as it can without vaporizing. hence the word “centigrade”, which
“Reflections on the Motive literally means “100 steps”. This
Power of Fire”, a discourse 4. Liquid-vapor mixture – In this phase, temperature scale is named after the
on heat, power and engine the liquid and vapor co-exist with Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius.
efficiency. Later, he became the same temperature and pressure.
known as the “Father of 2. Fahrenheit scale – Named after the
Thermodynamics”. 5. Saturated vapor – In this phase, the German physicist, Gabriel Daniel
vapor has absorbed more heat than Fahrenheit, it is another common scale
Branches of necessary to vaporize it. used in some countries most notably in
the United States. In this scale, there are
Thermodynamics 6. Ideal gas – In this phase, the gas (a
highly superheated vapor) behaves
180 degrees of separation between the
boiling point and the freezing point of
1. Classical Thermodynamics - It is the
in accordance with the ideal gas water. Fahrenheit was the inventor of the
branch of thermodynamics that is law. first mercury thermometer that we now
concerned with thermodynamic states Excel Review Center use today.
and properties (energy, work and heat) 7. Real gas – In this phase, the gas
and with the laws of thermodynamics does not behave in accordance with 3. Kelvin scale – This is the SI unit of
without the atomic interpretation. This is the ideal gas law. temperature and of course, the most
the macroscopic approach of common unit of temperature adopted in
thermodynamic analysis. 8. Gas mixtures – In this phase, two or the scientific community. It is similar to
more gases mixed together freely. the Celsius scale wherein there are 100
degrees of separation between the boiling
2. Statistical Thermodynamics – It is the
9. Vapor/Gas mixtures – In this phase, point and the freezing point of water.
branch of thermodynamics that includes two or more gases mixed freely However, the difference lies in the fact
the atomic and molecular theories. It is with water vapor. that the 0 Kelvin is 273 units colder than
the microscopic approach of its equivalent value in the Celsius scale. 0

Temperature
thermodynamics. Kelvin is called absolute zero
temperature. It is the lowest temperature
3. Chemical Thermodynamics – It is the that any matter can reach or it is the
Temperature is defined as the degree of
branch of thermodynamics that is temperature below which any other value
hotness or coldness of a certain substance has no physical significance. This
concerned with the study of the with respect to some standard value. It is a temperature scale is named after the
interrelation of heat with chemical property that is dependent on the British physicist named Sir William
reactions or with a physical change of substance’s energy content. To be more Thomson or Lord Kelvin. In writing values
state within the confines of the laws of specific, it is a measure of the average of temperature in the Kelvin scale, the
thermodynamics. kinetic energy of the different particles in a symbol K is used without the degree
sample of matter. A thermometer is a symbol. Excel Review Center
Excel Review Center
device that measures temperature or a 4. Rankine scale – Named after William John
temperature gradient. A thermometer has Rankine, this is the absolute scale
The Future of Education! two important elements: a temperature equivalent of the Fahrenheit scale. This is
sensor in which some change occurs with a also similar to the Fahrenheit scale
Like us on Facebook change in temperature; and some means of wherein there are 180 degrees of
alterguru.com converting this change into a numerical separation between the boiling point and
value. the freezing point of water.
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my.excelreviewer.com Thermodynamics Part 2

Temperature Scales
continuation…
Thermal
Excel Review Center
Expansion L ∆L
There are two types of expansion, either linear or volume. For solids, both expansion
Excel Review Center types are significant. For liquids and for gases, it’s usually the volume expansion that is
meaningful.
Linear Expansion Volume Expansion
Linear expansion is the change in length Volume expansion is the change in volume
per degree of temperature change. per degree of temperature change.

L = LT V = VT

where: where: Excel Review Center

α = coeff. of linear expansion (°C-1) β = coeff. of linear expansion (°C-1)
L = initial length (m) V = initial volume (m3)
∆L = change in length (m) ∆V = change in volume (m3)
∆T change in temperature (°C) ∆T change in temperature (°C)
The coefficient of volume expansion, β, and the coefficient of linear expansion, α, for the
same material can be related through the following formula: β = 3α
Excel Review Center
Heat is internal energy in transit from one
body of matter to another by virtue of a
temperature difference between them.
Common units of heat:
calorie (cal) – amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water by 1°C.
kilocalorie (kcal) – amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of 1
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kg of water by 1°C
British Thermal Unit (BTU) – amount of
heat needed to raise the temperature
of 1 lbm of water by 1°F

