REPUBLIC OF KENYA

LEARNING GUIDE

FOR

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

LEVEL 4

TVET CDACC
P.O. BOX 15745-00100
NAIROBI
First published 2020
©Copyright TVET CDACC

All rights reserved. No part of this learning guide may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or
mechanical methods without the prior written permission of the TVET CDACC, except in the
case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses
permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the Council Secretary/CEO, at the
address below:

Council Secretary/CEO
TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
P.O. Box 15745–00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Email: [email protected]

© TVET CDACC 2019 2

FOREWORD

The provision of quality education and training is fundamental to the Government’s overall
strategy for social economic development. Quality education and training will contribute to
achievement of Kenya’s development blue print and sustainable development goals. Reforms in
education are necessary to align the sector to the provisions of the Constitution of Kenya 2010.
This triggered the formulation of the Policy Framework on “Reforming Education and Training
in Kenya” (Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019). A key provision of this policy is the radical change
in the design, development and delivery of Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) which is the key to unlocking the country’s potential for industrialization. This policy
requires that training in TVET be Competency Based, Curriculum development be industry led,
certification be based on demonstration of competence and that mode of delivery allows for
multiple entry and exit in TVET programs.

The State Department for Vocational and Technical Training (VTT) has a responsibility of
facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for catapulting
the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm shift to embrace Competency
Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between skills acquired through
training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of Kenyan
labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and the
Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasizes the
need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to the unique
needs of the industry.

This learning guide has been developed to support the implementation of CBET curriculum in
Electrical Installation Level 4 and is intended to guide the trainee through the learning process. It
is my conviction that this learning guide will play a critical role towards supporting the
development of competent human resource for Electrical Installation sector’s growth and
sustainable development.

© TVET CDACC 2019 3

Prof. CHARLES M. M. ONDIEKI, PhD, FIET (K), Con. Eng Tech.

© TVET CDACC 2019 5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This learning guide has been designed and developed to support the implementation of
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) curricula in Kenya. The learning guide is
intended to support learning by providing practical and theoretical learning activities, simplified
content and self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process.

I recognize with appreciation the critical role of trainers in developing this learning guide and
ensuring its alignment with National Occupational Standards (OS) and CBET curriculum. I am
convinced that this learning guide will support trainees’ acquisition of knowledge, skills and
right attitude needed for work in Electrical Installation sector.

DR. LAWRENCE GUANTAI M’ITONGA, PhD

COUNCIL SECRETARY/CEO
TVET CDACC

© TVET CDACC 2019 6

 ACRONYMS

CBET Competence Based Education and Training

NCA National Construction Authority
NEMA National Environment Management Authority
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Act.

© TVET CDACC 2019 7

 TABLE OF CONTENT

FOREWORD iii

PREFACE iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v

CHAPTER 1: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 1

1.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Apply algebra 2

1.2.2 Learning outcome 2: Apply Coordinate Geometry 21

1.2.3 Learning outcome 3: Carry Out Mensura on 30

1.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Apply Matrix 43

1.2.5 Learning outcome 5: Apply Vectors 52

1.2.5.7 RESPONSES TO SELF-ASSESSMENT 59

1.2.5.7 list of reference 66

CHAPTER 2: WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY 67

2.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Apply Workshop Safety 67

2.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Use of workshop tools, Instruments and equipment 107

2.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Prepare workshop tools and instruments for an Electrical installa on134

2.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Store electrical tools and materials 145

2.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: troubleshoot and repair/replace workshop tools and equipment 164

2.2.5.6 Responses on Self-Assessment 179

CHAPTER 3: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES 187

© TVET CDACC 2019 8

 3.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Basic Electrical Quan es 187

3.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: D.C And A.C Circuits In Electrical Installa on 194

3.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Electrical Machines 224

3.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Earthing in Electrical Installa ons 241

3.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Capacitance and Inductance 248

CHAPTER 4: TECHNICAL DRAWING 267

4.1 Introduc on to the unit of learning 267

4.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes 267

4.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Use and Maintenance of Drawing Equipment and Materials 268

4.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Produce Plane Geometry Drawings 275

4.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Produce Solid Geometry Drawings 284

4.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Produce Orthographic Drawings 293

4.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Produce Electrical Drawings 303

CHAPTER 5: PERFORMING ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION 317

5.1 Introduc on 317

5.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes 317

5.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Apply and Adhere to Safety Procedures 318

5.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Prepare Working Drawings 23

5.2.3 Learning outcome 3: Prepare Tools, Equipment & Materials 38

5.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Perform Electrical Installa on 43

CHAPTER 6: TESTING OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION 37

6.1 Introduction to the unit of learning 37

6.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes 37

6.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Identify the test to be carried out and test equipment 1

6.2.3 Learning outcome 3: Perform Testing of Electrical Installation 34

© TVET CDACC 2019 9

 6.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Issue installation test results and wiring completion Certificates
56

6.2.5 Sample Response to Self-Assessment 68

CHAPTER 7: ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE 73

7.1 Introduction 73

7.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes 73

7.2.1 learning outcome 1: Identify System Failure 73

7.2.2 learning outcome 2: Troubleshoot Cause of Failure 20

7.2.3 learning outcome 3: Prepare List of Tools, Equipment & Materials 25

7.2.4 leaning outcome 4: Repair the Installation 37

7.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Test the Repaired System 35

7.2.6 Answers to Self-Assessment 44

© TVET CDACC 2019 10

 LIST OF TABLES
1. Table 1: Common Units of Learning………………………………………..………….xv

2. Table 2: core units of Learning.......................................................................................xi

3. Table 3: activity 1: quadratic equation...........................................................................16

© TVET CDACC 2019 11

 COMMON COMPETENCIES
Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title
ENG/OS/EI/CC/01/4 Apply Engineering mathematics
ENG/OS/EI/CC/02/4 Apply Electrical principles
ENG/OS/EI/CC/03/4 Apply workshop processes
ENG/OS/EI/CC/04/4 Prepare and interpret Technical Drawing

CORE COMPETENCIES
Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title
ENG/OS/EI/CR/01/4 Perform Electrical Installation
ENG/OS/EI/CR/02/4 Perform Testing of Electrical Installation
ENG/OS/EI/CR/03/4 Perform Electrical system breakdown maintenance

CHAPTER 1: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Unit of learning code ENG/OS/EI/CC/01/4

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Apply Engineering Mathematics

1.0 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit describes the competencies required by a technician in order to apply algebra, apply
coordinate geometry, and carry out mensuration, matrix methods, and vectors.

© TVET CDACC 2019 13

1.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes
1. Apply algebra
2. Apply coordinate geometry
3. Carry out mensuration
4. Apply matrix
5. Apply vectors

2
1.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Apply algebra

1.2.1.1 1Introduction
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies on calculations involving indices
and logarithms, solving simultaneous equations, solving quadratic equations and applying
calculators in solving mathematical problems

1.2.1.2 Performance Standard

1.1 Calculations involving Indices are performed as per the concept
1.2 Calculations involving Logarithms are performed as per the concept
1.3 Scientific calculator is used in solving mathematical problems in line with
manufacturer’s manual
1.4 Simultaneous equations are performed as per the rules
Quadratic equations are calculated as per the concept

3
1.2.1.3 Information Sheet

Decimals
The decimal system of numbers is based on the digits 0 to 9. A number such as 64.28 is
called a decimal fraction, a decimal point separating the integer part, i.e. 64 from the fractional
part, i.e. 0.28.

Terminating and non-terminating(recurring) decimals

A number which can be expressed exactly as a decimal fraction is called a terminating
decimal and those which cannot be expressed exactly as a decimal fraction are called
non-terminating decimals.
Thus 3/2 = 1.5 is a terminating decimal while 4/3 = 1.3333… is a non-terminating decimal

and can be written as 1.3˙ called ‘one point three recurring’

The answer to recurring decimals may be expressed in two ways depending on the
accuracy required:

i.) Correct to a number of significant figures, that is, figures which signifies something
ii.) Correct to a number of decimal places, that is, the number of figures after the
decimal point. The last digit in the answer is unaltered if the next digit on the right
is in the group of numbers 0,1,2,3,4 but is increased by 1if the next digit on the right
is in the group of numbers 5,6,7,8,9 i.e. of the next number on the right is 5 and
above.
Example: write 7.6183 into two significant figure and also into three decimal places
i) 7.6183 in two significant figures = 7.62
ii) 7.6183 in three decimal places = 7.618
Example 2: write 9.6149 into two significant figures and also into three decimal places
i) 9.6149 in two significant figures = 9.61
ii) 9.6149 in three decimal places = 9.615
Brackets and factorization

4
 Base and Index
𝑥
When a number is written as 𝑦 = 𝑎 then 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦

Then a is the base while x is the index. This is index notation of y

Thus since 1000 = 103, then 3 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔101000

(a) Logarithm having a base of 10 are called common logarithm and log10 is usually
abbreviated to lg.
The following values may be checked by using a calculator
Lg 17.9 = 1.2528…., lg 462.7 = 2.6652…., lg 0.0173 = -1.7619
(b) Logarithms having a base of e (where ‘e’ is a mathematical constant approximately equal
to 2.7186) are called hyperbolic, Napierian or natural logarithm and loge is usually
abbreviated ln
The following may be checked by using a calculator: ln 3.15 = 1.1474…,
ln 362.7 = 5. 8935.., ln 0.156 = -1.8578…
Example 1: write the following statements in logarithmic notation
a) 23 = 8
b) 5-2 = 1/25

Solution
a) Log28 = 3
b) Log5 1/25 = -2

Law of indices
The following is a summary of law of indices
i.) am x an = a(m + n)
ii.) am ÷ an = a(m - n)
6
iii.) (am)n = amn
iv.) ao = 1
v.) a-n = 1/an
vi.)
ab/c = c√ ab

Example 2: evaluate the following

a) 32 x 34 = 3(2+4) = 36 = 729
b) 34 ÷ 32 = 3( 4 - 2) = 32 = 9
c) (32)3 = 32x3 = 36 = 729
d) 30 = 1
e) 3-2 = 1/32
f)
361/2 = √36 = 6

Laws of logarithm
a) loga(A×B) = logaA + logaB
b) loga (A/B) = loga A – loga B
c) loga An = nlogaA

Example 3: express the following in terms of log a, log b and log c

a) log (ab) = log a + log b
b) log (abc) = log a+ log b + log c
c) log (a/b) = log a – log b
d) log (a/bc) = log a – log b – log c

Logarithmic equations
A logarithmic equation is an equation that involves the logarithm of an expression containing a
variable.

7
0.4771 . . . =3 which may be readily checked.
(Note, (log 8/ log 2) is not equal to log (8/2))

Example 6: Solve the equation 2x+1 =32x−5 correct to 2 decimal places

Solution

Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides gives:

log10 2x+1 =log10 32x−5
i.e. (x+1) log10 2= (2x−5) log10 3
x log10 2+log10 2=2x log10 3−5 log10 3
x(0.3010)+(0.3010)=2x(0.4771)−5(0.4771)
i.e. 0.3010x+ 0.3010 = 0.9542x − 2.3855
Hence 2.3855+0.3010=0.9542x − 0.3010x
2.6865=0.6532x
from which x= 2.6865/0.6532
=4.11 correct to 2 dps
Conversion of base

Log ab = 1/log ba
Example: solve for x given that 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥 − 6𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥2 = 1

Solution:
𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥 − 6𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥2 = 1

6
𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥
= 1

(𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥) 2− 6 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥

Let 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥 = 𝑝
2 2
⁖ 𝑝 − 6 = 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 − 𝑝 − 6 = 0
2
From which 𝑝 − 3𝑝 + 2𝑝 − 6 = 0

9
2. Display format
Natural Display (also known as Mathematical Display, Write View, Math Print, and Equation
Writer) causes fractions, irrational numbers and other expressions to be displayed as they are
written on paper.

Video link on how to use a scientific calculator

Open the link provided below to watch a video demonstrating how to use scientific calculator
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QoJN5-afZLY&feature=youtu.be

Reduction of equations
Reduction refers to applying simple rules to a series of equations to change them into a simpler
form.
It is also known as simplification.
For example: simplify 2p ÷ 8pq
2p÷8pq means 2p/8pq. This can be reduced by cancelling as in arithmetic
= 2 x p/(8 x p x q) = 1/4q
Example 2: Simplify a3b2c×ab3c5

Grouping like terms gives: a3 ×a×b2 ×b3 ×c×c5

Using the first law of indices gives: a3+1 ×b2+3 ×c1+5
i.e. a4 ×b5 ×c6 =a4b5c6

11
Solution of simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns
Equations which have to be solved together to find the unique values of the unknown quantities,
which are true for each of the equations, are called simultaneous equations.
Methods of solving simultaneous equations
Two methods are used:
(a) substitution method, and (b) elimination method

Example1. Solve, by substitution method, the simultaneous equations

3x − 2y = 12 ....(1)
x + 3y = −7.... (2)

From equation (2), x = −7−3y

Substituting for x in equation (1) gives:
3(−7−3y) −2y=12
i.e. −21−9y−2y=12
−11y=12+21=33
Hence -11y= 33
y=−3
Substituting y=−3 in equation (2) gives:
x+3(−3) =−7
i.e. x−9=−7
Hence x=−7+9=2
Thus x =2 and y = −3 is the solution of the simultaneous equations.
Example 2: Use an elimination method to solve the simultaneous equations
3x + 4y = 5..... (1)
2x − 5y = −12..... (2)
solution
If equation (1) is multiplied throughout by 2 and equation (2) by3, then the coefficient of x will be
the same in the newly formed equations.
Thus

12
2×equation (1) gives: 6x+8y =10…….. (3)
3×equation (2) gives: 6x−15y =−36…… (4)
Equation (3) – (minus) equation (4) gives: 0+23y =46
Thus 23 y = 46
y=2

(Note +8y−−15y=8y+15y=23y and 10−−36=10+36=46. Alternatively, ‘change the signs of the

bottom line and add’.)
Substituting y=2 in equation (1) gives:
3x+4(2) =5
from which 3x=5−8=−3
and x=−1
Checking in equation (2), left-hand side=2(−1) −5 (2) = −2−10=−12 = right-hand side.
Hence x = −1 and y = 2 is the solution of the simultaneous equations.
The elimination method is the most common method of solving simultaneous equations.

Solution of quadratic equations

A quadratic equation is one in which the highest power of the variable quantity is 2. For
example,
x2 −3x+1 = 0 is a quadratic equation.
There are four methods of solving quadratic equations

These are:
(i) Factorization method (where possible)
(ii) Completing the square method
(iii) By using the ‘quadratic formula’
(iv) Graphical method

Factorization method

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Multiplying out (2x+1)(x−3) gives 2x2 −6x+x−3, i.e. 2x2 −5x−3. The reverse process of moving
from 2x2 −5x−3 to (2x+1)(x−3) is called factorizing.
If the quadratic expression can be factorized this provides the simplest method of solving a
quadratic equation.

For example, if 2x2 −5x−3=0, then, by factorizing:

solution
(2x+1)(x−3)=0
Hence either (2x+1) = 0 i.e. x = −1/2
or (x−3) = 0 i.e. x = 3
Solving quadratic equations by completing square method
An expression such as x2 or (x+2)2 or (x−3)2 is called a perfect square.
If x2 = 3 then x = ±√3
If (x+2)2 =5 then x+2 = ±√5 and x = -2 ± √5

If (x−3)2 =8 then x −3 = ±√8, x = 3 ± √8

Hence if a quadratic equation can be rearranged so that one side of the equation is a perfect square
and the other side of the equation is a number, then the solution of the equation is readily obtained
by taking the square roots of each side
The process of rearranging one side of a quadratic equation into a perfect square before solving is
called ‘completing the square’.
The simple procedure here is
a) rearrange the equation so that all terms are on the same side
b) make the coefficient of x2 be 1 by dividing the quadratic equation by the coefficient of x2
c) half the coefficient of x, square it and add the value to both sides
d) complete the square and compute for the unknown variable

Example. Solve 2x2 +5x=3 by ‘completing the square’.

14
The procedure is as follows:
1. Rearrange the equation so that all terms are on the same side of the equals sign (and the
coefficient of the x2 term is positive).
Hence 2x2 +5x−3=0
2. Make the coefficient of the x2 term unity. In this case this is achieved by dividing throughout by
2.
Hence
2x2/2 + 5x/2 – 3/2 = 0
X2 + 5x/2 – 3/2 = 0
2 5 3
𝑥 + 2
𝑥 − 2
= 0

3. Rearrange the equations so that the x2 and x terms are on one side of the equals sign and the
constant is on the other side.
Hence
X2 + 5x/2 = 3/2
4. Add to both sides of the equation (half the coefficient of x) 2. In this case the coefficient of x is
5/2
. Half the coefficient squared is therefore (5/4)2
Thus
x2 + 5/2x + (5/4)2 = 3/2 + (5/4)2
The LHS is now a perfect square, i.e.
(x + 5/4)2 = 3/2 + (5/4)2
5. Evaluate the RHS. Thus (x + 5/4)2 = 3/2 + 25/16 = 24 + 25/16 = 49/16

6. Taking the square root of both sides of the equation (remembering that the square root of a
number gives answer).
Thus
√ (x + 5/4)2 = √ (49/16) i.e. x + 5/4 = ± 7/4

7. Solve the simple equation. Thus

X = −5/4 ± 7/4. ie x = -5/4 + 7/4 = ½ or -3
15
Hence x = ½ or −3 are the roots of the equation 2x2 +5x=3

Solving quadratic equation by formula

The quadratic formula is x =−b± √b2 −4ac/2a
2
−𝑏± 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 = 2𝑎

(This method of solution is ‘completing the square)

Where:
a = coefficient of x2
b = coefficient of x
c = the constant term
Example: Solve 4x2 +7x+2=0 giving the roots correct to 2 decimal places.
Comparing 4x2 +7x+2=0 with ax2 +bx + c gives a = 4, b = 7 and c = 2.
Hence x = -7 ± √ (49 – 32)/8 = - 0.36 or -1.39

Graphical method
Another method of solving quadratic equation is by graphical method.
1. In this method the quadratic equation given is first rewritten as a quadratic function of y.
2. Then form a table of x values against y
3. Plot the curve and note where the curve cuts the x-axis

● A quadratic equation has two roots if its graph has two x-intercepts
● A quadratic equation has one root it its graph has one x-intercept
● A quadratic equation has no real solutions if its graph has no x-intercepts.

Example:
Solve the equation x2 + x – 3 = 0 by drawing its graph for –3 ≤ x ≤ 2.

Solution:
Rewrite the quadratic equation x2 + x – 3 = 0 as the quadratic function

16
 y = x2 + x – 3

Draw the graph for y = x2 + x – 3 for –3 ≤ x ≤ 2.

X –3 –2 –1 0 1 2

Y 3 –1 –3 –3 –1 3

Table 3

Figure 1.21

The solution for the equation x2 + x – 3 can be obtained by looking at the points where the
graph y = x2 + x – 3 cuts the x-axis (i.e. y = 0).

The graph y = x2 + x – 3, cuts the x-axis at x = 1.3 and x = –2.3

17
 So, the solution for the equation x2 + x –3 is x =1.3 or x = –2.3.

Example

Solve the equation

x2 −3x−10 = 0

x2 −3x −10 = y

Graph the equation. This could either be done by making a table of values as we have done in
previous sections or by a computer or a graphing calculator.

figure 1.22

The parabola cross the x-axis at x = -2 and x = 5. These are the roots of the quadratic equation.

We can compare this solution to the one we would get if we were to solve the quadratic equation
by factoring as we've done earlier.

x2 −3x−10=0

x2 −3x−10 = y……. factorise

18
 (x+2)(x−5) = 0

Therefore x = −2 or x = 5

Open the video link provided to watch more examples on solving quadratic equations graphically
https://youtu.be/7GHsJNBwt9E

1.2.1.4 Learning activities

Activity 1: quadratic equation

Key learning activities Points of consideration/special instructions

Introduction The trainer will ask prompt questions such as

“What does a quadratic look like?” or “How
learners will be reminded of prior knowledge:
do we know that an equation is a line?” to
substitution, graphs. And roots of quadratics
stimulate thinking.

Posing the Task learners may be asked to recognize a line and

a quadratic in the question.
A problem will be written on a slide of a
PowerPoint Presentation and projected onto
the screen. Each individual will also be given
a paper copy. learners will be encouraged to
work in pairs.

Anticipated Student Responses The trainer will Indicate that you cannot
subtract unlike terms Point out that the
R1: May try elimination method.
squaring needs to be re-done Ask the learners

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R2: May not square properly to look at the factorising again Ask him to try
another method Ask the learners to explain
R3: May pick the incorrect factors
the graph in his own words.

