FORMULAS AND THEOREMS

1. Quadratic Formula:
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
2 + = 1 center at (h, k).
a x + bx + c = 0 (a =
/ 0) a2 b2
!
− b ± b 2 − 4a c 5. Area and Volume Formulas:
x=
2a
2. Distance Formula: FIGURE AREA FORMULA
!
d = (x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y 2 − y 1 )2 1
Trapezoid [base1 + base2 ] (height)
2
3. Equation of a Circle:
Parallelogram (base)(height)
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 center at (0, 0) and radius = r . !
s2 3
4. Equation of an Ellipse: Equilateral triangle
4
x2 y2
+ = 1 center at (0, 0). Circle πr 2 (circumference = 2πr )
a 2 b2

SOLID VOLUME SURFACE AREA

4 3
Sphere πr 4πr 2
3
Right circular cylinder πr 2 h Lateral S.A.: 2πr h
Total S.A.: 2πr h + 2πr 2
1 2 √
Right circular cone πr h Lateral S.A.: πr r 2 + h 2
3 √
Total S.A.: πr 2 + πr r 2 + h 2

6. Special Angles:

" " " " "

ANGLE 0◦ π 6 π 4 π 3 π 2 π 3π 2 2π
FUNCTION 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
" ! " ! "
Sin 0 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 0 −1 0
! " ! " "
Cos 1 3 2 2 2 1 2 0 −1 0 1
! " !
Tan 0 3 3 1 3 Undefined 0 Undefined 0

687
688 Formulas and Theorems

7. Double Angles: d
b. Power Rule: (x n ) = nx n−1
dx
• sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ c. Sum & Difference Rules:
2 2
• cos 2θ = cos θ − sin θ or
2 2
1 − 2 sin θ or 2 cos θ − 1. d du dv
(u ± v ) = ±
dx dx dx
2 1 + cos 2θ
• cos θ = d. Product Rule:
2
2 1 − cos 2θ d du dv
• sin θ = (uv ) = v +u
2 dx dx dx
8. Pythagorean Identities:
e. Quotient Rule:
2 2
• sin θ + cos θ = 1
•
2 2
1 + tan θ = sec θ du dv
•
2 2
1 + cot θ = csc θ d %u & v dx − u dx
= , v=
/0
dx v v2
9. Limits:
1 cos x − 1 Summary of Sum, Difference, Product,
lim = 0 lim =0
x →∞ x x →0 x and Quotient Rules:
# $h
sin x 1 ′ ′
lim =1 lim 1 + =e (u ± v ) = u ′ ± v ′ (uv ) = u ′ v + v ′ u
x →0 x h→∞ h
eh − 1 1 % u &′ u ′v − v ′u
lim =1 lim (1 + x ) x = e =
h→0 h x →0 v v2
10. L’Hoˆpital ’s Rule for Indeterminate Forms f. Chain Rule:
Let lim represent one of the limits:
lim , lim+ , lim− , lim , or lim . Suppose d
x →c x →c x →c x →∞ x →−∞
[ f (g (x ))] = f ′ (g(x )) · g ′(x )
f (x ) and g (x ) are differentiable, and g ′ (x ) =/ 0 dx
near c , except possibly at c, and suppose
dy dy du
lim f (x ) = 0 and lim g (x ) = 0, then the or = ·
f (x ) dx du dx
lim is an indeterminate form of the type
g (x ) 12. Inverse Function and Derivatives:
0
. Also, if lim f (x ) = ±∞ and
0 ' (′ 1 dy 1
f (x ) f −1 (x ) = or =
lim g (x ) = ±∞, then the lim is an f ( f (x ))
′ −1 d x d x /d y
g (x )
∞ 13. Differentiation and Integration Formulas:
indeterminate form of the type . In both
∞ Integration Rules:
0 ∞
cases, and , L’Hoˆpital ’s Rule states that )
0 ∞
f (x ) f ′ (x ) a. f (x )d x = F(x ) + C ⇒ F ′(x ) = f(x )
lim = lim ′ .
g (x ) g (x ) ) )
11. Rules of Differentiation: b. a f (x )d x = a f (x )d x
a. Definition of the Derivative of a Function: ) )
f (x + h) − f (x ) c. − f(x )d x = − f(x )d x
f ′ (x ) = lim
h→0 h
 Formulas and Theorems 689
) )
x n+1
d. [ f(x ) ± g(x )] d x c. x nd x = + C, n =
/ −1
n+1
) ) )
= f(x )d x ± g(x )d x d. sin x d x = − cos x + C
)
Differentiation Formulas: e. cos x d x = sin x + C
)
d f.
2
sec x d x = tan x + C
a. (x ) = 1
dx )
d 2
b. (a x ) = a g. csc x d x = − cot x + C
dx )
d
c. (x n ) = nx n−1 h. sec x (tan x ) d x = sec x + C
dx
d
)
d. (cos x ) = − sin x i. csc x (cot x ) d x = − csc x + C
dx
d )
e. (sin x ) = cos x 1
dx j. d x = ln |x | + C
x
d )
f. (tan x ) = sec2 x k. exdx = ex + C
dx
d )
g. (cot x ) = − csc2 x ax
dx l. axdx = + C a > 0, a =
/1
ln a
d )
h. (sec x ) = sec x tan x 1 −1
dx m. ! d x = sin x + C
d 1−x 2