Heat Capacity Q = mcT Q C Specific Heat

For monoatomic gases,  = 1.67 QL = mL
c= = For diatomic gases,  = 1.40. where:
The amount of heat to be supplied mT m
to an object to produce a unit where: QL = latent heat (J, cal, BTU)
Molar specific heat capacity, cM is
change in its temperature. c = specific heat m = mass of system (g or kg)
the product of molecular weight
Another term for heat capacity is C = heat capacity L = latent heat constant
and the specific heat of the
Thermal Capacity. SI unit is J/K Q = heat
For water at standard atm pressure
substance.
ΔT = change in temperature
Q = CT Q m = mass CM = (MW)(c)
C= Excel Review Center Heat Capacity or Thermal Capacity is a
T
For gases:
physical property of matter defined as the
where: Unit is BTU/lb-mol°F or J/kmol°C
amount of heat to be supplied to an object
C = heat capacity Constant volume
Latent Heat to produce a unitSensible
change in its heat
Q = heat Excel Review CenterDigital
Q= thermometer
mcv T
process It is the quantity of heat that
ΔT = change in temperature
temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is
It is he quantity of heat
jouleabsorbed changes the temperature of the
per kelvin (JK)
Q = mcp T
Constant pressure or released by a substance substance without changing its
Specific Heat process undergoing a change of state, phase.
The ratio of the amount of heat such as ice changing to water or
where: The total heat, QT, entering a
required to raise the temperature water to steam, at constant
cv = specific heat capacity at substance is the sum of the
of a unit mass of a substance by temperature and pressure. Also
constant volume latentrates
heat and the sensible heat.
one unit of temperature to the known as heat of transformation. “The of effusion
cp = specific heat capacity at
amount of heat required to raise Latent heat of fusion – solid to of two different
Normality
the temperature of a similar mass
constant pressure
liquid and vice versa
ExcelofReview Center
escaping,QA = QL +B,
T and
QSare
of a reference material, usually Latent heat vaporization – inversely proportional
For gases cp is always cp
water, by the same amount. liquid to gas and vice versa to the square roots of
greater than cv. The =
Sometimes defined as the heat cv Latent heat of sublimation – solid theirExcel
molar masses.”
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ratio is given through .
capacity per unit mass. to gas without becoming
Excel Review Center liquid and vice versa Excel Review CenterExcel Review Center
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my.excelreviewer.com Thermodynamics Part 3
Radiation This takes place by means of Excel Review Center
Heat Transfer electromagnetic waves which require no
Ideal Gases
Heat can be transferred from one body to material medium for their passage.
another by means of conduction,
Ideal gas is one when kept at constant
convection or radiation. Excel Review Center The rate of heat transfer through radiation temperature, obeys the gas laws exactly.
at which an object of surface area A and
Thermal Conduction (or heat conduction) is absolute temperature T emits radiation is Avogradro’s law:
the transfer of thermal energy between given by the Stefan-Boltmann law as:
neighboring molecules in a substance due to “Equal volumes of different gases at the
a temperature gradient. Q same temperature and pressure contain
= eAT 4 equal number of molecules.”
t
Fourier’s Law (Law of Thermal Conduction)
“The time rate of heat transfer through a P = eAT 4 where:
PV
material is proportional to the gradient in the
temperature and to the area, at right angle
Pnet = eA T2( 4
− T14 ) T
=R V = volume of gas
P = pressure of gas
to the gradient, through which the heat is where: PV = nRT T = absolute temperature
σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 (Stefan-Boltmann R = universal gas constant
flowing.” m
constant) n= n = number of moles
The rate of heat transfer through conduction is: e = emissivity (value from 0 to 1) MW m = mass of substance
e = 0 for perfect reflector (body that does not MW = molecular weight
radiate at all)
Q kAT AT e = 1 for blackbody Excel Review Center
of substance
= =
t L R Density of Ideal Gases
Emissivity is the ability of an object to emit
where: Excel Review Center radiation. A perfect radiator has emissivity PV = nRT
Q
= rate of heat conduction (power of conduction) of 1. Dark objects generally have high
m
t values of emissivity while light or shiny PV = RT
k = thermal conductivity objects have relatively low values of MW
ΔT = change in temperature emissivity. A black body is an idealized m P(MW)
L = thickness of slab or material = =
object that absorbs all electromagnetic V RT
A = area
radiation falling on it.
T
= temperature gradient Values of Universal Gas Constant, R:
L The term “Black Body” R = 8.3143 kJ/kmol-K
R = thermal resistance was introduced in 1860 R = 0.0821 atm-L/mol-K
by Gustav Kirchhoff! R = 1.96 cal/mol-K
Thermal conductivity, k, of the material is a R = 8.314 J/mol-K Excel Review Center
measure of its ability to conduct heat. The 3
R = 82.1 atm-cm /kmol-K
larger the k, the faster the heat transfer.
Internal Energy R = 0.0821 atm-m3/kmol-K
R = 8314.3 kg-m2/s2kmol-K
Thermal resistance, R, is the insulating ability The term “energy” is coined by Thomas R = 8314.3 m3 Pa/kmol-K where:
ofThe amount
a layer of heat to be supplied
of material. Young in 1807. All potential and kinetic
to an object to produce a unit R = 8.314 x 107 erg/mol-K
where: energies of the atoms and molecules in a
change in its temperature. R = 1545.33 ft-lbf/lbmol-R
thickness Lc = specific heat
substance are called internal energy.
Another = for heat capacity is = C = heat capacity
R term R = 1.986 Btu/lbmol-R
Thermal Capacity.
thermalSIconductivity
unit is J/K k
Q = heat Units of internal energy (U) are BTU/lb- R = 0.7302 atm-ft3/lbmol-R
ΔT = change inmol
temperature
and kJ/kmol. R = 10.73 ft3-lbf/in2-lbmol-R
Excel Review Center
Convection is the transfer of heat by mthe
= mass
motion of a volume of hot fluid from one Units of specific internal energy (u) are
where:
place to another. For gases:
BTU/lbm and kJ/kg. Kinetic Gas Theory
C = heat capacity Sensible heat
Q =rate
heatof heat transfer through convection is: States that gases are made up of a
The All forms of thermodynamic energy are It is the quantity of heat that
ΔT = change in temperature large number of small
changes particles (atoms
the temperature of the
measured by BTU.
Q or molecules),
substance withoutare
all of which in
changing its
= hAT constant, random
phase. motion.
t U = (MW)(u) U = Q  W
where: Excel Review Center The rapidlyThe
moving particles
total heat, constantly
QT, entering a
Q where: collide with each other
substance andsum
is the withofthe
the
= rate of heat convection (power of convection) + Q = heat enters the system / heat applied
t walls of the container.
latent heat andThis
thetheory
sensible heat.
h = convection coefficient to the system explains macroscopic properties of
ΔT = change in temperature - Q = heat leaves the system / heat gases, such as pressure,
Q T = QL temperature
+ QS
A = area removed from the system or volume by considering their
+ W = work done on the system by the molecular composition and motion. This
Pass Math in board surroundings also predicts the velocity distribution
Excel Review Center of
exam easily. Subscribe - W = work done by the system to the gas molecules as a function of
to MEME Review thru surroundings temperature.
Excel Online Excel Review Center
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my.excelreviewer.com Thermodynamics Part 4