R4: May try trial and error and get tired

R5: May graph the line and the curve but fail
to draw a conclusion.

Comparing and Discussing We will focus on whether the learners can

explain the reason for each step in their
The trainer will look for the most common
solution The trainer will encourage each
method and ask one learners to come to the
learner to discuss the merits of his solution.
board to explain what s/he did. Then the
trainer will ask the learners for another way to
solve it. If an individual does not volunteer
the trainer will have looked out already for
alternatives which s/he will then invite that
student up to the board

The trainer will summarize what each pair

did, what was the most popular method and
what the class decided was the best method.

Table 4

1.2.1.5 Self assessment

Learning outcome 1: apply Algebra

−3 4
7 ×3
1. simplify: −2 5 2 expressing your answer in index form with positive indices
3 ×7 ×5

2. use elimination method to solve the following simultaneous equation

20
Where a and c are constants (a being gradient of the line)

Example: the coordinates of two points A and B are given in the Cartesian plane as (2,6) and
(4,1) respectively. Plot these points in a Cartesian plane and hence determine the equation of
a line joining the two points.

Solution
∆𝑦 6−1 −5
Gradient of the line = ∆𝑥
= 2−4
= 2

The Cartesian equation is given by

𝑦−1
-5/2 = 𝑥−4
⇒ 2(y – 1) = -5(x – 4) ⇒ 2y – 2 = 20 – 5x, ⇒ y -5x/2 + 11

Polar equation

Introduction to Polar Coordinates

Another form of plotting positions in a plane is using polar coordinates. We are used to using
rectangular coordinates, or xy-coordinates. Polar coordinates use a graphing system based on
circles, and we specify positions using the radius and angle of a point on a circle centered at the
origin. We must also know how to convert from rectangular to polar coordinates and from polar
coordinates to rectangular.

This video introduces polar coordinates. https://youtu.be/-tZR3ggdoIU

24
Changing from cartesian into polar co-ordinates
Consider figure… below. If length x and y are known, then the length of r can be obtained by
Pythagoras theorem

2 2 2 2 2
Since OPQ is a right-angled triangle, 𝑟 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 from which r = 𝑥 + 𝑦
from trigonometric ratios
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛ө = 𝑥
⁖ ө = 𝑦/ 𝑥

The angle ө may be expressed in degrees or radians and must always be measured from the
positive x-axix, i.e. measured from line OQ

Example: change the cartesian co-ordinate (3,4) into polar co-ordinates

Solution
From Pythagoras theorem
2 2
𝑟 = 3 +4 =5
By trigonometric ratios
4 𝑜
ө= 3
= 53. 13 𝑜𝑟 0. 927 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

hence (3,4) in cartesian co-ordinate corresponds to (5, 53.13o) or (5, 0.927 rad) in polar
co-ordinates.

A polar equation is any equation that describes a relation between r and θ, where r represents the
distance from the pole (origin) to a point on a curve, and θ represents the counterclockwise angle
made by a point on a curve, the pole, and the positive x-axis.

25
 2 2 2
𝑟 = 𝑥 + 𝑦

𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛ɵ = 𝑥

NB: one must consider what quadrant the point is when computing ɵ from this identity.

Convert (1, 2) into polar coordinates.

x=1 and y=2y=2. The value of r is computed as follows

2 2 2
𝑟 = 𝑥 +𝑦
2 2 2
𝑟 = 1 + 2 =5⇒𝑟 = 5

The value of ɵ is computed as follows:

𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛ɵ = 𝑥
⇒𝑡𝑎𝑛ɵ = 2/1

𝑜
ɵ = 2 = 63. 4
The point is in the first quadrant, so the inverse tangent function gives the correct value of ɵ

the point in polar coordinate is ( 5, 63.4o)

2 2
Convert the following equations into polar form: 4𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 36

Solution
Use the identity 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠ɵ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛ɵ
2 2 2 2
∴ 4𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɵ + 9𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ɵ = 36

27
 2 36 2
𝑟 = 2 2 ⇒ 𝑟 = 6/ 4 + 9𝑠𝑖𝑛
4𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɵ + 9𝑠𝑖𝑛 ɵ

Tangents and normal

A tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve at one point and has the same slope as the
curve at that point.

A normal to a curve is a line perpendicular to a tangent to the curve

Figure.1.24
𝑑𝑦
The slope of a tangent at any point (x,y) can be found using 𝑑𝑥

To find the equation of a normal, the condition for two lines with slopes m1and m2 to be
perpendicular

m1 × m2 = −1

example: find the equation of a line perpendicular to a line defined by the equation
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (1, 4}
solution

from the equation 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3, 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 2

28
 2. The spokes of a wheel are placed normal to the circular shape of the wheel at each point
where the spoke connects with the center

Examples

1. Find the gradient of

(i) The tangent (ii) the normal to the curve y = x3 − 2x2 + 5 at the point (2,5).

𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥
=3𝑥 − 4𝑥 , the slope of the tangent is

∆𝑦
𝑚1= ∆𝑥
at x = 2 ⇒ 3(2)2 – 4(2) = 4

The slope of the normal is found from the expression m1 x m2 = -1

∴ m2 = -1/4

Find the equation of the (i) tangent and (ii) normal to the curve in the above example

We use y − y1 = m(x − x1), with x1 = 2, y1 = 5

(i) The tangent has slope 4, so we have: y – 5 = 4(x – 2) ⇒ y = 4x - 3

(ii) For the normal to the curve, since the tangent has a slope of 4, we have the slope
of the normal as m2 = -1/4
so we substitute as follows:
y-5 = -1/4(x – 2) ⇒ y = -1/4x + 11/2
or
x + 4y – 22 =0https://youtu.be/L4 https://youtu.be/L4v98ZZft68ft68

1.2.2.4 self-assessment

1. Find the gradient of a line AB given the coordinates of A(2,3) and B(1,6)

30
1.2.3 Learning outcome 3: Carry Out Mensuration

1.2.3.1 introduction

This learning outcome specifies competencies on units of measurements, perimeter and areas of
regular figures, volume of regular solids, surface area of regular solids, areas of irregular figures
and finding areas and volumes using Pappus theorem.

1.2.3.2 performance standards

3.1 Perimeter and areas of figures are obtained
3.2 Volume and of Surface area of solids are obtained
3.3 Area of irregular figures are obtained
3.4 Areas and volumes are obtained using Pappus theorem

1.2.3.3 Information sheet

Mensuration is a branch of mathematics concerned with the determination of lengths, areas and
volumes
Units of measurements
Area and volumes are derived from unit lengths of measurement. The SI unit of measuring length
is meter (m). Other units of measurements are centimeter (cm), millimeter (mm), decimeter (dm),
decameter (Dm), hectometer (Hm) and kilometer (km)
⮚ length is Distance-Span, measured in reference span of 1 unit long line
⮚ area is Surface-Span, measured in reference to span of 1 x 1 square
⮚ volume is Space-Span, measured in reference to span of 1 x 1 x 1 cube

Perimeter and areas of regular figures

Perimeter and area of regular solids

A summary of area and volumes of common regular figures is shown below

32
Rectangle

Figure1.2.3.1

⇒ perimeter p = 2(L + W), Area, A = L X W

Circle

Figure 1.25

Perimeter = πd

Area= πr2 r2

Rectangular prism

Figure 1.26

Surface . Area = 2(l x w) + 2(l x h) + 2(w x h) square units

Volume = l x w x h cubic units

Cylinder: r

33
 Rr surface Area = 2пr2 + 2пrh (for closed cylinder)

h Volume = пr2h

figure 1.27

Cone

Curved surface Area = пrl

Total surface Area = пrl + пr2

Volume = 1/3пr2h

Pyramid

Total surface area = (sum of areas of triangles forming sides) + (area of base)

Volume = 1/3 x A x h
Figure 1.28
Where A= area of base
and h= perpendicular height
sphere

4
Volume = 3
пr3

Surface Area = 4пr2

figure 1.29

Worked problems on volumes and

surface areas of regular solids
Problem 1. A water tank is the shape of a rectangular prism having length 2 m, breadth 75 cm and
height 50 cm.
Determine the capacity of the tank in (a) m3 (b) cm3 (c) litres.

34
Volume of rectangular prism=l ×b×h
(a) Volume of tank=2×0.75×0.5=0.75m3
(b) 1m3 =106 cm3, hence 0.75m3 =0.75×106 cm3
=750 000 cm3
(c) 1 liter=1000 cm3, hence
750 000 cm3 = 750 000
1000
liters=750 liters
Problem 2. Find the volume and total surface area of a cylinder of length 15 cm and diameter 8
cm.
Volume of cylinder=πr2h
Since diameter=8 cm, then radius r =4 cm
Hence volume=π ×42 ×15=754 cm3
Total surface area (i.e. including the two ends)
= 2πrh + 2πr2
= (2 × π × 4 × 15) + (2 × π × 42)
= 477.5 cm2
Problem 3. Determine the volume and total surface area of a cone of radius 5 cm and perpendicular
height 12 cm.
Volume of cone = 1/3πr2h= 1/3×π ×52 ×12=314.2 cm3
Total surface area = curved surface area + area of base = πrl +πr2
Slant height l may be calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem
2 2
l = 12 + 5 = 13 cm
Hence total surface area = (π ×5×13)+(π ×52) =282.7 cm2

35
 Surface area of irregular figures

To find the area of irregular shapes, the first thing to do is to divide the irregular shape into regular
shapes that you can recognize such as triangles, rectangles, circles, squares and so forth...
Then, find the area of these individual shapes and add them up!

Example: find the total surface area of the figure 1.237

Figure 1.30

Solution

The figure can be divided into two regular figures

1. rectangle PQRS ⹀ 5 x 4 ⹀ 20cm

2. rectangle QTVW ⹀ 10 x 4 ⹀ 40cm
the total area ⹀ area of PQRS + QTVW ⹀ 20cm + 40cm ⹀ 60cm2

example 2: calculate the total area of the figure 1.238

36
 Figure 1.31

The figure above has 4 regular shapes. It has a triangle, two rectangles, and half a circle

Find the area for each of those 4 shapes and add the results

Rectangle

Area rectangle = length × width

Area rectangle = (12 × 16)

Area rectangle = 192

Since we have two of the same rectangles, the area is 192 + 192 = 384

Triangle

Notice that the longest side of the rectangle is the base of the triangle and the short side of the
rectangle is the height of the triangle

So,

Area triangle = (base × height)/2

37
Area triangle = (16 × 12)/2

Area triangle = (192)/2

Area triangle = 96

Circle

To get the area of the half circle, we need to know the diameter

Notice that the diameter is the hypotenuse of a right triangle, so use the Pythagorean Theorem to
find the length of the diameter

c2 = a2 + b2

c2 = 122 + 162

c2 = 144 + 256

c2 = 400

c = √400

c = 20

Therefore, the diameter is 20. Since the diameter is 20, the radius is 10

Area circle = π × r2

Area circle = 3.14 × 102

38
Area circle = 3.14 × 100

Area circle = 314

Since you only have half a circle, you have to multiply the result by 1/2

1/2 × 314 = 157

Area of this shape = 384 + 96 + 157 = 637

Areas and volumes using Pappus theorem

Finding surface area using Pappus Theorem

The surface area of an object formed by rotating a curve in an axis = length of the curve multiplied
by the centroid during the rotation about the axis

𝐴 = 𝐿 (2π)Ῡ
fig 1.32
Pappus theorem for volumes
The second theorem of Pappus states that the volume of
revolutions obtained by rotating a lamina F about a
non-intersecting axis lying in the same plane is equal to the product of the area A of the lamina F
and the distant d travelled by the centroid of F.
V = Ad
Open the link and watch the video on how to calculate the volume of a centroid using pappus
theorem.
https://youtu.be/gh5nDadl5F4

39
1.2.3.4 learning activities

Activity 1
Special instructions Key learning activities

Learners be provided with a cuboid of larger ● Divide yourselves into groups of three
dimensions and smaller cuboids of unit learners
lengths. ● Take the larger box and take the
measurements of all the surfaces in
The dimensions of the larger cuboid be 30cm
centimeters
by 20cm by 10cm
● Calculate the total surface area and
The dimensions of smaller cuboids be 3cm by volume based on your measurements
2cm by 1cm and let each group write their findings
on a piece of paper
● Take a small cuboid provided,
measure the dimensions and calculate
the volume of the small cuboids and
note the volume on a piece of paper
● Pack the smaller cuboids in the bigger
cuboid and count the number of
cuboids that completely fills the larger
cuboid.
● Multiply the volume of the smaller
cuboid by the total number of smaller
cuboids in the pack.
● Compare the result with the initial
volume of the bigger cuboid you
earlier obtained

40
Table 5

Activity 2

Figure... shows a field with an irregular shape of which the surface area is to be determined in
hectares.

Fig. 1.33

Special instruction

Learners be provided with measuring tape, marking tools. They are to apply the knowledge
acquired in classroom to calculate the area of the field as drawn in the figure in hectares.

Key learning activities

1. Make a rough sketch of the field indicating the corners of the field (A, B, C, D and E) and
the field borders (straight lines).

41
Triangle ABC: base = AC = 130 m
height = BB1 = 55 m
Triangle ACE: base = AC = 130 m
height = EE1 = 37 m
Triangle CDE: base = EC = 56 m
height = DD1 = 55 m

Answer

Area = 0,5 x base x height

= 0.5 x 130 m x 55 m = 3 575 m2

Area = 0.5 x 130 m x 37 m = 2 405 m

Area = 0.5 m x 56 m x 55 m= 1 540 m²

Field ABCDE:

Area of triangle ABC = 3 575 m2

Area of triangle ACE = 2 405 m2
Area of triangle CDE = 1 540 m2

Total Area = 3 575 m2 + 2 405 m2 + 1 540 m2

= 7 520 m- = 0.752 ha

1.2.3.5 Self-Assessment

1. A water tank in the shape of a regular prism having length 2m, breadth 75cm and height
50cm determine the capacity of the tank in
a) M3 (b) cm3 and (c) litres
2. Find the volume and total surface area of a cylinder of length 15cm and diameter 8cm

43
 3. Calculate the volume and total surface area of the solid prism show in figure. 1.234

Fig. 1.36.

4. Calculate the total surface area of hemisphere of diameter 5.0cm

1.2.3.6 Tools, equipment and materials required

● Scientific Calculators
● Rulers, pencils, erasers
● Charts with presentations of data
● Graph books
● Dice
● Computers with internet connection

44
1.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Apply Matrix

1.2.4.1 introduction
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies on order of a matrix, addition and
subtraction of matrices, determinants, inverse and how to solve simultaneous equation using
matrix method.
1.2.4.2 Performance standard
4.1 Determinant and inverse of 2x2 matrix are obtained
4.2 Solutions of simultaneous equations are obtained
4.3 Calculation involving Eigen values and Eigen

1.2.4.3 Information sheet

Definition
A matrix equation is an equation of the form Ax =b, where A is an m x n matrix, b is a vector
whose coefficients x1, x2,....., xn
Order of a matrix
A matrix consists of rows and columns. Rows are horizontal arrangement while columns are the
vertical arrangement.
The number of rows and columns determine the order of a matrix which is given by stating the
number of rows followed by the number of columns
Elements of a matrix
Each number or letter in a matrix is called an element of the matrix. Each element can be located
in the matrix by stating its position in the row and the column.
(
For example, given the 2 x 2 matrix 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎21 𝑎22 )
a11 means the element in the first row and first column
a12 means the elements in the first row and second column
a21 means the elements in the second row and first column
a22 means the elements in the second row and second column.
Matrix Operation

45
Addition and subtraction of matrix
If matrix A = (𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 ), B = (𝑒 𝑓 𝑔 ℎ ) and C =(𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 )
Suppose A + B = C, then
a+e=i
b+f=j
c+g=k
d+h=l
Similarly, if A – B = C, then
a–e=i
b–f=j
c–g=k
d–h=l
Multiplication of matrix
Consider matrices, A, B and C given above.
Suppose A x B = C, then
ae + bg = i
af + bh = j
ce + dg = k
cf + dh = l
NB: in matrix multiplication, A x B ≠ B x A unless it is A and B are square matrices

Example1: given matrix A = (4 2 6 5 ) and B = (2 1 6 3 )

Evaluate:
i) A+B
ii) A–B
iii) AxB
iv) BxA
Solution
i) A + B = (4 2 6 5 ) + (2 1 6 3 ) = (6 3 12 8 )

46
 ii) A – B = (4 2 6 5 ) - (2 1 6 3 ) = (2 1 0 15 )

iii) A x B = (4 2 6 5 ) x (2 1 6 3 ) = (20 10 42 21 )

iv) B x A = (2 1 6 3 ) x (4 2 6 5 ) = (14 9 42 27 )

Determinant of 2 x 2 matrixes
Consider matrix A = (𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 )
The determinant of A, denoted by ⎮A⎮= ad – bc

Singular matrix
A matrix whose determinant is zero is known as singular matrix
Example 2: given matrix M = (2 1 4 3 ), determine its determinant
Solution
Det of M = ⎮M⎮= |2 1 4 3 | = 2x3 – 1x4 = 2
Example 3: find the value of p that will make matrix A singular, given that A = (2𝑝 4 3 1 )
Solution
For A to be singular ⎮A⎮ = 0
∴ |2𝑝 4 3 1 | = 0 ⇒ 2p x 1 – 4 x 3 = 0
⇒ 2p = 12, p = 6

Inverse of 2 x 2 matrixes
The inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix is obtained using the following procedure
1. find the determinant of the matrix, i.e. ad – bc for matrix A given
2. find transpose matrix, i.e. interchange the elements in the leading diagonal and change the
signs of elements in the minor diagonal i.e. (𝑑 − 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑎 )
3. Multiply 2 by the reciprocal of the determinant. i.e. 1/(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)(𝑑 − 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑎 ) this is
the inverse of the matrix A, A-1
Example 4: find the inverse of matrix M in example 2 above.
Solution

47
M = (2 1 4 3 ), Det M, ⎮M⎮ = |2 1 4 3 | = 6 – 4 = 2
MT = (3 − 1 − 4 2 ) ∴ M-1 = ½ (3 − 1 − 4 2 ) = (3/2 − 1 − 2 1 )

Solution of linear simultaneous equation with 2 unknowns

Procedure
1. Write the simultaneous equation in matrix form
2. Determine the inverse of the matrix equation formed
3. Pre-multiply both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse matrix
4. Compute for the unknown values
Example 5: use the matrix method to solve the following pair of simultaneous equations:
3a + 2b = 12
4a – b = 5

Solution

Forming matrix equation: ⇒ (3 2 4 − 1 ) ( )=( )

𝑎
𝑏
12
5

1
The inverse of the coefficients matrix is − 11
(− 1 − 2 − 4 3 )

Pre-multiply both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse as shown below:

−
1
11
(− 1 − 2 − 4 3 ) (3 2 4 − 1 ) ( )=−
𝑎
𝑏
1
11
(− 1 − 2 − 4 3 ) ( )
12
5

−
1
11
(− 11 0 0 − 11 ) ( ) = − ( ) ⇒ ( ) = ( ), ∴ a = 2 and b = 3
𝑎
𝑏
1
11
−22
−33
𝑎
𝑏
2
3

Example 6: Solve the following system of linear equations, using matrix inversion method:

5x + 2 y = 3

3x + 2 y = 5 .

Solution

48
The matrix form of the system is AX = B , where

We find |A| = = 10 - 6= 4 ≠ 0. So, A−1 exists and A−1 =

Then, applying the formula X = A−1B , we get

So the solution is (x = −1, y = 4).

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Eigenvalues are numbers associated with a matrix and eigenvectors are special vectors
A matrix A acts on vector x like a factor does with input x and output Ax
Eigenvectors are vectors for which Ax is parallel to x i.e.
Ax = λx
In this equation, x is an eigenvector of A and λ is an eigenvalue of A.
An eigenvalue is defined by the characteristic equation:
|𝐴 − λ𝐼| = 0
Where A = the matrix given
λ = eigenvalue
I = identity matrix
An eigenvector is defined by the characteristic equation:
(𝐴 − λ𝐼)𝑥 = 0

Where x defines the eigenvector in question

Example: find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrix A given as A =
(3 1 1 3 )
49
Customer experience surveys

Matrix questions are commonly used for customer experience surveys. For example, to ask a
respondent about their experience on a flight, the rows might ask the respondent about the service,
food, or entertainment while the columns ask them to choose a rating response.