i. (csc x ) = − csc x cot x )

dx 1 −1
n. d x = tan x + C
d 1 1 + x2
j. (ln x ) = )
dx x 1 −1
o. ! d x = sec x + C
d x |x | x − 1
2
k. (e ) = e x
dx
d More Integration Formulas:
l. (a x ) = (ln a ) a x
dx )
* *
d ' −1 ( 1 a. tan x d x = ln *sec x * + C or
m. sin x = ! * *
dx 1 − x2 − ln *cos x * + C
d % −1 & 1 )
n. tan x = * *
dx 1 + x2 b. cot x d x = ln *sin x * + C or
d % −1 & 1 * *
o. sec x = ! − ln *csc x * + C
dx |x | x 2 − 1 )
* *
c. sec x d x = ln *sec x + tan x * + C
Integration Formulas:
)
) * *
d. csc x d x = ln *csc x − cot x * + C
a. 1d x = x + C
) )
b. adx = ax + C e. ln x d x = x ln |x | − x + C
690 Formulas and Theorems

) %x &
1 −1 17. Mean Value Theorem:
f. √ d x = sin +C
a2 − x2 a
) f (b) − f (a )
1 1 %x & f ′ (c ) = for some c in (a , b).
g. d x = tan
−1
+C b−a
a2 + x2 a a
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals:
)
1 1 − 1 ** x **
h. √ d x = sec * * + C or ) b
x x2 − a2 a a
f (x ) d x = f (c ) (b − a ) for some c
1 * *
−1 *a *
a
cos * * + C
a x
in (a , b).
)
2 x sin(2x ) 18. Area Bounded by 2 Curves:
i. sin x d x = − +C
2 4 ) x2

1 − cos 2x Area = ( f (x ) − g (x ))d x ,

2
Note: sin x = and x1
2
2 1 + cos(2x ) where f (x ) ≥ g (x ).
cos x =
2 19. Volume of a Solid with Known Cross Section:
Note: After evaluating an integral, always ) b
check the result by taking the derivative of V= A(x )d x ,
the answer (i.e., taking the derivative of the a

antiderivative). where A(x ) is the cross section.

14. The Fundamental Theorems of Calculus:
20. Disc Method:
) b ) b
f (x )d x = F (b) − F (a ) , V =π
2
( f (x )) d x , where f (x ) = radius.
a
a
where F ′(x ) = f (x ).
) x 21. Using the Washer Method:
If F(x ) = f (t)d t, then F ′(x ) = f (x ). ) b% &
a 2 2
V =π ( f (x )) − (g (x )) d x ,
a
15. Trapezoidal Approximation:
where f (x ) = outer radius and
) b g (x ) = inner radius.
f (x )d x
a
+ ' ( ' ( ' ( , 22. Distance Traveled Formulas:
b−a f x 0' + 2(f x 1 + 2 f x 2 . . . )
=
2n +2 f x n−1 + f (x n ) • Position Function: s (t); s (t) = v (t)d t
)
ds
16. Average Value of a Function: • Velocity: v (t) = ; v (t) = a (t)d t
dt
) b dv
1 • Acceleration: a (t) =
f (c ) = f (x )d x dt
b−a a * *
• Speed: *v (t)*
 Formulas and Theorems 691
) t2
27. Derivatives of Parametric Functions:
• Displacement from t1 to t2 = v (t)
' ( ' ( t1 dy
= s t2 − s t1 . dy dx
= dt , / 0,
=
• Total Distance Traveled from t1 to dx dx dt
dt
) t2 * * and
t2 = *v (t)*d t. dy′
2
t1 d y dx
= dt , / 0.
=
dx 2 d x dt
23. Business Formulas:
dt
28. Vector Functions:
Profit = Revenue − Cost P (x ) = R(x ) − C (x ) Given r (t) = f (t) i + g (t) j :
Revenue =(price)(items sold) R(x ) = p x
Marginal Profit P ′ (x ) dr d f dg
Marginal Revenue R ′ (x ) (a) = i+ j
dt dt
) d#t ) $
Marginal Cost C ′ (x ) b b