Assumptions of LAWS OF
What are the

Maxwell-Boltzmann
Distribution THERMODYNAMICS
Kinetic Theory FIRST LAW
(About the conservation of energy)
1. The gas consists of very small particles, This describes particle speeds in gases,
all with non-zero mass. where the particles do not constantly
interact with each other but move freely “The change in the internal energy of a
2. The number of molecules is large such between short collisions. It also describes closed thermodynamic system is equal to
that statistical treatment can be applied. the probability of the particle’s speed (the the sum of the amount of heat energy
magnitude of its velocity vector) being supplied to the system and the work done
3. These molecules are in constant, random near a given value as a function of the on the system” Excel Review Center
motion. The rapidly moving particles temperature of the system, the mass of the
constantly collide with the walls of the particle and that speed value. This SECOND LAW
container. probability distribution is named after (About entropy)
Excel Review Center
James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig
4. The collisions of gas particles with the Boltzmann. Excel Review Center “The total entropy of any isolated
walls of the container holding them are
thermodynamic system tends to increase
perfectly elastic. The most probable speed of a molecule over time, approaching a maximum
with a mass m is: value.”
5. Except during collision the interactions
among molecules are negligible (they where:
exert no forces on one another). 3kT Clausius statement:
Vmas = k = Boltzmann constant
m k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K “Heat generally cannot flow
6. The total volume of the individual gas spontaneously from a material at lower
molecules added up is negligible The absolute temperature is proportional temperature to a material at higher
compared to the volume of the to the square of the rms velocity: temperature.”
container. This is equivalent to stating
that the average distance separating the m Kelvin statement:
T =   Vrms 2
gas particles is large compared to their  3k  “It is impossible to convert heat
size. completely into work in a cyclic process.”
The mean translational kinetic energy of
7. The molecules are perfectly spherical in the molecule is proportional to the mean Caratheodory statement:
shape, and elastic in nature. absolute temperature. “In the neighborhood of any equilibrium
state of thermodynamic system, there are
8. The average kinetic energy of the gas 1 2 equilibrium states that are adiabatically
particles depends only on the KE = mv2 = kT inaccessible.”
The amount of heat
temperature to be
of the supplied
system. 2 3 Excel Review Center
to an object to produce a unit
THIRD LAW
9. change in its temperature.
Relativistic effects are negligible.
Another term for heat capacity is
Thermal Capacity. SI unit is J/K
Brownian Movement (About absolute zero temperature)
10. Quantum-mechanical effects are
negligible. This means that the inter- Names after the Scottist botanist Robert “The entropy of all systems and of all
particle distance is much larger than the Brown, it is the seemingly random states of a system is zero at absolute
thermal de Broglie wavelength and the movement of particles suspended in a fluid zero.”
where:
molecules are treated as classical (i.e. a liquid such as water or air) or the Lewis and Randal version:
C = heat capacity
objects. Excel Review Center mathematical model used to describe such
Q = heat “If the entropy of each element in some
ΔT = change in temperature random movements, often called a particle
11. The time during collision of molecule (perfect) crystalline state be taken as zero
theory
with the container's wall is negligible as at the absolute zero temperature, every
comparable to the time between substance has a finite positive entropy,
successive collisions. but at the absolute zero of temperature,
the entropy may become zero.”
12. The equations of motion of the
molecules are time-reversible. ZEROTH LAW
(About thermodynamic equilibrium)