Click the link provided to watch video on applying matrix to solve problems in real life situation
https://youtu.be/sUFP9TUSZ1s

1.2.4.4 Learning Activities

Activity 1

Special instructions Key learning activities

trainees be shown ● Each trainee to have a paper and a marker
examples of matrices and ● All trainees to write a number of their choice on the
demonstrate how to add paper
and subtract them ● Trainees to divide themselves into half using masking
tape

51
 ● Create a matrix on both sides of the tape. Trainees to
stand in rows and column holding their number signs on
either side of the tape
● Trainees not involved in the matrix to add or subtract
them
● Trainees to rotate between serving as the number in the
matrices and figuring out the sum and differences.
Table 6

Activity 2:
Conduct survey on the quality of training services offered in your institute and tabulate your
findings in matrix form. Your rating should be a tick in correspondence with the parameters
given [excellent, very good, good, fair, poor, very poor]

Learning Activities Special instruction

These are the key learning activities The trainee to be provided with a
a) Syllabus coverage questionnaire to help him/her collect the
b) Examination pass rate required data.
c) Availability of research materials
d) gyWi-fi connectivity
e) Employability rate of the graduates
Table 7

1.2.4.5 Self-assessment

1. Given matrix A = (2 1 4 3 ) and B = (0 2 6 1 ) determine:

i) A+B
ii) A –B

52
1.2.5 Learning outcome 5: Apply Vectors

1.2.5.1Introduction
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies on vectors and scalar quantities,
operations on vectors, obtaining position vectors, resolution of vectors, determining dot and cross
products of a vector and operations including gradient, divergence and curl of a vector.
1.2.5.2 Performance standards

5.1 Vectors and scalar quantities are obtained in two dimensions

5.2 Operations on vectors are performed
5.3 Position of vectors is obtained
5.4 Resolution of vectors is done
5.5 Gradient, Divergence and curl are determined
5.6 Dot and cross products are determined

1.2.5.3 Information sheet

Definitions
Vector: a vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction
Scalar: a scalar quantity is a quantity with magnitude only

Vector and scalar in two dimensions

Vectors are represented by a line with an arrow. The line indicates the magnitude of the vector
while an arrow indicates the direction of the vector.

54
Find P·Q if P = 6i + 5j and Q = 2i – 8j

P·Q = (6i + 5j) · (2i – 8j) = (6 x 2) + (5 x -8) = 12 – 40 = -28

Vector product

Consider vectors P and Q

The cross product of the two vectors is given by P X Q = |𝑃||𝑄| sin ɵn

Where |𝑃| and |𝑄| = length of vector P and Q

ɵ = the angle between P and Q

n = unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and p and q

Gradient divergent and curl

The gradient of a scalar field
If F(r) = U(x, y, z) is a scalar field, ie a scalar function of position r = [x, y, z] in 3 dimensions, then
its gradient at any point is defined in Cartesian co-ordinates by gradF =𝑖∂/∂𝑥 ∂U /∂xˆi + ∂U /∂yj +
∂U /∂z kˆ

∂ ∂ ∂
∇=i ∂𝑥 + j ∂𝑦
+ k ∂𝑧

Then Grad F = ∇F
Note ∇F is a vector field

Example: find the gradient function ∇F if f(x,y,z) = 2x2y2 + yz – x

Solution
∇ = (i𝜕/𝜕x, j𝜕/𝜕y, k𝜕/𝜕z)
∇F = (i𝜕F/𝜕x, j𝜕F/𝜕y, k𝜕F/𝜕z)
= (4xy2-1)i, (4x2y + z)j, yk

58
Divergent of a vector
→
Divergent of a vector divF = ∇·𝐹
Example: find the divergent of a vector given that F = (x2 + y2, y2 +z2, x2 + z2)
Solution
Let x2 + y2 = P, y2 + z2 = Q, x2 + z2 = Q
→ →
div𝐹 = ∇·𝐹 = Px + Qy + Rz = {𝜕/𝜕x, 𝜕/𝜕y, 𝜕/𝜕z}{P, Q, R} = 2x + 2y + 2z = 2(x + y + z)

Curl of a vector
→ →
Mathematically, Curl 𝐹 = ∇X𝐹 = [𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 ∂/∂𝑥 ∂/∂𝑦 ∂/∂𝑧 𝑃 𝑄 𝑅 ] = ( Ry – Qz, Pz – Rx, Qx – Py)
→
But 𝐹 = x2 + y2, y2 + z2, x2 + z2
P Q R
→
Curl 𝐹 = (0 -2z, 0 – 2x, 0 -2y) =( -2z – 2x – 2y)
→
∴ curl 𝐹 = -2z – 2x – 2y

Resolution of vectors
A vector can be resolved into two component parts such that the vector addition of the component
parts is equal to the original
vector. The two components usually taken are a horizontal component and a vertical component.
For the vector shown as F in
figure, the horizontal component is F cos θ and the vertical component is F sin θ.

Problem 1. A force of 4N is inclined at an angle of 45◦ to a second force of 7N, both forces acting
at a point. Find the magnitude of the resultant of these two forces

59
 ● post your own real life
example of how a
measurement can be a scalar or
a vector situation

Table 8

1.2.5.5 Self-assessment

1. Among the following options, which are scalar-vector pairs…

A. Force – acceleration
B. Pressure – force
C. Displacement – speed
D. Electric current – pressure

2.Two vectors, F1 = 20 N and F2 = 30 N, have direction as shown in the figure below. Determine
the resultant of components of vectors in x-axis and y-axis.

Figure 1.36

3 a mountain climbing expedition establishes a base camp and two intermediate camps, A
and B. camp A is 11,200m east of B and 3,200m above base camp. Camp B is 8400m east
of and 1700m higher than camp A. Determine the displacement between base camp and
camp B.
→ →
4. find the dot product of 𝑢 = [3, 5, 2]𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = [− 1, 3, 0]
→ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
5. find the scalar product of: 𝑝 = 10𝑖 -4𝑗 + 7𝑘 and 𝑞 = -2𝑖 + 𝑗 +6𝑘

61
1.2.5.6 Tools, equipment and materials required

● Scientific Calculators
● Rulers, pencils, erasers
● Charts with presentations of data
● Graph books
● Dice
● Computers with internet connection

1.2.5.7 RESPONSES TO SELF-ASSESSMENT

Learning outcome 1: Apply Algebra

−3 4
7 𝑥3
1. simplify: −2 5 2 expressing your answer in index form with positive indices
3 𝑥7 𝑥5

= 36 x 52/78

2. use elimination method to solve the following simultaneous equation

3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 5

2𝑥 − 5𝑦 = − 12

Answer: x = 4, y= 2

3. A craftsman and 4 labourers together earn £ 865 per week, whilst 4 craftsmen and 9
labourers earn £2340 basic per week. Determine the basic weekly wage of a craftsman and
a labourer.

Answer: craftsman = 225, laborers = 160

2
4. Solve the following quadratic equation by factorization method: 4𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 3 = 0

Answer: x = -1/2 or x = -3/2

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 2
5. Solve 4𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 2 = 0 Using the general formular method and give your answer
correct to 2 decimal places.

Answer: X = -0.36 or -1.39

6. Simplify: 𝑙𝑜𝑔64 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔128 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔32

Answer: 4log2

𝑙𝑜𝑔25−𝑙𝑜𝑔125+1/2𝑙𝑜𝑔625
7. Evaluate: 3𝑙𝑜𝑔5

Answer: 1/3

8. Solve for x: 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥 + 6𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥2 = 5

Answer: x = 4 or x = 8

2
9. Use graphical method to solve the equation 𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 10 = 0

2 2
10. Use the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 6 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0 (x=2 or -3)

11. Evaluate the following:

c) Log x4 – log x3 = log5x – log 2x [x = 2.5]

d) Log 2t3 – log t = log 16 + log t [t = 8]

Learning outcome 2: apply coordinate geometry

1. Find the gradient of a line AB given the coordinates of A(2,3) and B(1,6)
𝑑𝑦 6−3
Answer: 𝑑𝑥
= 1−2
= -3

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Learning outcome 3: mensuration
1. A water tank in the shape of a regular prism having length 2m, breadth 75cm and height
50cm determine the capacity of the tank in
b) M3 (b) cm3 and (c) litres
Answer: (a) 0.75m3 (b) 750000cm3 (c) 750 liters
2. Find the volume and total surface area of a cylinder of length 15cm and diameter 8cm
Answer: volume = 754cm3, surface area = 477cm2
3. Calculate the volume and total surface area of the solid prism show in figure. 1.234

Fig. 1.234.

Answer: volume = 480cm3

Surface area = 454cm2

4. Calculate the total surface area of hemisphere of diameter 5.0cm

Answer: surface area = 58.9cm2

Learning outcome 4: apply matrix

1. Given matrix A = (2 1 4 3 ) and B = (0 2 6 1 ) determine:

iv) A + B ⇒ (2 1 4 3 ) + (0 2 6 1 ) = (2 3 10 4 )
v) A –B ⇒ (2 1 4 3 ) - (0 2 6 1 ) = (2 − 1 − 2 2 )
vi) 2A + 3B ⇒2(2 1 4 3 ) + 3(0 2 6 1 ) = (4 2 8 6 ) + (0 6 18 3 ) = (4 8 26 9 )

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 2. Determine the inverse of the matrix A = (3 5 4 − 3 )
Answer: (3/29 5/29 4/29 − 3/29 )
3. Solve the following simultaneous equations using matrix method
3x + 5y = 7
4x – 3y = 19
Answer: x = 4, y = 1
4. Find the value of p for which matrix A is singular given that A = (2𝑝 6 8 4 )
Answer: p = 6
5. Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of a 2 x 2
matrix if
A = (0 1 − 2 − 3 )
Answer: eigenvalues λ = -1 and -2

Eigenvectors are: V1 =( ) 1
−1

V =( )
1
2 −2

Learning outcome 5: apply vectors

1. Among the following options, which are scalar-vector pairs…
A. Force – acceleration
B. Pressure – force
C. Displacement – speed
D. Electric current – pressure

Solution :
Force = vector, acceleration = vector
Pressure = scalar, force = vector
Displacement = vector, speed = scalar
Electric current = scalar, pressure = scalar

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CHAPTER 2: WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY

Unit of learning code: ENG/CU/EI/CC/03/4/A

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard; Perform Workshop Practices

2.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit covers the competencies required to perform workshop process. Competencies include
applying workshop Safety, use of workshop tools and instruments, preparation of workshop for
electrical installation, Storage of Electrical tools and materials, troubleshoot and repair/replace
workshop tools and equipment

2.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Apply workshop safety

2. Use of workshop tools, Instruments and equipment
3. Prepare workshop tools and instruments for an Electrical installation
4. Prepare the workshop for an Electrical installation
5. Store Electrical tools and materials
6. Troubleshoot and repair workshop tools and equipment

2.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Apply Workshop Safety

2.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in applying workshop safety.
By the end of the lesson the trainee should be able to carry out and do the learning activities given
in the learning guide. Also, it is provided with a self-assessment question with responses
All workshops and stores must be under the direct control of a supervisor, who is responsible for
ensuring they are maintained and used in a safe and healthy manner. Only those authorized to do
so may enter or work in workshops or stores, and must comply with the requirements of the
supervisor whilst in that area.

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All persons using workshops and stores should apply good housekeeping practices, wear
appropriate clothing and footwear, and use the workshop or store only for its intended purpose.

A tidy workplace makes it easier to spot and avoid hazards, and does not interfere with normal
work operations. Good housekeeping is fundamental to workshop safety management, and the
time allocated to a job must include cleaning up afterwards. This applies to both individual and
shared areas.

Personal items, food, drink or cigarettes are not to be taken into workshops and stores, unless a
clean work-free area has been set aside for this purpose. Where necessary, lockers should be
provided and used.

The store or workshop must be suited to the proposed task. The supervisor shall make the decision
as to what tasks are appropriate for each situation.

2.2.1.2 Performance Standard

1. Proper use of PPE is adhered to as per standard operating procedure

2. Workshop rules are followed as per standard operating procedure
3. Proper use of safety equipment are followed as per the manufacturer’s
recommendations
4. First Aid procedures are adhered to

2.2.1.3 Information Sheet

Learning outcome 1: Apply workshop safety

Apply workshop safety
A Hazard is something with the potential to cause harm; for example, electric tools, working above
ground level, wet or uneven floors, rotating parts.

Meaning of PPE (Personal Protective Equipment)

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) are:

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 ● Gadgets to protect workers from injury or illness caused by having contact with the
dangers/hazards in the workplace whether they are chemical, biological, radiation,
physical, electrical, mechanical and others.
● It is protective clothing helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to
protect the wearer's body from injury or infection.
● All equipment designed to be worn, or held, to protect against a risk to health and
safety.

This includes most types of protective clothing, and equipment such as eye, foot and head
protection, safety harnesses, life jackets and high visibility clothing.

The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat,

chemicals, biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be worn for
job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational
activities. "Protective clothing" is applied to traditional categories of clothing, and "protective
gear" applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks, and others. PPE suits can be similar
in appearance to a cleanroom suit.
The purpose of personal protective equipment is to reduce employee exposure to hazards
when engineering controls and administrative controls are not feasible or effective to reduce these
risks to acceptable levels.
PPE is needed when there are hazards present. PPE has the serious limitation that it does not
eliminate the hazard at the source and may result in employees being exposed to the hazard if the
equipment fails.
Any item of PPE imposes a barrier between the wearer/user and the working environment. This
can create additional strains on the wearer; impair their ability to carry out their work and create
significant levels of discomfort. Any of these can discourage wearers from using PPE correctly,
therefore placing them at risk of injury, ill-health or, under extreme circumstances, death. Good
ergonomic design can help to minimize these barriers and can therefore help to ensure safe and
healthy working conditions through the correct use of PPE.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health

Care for PPEs

Personal protective equipment should be taken cared as of the other tools and equipment.

1. Wipe your helmets, gloves, safety shoes before keeping it.

2. It should also be cleaned, kept in proper tool rack/ cabinet.
3. It should be stored in dry places so that it will not have mold build-up.
4. Over-all suites should be washed regularly so that perspirations and other dirt will be
washed clean.

Standard operating procedure in PPE

This standard operating procedure incorporates the requirements for use of Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) for project staff, co-operators, volunteers, contractors, and those under the
project’s operational control.
PPE listed in this SOP shall be used to provide protection and safety necessary for those
participating in a project activity with PPE requirements. Additional information on the purpose
and type of PPE may be available through the SOP for that activity.
Roles and responsibilities
● Projects need to tailor the Roles/Responsibilities based on their staffing level
● Project Manager (PM) is responsible for the overall safety of the project staff and those
participating in a project activity and must provide the appropriate PPE for those activities.
● Project Safety Officer (PSO) is responsible for issuing project PPE, for training project
staff on the proper use and care of the PPE, and to ensure compliance with this SOP.
● Supervisor is responsible for ensuring project staff and others participating in a project
activity are properly wearing their issued PPE. After temporarily issuing the appropriate
PPE to non‐project personnel, train them on how to use the PPE and retrieve the PPE upon
completion of the activity.

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 ● temperature extremes

● repeated wetness which may result in fungal infections

● puncturing from objects which may pierce the sole of footwear

2. Engineering and work-practice solutions shall be utilized, including wearing footwear

correctly (fully laced, etc.) to receive maximum protection. The Program shall prohibit the
use of sandals or open shoes.

Hand and body protection

1. Glove manufacturer specification charts provide guidance in selecting proper PPE.

Appropriate hand and body PPE shall be worn when potential hazards exist, including
exposure to:

● Cuts and punctures—severe cuts and lacerations, abrasions or punctures from

tools, machines or from handling sharp objects

● Thermal exposure—caused by extreme cold or heat or hot work

● Blood borne pathogens—caused by first-aid or clean-up of blood, body fluids,

or other infectious agents.

● Chemical exposure—skin contact from working with chemicals

● Repetitive motion disorders—caused by computer use or jobs requiring

repetitive motion may cause carpal tunnel syndrome

● entanglement—caused from wearing gloves, clothing, or jewelry near moving

equipment

2. Potential engineering and work-practice solutions may include:

● machine guards—protects against cuts, punctures, abrasion, and chafing

● job rotation—protects against repetitive motion hazards

● good housekeeping and clean-up—protects against chemical and blood borne

hazards

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 ● workstation design—protects against repetitive motions and provides accident
prevention

● evaluating waste prior to handling—aids staff in determining appropriate PPE

and process method

● splash guards—protects against chemical contact with skin or eyes

Head protection Head protection (e.g., hard hat) shall be worn if potential for injury from falling objects
exist. All head protection shall:

Be used according to manufacturer’s instructions

Not be altered in any way include bump caps as an appropriate alternative (if exposure to scalp injuries
exist)
Hearing protection Facility staff shall wear hearing protection when exposed to noise levels in excess
of 85 dB (A) for an eight-hour time-weighted average.
Respiratory protection Site specific ventilation or exhaust systems are effective engineering control
tools.
Workshop safety
The safety in Workshops has been written not only to provide appropriate safety procedures but
also to assist trained workshop personnel with the provision of a reference document outlining the
general principles of safe working practices relevant to the mechanical engineering aspects. It
relates to specific areas where definite safety measures are required for workshop operations
Factories Act and Accident
Various acts relating to accidents are spelt out in workmen’s compensation Act-1923. The factories
act-1948 and Fatal Accidents Act-1855. These acts describe the regulations for fencing and
guarding the dangerous machinery, items and employer’s liabilities.

Introduction to workshop safety

A workshop is where you learn to use tools and machines to make things; It can be a dangerous
place, so you must learn the safety rules for the workshop.

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The safety rules tell you how to dress appropriately and how to behave whilst working with tools
that may cause harm. You must never play in the workshop, run around or throw equipment to one
another.

Personal safety:

The basic dress rules that you should always follow are:

1. Proper clothing.
You must not wear loose clothes that can be caught in moving machinery. You must wear tight
fitting overalls
2. Proper eye protection.
You must always wear goggles to protect your eyes while you are working in the workshop.
3. Remove tie and jewellery.
Ties, watches, rings and other jewellers increase the chance of getting caught by moving
machinery. You must remove them before entering the workshop.
4. Cut or secure long hair. Long hair is also dangerous as it may be caught by the machine and
pulls you into it.
5. Proper shoes. You must not wear sandals or soft shoe inside the workshop as they will not
protect your feet from falling objects. A safety shoes (steel-toe shoes) will protect your feet if
you accidentally drop something.
The way you dress in the workshop is very important for your safety, always be sure to wear
properly and encourage your friends to do the same.

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General workshop safety

It’s essential to be aware of and able to foresee the dangers which exist in the workshop and are
likely to affect your health and safety.

You should make sure that your workspace is as safe as possible so that few dangers arise.

i) Use the appropriate protective clothing and equipment to minimize the risk of accident

ii) Act in a safe manner at all times.

General Safety Precautions while Working in a Workshop

1. One should not leave the machine ON even after the power is OFF and until it has stopped
running completely. Someone else may not notice that the machine is still in motion and be
injured.
2. Operator should not talk to other industrial persons when he is operating a machine.
3. One should not oil, clean, adjust or repair any machine while it is running. Stop the
machine and lock the power switch in the OFF position.
4. One should not operate any machine unless authorized to do so by the authorize person in
the shop.
5. Always check that work and cutting tools on any machine are clamped securely before
starting.
6. The floor should be kept clean and clear of metal chips or curls and waste pieces. Put them
in the container provided for such things. Scraps and chips or curls may cut through a shoe
and injure the foot.
7. Defective guards must be replaced or repaired immediately.
8. One should not operate any machinery when the supervisor or instructor is not in the shop.
9. All set screws should be of flush or recessed type. Projecting set screws are very dangerous
because they catch on sleeves or clothing.
10. One should not try to stop the machine with hands or body.
11. Only trained operator should operate machine or switches as far as possible.
12. Always take help for handling long or heavy pieces of material.
13. Always follow safe lifting practices
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14. No one should run in the shop at work time.
15. Always keep your body and clothes away from moving machine parts. Get first aid
immediately for any injury.
16. Never talk to anyone while operating the machine, nor allow anyone to come near you or
the machine.
17. Stop the machine before making measurements or adjustments.
18. Operator should concentrate on the work and must not talk unnecessarily while operating
the machines.
19. Never wear necktie, loose sweater, wristwatch, bangles, rings, and loose fitting clothing
while working in workshop.
20. Always wear overcoat or apron.
21. Stop machines before attempting to clean it.
22. Make sure that all guards are in their place before starting to operate a machine.
23. Do not attempt to operate a machine until you have received operating instructions.
24. Be thoroughly familiar with the ‘stop’ button and any emergency stop buttons provided on
the machines.
25. Remove burrs, chips and other unwanted materials as soon as possible. They can cause
serious cuts.
26. Do not leave loose rags on machines.
27. Wash your hands thoroughly after working to remove oils, abrasive particles, cutting fluid,
etc.
28. Report all injuries to the foreman, howsoever small. Cuts and burns should be treated
immediately.
29. Keep the work area clean.
30. Keep your mind on the job, be alert, and be ready for any emergency.
31. Always work in proper lighting.
32. On should not lean against the machines.