P ′ (x ) , R ′ (x ) , C ′ (x ) are the instantaneous (b) r (t)d t = f (t)d t i

a #a) b $
rates of change of profit, revenue, and cost
respectively. + g (t)d t j
a
24. Exponential Growth/Decay Formulas:
29. Arc Length of a Curve:
dy - # $
= ky , y > 0 and y (t) = y 0 e kt . ) b 2
dt dy
(a) L = 1+ d x , y = f (x )
a dx
25. Logistic Growth Models:
(b) Parametric Equations:
# $ -
) b # $ 2 # $2
dP P dx dy
= kP 1 − or L= + d t,
dt M a d t dt
# $
dP k x = f (t) and y = g (t)
= (P)(M − P).
dt M (c) Polar Equations:
- # $2
M ) b
P= dr
1 + Ae
− kt L= r +
2 d θ, r = f (θ )
a dθ

26. Integration by Parts: 30. Polar Curves:

) ) (a) Slope of r = f (θ ) at (r,θ )

ud v = uv − v d u also written as dy
) ) dy dθ f ′ (θ ) sin θ + f (θ ) cos θ
= = ′ ,
f (x )g ′ (x )d x = f (x )g (x ) − f ′ (x )g (x )d x dx dx f (θ ) cos θ − f (θ ) sin θ
dθ
dx
/ 0,
=
Note: When matching u and dv, begin with dθ
u and follow the order of the acronym dr
LIPET (Logarithmic, Inverse Trigonometric, r + tan θ
or written as m = dθ .
Polynomial, Exponential, and Trigonometric dr
functions). − r tan θ +
dθ
692 Formulas and Theorems

(b) Given r = f (θ ) and α ≤ θ ≤ β, the area (Note: Both conditions must be satisfied
of the region between the curve, the origin, before the series converges.)
θ = α and θ = β: Error Approximation:
) β )
1 2 1 β 2 If S = sum of an alternating series, and Sn =
A= r d θ or A = [ f (θ )] d θ.
2 2 partial sum of n terms, then
α α * *
(c) Area between two Polar Curves: * error * = |S − Sn | ≤ a n+1 .
Given r 1 = f (θ) and r 2 = g (θ ) , (d) Harmonic Series:
0 ≤ r 1 ≤ r 2 and α ≤ θ ≤ β, the area . ∞
1 1 1 1
between r 1 and r 2 : = 1 + + + + · · · diverges.
k 2 3 4
) β ) β k=1
1 ' (2 1 ' (2 Alternating Harmonic Series:
A= r2 d θ − r1 d θ
α 2 α 2
.∞
k+1 1 1 1 1
) β % (− 1) = 1 − + − + ··· +
1 ' (2 ' (2 & k 2 3 4
= r2 − r1 d θ. k=1
α 2 1 k+1
(− 1) + · · · converges.
31. Series and Convergence: k
.
∞
k 1 1 1 1
(a) Geometric Series: ( (− 1) = − 1 + − + −
k 2 3 4
.∞ k=1
ar k = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + · · · k 1
· · · + (− 1) + · · · also converges.)
k=0 k
+ar k−1 · · · (a =/ 0)
32. Convergence Tests for Series:
if |r | ≥ 1, series diverges;
if |r | < 1, series converges and the (a) Divergence Test:
a /
∞
sum = . Given a series a k , if lim a k =/ 0, then the
1−r k=1 k→∞
(Partial sum of the first n terms: series diverges.
a − ar n
Sn = for all geometric series.) (b) Ratio Test for Absolute Convergence:
1−r /
∞
. ∞
1 1 1 1 Given a k where a k =
/ 0 for all ks and let
(b) p- Series: = 1 + p + p + p ··· k=1
kp 2 3 4 |a k+1 | /∞
k=1
p = lim , then the series ak
1 k→∞ |a k | k=1
+ + ···
kp
if p > 1, series converges; (1) converges absolutely if p < 1;
if 0 < p ≤ 1, series diverges. (2) diverges if p > 1;
.
∞
k+1
(3) needs more testing if p = 1.
(c) Alternating Series: (− 1) a k = a 1 −
k=1 (c) Comparison Test:
k+1
a 2 + a 3 − a 4 + · · · + (− 1) a k + · · · or /
∞ /
∞
Given a k and b k with
.∞
k k=1 k=1
(− 1) a k = − a 1 + a 2 − a 3 + a 4 −
a k > 0, b k > 0 for all ks, and
k=1
k a 1 ≤ b 1 , a 2 ≤ b 2 , . . . a k ≤ b k for all ks:
· · · + (− 1) a k + · · · , where a k > 0 for all
ks. /
∞ /
∞