Alterguru.com “If two thermodynamic systems are

The future of separately in thermal equilibrium with a
Philippine third, they are also in thermal equilibrium
Education with each other.”
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my.excelreviewer.com Thermodynamics Part 5

Thermodynamics Thermodynamics Thermodynamics

Systems Processes Processes Formulas
A thermodynamic system refers to a matter A thermodynamic process is defined as the ADIABATIC PROCESS
enclosed within a defined volume. Everything energetic evolution a thermodynamic system
under study is part of the system. Everything proceeding from an initial state to a final Q =0 U = −W
external to the system is defined as the state.

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surroundings or environment. The ISOBARIC PROCESS
interface between the system and the ADIABATIC PROCESS
environment is called the boundary. This is A process where no heat or other processes P = 0 Q = H
where most interaction of energy happens. crosses the system boundary. The term
“adiabatic” comes from Greek word ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
ADIABATIC SYSTEM “adiabatos” which means “not to be passed”.
T = 0 Q=W
It is a system that has no exchange of energy
or matter with surrounding environment. ISOBARIC PROCESS ISOVOLUMETRIC PROCESS
A process in which the pressure remains
OPEN SYSTEM constant. V = 0 Q = U W =0
If mass flows through the system across ISOTHERMAL PROCESS ISENTROPIC PROCESS
system boundary. In an open system, heat, A process in which the temperature remains
work and matter may cross the boundary. constant. S = 0 Q =0
This is often called “control volume system”.
Examples: Jet engine, pumps ISOVOLUMETRIC PROCESS THROTTLING PROCESS
A process in which the volume remains
STEADY FLOW SYSTEM constant. Also known as isochoric or H = 0 P2  P1
isometric process
It is a type of open system wherein matter Excel Review Center
enters and leaves at the same rate. Examples: POLYTROPIC PROCESS
ISENTROPIC PROCESS
Boilers, turbines Excel Review Center An adiabatic process in which there is no where:
change in system entropy P1 V1n = P2 V2n n = polytropic exponent
CLOSED SYSTEM
THROTTLING PROCESS n = 0 for constant pressure process
If no mass flows through the system An adiabatic process in which there is no n = 1 for constant temperature process
boundaries, i.e. matter does not cross change in system enthalpy but with n = k for isentropic process
boundary but energy can cross the boundary. significant drop in pressure.The ratio of the n =  for constant volume process
ThisThe
is often
amountcalled “control
of heat mass system”.
to be supplied change in temperature to the change in Excel Review Center
to an object to produce a unit pressure when a real gas is throttled is called Q = mcn T n−k
change in its temperature.
cn = cv
ISOLATED SYSTEM Joule-Thomson coefficient. This coefficient n−1
Another term for heat capacity is
It isThermal Capacity.
a type of SI unit iswherein
closed system J/K neither
Brownian Movement
is also known as the Joule-Kelvin where:
coefficient. cn = polytropic specific heat
mass nor energy crosses the boundaries.
QUASISTATIC PROCESS
DIATHERMIC SYSTEM A process which can be divided infinitesimally
where: from equilibrium
If energy crosses
C = heat the system boundaries.
capacity
Q = heat
POLYTROPIC PROCESS
ΔT = change
Characteristics ofinthe
temperature
different thermodynamic A process that follows the polytropic equation
systems: Excel Review Center of state

REVERSIBLE PROCESS
A process in which its conclusion, both the
system and the local surroundings can be
restored to their initial state
The future
IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS of Philippine
A process in which its conclusion, both the Education
system and the local surroundings cannot be
Excel Review Center restored to their initial state. All actual
processes are irreversible processes. Excel Review Center