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 Causes of accidents

The 98% accidents could be easily avoided provided due precautions are taken well in time. A
very familiar slogan goes on to say that accidents do not just happen but are caused due to the
failure of one element or the other, and the most unfortunate factor is that the human element is
the most pronounced of all which fail.

The common causes which lead to accidents are the following:

1. Unsafe working position.

2. Improper or defective tools or their improper use.

3. Improper acts- which result in violation of safety rules and non-observance of safety
precautions.

Causes of accidents

1. Causes due to human beings

a) Carelessness

This is due to overconfidence, loss of interest, fatigue (continuous work without rest), monotony,
unnecessary emotion which diverts concentration on the work being done hence resulting to
accidents.

b) Ignorance

An operator must understand the users and the function of his machine equipment.

c) Unsuitable clothing in working areas,

Personnel should wear clothing which will provide protection against dangers in areas where they
work. That is:

Safety Shoes/boots. They should be a type which provides protection against slippery conditions.

They should be strong enough in the feet to prevent injury from hurting objects e.g. safety boots.

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Gloves- They should be worn where there are risks when harming sharp objects whether inside or
outside buildings.

Safety glass

- Safety glasses or goggles should be worn where there’s likely of danger to the eyes, such as using
drills, grinding machines etc.

d) Untidiness

● Keep all passage ways clear and clean.

Circular rods if stepped upon can cause nasty falls.

● Keep the workshop floor free from grease and oils.

2. Contributing causes

a) Unsatisfactory hand tools

E.g. being worn out without handles

● Hammers with loose handles or crippled faces should never be used.

● Chisels with burred heads are dangerous as broken pieces from the edges may fly off and
cause injury.
● Files should have tight handles to prevent accidents to the hands.
● Spanners which fit incorrectly will slip and can result I n damaging fingers.
● When drilling always ensure that the work is securely held in a vice or otherwise securely
clamped.

b) Unsatisfactory machines

● That is being insufficiently spaced, unguarded, broken, improperly adjusted, insufficiently

lubricated and being too small or weak for the job being undertaken.
● So see that all machines are properly guarded, all abrasive wheels are kept in good
condition and run at safe speeds.
● Don’t attempt to adjust or remove by hand a belt on a rotating shaft.

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 ● don’ t allow idle belt to rest on rotating shaft and don’ t attempt to oil overhead shafting
while it’ s in motion.

c) Physical condition of personnel while working

E.g. before lifting equipment ensure that the weight is within your capability to handle. A base that
anything used for lifting is serviceable and in good working condition chains, hooks etc.

Should never be overloaded.

Common sources of accidents

The large number of machines in use and an even larger number of parts. This can be regarded as
sources of danger and require guarding for protection against accidents.

Some common sources of accident are listed below:

Projecting nips between sets of revolving parts, viz, gears, rolls and friction wheels, etc.

1. Projecting fasteners on revolving parts.

2. Revolving cutting tools, circular saw blades.

3. Revolving drums, crushers, spiked cylinder and armed mixers, etc.

4. Revolving shafts, spindles, bars and tools like drills, reamers, boring bars and chucks, etc.

5. Projecting sharp edges or nips of belt and chain drives viz., belt, pulleys, chains, sprockets and
belt fasteners.

6. Reciprocating tools and dies of power presses, drop hammers, and revolving presses, etc.

7. Grinding wheels and stones.

8. Reciprocating knives and saw blades such as cutting and trimming machines and power
hack-saws, etc.

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9. Revolving drums and cylinders without casing, such as concrete and other mixers.

10. Intermittent feed mechanisms.

11. Projecting nips between various links and mechanisms, like cranks connecting rods, piston
rods, rotating wheels and discs, etc.

Common Methods of Protection

The common methods of protection against accidents are the following:

1. Safety by position.

2. Safety by construction.

3. Safety by using interlock guards.gg

4. Safety by using fixed guards.

5. Safety by using automatic guards.

6. Safety by using distance guards.

Safety by construction

When a new machine is designed, it should be ensured that all its dangerous parts are either
enclosed in suitable housings or provided with suitable safety guards. For example, the belt drive
and motor in a lathe or milling machine are enclosed; the back gears in a lathe are either enclosed
or provided with cast iron guards or covers. Lubricating points are provided on the outer surfaces
so that the interior parts are not required to be opened every time.

Safety by position

The machine design is in such a way that the dangerous parts are located such that they are always
beyond the reach of the operator. The dangerous parts of all the machines should invariably be
guarded and undertaking should be made to make them enclosed in the body or housing of the
machines.

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Safety by using interlock guards

It is a very efficient and sound method of guarding in that the guard cannot be removed and
dangerous parts exposed until and unless the machine is totally stopped. Similarly, the machine
cannot be started to work unless the guard returns in position and protects the dangerous parts.

An interlocking guard may be mechanical, electrical or some sort of a combination of these. It is

essential that it should:

1. Prevent the starting and operation of the machine in case the interlocking device fails.

2. Always acquire its position to guard the dangerous part before the machine can be started.

3. Remain closed in position until the dangerous part is completely at rest.

Safety by using fixed guards

These guards either for man integral part of the machine or are tightly secured to them. They
should be made to have rigid construction and should be so placed that any access to the dangerous
parts of the machine is totally prevented in the running condition of the machines.

Steel sheets can be advantageously used and they facilitate an easy fabrication of guards and are
lighter in weight.

In some cases the fixed guards are made adjustable in order to accommodate different kinds of
works or sets of tools. In some cases the fixed guards are provided at a distance from the danger
point.

Safety by using distance guards

The principle of a distance guards is that a fencing, enough high, is made of bars, at a suitable
distance from the machine such that even if the operative, by chance, extends his hands over it, his
fingers, clothes or any part of the body does not reach within the area of dangerous parts. An

85
additional measure of safety, some sort of tripping device is also usually incorporated to stop the
machine quickly in case of an accident.

86
Safety by using automatic guards

The principle of an automatic guard is that its operation is actuated by some moving part of the
machine.

It may link that the part will automatically bring the guard in protecting position before the
operation of the machine starts. The design of the guard is such that it automatically forces the
operative away from the dangerous area of work before the operation starts and does not permit his
access to the area again until and unless the machine stops. It may be noted that due to enough
time being required for their operation, this type of guards are not suitable for quick-acting and
fast-running machines. Their use is largely favored for heavy and slow acting machines like heavy
power presses.

Industrial safety

The factory act 1961 states that:

i) Floors steps stairs passages and gang ways must be soundly constructed properly maintained and
kept free from obstruction and any substance likely to cause a person to slip.

ii) Hand rails must be provided for stairs.

iii) All ladders must be soundly constructed and properly maintained.

iv) Opening in floors shall, wherever practicable be securely fenced.

Special regulations

The following precautions should be observed

i) Always work never runs

ii) Never throw rubbish on the floor

iii) Keep gang ways and work areas free of metal bars, components, etc.

v) Keep to gangways when moving about never takes short cuts.

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vi) If oil water or grease is spilled wipe it up immediately

vii) Wear safety shoes- shoes are available with until slip soles and with metal toe caps to protect
the feet from falling objects.

viii) Always check ladders for damage before use.

ix) Always position ladders on firm base at the correct angle.

Aims and objectives

The major objectives of the factory act are;

1. To provide protection to the workers employed in factories against industrial hazards and to
ensure safe and better working conditions.

2. It regulates and maintains properly various safety health and welfare activities in the factories.

3. It regulates & maintains working hours of workers, employment of children and adolescents,
employment of women, annual leave with wages etc.

The salient features of this act regarding safety are as follows;

1. Fencing of machinery

-Every prime mover like engine or motor, moving part of the machinery is fenced properly.

2. Work on or near the machinery in motion.

Only specially trained workers wearing tight fitting clothes should carry out inspection of any part
of the machinery in motion.

3. Employment of young persons on dangerous machines.

No young person should be allowed to work on dangerous machine unless he is properly trained
and carefully supervised

4. Hoist and lifts

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 ● Every hoist and lifts should be of god mechanical construction, adequate strength and must
be protected by enclosure and fitted with gates.
● Every hoist and lift should be adequately maintained and periodically examined

5. Listing machinery, chains, ropes and lifting tackles

Lifting machines such as cranes, crab, etc should be of good construction, adequate strength should
be maintained.

6. Revolving machinery

It should always be ensured that safe working peripheral speed is not exceeded for every revolving
machinery.

7. Pressure plants

- The pressure plant should not be operated at a pressure higher than the specified safe working
pressure.

8. Floors stairs and means of access to different places

All floors, steps, stairs, passages should of sound construction and free from obstructions

9. Pits sumps, opening in floor etc.

-Every pit, sumps, opening in floor, fixed vessels, tanks etc should be securely covered or fenced.

10. Excessive weights

- No person should be asked to lift carry or move any load so heavily that’s likely to cause him
injury.

- Protection of eyes.

⮚ Causes of fire
A house can easily catch fire from the misuse of appliances and heating equipment to smoking in
bedrooms.

89
However you can take measures to avoid fire in home and ensure the safety of your family. Below
are some of the most common causes of house fires, and some tips to take precautions.

1. Cooking equipment

Pots and pans can overheat and cause a fire very easily if the person cooking gets distracted and
leaves cooking unattended. Always stay in the room, or ask someone to watch your food, when
cooking on hotplates.

2. Heating

Keep portable heaters at least one metre away from anything that could easily catch fire such as
furniture, curtains, laundry, clothes and even yourself. If you have a furnace, get it inspected once a
year to make sure it is working to safety standards.

3. Smoking in bedrooms

Bedrooms are best to be kept off limits for smoking. A cigarette that is not put out properly can
cause a flame, as the butt may stay a lit for a few hours. It could burst into flames if it came into
contact with flammable materials, such as furniture.

4. Electrical equipment

An electrical appliance, such as a toaster can start a fire if it is faulty or has a frayed cord. A power
point that is overloaded with double adapter plugs can cause a fire from an overuse of electricity. A
power point extension cord can also be a fire hazard if not used appropriately. Double check the
appliances and power points in your home.

5. Candles

Candles look and smell pretty, but if left unattended they can cause a room to easily burst into
flames. Keep candles away from any obviously flammable items such as books and tissue boxes.
Always blow a candle out before leaving a room.

6. Curious children

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Kids can cause a fire out of curiosity, to see what would happen if they set fire to an object. Keep
any matches or lighters out of reach of children, to avoid any curiosity turned disaster. Install a
smoke alarm in your child’s room and practice a home escape plan with your children and family
in case there was a fire.

7. Faulty wiring

Homes with inadequate wiring can cause fires from electrical hazards. Some signs to see if you’ve
bad wiring are:

1. Lights dim if you use another appliance;

2. For an appliance to work, you have to disconnect another;
3. Fuses blow or trip the circuit frequently.

Have a licensed electrician come and inspect you house, or contact your landlord if you have any
of the above occurrences.

8. Barbeques

Barbeques are great for an outdoor meal, but should always be used away from the home,
tablecloths or any plants and tree branches. Keep BBQs regularly maintained and cleaned with
soapy water and clean any removable parts. Check the gas bottle for any leaks before you use it
each time.

9. Flammable liquids

If you have any flammable liquids in the home or garage such as petrol, kerosene or methylated
spirits, keep them away from heat sources and check the label before storing. Be careful when
pouring these liquids.

10. Lighting

Lamp shades and light fittings can build up heat if they are very close to light globes. Check
around the house to make sure. Lamp bases can become a hazard if they are able to be knocked

91
over easily, and so should be removed if they are. Check that down lights is insulated from wood
panelling or ceiling timbers.

The above tips are a good guide to avoiding a fire in your home. However it’s a good idea to
protect yourself with adequate home insurance cover to ensure you are covered in the unlikely
event a fire were to happen

http://www.cfs.sa.gov.au/site/fire_safety/house_fire_safety/common_causes_of_fire.jsp

Classification of fires

Fire can cause loss of lives, jobs equipment, materials and buildings.

For all practical purposes there are three main classes of fires; A B &C

Class A fires (Solids)

Fires involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, paper & cloth.

This is one of the most common types of fire because solids are the most common type of fuel and
one that is hard to eliminate.

Good housekeeping should help to keep materials like packaging and waste reduced, minimizing
risks Water extinguisher is one of the most popular types of extinguishers used class A fire. It can
handle most fires involving solids.

The majorities of fires are in this class and can be most effectively extinguished by cooling with
water.

Class B fires(liquids)

Fires from flammable liquids such as paraffin, petrol, paint, varnishes, oil and from greases and
fats.

Many of the fluids, liquids and chemicals used in workplaces can be flammable or explosive. Like
cleaning fluids, solvents, fuels, inks, adhesives and paints.

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Make sure you know what flammable liquids are used in your workplace, and carry out a Control
of Substances Hazardous to Health’ (COSHH) assessment Control of Substances Hazardous to
Health assessments are a legal requirement, for any hazardous substances. This about safe storage
and use of these substances, keep them in labeled containers and away from sources of ignition.
Should a class B fire ignite, foam or powder extinguishers are the best types of extinguishers to
attack this type of fire.
Class C fires ( gases)

Class C fires are fires involving gases. This could be natural gas, Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
or other types of gases forming a flammable or explosive atmosphere.
Work with gas is dangerous, and increases fire risk. Keep stored gases in sealed containers in a
safe storage area, and ensure that gas work is carried out by competent persons.
While extinguishers can be used on class C gas fires, the only safe method to attack this type of
fire is to shut off the gas supply. The best type of extinguisher to put out the fire when the supply
of gas is off is a dry powder extinguisher
Fires involving live electrical equipment and wiring. The safest method of extinguishing is to
displace the oxygen by projecting a gas or dry powder into the vicinity of the fire.

Class D fires (Metals)

Metals are not often thought of as a combustible material, some types of metal can be, like sodium.
Metals are also good conductors, helping a fire spread. All metals will soften and melt at high
temperature, which can be a big problem when metal joists and columns are present in a fire as
structural elements.
Water can actually act as an accelerate on metal fires, so how would you tackle a class D fire?
There are dry powder extinguishers developed to tackle metal fires. The powder inside the
extinguisher may vary depending on the type of metal risk it is designed for. Small metal fires can
sometimes be smothered with dry earth or sand.

Electrical Fires
This is not strictly a class (class E) of fire, because electricity is more or a source of ignition than a
fuel. However, fires in live electrical equipment are an additional hazard. You don't want to be
using water, or any other conductor as that could be fatal.

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Electrical fires are not given their own full class, as they can fall into any of the classifications.
After all it is not the electricity burning but surrounding material that has been set alight by the
electric current.
To avoid electric fire;
Making sure electrical equipment and installations are installed correctly, and inspected and
maintained, will help to reduce the risk of this type of fire.

Class F (Cooking Fats & Oils)

Deep fat frying and spillages of flammable oils near to heat sources in kitchens can result in a class
F fire.
Never leave food or frying equipment unattended during use. The only type of fire
extinguisher approved for use on cooking oils and fats is the wet chemical extinguisher. For small
class F fires, you could also use a fire blanket.

While you shouldn't use water to attack an electrical fire, you can use other types of fire
extinguishers. Like carbon dioxide, and dry powder in low voltage situations. Always turn off the
power supply if you can.

In the event of a fire:

The following precautions should be observed at all times.

i) Know the correct fire drill and the positions of fire alarms, firefighting equipment and
emergency exits.

ii) Know the correct appliance to use for a particular type of fire and know how to use t.

iii) Don’t bock fire exits.

iv) Don’t use fire appliances for any purpose other than intended.

v) Never smoke in no smoking areas

vi) Always ensure that matches and cigarettes are put out before throwing them away

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vii) Avoid spillage of flammable liquids.

Extinguishers and fighting procedures

1) Water type

These are usually operated by striking a plunger to release a gas which pressures the water and
forces it out of the nozzle. They are stable only for class-A fires.

● The jet should be directed at the base of the fire and be kept moving across the area of the
fire.

2. Chemical foam type

● These may be operated by inverting the extinguisher or by releasing a plunger allowing two
solutions to mix and produce foam.
● They are used on class B fires involving flammable liquids.
● The jet is directed with a gentle sweeping movement, allowing the foam to drop down and
lie on the Surface of the liquid.
● This smothers the fire by excluding oxygen.

3. Carbon-dioxide (Co2) type

These are operated by squeezing the discharge lever which allows the liquid co2 to be discharged
as a gas. They are used on class c fires where after the current has been switched off the discharge
horn is directed straight at the fire.

4. Dry powder pressure type.

This type contains a pressurized as and a dry chemical agent. After the release lever has been
operated discharge is controlled by a nozzle at the end of the nose.

These are used on class c fires in the same way as the Co2 type.

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Use of fire extinguishers

Class of fire Type of fire extinguisher

Water Foam Co2 Dry

powder

A Ordinary fires: wood , paper ,cloth Yes Yes No No

B Flammable liquids: petrol ,paraffin No Yes Yes Yes

C Electrical equipment No No Yes Yes

Table 1: Uses of fire extinguishers

Fire precautions

Fire is a great danger in a workshop and care must be taken not to start a fire. The main causes of
fire are:

1. Careless storage of flammable materials.

2. Careless electrical maintenance.
3. People throwing away cigarettes.

Electrical safety

● Electrical can’t be seen we only see the effect due to it.

● Because of this care must be taken when using electricity. There are two main causes of
accidents due to electricity.

These are

(i) Carelessness: this arises because of laxity. When electricians have worked for long
period they tend to assume the high standards of safety required and start to maintain
equipment when it’ s live and as a result an accident can easily occur.

96
 (ii) Ignorance and inexperience. Most of the electrical tasks appear very simple when
carried out by well-trained electricians. When unqualified personnel attempt to do the
same they are usually unable and they leave the tasks uncompleted. This is dangerous
to the others. The safety precaution in any electrical installation is to:

i) Prevent electric shock.

ii) Prevent the occurrence of fire due to electrical fires.

Electric shock

Figure 1:Touching live and earth or live and neutral makes a person part of the electrical
circuit and can lead to an electric shock.

● Electric shock occurs when a person becomes part of the electrical circuit.
● One gets electric shock when he or she is in contact with two objects that are at different
potentials.
● The person complete the circuit to earth and the current flows through him/or her.

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The damage done to the human body will depend on the following factors:

i) Voltage between the two points

ii) The amount of current flowing

ii) The time taken for the current to flow

Also the level or intensity of the shock will depend upon factors, such as age, fitness and the
circumstances in which the shock is received. The lethal level is approximately 50 mA, above
which muscles contract, the heart flutters and breathing stops. A shock above the 50 mA level is
therefore fatal unless the person is quickly separated from the supply. Below 50 mA only an
unpleasant tingling sensation may be experienced or you may be thrown across a room, roof or
ladder, but the resulting fall may lead to serious injury.

● The methods used to prevent electric shock are;

i) Earthing the metallic and any equipment within the installation

ii) Using all the insulated wiring systems

Treatment of electric shock

If somebody get electric shock, the immediate action should be:

i) Switch off the supply

ii) If necessary start artificial respiration

iii) Seek medical assistance

iv) Treat the burns or injuries.

v) Keep the victim warm.

If the person is in contact with the live conductors then the first thing is to break the contact .care
must be taken in order not electrocute yourself.

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● Place your hands on his back just below the shoulder blades and rock forwards with your
elbow straight until your arms are approximately vertical, exerting- steady pressure on his
chest.
● Grasp the patient’s arms just above the elbow and rock backwards raising his arms until
tension is felt at the patients shoulder lower his arms.
● The complete cycle should be repeated twelve times a minute.
● This method is practical only when there’s no gross injury to the arms shoulder and the
ribs.

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First aid

Definitions

First aid is the initial assistance or treatment given to a casualty for any injury or sudden illness
before the arrival of an ambulance, doctor or other medically qualified person.

A first aider is someone who has undergone a training course to administer first aid at work and
holds a current first aid certificate.

An appointed person is someone who is nominated to take charge when someone is injured or
becomes ill, including calling an ambulance if required. The appointed person will also look after
the first aid equipment, including re-stocking the first aid box.

First aid

Despite all the safety precautions taken on construction sites to prevent injury to the workforce,
accidents do happen and you may be the only other person able to take action to assist a workmate.
If you are not a qualified first aider limit your help to obvious common sense assistance and call
for help, but do remember that if a workmate’s heart or breathing has stopped as a result of an
accident he has only minutes to live unless you act quickly.

The Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981 and relevant approved codes of practice and
guidance notes place a duty of care on all employers to provide adequate first aid facilities
appropriate to the type of work being undertaken.

The regulations state that:

Employers are under a duty to provide such numbers of suitable persons as is adequate and
appropriate in the circumstances for rendering first aid to his employees if they are injured or
become ill at work.