Series converges if (1) If b k converges, then ak

k=1 k=1
converges.
(1) a 1 ≥ a 2 ≥ a 3 · · · ≥ a k ≥ · · · and
(Note that if the bigger series converges,
(2) lim a k = 0.
k→∞ then the smaller series converges.)
 Formulas and Theorems 693

/
∞ /
∞
.
∞
(2) If a k diverges, then b k diverges. x xk
e =
k=1 k=1
k!
k=0
(Note that if the smaller series diverges,
then the bigger series diverges.) x2 x3 x4
=1+x + + + + ··· x ∈R
2! 3! 4!
(d) Limit Comparison Test:
/∞ /
∞
1 . ∞
Given a k and b k with = xk
k=1 k=1 1−x
k=0
a k > 0, b k > 0 for all ks, and
ak = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · x ∈ (− 1, 1)
let p = lim , if 0 < p < ∞, then both
k→∞ b k
series converge or both series diverge. 1 . k
∞

= (− 1) x k
(e) Integral Test: 1+x
k=0
/
∞
Given a k , a k > 0 for all ks, and
k=1
= 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + · · · + (− 1)k x k + · · ·
a k = f (k) for some function f (x ), x ∈ (− 1, 1)
if the function f is positive, continuous,
/∞ .
∞
k x k+1
and decreasing for all x ≥ 1, then ak ln (1 + x ) = (− 1)
) ∞ k=1 k+1
k=0

and f (x )d x , either both converge or

1
both diverge.
x2 x3 x4
=x − + − + ···
33. Maclaurin Series: 2 3 4
x ∈ (− 1, 1]
. f
∞ (k)
(0) k .
∞
f (x ) = x −1 k x 2k+1
k! tan x = (− 1)
k=0 2k + 1
k=0

f (0) 2 ′′
= f (0) + f ′ (0) x + x
2! x3 x5 x7
=x − + − + ···
f (0) k
(k)
3 5 7
+ ··· + x + ···
k! x ∈ [− 1, 1]
.
∞
k x 2k+1
sin x = (− 1) 34. Taylor Series:
(2k + 1)!
k=0
.
∞
f (k)
(a ) k
x x x 3 5 7 f (x ) = (x − a )
=x − + − + ··· x ∈R k!
3! 5! 7! k=0

.
∞
x 2k = f (a ) + f ′ (a ) (x − a )
k
cos x = (− 1)
(2k)! f ′′ (a ) 2
k=0 + (x − a ) + · · ·
2!
x2 x4 x6
=1− + − + ··· x ∈R f (k) (a )
2! 4! 6! +
k
(x − a ) + · · ·
k!
694 Formulas and Theorems

Partial Sum: 35. Testing a Power Series for Convergence

Given:
n
. f (k) (a ) k
Pn (x ) = (x − a ) .
∞
k! k 2
k=0 c k (x − a ) = c 0 + c 1 (x − a ) + c 2 (x − a )
k=0
= f (a ) + f ′ (a ) (x − a )
k
+ · · · + c k (x − a ) + · · ·
f ′′ (a ) 2
+ (x − a ) + · · ·
2! (1) Use Ratio Test to find values of x for
f (a )
(n) absolute convergence.
n
+ (x − a ) (2) Exactly one of the following cases will
n!
occur:
f (n+1) (c ) n+1
R n (error for Pn (x )) = (x − a ) ,if (a) Series converges only at x = a .
(n + 1)!
x > a , c ∈ (a , x ), or if x < a , c ∈ (x , a ), (b) Series converges absolutely for all
or if x = a , c = a . x ∈ R.
(c) Series converges on all
x ∈ (a − R, a + R) and diverges for
x < a − R or x > a + R. At the
endpoints x = a − R and x = a + R, use
an Integral Test, an Alternating Series
Test, or a Comparison Test to test for
convergence.