For this purpose a person shall not be suitable unless he or she has undergone such training and has
such qualifications as the Health and Safety Executive may approve.

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This is typical of the way in which the health and safety regulations are written. The regulations
and codes of practice do not specify numbers, but set out guidelines in respect of the number of
first aiders needed, dependent upon the type of company, the hazards present and the number of
people employed.

First aid is the treatment of minor injuries which would otherwise receive no treatment or do not
need treatment by a doctor or nurse or In cases where a person will require help from a doctor or
nurse, first aid is treatment for the purpose of preserving life and minimizing the consequences of
an injury or illness until such help is obtained. A more generally accepted definition of first aid
might be as follows: first aid is the

● Initial assistance or treatment given to a casualty for any injury or sudden illness before the
arrival of an ambulance, doctor or other medically qualified person.

A first aider is someone who has undergone a training course to administer first aid at work and
holds a current first aid certificate. The training course and certification must be approved by the
HSE.

● The aims of a first aider are to preserve life, to limit the worsening of the injury or illness
and to promote recovery.
● A first aider may also undertake the duties of an appointed person. An appointed person is
someone who is nominated to take charge when someone is injured or becomes ill,
including calling an ambulance if required.
● The appointed person will also look after the first aid equipment, including re-stocking the
first aid box.
● Appointed persons should not attempt to give first aid for which they have not been trained,
but should limit their help to obvious common sense assistance and summon professional
assistance as required.
● First aid personnel must be available at all times when people are at work, taking into
account shift working patterns and providing cover for sickness absences.

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Bleeding

If the wound is dirty, rinse it under clean running water. Clean the skin around the wound and
apply a plaster, pulling the skin together.

If the bleeding is severe apply direct pressure to reduce the bleeding and raise the limb if possible.
Apply a sterile dressing or pad and bandage firmly before obtaining professional advice.

To avoid possible contact with hepatitis or the AIDS virus, when dealing with open wounds, first
aiders should avoid contact with fresh blood by wearing plastic or rubber protective gloves, or by
allowing the casualty to apply pressure to the bleeding wound.

Burns

Remove heat from the burn to relieve the pain by placing the injured part under clean cold water.
Do not remove burnt clothing sticking to the skin.

Do not apply lotions or ointments. Do not break blisters or attempt to remove loose skin. Cover the
injured area with a clean dry dressing.

Broken bones

Make the casualty as comfortable as possible by supporting the broken limb either by hand or with
padding.

Do not move the casualty unless by remaining in that position he is likely to suffer further injury.
Obtain professional help as soon as possible.

Contact with chemicals

Wash the affected area very thoroughly with clean cold water. Remove any contaminated clothing.
Cover the affected area with a clean sterile dressing and seek expert advice. It is a wise precaution
to treat all chemical substances as possibly harmful; even commonly used substances can be
dangerous if contamination is from concentrated solutions.

When handling dangerous substances, it is also good practice to have a neutralizing agent to hand.

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Heart stopped beating

● This sometimes happens following a severe electric shock. If the casualty’s lips are blue,
the pupils of his eyes widely dilated and the pulse in his neck cannot be felt, then he may
have gone into cardiac arrest.
● Act quickly and lay the casualty on his back.
● Kneel down beside him and place the heel of one hand in the centre of his chest.
● Cover this hand with your other hand and interlace the fingers.
● Straighten your arms and press down on his chest sharply with the heel of your hands and
then release the pressure.
● Continue to do this 15 times at the rate of one push per second.
● Check the casualty’s pulse. If none is felt, give two breaths of artificial respiration and then
a further 15 chest compressions.
● Continue this procedure until the heartbeat is restored and the artificial respiration until
normal breathing returns. Pay close attention to the condition of the casualty while giving
heart massage.
● When a pulse is restored the blueness around the mouth will quickly go away and you
should stop the heart massage. Look carefully at the rate of breathing. When this is also
normal, stop giving artificial respiration.
● Treat the casualty for shock; place him in the recovery position and obtain professional
help.

Shock

Everyone suffers from shock following an accident. The severity of the shock depends upon the
nature and extent of the injury. In cases of severe shock the casualty will become pale and his skin
become clammy from sweating. He may feel faint, have blurred vision, feel sick and complain of
thirst. Reassure the casualty that everything that needs to be done is being done. Loosen tight
clothing and keep him warm and dry until help arrives.

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Do not move him unnecessarily or give him anything to drink.

Items of a First-Aid Box

(i) Pair of scissors

(ii) Large size sterilized dressings

(iii) Medium size sterilized dressings

(iv) Small sized sterilized dressings

(v) Large size burn dressings

(vi) Packets of sterilized cotton wool

(vii) Rolled bandages 10 cm wide

(viii) Rolled bandages 5 cm wide

(ix) Bottle (4 oz) of salvolative having the doze and made 1 of administration indicated on label

(xi) Safety pins

(xi) Eye drops

(xii) Adhesive plaster

(xiii) 4 bottle containing KMnO4 crystals, etc.

(xiv) 4 bottle containing a 2% alcoholic solution

(xv) Betadine ointment (50mg)

(xvi) Saframycine ointment (50mg)

(xvii) Dettol

Accident reports

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Every accident must be reported to an employer and the details of the accident and treatment
given are suitably documented. A first aid Log book or accident book containing first aid treatment
record sheets could be used to effectively document accidents which occur in the workplace and
the treatment given. Failure to do so may influence the payment of compensation at a later date if
an injury leads to permanent disability.

To comply with the Data Protection Regulations, from the all First Aid Treatment Log books or
Accident Report books must contain perforated sheets which can be removed after completion and
filed away for personal security.

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 4. Sweep the spray from left to right until the flames are totally extinguished.

2.2.1.5 Self-assessment

1. Hazard may be defined as:

A. anything that can cause harm
B. the chance, large or small, of harm actually being done
C. someone who has the necessary training and expertise to safely carry out an
activity
D. the rules and regulations of the working environment
2. A positive attitude to safety at work:
A. is the duty of every employer
B. is the duty of every employee
C. increases accidents at work
D. reduces accidents at work
3. The most common cause of accidents at work is:
A. gloves, boots and hard hats
B. sprains, strains and trap pains
C. slips, trips and falls
D. hook, line and sinker
4. What safety precautions that should be adhered to when giving first aid on a burn?

5. Complete the following table to justify the type of fire extinguisher used for the classes of fires
indicated. Use Yes or No

Class of fire Type of fire extinguisher

Water Foam Co2 Dry

powder

A Ordinary fires: wood , paper ,cloth

B Flammable liquids: petrol ,paraffin

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C Electrical equipment

6. State the General Safety Precautions while Working in a Workshop

7. John is an electrical technician. Name Personal protective equipment that he may have worn:

2.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools

● Set of screw drivers

● Pliers
● Phase testers
● Multimeter
Equipment

● PPE –hand gloves, dust coat, dust masks

● Multimeter
● Clamp meter
● Earth electrode resistance meter
● Phase sequence meter
● Computer/smart phone
Materials and supplies

● Stationery
● Cables
● Lubricants
● Service parts

2.2.1.7 References

● IEE regulations
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● Organizational procedures manual
● Electrical Installation Maintenance K to 12 – Technology and Livelihood Education
Learning Module Republic of the Philippines Department of Education
● Ray_C._Mullin,_Phil_Simmons Electrical_Wiring_Re(z-lib.org)
● Brian Scaddan IEng;_MIIE_(elec) Electrical_insta(z-lib.org)
● https://www.healthline.com/health/electric-shock
● https://www.haspod.com/blog/fire/classes-of-fire
● https://www.realinsurance.com.au/home-insurance/home-safety/the-most-common-causes-
of-house-fires

● J. Craig Voelkert, A Brief Guide To Fire Chemistry And Extinguishment Theory For Fire
Equipment Service Technicians, 2009 – Revised 2015, Amerex Corporation
● John F. Riley, Standard for Fire Extinguishers, Rating and Fire Testing of, UL 711 Fifth
Edition, 1995, , Institute of Gas Technology

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2.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Use of workshop tools, Instruments and equipment

2.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to properly handle and
use workshop tools and equipment. It also specifies the content of competencies in taking care
and maintenance of workshop tools, instruments and equipment. The learning outcome must
be assessed against as per standard operating procedure.

2.2.2.2 Performance Standard

3.3.2.2.1 Workshop tools, Instruments and equipment are identified as per required
installation
3.3.2.2.2 Tools, Instruments and equipment are used as per the manufacture’s manuals
3.3.2.2.3 Proper handling of workshop tools, Instruments and equipment as per
standard operating procedure
3.3.2.2.4 Care and Maintenance of workshop tools, Instruments and equipment as per
standard operating procedure

2.2.2.3 Information Sheet

Classification of workshop tools

A tool is a device that can be used to produce an item or accomplish a task, but that is not
consumed in the process. It can be considered as extension of the human hand thus increasing
speed, power, and accuracy and on the other hands equipment includes any machine powered by
electricity.

Hand tools

Hand tools are tools manipulated by hands without using electrical energy such as: puller,
hacksaw, pull-push rule, pliers, hammer, and others.

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Machine/Power tools

Machine/Power tools are tools manipulated by our hands and with the use of electrical energy such
as: electric drill, grinding wheels, vacuum cleaner and others.

Pneumatic tools

Pneumatic tools are tools or instruments activated by air pressure. Pneumatic tools are designed
around three basic devices: the air cylinder, the vane motor, and the sprayer.

Hand tools

They include screwdrivers, hammers, pliers, wrenches and pullers.

1. Screwdrivers are used to drive, or turn screws. The common type has a single flat blade for
driving screws with slotted heads. The other type has the cross slotted head.

1. Hammers are mostly used tools in the shop. They should be gripped at the end of the handle.

2. Pliers are specified types of adjustable wrenches. The two legs move on a pivot so that items of
various sizes can be gripped.

3. Wrenches are used to turn screws, nuts and bolts with hexagonal heads. ―Hexagonalǁ means
six-sided. A variety of wrenches are used in the shop.

4. Pullers are used to remove gears and hubs from shafts, bushings from blind holes, and cylinders’
liners from the engine blocks.

Machine/Power Tools

Electric drill has an electric motor that drives a chuck. The chuck has jaws that can be opened and
then closed to grip a drill kit.

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Air chisel uses reciprocating motion to drive a cutting hammering tool. An air hammer drives a
chisel to cut off a nut that has frozen to a stud. It can be used with a variety of tools-cutters and
punches to do many jobs.

Air drill is lighter than a comparable electric drill. Repeatedly stalling or overloading does not
damage or overheat the air drill.

Air racket uses the sockets and attachments from a standard socket set.

115
5. Pneumatic floor jack uses compressed air to flow into the jack cylinder and causes the ram to
extend and raise the vehicle.

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Marking tools

a) Marking out Tools are used to mark the given measurement on the surface of the work
piece. a) Scriber

b) Dot punch

c) Center punch

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g) Steel rule

h) Scribing block

119
i) V-blocks

Cutting tools

● Files
● Hacksaw
● Chisel
● Scraper

a) File

b) Hacksaw

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123
Diagonal Cutting Pliers

Figure 14: Diagonal Cutting Pliers

Diagonal cutting pliers, sometimes called side snips or dikes, are used to cut wires. They are
specially designed with a cutting edge that goes down to the tip of the jaws, allowing you to get
into tight areas to trim wires. Some types can also have a built-in voltage detector to sense live
wires. You can also find combination tools that include wire-stripping slots built into the handles.

Drawing Wire/ Tape

Figure 15: Drawing Wire/ Tape

A Drawing Wire/ Tape is used to pull stranded or solid wire conductors through metal or PVC
conduit. Cable lube is available to assist you in pulling the wires through the conduit. A fish tape
can also be helpful when you are pulling cables through wall cavities.

This is a tool used when making wiring improvements, such as adding or extending circuits.

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Voltmeter or Multimeter

Figure 16: Voltmeter or Multimeter

A voltmeter is used to read voltage levels and verify that circuits are “live” or off. Unlike a circuit
tester, this tool gives you reading on how much voltage is being carried. More sophisticated forms
of the tool are known as multimeters, and they can not only read voltage levels but also amperage,
resistance, and DC voltage and amperage. They do, however, require practice to learn how to use
them properly.

Wire Crimpers

Figure 17:Wire Crimpers

Wire crimpers are used to crimp lugs or connection terminals onto wires. This tool is not often
used for routine circuit repairs, but it has many uses when working with appliances or electronics.
Many types can also be used to strip wire insulation.

Screw Drivers
A screwdriver comes in various sizes and with several tip shapes. Screwdrivers used by
electricians should have insulated handles. Using a screwdriver for a particular job, the width of
the screwdriver tip should match the width of the screw slot.

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Figure 18: Screw drivers

Drilling Equipment
Drilling equipment is needed to make holes in building structure passages of conduits and
wires.

Figure 19: Driller

Sawing and Cutting

Tools Saws commonly used by electricians include the crosscut, keyhole, and hacksaw.

126
Figure 20: Hack saw

127
 Soldering Equipment
In doing electric wiring splices and taps (connections made to wire) should be soldered, unless
you use solderless connectors. Typical equipments available for soldering are shown below.

Figure 21: Soldering equipment

Hammers
Hammers are used with chisels and for nailing and fitting. Below are examples of carpenter’s
claw hammer, lineman’s hammer, and machinist’s ball-peen hammer

Figure 22: Hammers

Measuring Tools
To measure wire length and other items, the electrician finds considerable use for measuring
tools such as the extension or zigzag rule, push-pull rule and a steel tape as shown below.

Figure 23: Folding rule

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Tape measure

Figure 24:Tape measure

A standard is used for all kinds of field measurements, such as setting heights for switches and
outlets, centering lighting fixture boxes, and marking surfaces for cutouts.

Spirit level

A small level, such as a torpedo level, fits easily in a tool pouch and is used to make sure your
work is level and plumb. A great installation starts with level boxes and straight switch and outlet
covers.

A torpedo level should be part of every homeowner's standard toolkit; it will have plenty of uses
beyond electrical work.

129
Figure 25:Tape measure

Flashlight

Electrical repair and improvement work involves a lot of dark places, from attics and basements, to
wall and ceiling cavities, to the insides of electrical boxes. A tactical flashlight is needed as much
for safety as it is for convenience. A couple of hand flashlights and a headlamp are good additions
to an electrician's toolbox.

Figure 26: Utility Knife

Utility Knife

A utility knife, or box cutter, is handy for cutting sheathing from non-metallic (Romex) cable, to
cut off electrical tape, and to open cardboard boxes.

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Figure 27: Utility Knife

Voltage Testers

A voltage tester, as the name suggests, is used for testing the presence of voltage in a circuit. A
voltage tester has a neon bulb with two wires attached to its bottom. This is used to test the flow of
current in a wire. A good voltage tester is rated for up to 500 V. in the old days, Phase Tester also
were used for this purpose.

Wire Strippers

Figure 29: Wire Strippers

Another essential electrical specialty tool for homeowners is a good pair of wire strippers. Wire
strippers are used to cut and strip insulation from electrical wires. A wire stripper tool has a row of
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gauged holes for stripping wires of different sizes, and it usually includes cutting jaws for
trimming the wire ends.

Along with a voltage tester, this is perhaps the most important specialty electrical tool you can
own. It makes sense to invest in a good set of wire strippers, as it will serve many functions.

Other tools and equipment include:

● Bending machine

● Stock and die

Figure 30: Some special tools required by an electrician engaged in industrial installations

Maintenance of electrical tools and equipment

To ensure that your electric tools work when you need them, you must take proper care of them. A
good routine of maintenance for your tools is one thing that you can do to make sure that the tool
you need is working when you need it.

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5. Use double-insulated tools: Portable electrical tools are classified by the number of insulation
barriers between the electrical conductors in the tool and the worker.

6. Storing Your Tools: Keep your electric tools stored in their original cases and containers. This
will keep them free of dust and dirt while they are not being used.

Maintenance of power equipment

● Keep Power tools Clean.

● Dust and grime can bring your power tools to a grinding halt if left unchecked over time.
● Store Power tools correctly.
● Inspect for Wear or Damage.

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● Lubricate Moving Parts.
● Keep Batteries in Shape.

135
137
Lubricate moving parts

Keep moving parts lubricated for premium performance. Not only does it keep the mechanics of a
tool running smoothly, it also decreases the chance of rust developing. While common machine oil
is a good choice, consult your owner’s manual to see if the manufacturer recommends or requires a
specific type of oil.

Keep batteries in shape

Cordless, battery-powered tools are convenient and portable and have become very popular for
contractors and homeowners alike. To keep them running efficiently and effectively, it is essential
for their batteries to be maintained.

Batteries remain working at peak level by fully charging and then fully discharging their power
once every couple of weeks. Don’t let batteries sit unused for extended periods of time. Try to use
batteries once every two weeks.

Care for batteries by cleaning contacts with cotton swabs and alcohol. Store batteries you won’t be
using for a while in a dry, clean place away from excessive heat.

2.2.2.4 Learning activities

Learning Activity 1

Directions: Inside the tools box are hand, pneumatic, and power tools. Identify and write them in
their corresponding column provided below.

Air chisel Hammer

Air racket

Air drill

Electric drill

Vacuum cleaner

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 2. Arranged the tools by their types in the
shelves/racks.

3. Placed equipment in designated places or

location.

Overall Performance Competent

Not yet competent

Learning Activity 2

Let us determine how much you already know about usage of tools and instruments. Take
this exercise

Exercise: Demonstrate skills on how to use stock and die correctly when making threads on steel
conduit.

Procedure

i. Ensure the round section steel conduit is vertical in the vice (at 90 degrees).
ii. Place the die on the round section steel conduit, keeping it parallel with the vice.
iii. Add a little pressure and turn the stock in a clockwise direction.
iv. The first couple of ‘turns’ of the die are critical.
v. If the stock is not parallel to the vice, a drunken thread will result. Stop once the die begins
to cut the first couple of threads and check that the stock is still parallel to the vice.
vi. Continue to rotate the stock in a clockwise direction.
vii. Once the thread has been started, for every clockwise rotation, rotate the stock in an
anticlockwise direction, for half a turn.
viii. This clears away any steel chippings, from the die.
ix. Thread cutting can continue until the correct length is been achieved.
x. Remove the stock and die from the thread by rotating it in an anticlockwise direction,
effectively unscrewing it from the steel.

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 xi. Untighten the centre adjusting screw and then tighten the two outer adjusting screws. Run
the die down the thread a second time, as this will finish the thread accurately.

2.2.2.5 Self-Assessment

1. Pliers, cutters, a knife and a range of screwdrivers are the tools required in the electro technical
industry for:

A. Erecting conduit
B. Assembling tray
C. Stripping and connecting conductors
D. Terminating an mi cable
2. Always wear PPE when in the shop, even when tools are not being used.

A. True

B. False

2. Grace is an electrical technician who manages an electrical workshop. outline the safety rules to
be adhered to while using hand tools.

3. Tools are supposed to be maintained and taken care of. State how a technician can maintain and
take care of power equipment.

4. Properly insulated electrical tools contribute to safety adherence in electrical works. Explain the
essence of using properly insulated tools in electrical works.

2.2.2.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools

Set of screw drivers

Pliers

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Phase testers

Multimeters

Equipment

PPE –hand gloves, dust coat, dust masks

Clamp meter

Earth electrode resistance meter

Phase sequence meter

Materials and supplies

Stationery

Cables

Lubricants

Service parts

2.2.2.7 References

1. IEE regulations
2. Organizational Procedures Manual
3. Electrical Installation Maintenance K To 12 – Technology and Livelihood Education
Learning Module Republic of The Philippines Department of Education
4. Ray C. Mullin, Phil Simmons Electrical Wiring Re(Z-Lib.Org)
5. Brian Scaddan Ieng; MII (Elec) Electrical Insta(Z-Lib.Org)
6. https://projects.truevalue.com/maintenance_and_repair/basic_maintenance/proper_tool_ma
intenance.aspx

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143
2.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Prepare workshop tools and instruments for an Electrical
installation

2.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to perform Issuing of
required tools and instruments, check Functionality of tools and instruments and calibration
of workshop instruments.
2.2.3.2 Performance Standard

1. List of required tools and instruments is prepared per the required installation

2. Issuing of required tools and instruments is performed as per standard operating procedure
3. Functionality of tools and instruments is checked in line with the standard operating
procedure
4. Calibration of workshop instruments are performed as per the standard operating procedure

2.2.3.3 Information Sheet

Instruments for an Electrical practical

Wires Strippers

Professional electricians regularly strip the plastic coating on wires to expose the copper and make
customized connections with other wiring or components. This essential electrical maintenance
tool comes in a variety of models and types.

Fish Tape

Fish tape is one of many popular electrician tools. It’s used to run wiring between gang boxes (or
other electrical components) through conduit piping. Fish tape is housed in a retractable coil and
can be fed through installed conduit piping. Once the end of the fish tape appears on the opposite
side, wiring can be hooked to the tape and the tape can be retracted—pulling the wire along the
conduit.

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Fishing Rods

Fishing rods are essential electrician tools when installing wire through walls, below carpets, or
above ceilings. Rods are typically fiberglass and include hooks on the end for easy manoeuvring.

Terminal Block

These modular, insulated devices assist electricians when grouping multiple wires together.
They’re used to connect wiring to a ground or connect electrical switches and outlets to mains.

Voltage Tester

To safely perform electrical work, electrical power must be cut off in key sections of the property
(usually via the circuit breaker). A hand held voltage tester allows electricians to test outlets for
power, so they know when they’re safe to work on. Electricians also use this tool to confirm power
has been restored.

Reaming Bit

An installing new conduit (or replacing old ones) means connecting different segments of piping
together to create a wiring route between electrical components. A reaming bit attaches to an
electric drill and widens the opening on one end of the piping, allowing it to connect to another
segment of piping and complete a secure conduit.

Conduit Bender

When determining a wiring route, electricians often run wiring along the corner of the wall or in
other mostly hidden areas. Conduit benders are electrician tools used to curve conduit piping to
accommodate these routes and ensure the conduits remain non-intrusive and efficiently placed in
the customer’s home.

Splicing Connector

These plastic clips help electricians make quick connections with multiple pieces of wire. They can
be used with multiple cables, including device wires, telephone cables, and electrical cables.

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Flashlights

For an electrician, working in the dark is a potential hazard of the job. Keep essential electrician
tools, like flashlights and other various work lights, handy and within reach.

Issuing and confirmation of tools and instruments before and after practical

You can specify tools on job plans and work orders to indicate which tools are needed to perform a
task. In the Stocked Tools application, you can issue tools to those work orders to indicate that the
tools are dispatched for use with the right job

Testing of practical tools and Instruments

While planning for a practical, one needs to be sure that the tools are in the right order. Some of
the things to consider while testing tools are:
1. Making sure that they are working as expected.
2. They can give accurate, measurement.
3. Screw drivers are not blunt.
4. Stripping tools are available.
Functionality of tools
To check the functionality of tools and equipment, Equipment Inspections is necessary.
● Equipment inspections will be performed by both the operators and maintenance.
● Inspections can and will happen: daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, semiannually, and
annually.
● Developing and training operators in the proper techniques for machine inspection.
● The weekly/monthly/quarterly lubrication and preventive maintenance schedules are
necessary to assure machine reliability, and safety.
● Master copy of each inspection will be located in the Maintenance Supervisor's Equipment
Files.
Document Control

The Document control falls under three categories:

● retaining

146
 ● updating
● and deleting document
● Retaining documents means to collect all useful information of the specific items and store
them in a logical manner.
● Information includes drawings, operator's manuals, maintenance /service manuals, and
equipment inspection documents.

Calibration and service of equipment

Calibration, in its most basic form, is the measuring of an instrument against a standard. As
instruments become more complicated, successfully identifying and applying best practices can
reduce business expenses and improve organizational capabilities.

What is Calibration?

Calibration is the comparison of a measurement device (an unknown) against an equal or better
standard. A standard in a measurement is considered the reference; it is the one in the comparison
taken to be the more correct of the two.

Calibration finds out how far the unknown is from the standard. A “typical” commercial
calibration uses the manufacturer’s calibration procedure and is performed with a reference
standard at least four times more accurate than the instrument under test.

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Purpose of a calibration

There are three main reasons for having instruments calibrated:

1. To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.

2. To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.

3. To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.

https://www.mgnewell.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Purpose-of-Calibration.pdf

Classification of non-functional and functional tools

Tools are very useful to us in our homes especially to our job. But tools that are no longer
functional may cause harm.

A. Make an inventory of functional and non-functional tools in your shop.

B. Classify your tools according to is function.

Method of identifying non-functional/faulty tools and equipment

1. Visual inspection. It refers to the visual observation of an expert on the appearance of the
tools and equipment.
2. Functionality. Vibration or extra noise from the operation means problems on parts and
accessories started to develop.
3. Performance. When there is something wrong with the performance of either hand tools or
equipment they need an immediate repair or maintenance.
4. Power supply (for electrically operated only). Failure to meet the required power supply,
malfunction will occurs in the part of hand tools or equipment.
5. Person’s involved. It refers to the technical person who has the knowledge and skills about
the technology.

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2.2.3.4 Learning Activities

Learning Activity 1

Exercise

Objective: To be able to understand and perform how to make requisition of supplies, materials,
and tools for a specific job/ Issuing of required tools and instruments

Task: Make a requisition of material you require to carry out the project in learning activity 2

Learning Activity 2: Project

Project plan in making an extension cord

Introduction

You might be wondering why there are several projects which are not completely done. Well, there
are several reasons why this happens.

It might be out of budget or not properly planned. So, this Lesson will help you achieve the
desired quality project.

A project plan is necessary before undertaking any project because it serves as your guide in
accomplishing an activity.

It will give you an idea what needs to be done, how much to spend and what procedures to
undertake. A well prepared project plan saves time and cost of materials.

Below is a sample project plan of an extension cord. This format can also be used in preparing a
plan for other projects in the future.

Project Plan - (Making an extension cord)

Name of Student: _________________________ Year & level:__________________
Name of Project: Extension Cord
Assembly Date Started: ___________________ Date Finished: __________________

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 Objective:
a) Demonstrate how to make an extension cord.
b) Observe safety measures while doing the project.
c) Demonstrate tools selection for a specific practical.
Materials Needed
● Flat Cord
● Male Plug
● Eyelet wire connectors
● Convenience Outlet

Tools and Equipment Needed: Quantity Remarks

1. Standard/Flat Screw Driver

2. Philips Screw Driver

3. Long Nose Pliers

4. Side Cutting Pliers

5. Electrician’s knife/ Pocket

knife

Continuity Tester or Multi-

6. tester

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 Procedure:
1. Prepare the plan.
2. Gather all necessary materials, tools and equipment needed.
3. Insert cord into the male plug, split the cord wires about 8 centimeters long.
4. Remove insulation of both wires 1 centimeter long with a pocket knife as if sharpening a
pencil. Be careful not to cut any strand.
5. Scrape bare wire with the back of the knife until shiny. Twist the wire stands.
6. Tie the underwriter’s knot.
7. Make a loop on terminal wires and connect the wires to the screw of the male plug. The
loop should go with the thread clockwise direction.
8. Split the cord wires at the other end about 4 centimeters long, then follow procedure no.
4.
9. Connect the wires to the connectors.
10. Open the convenience outlet then remove the screw.
11. Insert the wire connectors to the screws, tighten it and return the cover.
12. Check the continuity and test the extension cord.

2.2.3.5 Self-Assessment

1. An instrument used to measure the amount of electrical current in a circuit.

A. Voltmeter
B. Ammeter
C. Micrometer
D. Ohmmeter

2. A pocket sized tool used to test the line wire or circuit if there is current in it.

A. Phase Tester
B. Wire gauge
C. Ruler
D. Pull-push rule

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3. A measuring tool used to measure the length of an object in centimeter and inches.

A. Test light
B. Wire gauge
C. Ruler
D. Pull-push rule

4. It is used to measure the diameter of wires/conductors. It can measure small and big sizes of
wires and cables.

A. Voltmeter
B. Ammeter
C. Micrometer
D. Ohmmeter

5. It is used to measure the voltage, resistance and current of a circuit. It connected in parallel or
series with the circuit depending on what to measure.

A. Avometer or multimeter
B. Micrometer
C. Ohmmeter
D. Ammeter

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2.2.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools

● Standard/Flat Screw Driver

● Philips Screw Driver
● Long Nose Pliers
● Side Cutting Pliers
● Electrician’s knife/ Pocket knife
● Continuity Tester or Multi-tester
● Set of screw drivers
● Pliers
● Phase testers
Equipment

● PPE –hand gloves, dust coat, dust masks

● Multimeters
● Clamp meter
● Earth electrode resistance meter
● Phase sequence meter

Materials and supplies

● Borrower’s Slip/ Form

● Stationery
● Cables
● Lubricants
● Service parts

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2.2.3.7 References

● IEE regulations
● Organizational procedures manual
● Electrical Installation Maintenance K to 12 – Technology and Livelihood Education
Learning Module
Republic of the Philippines DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
● Ray C. Mullin, Phil Simmons] Electrical Wiring Re(z-lib.org)
● [Brian Scaddan IEng; MIIE_(elec)] Electrical insta(z-lib.org)

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2.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Store electrical tools and materials

2.2.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in the management of
tools. That is storage of tools, cleaning of tools and waste management in workshops.

2.2.4.2 Performance Standard

1. Tools are checked against the issuing list as standard operating procedures
2. Tools are stored as per the standard operating procedure
3. Tools are cleaned as per the workshop standard operating procedure
4. Waste materials are disposed as per the EHS

2.2.4.3 Information Sheet

Essential Electrician Tools

Wire Strippers

Professional electricians regularly strip the plastic coating on wires to expose the copper and make
customized connections with other wiring or components. This essential electrical maintenance
tool comes in a variety of models and types.

Fish Tape

Fish tape is one of many popular electrician tools. It’s used to run wiring between gang boxes (or
other electrical components) through conduit piping. Fish tape is housed in a retractable coil and
can be fed through installed conduit piping. Once the end of the fish tape appears on the opposite
side, wiring can be hooked to the tape and the tape can be retracted—pulling the wire along the
conduit.

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Flashlights

For an electrician, working in the dark is a potential hazard of the job. Keep essential electrician
tools, like flashlights and other various work lights, handy and within reach.

Electrical measuring equipment

Electrical instruments are classified according to the electrical quantity or the measured
characteristics. It is also classified according to the type of test function, according to the current
that can be measured by them.
Ammeter
An ammeter is an instrument which is used to measure the electric current in amperes in a branch
of an electric circuit. In order to measure the current it must flow through the ammeter, so the
ammeter must be placed in series with the measured branch and it must have very low resistance
so that the alteration of the current can be avoided which is measured. Instruments which is used to
measure smaller currents are micro-ammeter. The ammeter is connected in series to the device
which is to be measured because objects in series have the same current.

Types of ammeter
Moving iron ammeter
In a moving iron, ammeter can measure the AC and DC; it has an iron piece instead of the spring
and pointer system of the galvanometer. The iron will act by the magnetic field created in the coil.

Zero centre ammeters

Zero centre ammeters are used where the voltage needs to be monitored in two directions and they
are used along with a battery. In this the charging of battery deflects the needle in one direction and
discharging of the battery deflects the battery in the other.

Galvanometer
Galvanometer was the first type of ammeter, it is used to detect and measure electric current. It is
an analogue electromechanical transducer which makes a rotary deflection in response to the
electric current flowing through the coil. A galvanometer can read direct current flow, the

157
magnetic field created as current flows through a coil acts on a spring, which will move the needle
indicator.

Shunt
A shunt can be used in ammeters to measure large currents, shunt acts as a resistor the known
quantity of resistance is used to obtain an accurate reading. Digital ammeters use analog to digital
converter to measure the current across the shunt.

Clamp meter
Clamp meters are used to measure the current flowing through a conductor; AC clamp meters have
a current transformer in it. With the help of the current transformer the reading will be taken. There
are two types of clamp meters AC clamp meter which is used to measure the AC and the DC
clamp meter which is used to measure the DC.

Voltmeter
The voltmeter can be considered as a kind of galvanometer, which can be used to measure the
voltage potential of an electrical circuit or the potential difference between two points. A voltmeter
can also be considered as an ammeter they also measure the current, voltage is only measured
when the current is transmitted in a circuit through resistance. Voltmeters are capable to measure
the current, voltage and resistance. Voltmeters are also termed as high resistance ammeters they
can also measure DC and AC. A voltmeter can measure the change in voltage by two points in an
electrical circuit and they are connected in parallel with the portion of the circuit on which the
measurement is made. Voltmeters must have high resistance so that it won’t have any effect on the
current or voltage associated with the circuit.

Types of voltmeter
Digital voltmeter
Digital voltmeters can measure the AC and DC voltages and it displays the result in converted
digital form with decimal point and polarity. It can provide accurate details about the current draw
and current continuity and this will help the users to troubleshoot erratic loads.

What are the advantages of digital voltmeter?

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they are current and pressure coil. Wattmeter can be used to measure the gain in amplifiers,
bandwidth in filters.

Multi-meter
Multi-meters can be used to make various electrical measurements; they can be used to measure
AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is known as multi-meter because it can
do the functions of various meters such as voltmeter, ammeter, and ohm-meter. Multi-meters can
also be used to check the continuity. Multi-meters are of two types they are analog and digital
multi-meter analog multi-meter has an analog scale and they are less accurate, while the digital
multi-meter and the reading are in digital and they are more accurate.

Issuing and confirmation of tools and instruments before and after practical

You can specify tools on job plans and work orders to indicate which tools are needed to perform a
task. In the Stocked Tools application, you can issue tools to those work orders to indicate that the
tools are dispatched for use with the right job

Testing of practical tools and Instruments

While planning for a practical, one needs to be sure that the tools are in the right order. Some of
the things to consider while testing tools are:
1. making sure that they are working as expected
2. they can give accurate ,measurement
3. Screw drivers are not blunt
4. Stripping tools are.

Why Maintain Inventory of Tools and Equipment

The most significant point to think at the start of your career is to acquire branded tools.

160
They must be made out of high-quality steel and manufactured for precision. Special consideration
is given to balance so that the tool/equipment will be properly maintained and prevent loses.

Since the technician must work with his tools daily, regular inventory of tools/equipment is very
significant.

The initial cost of a minimum number of tools is high but there is accompanying warranty
guarantees satisfaction and many years of service.

It is better, in the long run, to start with a few cautiously selected tools that will take care of your
most common needs and then slowly build-up to a complete set.

It is sometimes hard to identify and memorize the huge number of tools and equipment in the
workshop, maintaining the inventory record is of great value.

For better equipment inventory management:

● Know what you have.

● Track how it is used.

● Right asset, right place, right time.

● Don't spend more – spend smarter.

● Fix things before they break.

● Find underlying issues.

● Buy the best.

● Use the right equipment inventory system.

Maintaining and Storing Tools & Equipment

An important aspect of any business is the maintenance and storage of tools and equipment.

The investment in tools and equipment is a significant part of the overhead expenses in any
operation.

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Proper selection and maintenance of equipment are important factors in managing business.
Selecting the proper tool for the job and using the tool properly will increase efficiency and reduce
maintenance problems.

Purchase tools, which are well-made and suited to the intended use. Commercial usage may entail
more heavy duty demands on equipment.

Hand tools:

1. Clean dirt and debris from tools after each use.

2. Oil metal parts to prevent rust.

3. Lightly sand rough wooden handles and apply linseed oil.

4. Repair loose handles.

5. Sharpen blades of cutting tools.

6. Store tools in a clean dry storage area.

7. Protect surfaces of cutting tools in storage.

Power tools:

1. Read and follow the maintenance schedule in the owner’s manual for each piece of power
equipment.

2. Change the oil.

3. Clean the air filter.

4. Lubricate moving parts.

5. Sharpen dull blades or replace worn blades according to the owner’s manual.

6. Replace spark plugs.

7. Drain oil and gasoline before long-term storage.

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8. Check electric cords and connections on electric-powered tools.

9. Store tools in a clean dry storage area.

Equipment:

1. Store equipment in a clean dry storage area.

2. Rinse and clean spray equipment after each use.

3. Clean spreaders and check wheel-driven gears.

4. Clean carts and wheelbarrows after use.

Figure 31: Sample Proper Arrangement and storage of tools and equipment

A lubricant is a substance introduced to lessen friction between moving surfaces. It may also
transport external particles. The property of reducing friction is known as lubricity.

Types and Kinds of Cleaning Solvents

Solvent is a component of a solution that dissolves solute and is usually present in large proportion
or amount. It can be classified as polar and nonpolar.

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Polar solvents are solvents which dissolve/are soluble in water; while nonpolar solvents are
solvents which do not dissolve/are insoluble in water. Solvents are usually used for cleaning in
workshops.

They are water, gasoline, kerosene, thinner and detergent soap. The table below shows the kinds of
cleaning solvent based on their solubility in water.

Table 2: Shows the kinds of cleaning solvent based on their solubility in water

Waste Disposal

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Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no
use. A by-product by contrast is a joint product of relatively minor economic value.

Waste management (or waste disposal) includes the activities and actions required to
manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes the collection, transport,
treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management
process.

Waste disposal methods

Recycling

Recycling refers to both the direct reuse of used products (e.g. used clothing and functioning parts
removed from used vehicles) and material recycling, that is the recovery of raw materials from
waste (e.g. production of new glass from fragments, the melting of scrap iron and the production of
recycled building materials from construction waste). Down cycling refers to the transformation of
waste to materials of lower quality than the initially used material.

Incineration

Combustible waste from households and waste wood that is not suitable for recycling undergo
thermal treatment in waste incineration plants or waste wood furnaces. The heat released in the
process is used to generate electricity and heat buildings. Waste with a high calorific value and
low level of pollutant contamination can be used in industrial plants, e.g. cement plants, as an
alternative to fossil fuels. Waste that is contaminated with organic pollutants undergoes separate
thermal treatment (e.g. in hazardous waste incineration plants). Incinerators must have a flue gas
treatment system. The requirements for flue gas treatment and the incineration system are based on
the nature of the waste.

Chemical-physical and biological treatment

The objective of both chemical-physical and biological treatment is to enable the removal of
pollutants from waste or its safe land filling. Waste water and polluted excavated material are

165
typical of the types of waste that are managed in this way. Following chemical-physical treatment,
the pollutants can be disposed of in concentrated form in facilities suitable for this purpose.

Landfills

Residues from waste incineration or waste that is not suitable for material recycling or thermal
treatment are deposited in landfills that are compliant with the legal requirements. If the waste
does not fulfil the requirements for land filling, it must be pre-treated

Collection and logistics

The waste management sector involves many different specialised actors. Their tasks include the
collection of waste at source (industry, commerce and households) in suitable transport containers,
its intermediate storage and handover to waste disposal operations. The treatment of waste is often
based on a cascade of specialised plants. In all cases, smooth logistics are a precondition for the
efficient management of waste. In the case of hazardous waste, in accordance with the Ordinance
on Movements of Waste, the handover must be documented.

Correct Disposal of Waste Material

The Controlled Waste Regulations 1998 tell us that we have “a Duty of Care” to handle, recover
and dispose of waste responsibly

The Environmental Protection (Duty of Care) Regulations 1991 tell us that any business has a
duty to ensure that any waste produced is handled safely and in accordance with the law.

Your company is responsible for the waste that it produces even after handling it over to another
party such as a Skip Hire company.

If such a third party mishandles your waste or disposes of it irresponsibly then it is the
responsibility of the company you work for, not the Skip Hire company.

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The duty of care under the new Regulations has no ‘time limit’ and extends until the waste has
either been finally and properly disposed of or fully recovered.

If a material has hazardous properties, it may need to be dealt with as ‘Special Waste’. Containers
may be classified as ‘Special Waste’ if they contain residues of hazardous or dangerous substances.

If the residue is ‘Special’ then the whole container is Special Waste. Do not burn scrap cable on
site, re-cycle it through a scrap metal merchant.

Electro technical companies produce very little waste material and even smaller amounts of
‘Special Waste’. Most electrical contractors deal with waste by buying in the expertise and
building in these costs to the total cost of a contract.

However, this method still requires individuals to sort any waste responsibly by placing it in the
appropriate skip or container.

To comply with the Waste Regulations:

● Make sure waste is transferred only to ‘authorized’ companies as per the law.
● Make sure that the waste being taken is accompanied by the proper paperwork
called ‘waste transfer notes’
● Label waste skips and waste containers so that it is clear to everyone what type of
waste is going into which skip or container
● Minimise the waste that you produce and do not leave it behind when a job is
completed for someone else to clear away. As the producer of any waste, you are
responsible for it. Remember there is no time limit on the Duty of Care for waste
materials

Waste management

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and monitoring of
waste materials.

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The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally
undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.

Waste management is a distinct practice from resource recovery which focuses on delaying the
rate of consumption of natural resources.

The management of wastes treats all materials as a single class, whether solid, liquid, gaseous or
radioactive substances, and tried to reduce the harmful environmental impacts of each through
different methods.

Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural
areas, and for residential and industrial producers.

Management for non-hazardous waste residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is
usually the responsibility of local government authorities, while management for non-hazardous
commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator.

2.2.4.4 Learning Activities

Learning Activity 1

Procedure in Arranging and Storing Tools and Equipment

Instruction:

In a specific tool cabinet and a tool rack assigned to you, arrange and store tools and equipment
accordingly.

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA PERFORMANCE LEVEL

YES NO NA

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 1. Were the tools/equipment placed in
their respective location and accessible
for use when needed?
2. Were the tools arranged according to
their types?
3. Were the tools and equipment ready
before performing the task?
4. Were the equipment placed in their
proper location and arranged according
to their types?
Overall Competent
Performance
Not yet competent
(Competent if all
the tasks are
completed
correctly)

Procedure:

1. Classify the tools and equipment according to their types.

2. Arrange the tools by their types in the shelves/racks.

3. Place equipment in designated places or location.

Assessment: The teacher will assess you based on the performance criteria listed below.

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PERFORMANCE CRITERIA PERFORMANCE LEVEL

YES NO NA

1. Were protective clothing and goggles

worn at all times?
2. Were tools and equipment free of
dust, grease, oil and other substances?
3. Was the work area dry, free of dust,
grease and other substances?
4. Were excess cleaning substances
cleaned and kept in proper places?
Overall Competent
Performance
Not yet competent
(Competent if all
the tasks are
completed
correctly)

2.2.4.5 Self-Assessment

1. Pliers, cutters, a knife and a range of screwdrivers are the tools required in the electro technical
industry for:
A. Erecting conduit
B. Assembling tray
C. Stripping and connecting conductors
D. Terminating an mi cable

2. An example of ‘Special Waste’ is:

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 A. sheets of asbestos
B. old fibre-glass roof insulation
C. old fluorescent tubes
D. part coils of PVC insulated cables

3. Special Waste must be disposed of:

A. in the general site skips
B. in the general site skip by someone designated to have a ‘duty of care’
C. at the ‘Household Waste’ re-cycling centre
D. by an ‘authorised company’ using a system of waste transfer notes’

4. Put a (✓) after each word if the solvent is polar and (X) if it is nonpolar.

1. water ( )
2. kerosene ( )
3. detergent soap ( )
4. gasoline ( )
5. thinner ( )

5. The table below show cleaning solvents for tools and equipment. Complete the table .

Cleaning solvents Uses

Gasoline

Kerosene

Thinner

Water

Detergent Soap and Water

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2.2.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools

● Set of screw drivers

● Pliers
● Phase testers
● Multimeter
Equipment

● PPE –hand gloves, dust coat, dust masks

● Multimeter
● Clamp meter
● Earth electrode resistance meter
Phase sequence meter

Materials and supplies

● Stationery
● Cables
● Lubricants
● Service parts

2.2.4.7 References

● IEE regulations
● Organizational procedures manual

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 ● Electrical Installation Maintenance K to 12 – Technology and Livelihood Education
Learning Module
Republic of the Philippines DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
● Ray_C._Mullin,_Phil_Simmons]_Electrical_Wiring_Re(z-lib.org
● [Brian_Scaddan_IEng;_MIIE_(elec)]_Electrical_insta(z-lib.org)

2.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: troubleshoot and repair/replace workshop tools and equipment

2.2.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to identify, diagnose, repair/
replace faulty tools and finally and testing the functionality of the tools after repair.
The level of troubleshooting most often performed on tools and equipment hardware is
exchanging Field Replaceable Units (FRUs). The cost of using a technician to diagnose the
problem further, and repair it, can quickly exceed the cost of the new replacement unit.
2.2.5.2 Performance Standard

1. Faulty tools are identified as per their expected functionality

2. Faulty equipment are diagnosed in line with the fault diagnosis procedures

3. Repair/Replace faulty components as per standard operating procedure

4. Repaired/Replaced tool and equipment are tested as per the expected functionality

2.2.5.3 Information Sheet

Meaning of troubleshooting

Troubleshooting is the first step in the heavy equipment repair process in making a repair action
and returning the equipment into service.

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Electrical Troubleshooting can be hazardous. Ensure you take the proper precautions. Electricity
has long been recognized as a serious workplace hazard, exposing employees to electric shock,
electrocution, burns, fires and explosions.

Meaning of troubleshooting

Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes
on a machine or a system. It is a logical, systematic search for the source of a problem in order to
solve it, and make the product or process operational again. Troubleshooting is needed to identify
the symptoms. Determining the most likely cause is a process of elimination eliminating potential
causes of a problem. Finally, troubleshooting requires confirmation that the solution restores the
product or process to its working state.

In general, troubleshooting is the identification or diagnosis of "trouble" in the management flow

of a system caused by a failure of some kind. The problem is initially described as symptoms of
malfunction, and troubleshooting is the process of determining and remedying the causes of these
symptoms.

Common faults in Electrical equipment

Fault-finding for electronic/electrical equipment is a skill that is neither an art nor a science, but an
engineering discipline in its own right. Effective fault-finding requires:
● A good general knowledge of electricity and electronics.
● Specialized knowledge of the faulty equipment.
● Suitable test equipment.
● Experience in using such test equipment.
● The ability to formulate a procedure for isolating a fault.
● The availability of service sheets and other guides.

Common Problems

An electrical fault is the deviation of voltages and currents from nominal values or states. Under
normal operating conditions, power system equipment or lines carry normal voltages and currents
which results in safer operation of the system.

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Symmetrical faults

These are very severe faults and occur infrequently in the power systems. These are also called
balanced faults and are of two types namely line to line to ground (L-L-L-G) and line to line
(L-L-L).

2. Unsymmetrical faults

These are very common and less severe than symmetrical faults. There are mainly three types
namely line to ground (L-G), line to line (L-L), and double line to ground (LL-G) faults.

Fault diagnosis procedure

Here are six key points to consider
Collect the Evidence

All the evidence collected must be relevant to the problem in hand. If one is in doubt as to whether
anything is relevant, then include it. Reject it afterwards at the first opportunity if it clearly is not
relevant. The quantity of information collected is unimportant, what matters are that all
information collected is relevant. Observe the system running, if you consider it safe to do so. Use
all your senses: smell (burning), hearing (vibration), touch (temperature), sight (for unusual
conditions). Refer to any relevant documentation.

Analyse the Evidence

Consider all the evidence collected and, if possible, reject any which after further careful
consideration is not relevant. Study the hard core of relevant evidence and – through the process of
careful, logical thinking –diagnose the likely fault or at least the area or region of the fault.

Locate the Fault

In a sense this is a continuation of the process of ‘analyses. The areas or regions are systematically
reduced in size until a specific part can be identified as being faulty. For example, if a door bell

177
does not ring when it should; it is only by means of a systematic approach that one determines that
the bell itself is faulty.

Determination and Removal of the Cause

If the cause of a fault is not removed, the fault will recur even though the fault has been rectified.
For instance, a flat bicycle tyre might be the result of a puncture (the fault) in the inner tube. If the
puncture is repaired (i.e. the fault is removed) this will not be of much use if the cause of the
puncture in the first place is not determined and appropriate action taken. The cause of the
puncture may be a nail which has penetrated the outer cover. This must be removed

Rectification of the Fault

This may be a simple task, as in the case referred to above, or it may be a much bigger one.
Whatever is the case, it is a specific task based on earlier findings.

Check the System

It is important to ensure that the machine, equipment or system is functioning normally after the
cause of the fault and the fault itself has been dealt with. In the case of the puncture, it is easy to
confirm that the cause of the fault – and the fault itself – has indeed been dealt with satisfactorily,
assuming that the tyre remains inflated. With more sophisticated equipment or systems it may
necessary to ‘fine-tune’ the system in order to return it to optimum working conditions.

Repair/Replace of components in Electrical equipment

Any electronic instrument or piece of equipment can be considered as a system. A system can be
defined as “anything formed of component parts connected together to make a regular and
complete whole”.
An instrument or piece of equipment can have subsystems made in blocks to perform specific
functions. These subsystems are made up of electronic circuits, which are forms of
electronic/electrical or electromechanical component parts. The failure of a component in
equipment may lead to the failure of the system. Failure is said to be the inability of a system to

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perform its required function. The need for continuous performance of equipment requires that it is
given regular maintenance. It is, therefore imperative that the meaning of maintenance is well
understood.
Maintenance

This is all the activities carried out on an equipment in terms of proper installation, good servicing,
routine checks, repairs and replacement of faulty parts in order for such equipment to operate at it
maximum output throughout its useful life. An equipment or instrument is considered to have
failed when under any of these conditions:

a) when it becomes completely inoperative

b) when it is still in operation but unable to perform the required function any longer

c) When it becomes unsafe for its continued use.

Maintenance of tools and equipment in electrical workshop

Preventive Maintenance

This is the practice or arrangement whereby a piece of equipment or instrument are regularly
checked, oiled, greased or cleaned according to manufacturer’s specification for effective
performance. This maintenance method is normally carried out at a specified time of a year and in
that case the entire working system is shut down. Fund is normally provided to ensure that spare
parts and some other materials meant for such maintenance are provided. The essence of this form
of maintenance is to ensure that the equipment does not break down and thus performs to
specification.
Corrective Maintenance

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This method is applied to equipment that has failed and thus broken down due to either improper
operations or a defective part. It is concerned with the detection, location and repairs of faults as
they occur. This requires a good understanding of system fault location methods in addition to an
understanding of overall system and circuit operation.

Types of Maintenance

There are five different types of maintenance and these are as follows:

3. Fixed Time Maintenance

This is servicing of equipment periodically at regular intervals. The particular maintenance

requirements will probably vary with the level of service. For example the requirements for 12
monthly services will be different for those for 3 monthly.

2. Condition Based Maintenance

This type of maintenance requires the use of human senses to know when it is needed. In the cause
of operating an equipment one may see signs of smoking, electrical sparks, feel for excessive
heated, smells for signs of burning and some others. The condition at which the equipment is will
necessitate that it should be opened up immediately for maintenance. This act will assist in
preventing further damage. Some more complex systems have sensing devices built in to them,
and alarm systems to detect variation from the norm.

3. Opportunity Based Maintenance

This is carried out when an equipment is opened up for repairs and this opportunity is used to do
any other maintenance tasks which are due in the near future, such as routine servicing and the
replacement of any parts which are at the end of their useful life. Also, the opportunity can be used

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to replace a broken part which had occurred before opening the equipment but had no effect in its
operation.

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4. Design Out Maintenance

This maintenance type is used on equipment which has a part that is failing regularly due to an
apparent design weakness. It may be possible to upgrade the weak part and effectively change
the design for the better. If a particular part is not available one may be able to change the
design to allow a more common part to be used. In spectrophotometry, for example, it may be
possible to modify a simple car headlamp bulb to enable it to function as a tungsten source.

5. Operate To Failure Maintenance

These are cases whereby equipment is not given general routine care but it is allowed to fail before
any other maintenance is attempted. This is widely used on electronic equipment which normally
is not just taken to a mechanic for servicing while still functional. They are only opened up when
they have broken down. This means that equipment is operated to failure before it is opened up for
maintenance.

Troubleshooting Hazards

Troubleshooting can introduce many new safety concerns especially when inspecting equipment
that is energized. Testing often requires the troubleshooter to temporarily connect test instruments
to “live” terminals, which may involve opening enclosures or cabinets that normally are locked or
bolted closed to protect workers.

This introduces two main hazards:

1. Shock Hazard. If you were to contact live equipment with your body or a tool you are holding
the current flowing through your body could cause severe injury, burns, and even death.

2. Flash Hazard. If you are in the vicinity of equipment that fails and causes an electric arc, the
flash, heat and shrapnel caused by the arc can also be life threatening.

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183
Fault Condition Reporting

While repairs are under way it is sometimes necessary to hand over the work or the equipment to
someone else. If this is to work efficiently you must be able to pass on all relevant information.
This is also important to ensure the safety of all personnel while the system is not in its usual
operating condition.

The steps involved are:

1. Document all changes to normal operational line-up either in the log or, if the system is in use,
on forms supplied for this purpose. You should also make notes in your personal journal.

2. Set out work schedules in accordance with safe practices and nominated company procedures.

This may require you to document all notifications given to relevant persons together with
Authority to Carry Out Running Repairs, Work Permits, Clearance Certificates, Tags(Danger and
Out of Service, etc.) Locks and Sentinels in operation or other applicable special precautions.

3. Highlight any special precautions or fallback procedures relating to operation of running

equipment.

4. Prepare a concise report on the current status of the repair being undertaken including personnel
involved, equipment or tooling obtained, equipment or tooling ordered or required, parts
availability, strip-down status of the machine and estimated completion time.

5. Pass on findings in regard to component condition or potential weaknesses found during

dismantling and other information necessary for the person taking over to make informed
decisions.

6. Where practical, carry out a tour of inspection with the new person of the affected plant,
pointing out areas of concern and activities under way.

7. Ensure they have understood you and have a clear picture of the situation and its implications.

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Calibration and service of equipment

Calibration, in its most basic form, is the measuring of an instrument against a standard. As
instruments become more complicated, successfully identifying and applying best practices can
reduce business expenses and improve organizational capabilities.

What is Calibration?

Calibration is the comparison of a measurement device (an unknown) against an equal or better
standard. A standard in a measurement is considered the reference; it is the one in the comparison
taken to be the more correct of the two.

Calibration finds out how far the unknown is from the standard. A “typical” commercial
calibration uses the manufacturer’s calibration procedure and is performed with a reference
standard at least four times more accurate than the instrument under test.

Purpose of a calibration

There are three main reasons for having instruments calibrated:

1. To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.

2. To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.

3. To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.

Calibration, zeroing and care of instruments

Precise calibration of instruments is usually well outside the province of the electrician, and would
normally be carried out by the manufacturer or a local service representative.

A check, however, can be made by the user to determine whether calibration is necessary by
comparing readings with an instrument known to be accurate, or by measurement of known values
of voltage, resistance, etc.

It may be the case that readings are incorrect simply because the instrument is not zeroed before
use, or because the internal battery needs replacing.

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Most modern instruments have battery condition indication, and of course this should never be
ignored. Always adjust any selection switches to the off position after testing.

Too many instrument fuses are blown when, for example, a multimeter is inadvertently left on the
ohms range and then used to check for mains voltage. The following set procedure may seem
rather basic but should ensure trouble-free testing:

1. Check test leads for obvious defects.

2. Zero the instrument.

3. Select the correct range for the values anticipated. If in doubt, choose the highest range and
gradually drop down.

4. Make a record of the test results, if necessary.

5. When a zero reading is expected and occurs (or, in the case of insulation resistance, an
infinite reading), make a quick check on the test leads just to ensure that they are not
open-circuited.

6. Return switches/selectors to the off position.

7. Replace instrument and leads in carrying case.

Safe use of electrical equipment

When one is using electrical equipment such as drills, saws, sanders, etc. on site or in a workshop,
great care must be taken to ensure that the tools are in good condition and that the cables supplying
them are not damaged in any way and are adequate for the job they have to do.

Any connections of cables must be carried out by a competent person using approved tools and
equipment. For work on building sites, tools using a voltage lower than usual (110 V instead of
230 V) are recommended.

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 11. Person’s involved. It refers to the technical person who has the knowledge and skills about
the technology.

2.2.5.4 Learning activities

Learning Activity1

Let us determine how much you already know about checking conditions of tools and equipment.
Take this test.

Instruction: Read each statement and identify what is being described. Choose your answer inside
the circle and write them in the space provided before each number.

Hand tools

Pneumatic floor jack screwdrivers

Wrenches

Personal Protective Equipment(PPE)

Pullers

Vacuum cleaner

Air drill

Pneumatic torque wrench

Machine /power tools

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___________1. Uses compressed air to flow into the jack cylinder and causes the ram to extend
and raise the vehicle.

___________2. These are tools manipulated by our hands without using electrical energy.

__________3. Are used to drive, or turn screws. The common type has a single flat blade for
driving screws with slotted heads. The other type has the cross slotted head.

___________4. A tool used to turn screws, nuts and bolts with hexagonal heads. ―Hexagonalǁ
means six-sided. A variety of wrenches are used in the shop.

___________5. A tool used to remove gears and hubs from shafts, bushings from blind holes, and
cylinders’ liners from the engine blocks.

____________6. This is used for cleaning the floor and car interiors after service.

____________7. This is lighter than a comparable electric drill. Repeatedly stalling or

overloading does not damage or overheat the air drill.

____________8. A gadget that protects workers from injury or illness caused by having contact
with the dangers/hazards in the workplace, Used by linemen to remove insulation of wire and
cables in low and high voltage transmission lines.

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____________9. This wrench uses compressed air to quickly and powerfully turn nuts, bolts, and
other objects.

___________10. These are tools manipulated by our hands and with the use of electrical energy

Learning Activity 2

Let us determine how much you already know about selecting measuring tools and
instruments. Take this test.

Instruction: Match the electrical measuring tools and instruments in Column A to their descriptions
in Column B. Write the letter of your answer in the space provided before each number.

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2.2.5.5 Self-Assessment

1. What is troubleshooting?

2. Explain the following two hazards that can arise in faulty equipment
i. Shock Hazard.
ii. Flash Hazard.
3. List the three main reasons for having instruments calibrated:

4. Explain the following Methods of identifying non-functional/faulty tools and equipment

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2.2.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools

Phase tester

Screw drivers

Equipment

● PPE
● Oscilloscope
● Multimeter

Supplies and Materials

Insulation tape

2.2.5.7 References

1. IEE regulations
2. Organizational procedures manual
3. Electrical Installation Maintenance K to 12 – Technology and Livelihood Education
Learning Module Republic of the Philippines DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
4. Ray C. Mullin, Phil_Simmons Electrical Wiring Re(z-lib.org)
5. Brian Scaddan IEng; MII (elec) Electrical insta(z-lib.org)
6. https://www.mgnewell.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Purpose-of-Calibration.pdf

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2.2.5.6 Responses on Self-Assessment

2.2.5.6.1 Responses on Self-Assessment: Learning outcome 1

1. A
2. D
3. C
4. Remove heat from the burn to relieve the pain by placing the injured part under clean
cold water. Do not remove burnt clothing sticking to the skin.
Do not apply lotions or ointments.
Do not break blisters or attempt to remove loose skin. Cover the injured area with a
clean dry dressing.
5.

Class of fire Type of fire extinguisher

Water Foam Co2 Dry

powder

A Ordinary fires: wood , paper ,cloth Yes Yes No No

B Flammable liquids: petrol ,paraffin No Yes Yes Yes

C Electrical equipment No No Yes Yes

6. One should not leave the machine ON even after the power is OFF and until it has stopped
running completely. Someone else may not notice that the machine is still in motion and be
injured.
● Operator should not talk to other industrial persons when he is operating a machine.
● One should not oil, clean, adjust or repair any machine while it is running. Stop the
machine and lock the power switch in the OFF position.
● One should not operate any machine unless authorized to do so by the authorize person in
the shop.

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 ● Remove burrs, chips and other unwanted materials as soon as possible. They can cause
serious cuts.
● Do not leave loose rags on machines.
● Wash your hands thoroughly after working to remove oils, abrasive particles, cutting fluid,
etc.
● Report all injuries to the foreman, howsoever small. Cuts and burns should be treated
immediately.
● Keep the work area clean.
● Keep your mind on the job, be alert, and be ready for any emergency.
● Always work in proper lighting.
● On should not lean against the machines.

7. Personal protective equipment:

∙ Safety goggles

∙ Safety shoes

∙ Safety helmet

∙ Safety gloves

∙ Safety shoes

∙ Safety belt

Learning Activity 1

Hand tools Powers Pneumatic tools

Screw drivers Grinding wheels Air racket

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2.2.5.6.3 Responses on Self-Assessment: Learning Outcome 3

1. B
2. A
3. D
4. C
5. A

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2.2.5.6.4 Responses on Self-assessment: learning outcome 4

1. C
2. A
3. D
4. Put a ( ✓ ) after each word if the solvent is polar and (X) if it is nonpolar.

1. water ( ✓ )
2. kerosene (X )
3. detergent soap ( ✓ )
4. gasoline (X )
5. thinner (X )

5. The table below show cleaning solvents for tools and equipment. Complete the table .

Cleaning solvents Uses

Gasoline Wash greasy tools/equipment

Kerosene Remove dust, grease oil paint, etc

Thinner Remove spilled paint on floor, walls and

tools

Water Wash dust in the floor, walls, etc

Detergent Soap and Water Wash/ clean benches, tables, cabinets,etc

Learning activity 1: learning outcome 5

1. Pneumatic floor jack

2. Hand tools
3. Screw drivers
4. Wrench
5. Puller

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 6. Vacuum cleaner
7. Air drill
8. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
9. Pneumatic Torque Wrench
10. Machine/Power tools

Learning activity 2: Learning outcome 5

Answer

1. C
2. E
3. A
4. B
5. D

2.2.5.6.5 Responses on Self-assessment: Learning outcome 5

1. Troubleshooting is the first step in the heavy equipment repair process in making a repair
action and returning the equipment into service.

2.
i. Shock Hazard. If you were to contact live equipment with your body or a tool you are
holding the current flowing through your body could cause severe injury, burns, and
even death.
ii. Flash Hazard. If you are in the vicinity of equipment that fails and causes an electric
arc, the flash, heat and shrapnel caused by the arc can also be life threatening.
3.

i. To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other

measurements.

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CHAPTER 3: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES

Unit of learning code: ENG/CU/EI/CC/02/4/A.

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Apply Electrical Principles Skills.

3.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit describes the competencies required by a technician in order to apply a wide range of
Electrical principles in their work. Which includes; Basic Electrical quantities, D.C and A.C
circuits in electrical installation, electrical machines, earthing in Electrical installations,
capacitance and inductance

3.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Basic Electrical quantities

2. D.C and A.C circuits in electrical installation

3. Electrical machines

4. Earthing in Electrical installations

5. Capacitance and inductance

3.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Basic Electrical Quantities

3.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To apply basic Electrical quantities correctly one requires the ability to understand the SI units of
Electrical quantities. Stated, Calculate and relates the quantities in Ohm’s law.

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3.2.1.2 Performance Standard.

● Basic SI units in Electrical are identified as established standards.

● Quantities of Charge, force, work and power are identified as per established standards.
● Perform calculations involving electrical quantities i.e., Current, Resistance and voltage as
per established standards.

3.2.1.3 Information Sheet

Definition of terms.

SI unit

The system of units used in engineering and science is the Système Internationale d’Unités
(International system of units), usually abbreviated to SI units, and is based on the metric system.
This was introduced in 1960 and is now adopted by the majority of countries as the official system
of measurement.

Quantity Unit

Length metre, m

Mass kilogram, kg

Time second, s

Electric current ampere, A

Thermodynamic temperature kelvin, K

Luminous intensity candela, cd

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Amount of substance mole,

Charge

The unit of charge is the coulomb∗ (C), where one coulomb is one ampere second (1coulomb =
6.24×1018 electrons). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows past a
given point in an electric which flows past a given point in an electric circuit when a current of one
ampere∗ is maintained for one second. Thus, charge, in coulombs Q =It where I is the current in
amperes and t is the time in seconds

Force

The unit of force is the newton∗ (N), where one newton is one-kilogram meters per second
squared. The newton is defined as the force which, when applied to a mass of one kilogram, gives I
t an acceleration of one meter per second squared. Thus force, newton’s, F=ma where m is the
mass in kilograms and a is the acceleration in meters per second squared. Gravitational force or
weight is mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2.

Work

The unit of work or energy is the joule∗ (J), where one joule is one newton meter. The joule is
defined as the work done or energy transferred when a force of one newton is exerted through a
distance of one metre in the direction of the force. Thus, work done on a body, in joules, W=Fs
Where F is the force in newton’s and s is the distance in metres moved by the body in the direction
of the force. Energy is the capacity for doing work.

Power

The unit of power is the watt∗ (W), where one watt is one joule per second. Power is defined as the
rate of doing work or transferring energy. Thus, power, in watts P= Wt Where W is the work done
or energy transferred, in joules, and t is the time, in seconds. Thus, energy, in joules W =Pt.

203
Resistance and conductance

The unit of electric resistance is the ohm (Ω), where one ohm is one volt per ampere. It is defined
as the resistance between two points in a conductor when a constant electric potential of one volt
applied at the two points produces a current flow of one ampere in the conductor. Thus, resistance,
in ohms R= VI where V is the potential difference across the two points, in volts, and I is the
current flowing between the two points, in amperes. The reciprocal of resistance is called
conductance and is measured in Siemens (S), named after the German inventor and industrialist
Ernst Siemen∗ conductance, in Siemens G=1R where R is the resistance in ohms.

Electrical power and energy

When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the voltage across the
circuit is V volts, the power, in watts P=VI

Electrical energy =Power×time

=VIt joules

Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of energy, the unit used
is the kilowatt hour (kWh) where

1 kWh = 1000 watt hour

= 1000× 3600 watt seconds or joules

= 3 600 000 J

1.2.1.4 Learning Activities.

1. Identified basic SI units in Electrical as per established standards

2. Identified quantities of charge, force, work and power as per established standards

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3. Performed calculations involving Electrical quantities i.e resistance, current and voltage as per
established standards.

1.2.1.5 Self-Assessment

1. If a current of 5A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.

2. Find the force acting vertically downwards on a mass of 200 g attached to a wire

3. A portable machine requires a force of 200 N to move it. How much work is done if the
Machine is moved 20 m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 25 s?

4.: A source e.m.f. of 5V supplies a current of 3A for 10 minutes. How much energy is
Provided in this time?

5. What is a derived unit?

6. A mass of 1000 kg is raised through a height of 10 m in 20 s. What is

(a) the work done and (b) the power developed?

1.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators

• Ohmmeter

• Voltmeter

• Ammeter

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1.2.1.7 References

• John Bird (2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology fifth Edition

• John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology sixth Edition

1.2.1.8 Responses to Self-Assessment

Problem 1. If a current of 5 A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.

Quantity of electricity Q = It coulombs

I = 5 A, t = 2 × 60 = 120 s
Hence Q= 5 × 120 = 600 C

Problem 2. Find the force acting vertically downwards on a mass of 200 g attached to a wire.

Mass=200 g=0.2 kg and acceleration due to gravity,

g =9.81 m/s2
Force acting downwards
= weight
= mass × acceleration
= 0.2 kg× 9.81m/s2
= 1.962 N

Problem 3. A portable machine requires a force of 200 N to move it. How much work is done if
the machine is moved 20 m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 25 s?

Work done = force× distance

= 200 N× 20m

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= 4 000 Nm or 4 kJ
Power = work done/ time taken
= 4000 J/ 25 s
= 160 J/s = 160W

Problem 4. A source e.m.f. of 5V supplies a current of 3A for 10 minutes. How much energy is
provided in this time? Energy = power ×time, and power =voltage ×current.

Hence

= VIt = 5 × 3 × (10× 60) = 9000Ws or J = 9 kJ

Problem5. Derived SI units _use combinations of basic units and there are many of them. Two
examples are:

Velocity – metres per second (m/s)

Acceleration – metres per second squared (m/s2)

Problem 6. A mass of 1000 kg is raised through a height of 10 m in 20 s. What is (a) the work
done and (b) the power developed?

(a) Work done = force× distance and force

= mass × acceleration Hence,
Work done = (1000 kg× 9.81m/s2) × (10m) = 98 100 Nm = 98.1 kNm or 98.1 kJ
(b) Power = work done/time taken
= 98 100 J/20 s
= 4905 J/s
= 4905W or 4.905 kW

207
3.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: D.C And A.C Circuits In Electrical Installation

3.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To apply DC and AC circuits in an Electrical Installation one is required to understand the

Meaning of terms Conductors and insulators, Ohm’s law Resistance variation, Resistors and color
coding.

AC and DC circuits

• R-L, R-C, R-L-C circuits

• Series

• Parallel

• Parallel and series

• Parallel resonance and Q-factor

• Power factor improvement

• AC and DC network theorems e.g Kirchhoff’s laws

3.2.3.2 Performance Standard

• Theory of conductors and insulators is determined as per established procedures

• Ohm’s law is performed as per established procedures

• Calculations involving resistor connection is performed as per established procedures

208
• Colour coding for fixed resistors is performed as per established standards

• Calculations involving parallel and series circuits are performed as per established
standards

• Calculations involving R-L-C circuits are performed as per established standards

• Calculations involving DC and AC circuits. Network theorems are performed. E.g.,

Kirchhoff’s laws,

• Conversion of AC to DC and DC to AC are performed as per established standards

• Parallel resonance and Q-factor are determined as per established standards

o Power factor improvement is performed as per established standards

3.2.3.3 Information Sheet

Meaning of term;

A conductor is a material having a low resistance which allows electric current to flow in it. All
metals are conductors and some examples include copper, aluminium, brass, platinum, silver, gold
and carbon.

An insulator is a material having a high resistance which does not allow electric current to flow in
it. Some examples of insulators include plastic, rubber, glass, porcelain, air, paper, cork, mica,
ceramics and certain oils.

209
Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains
constant. Thus, I = VR or V = IR or R = V/I

Example

The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20V is applied. Determine the value
of the resistance. From Ohm’s law, resistance R= V/I

= 20/0.8

= 200/8

=25Ω

Resistor colour coding and ohmic values

(a) Colour code for fixed resistors

The colour code for fixed resistors is given in

Table(i) For a four-band fixed resistor (i.e., resistance
values with two significant figures): yellow-violet
orange-red indicates 47 k with a tolerance of ±2%

(Note that the first band is the one nearest the end of
the resistor.) (ii) For a five-band fixed resistor (i.e.,
resistance values with three significant figures): red-yellow white-orange-brown indicates 249 k
with a tolerance of ±1% (Note that the fifth band is 1.5 to 2 times wider than the other bands.)

210
(b) Letter and digit code for resistors

Another way of indicating the value of resistors is the letter and digit code shown in Table 5.2.
Tolerance is indicated as follows =±1%, G=±2%,J =±5%, K =±10% and M
=±20%.Thus, for example,

R33M = 0.33 ± 20%

4R7K = 4.7 ± 10%
390RJ = 390 ± 5%

Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchhoff’s laws state:

(a) Current Law. At any junction in an electric circuit

the total current flowing towards that junction is equal to the
total current flowing away from the junction, i.e. I =0 Thus,
referring to Fig. Below I1+I2 =I3 +I4 +I5 or I1+I2 −I3 −I4
−I5 =0

211
(b) Voltage Law. In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (i.e.
products of current and resistance) taken around the loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in
that loop Thus, referring to Fig. Below

E1 −E2 =IR1 +IR2 +IR3

212
214
216
R–C series a.c. circuit

In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the
phasor sum of VR and VC and thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying
between 0◦ and 90◦ (depending on the values of VR and VC), shown as angle α

From the phasor diagram, the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.

217
 Example 1

A resistor of 25Ω is
connected in series
with a capacitor of
45μF. Calculate (a)
the Impedance and
(b) the current taken
from a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Find also the
phase angle between
the supply voltage
and the current.

218
R–L–C series a.c. circuit

In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C, the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC. VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180◦,
and there are three phasor diagrams possible – each depending on the relative values of VL and V

219
221
Q-factor

At resonance, if R is small compared with XL and XC, it is possible for VL and VC to have
voltages many times greater than the supply voltage .Voltage magnification at resonance= voltage
across L (or C)supply voltage V .This ratio is a measure of the quality of a circuit (as a resonator or
tuning device) and is called the Q-factor. Hence

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

R-L ac circuit

In the two-branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and inductance L,the current flowing in
the resistance, IR, is in-phase with the supply voltage V and the current flowing in the inductance,
IL, lags the supply voltage by 90◦. The supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IL and thus the

222
L-C ac circuit

In the two-branch parallel circuit containing inductance L and capacitance C, IL lags V by 900 and
IC leads V by 900.

225
LR-C ac circuit

In the two-branch circuit containing capacitance C in parallel with inductance L and resistance R
in series (such as a coil)shown in Fig(a),the phasor diagram for the LR branch alone is shown in
Fig.(b) and the phasor diagram for the C branch is shown alone in Fig. (c). Rotating each and
superimposing on one another gives the complete phasor diagram shown in Fig(d).

226
227
229
POWER IMPROVEMENT

In any a.c. circuit, power factor =cosφ,where φ is the phase angle between supply current and
supply voltage. Industrial loads such as a.c. motors are essentially inductive (i.e. R–L) and may
have a low power factor. For example, let a motor take a current of 50A at a power factor of 0.6
lagging from a 240V, 50Hz supply, as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig(a).

If power factor = 0.6 lagging, then: cosφ = 0.6 lagging

Hence, phase angle, φ = cos−1 0.6 = 53.13◦ lagging, Lagging means that I lags V , and the phasor
diagram is as shown in Fig(b).

230
= 30A

Before the capacitor was connected, the supply current was 50A. Now it is 30 A.

Herein lies the advantage of power factor improvement– the supply current has been reduced.
When power factor is improved, the supply current is reduced, the supply system has lower losses
(i.e. Lower I 2R losses) and therefore cheaper running costs.

3.2.3.4 Learning Activities

Determined theory of conductors and insulators as per established procedures

• Performed Ohms law as per established procedures

• Performed calculations involving resistor connection as per established procedures

• Performed color coding for fixed resistors as per established standards

• Performed calculations involving parallel and series circuits as per established standards

• Performed calculations involving R-L-C circuits as per established standards

• Performed calculations involving DC and AC circuits. Network theorems . E.g. Kirchoff’s

laws,

• Performed conversion of AC to DC and DC to AC as per established standards

• Determined parallel resonance and Q-factor as per established standards

• Performed power factor improvement as per established standards

232
3.2.3.5 Self-Assessment

1. Define the following terms;

I. A conductor

II. An insulator.

2. State ;

I. Kirchhoff’s laws

II. Ohm’s law.

3. What is Q-factor

4. A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 45μF. Calculate (a) the
Impedance and (b) the current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Find also the phase angle
between the supply voltage and the current.

5. In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across the resistance R is 12V and the p.d. across the
inductance L is 5V. Find the supply voltage and the phase angle between current and voltage

3.2.2.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Material

233
• Scientific calculators

• Ohmeter

• Resistors

• Conductor

3.2.2.7 References

o John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology fifth Edition

o John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology sixth Edition

o Watkins, A.J, Kitcher C (2009) Electrical Installation calculations Basic Eighth Elsevier
Ltd

o Stokes,J Handbook of Electrical Installation Practice Fourth Edition Blackwell Science

Ltd

3.2.2.8 Response To Self-Assessment.

II. A conductor is a material having a low resistance which allows electric current to flow in
it. All metals are conductors and some examples include copper, aluminum, brass, platinum, silver,
gold and carbon.

234
III. An insulator is a material having a high resistance which does not allow electric current to
flow in it. Some examples of insulators include plastic, rubber, glass, porcelain, air, paper, cork,
mica, ceramics and certain oils.

2. Kirchhoff’s laws state:

(a) Current Law. At any junction in an electric circuit the total current flowing towards that
junction is equal to the total current flowing away from the junction, i.e. I =0 Thus, referring to
Fig. Below I1+I2 =I3 +I4 +I5 or I1+I2 −I3 −I4 −I5 =0

(b) Voltage Law. In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (i.e.
products of current and resistance) taken around the loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in
that loop Thus, referring to Fig. Below

E1 −E2 =IR1 +IR2 +IR3

235
Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains
constant. Thus, I = VR or V = IR or R = V/I

3.Q-factor. At resonance, if R is small compared with XL and XC, it is possible for VL and VC to
have voltages many times greater than the supply voltage .Voltage magnification at resonance=
voltage across L (or C)supply voltage V .This ratio is a measure of the quality of a circuit (as a
resonator or tuning device) and is called the Q-factor.

4. A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 45μF. Calculate (a) the Impedance
and (b) the current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Find also the phase angle between the supply
voltage and the current.

236
5. In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across the resistance R is 12V and the p.d. across the inductance
L is 5V. Find the supply voltage and the phase angle between current and voltage

237
238
239
3.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Electrical Machines

3.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To operate Electrical machines correctly one is required to have knowledge on Single phase
Electrical machines, DC single phase motors and generators, AC Single phase motors and
generators, Single phase transformers, Application of AC and DC machines, Motor starter, DC
Motor speed control

3.2.3.2 Performance Standard

• Types of single-phase electrical machines are identified as per established standards

• Calculations involving single phase AC and DC Motors are performed per established
standards

• Types of single-phase transformers are identified as per established standards

• Calculations involving single AC and DC transformers are performed as per established

standards

• Types of single-phase generators are identified as per established standards

• Motor starting methods are identified as per established procedure

• DC motor speed control is established as per standard operating procedures

3.2.3.3 Information Sheet

240
DC Generators

D.c generators are classified according to the method of their field excitation. These groupings are:

(i) Separately excited generators, where the field winding is connected to a source of supply other

than the armature of its own machine.

(ii) Self-excited generators, where the field winding receives its supply from the armature of its
own machine, and which are sub-divided into (a) shunt, (b) series and (c) compound wound
generators.

Types of DC Generators

(a) Separately excited generator

A typical separately-excited generator circuit is shown below. When a load is connected across the
armature terminals, a load current Ia will flow. The terminal voltage will fall from its open-circuit
e.m.f. E due to a volt drop caused by current flowing through the armature resistance, shown as Ra
i.e. terminal voltage, V = E−IaRa or generated e.m.f., E = V+IaRa

241
EXAMPLE

Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of 200V and has an
armature current of 30A on load. Assume the armature resistance is 0.30, terminal voltage,

V = E − Ia Ra

= 200−(30)(0.30)

= 200−9 = 191volts

242
(b) Shunt-wound generator

In a shunt-wound generator the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature, The field
winding has a relatively high resistance and therefore the current carried is only a fraction of the
armature current.

243
Terminal voltage, V=E−IaRa or generated e.m.f., E=V+IaRa

Ia =If +I from Kirchhoff’s current law, where

Ia = armature current, If = field current (=V/Rf ) and

I = load current

EXAMPLE

A shunt generator supplies a 20Kw load at 200V through cables of resistance, R = 100m_. If the
field winding resistance, Rf = 50_ and the armature resistance, Ra = 40m_, determine (a) the
terminal voltage and(b) the e.m.f. generated in the armature.

(a)The circuit is shown below

Load current, I = 20000watts/200volts

= 100A

Volt drop in the cables to the load

=IR = (100) (100×10−3) = 10V

Hence terminal voltage=200+10=210volts

244
(c) Series-wound generator

In the series-wound generator the field winding is connected in series with the armature, as shown
below

245
A short-shunt compound generator supplies 80A at 200V. If the field resistance, Rf = 40_, the
series resistance, RSe = 0.02_ and the armature resistance, Ra = 0.04_, determine the e.m.f.
generated.

Volt drop in series winding = IRSe = (80/)(0.02)

= 1.6V

247
TYPES OF DC MOTORS

(a) Shunt-wound motor

In the shunt-wound motor the field winding is in parallel with the armature across the supply, as
shown in the figure below

248
Supply voltage, V=E+IaRa or generated e.m.f., E= V−IaRa

Supply current, I=Ia+If from Kirchhoff’s current law

EXAMPLE

A 240V shunt motor takes a total current of 30A. If the field winding resistance Rf = 150_ and the
armature resistance Ra = 0.4_, determine (a) the current in the armature and (b) the back e.m.f.

= 28.4A

(b) Series-wound motor

249
In the series-wound motor the field winding is in series with the armature across the supply, as
shown below.

Supply voltage V=E+I(Ra+Rf) or generated e.m.f. E=V−I(Ra+Rf)

(c) Compound-wound motor

There are two types of compound-wound motor:

(i) Cumulative compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it
assists that due to the shunt winding.

(ii) Differential compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it
opposes that due to the shunt winding.

DC MOTOR STOTOR

250
If a d.c. motor whose armature is stationary is switched directly to its supply voltage, it is likely
that the fuses protecting the motor will burn out. This is because the armature resistance is small,
frequently being less than one ohm. Thus, additional resistance must be added to the armature
circuit at the instant of closing the switch to start the motor.As the speed of the motor increases, the
armature conductors are cutting flux and a generated voltage, acting in opposition to the applied
voltage, is produced, which limits the flow of armature current. Thus the value of the additional
armature resistance can then be reduced.

When at normal running speed, the generated e.m.f. is such that no additional resistance is required
in the armature circuit. To achieve this varying resistance in the armature circuit on starting, a d.c.
motor starter is used, as shown in Fig below

The starting handle is moved slowly in a clockwise direction to start the motor. For a shunt-wound
motor, the field winding is connected to stud 1 or to L via a sliding contact on the starting handle,

251
to give maximum field current, hence maximum flux, hence maximum torque on starting, since T
∝Ia .A similar arrangement without the field connection is used for series motors

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

Shunt-wound motors

The speed of a shunt-wound d .c. motor, n, is proportional to

V − IaRa

The speed is varied either by varying the value of flux, or by varying the value of Ra. The former
is achieved by using a variable resistor in series with the field winding, as shown in Fig below and
such a resistor is called the shunt field regulator

As the value of resistance of the shunt field regulator is increased, the value of the field current, If,
is decreased. This results in a decrease in the value of flux, , and hence an increase in the speed,

252
since n∝1/. Thus only speeds above that given without a shunt field regulator can be obtained by
this method. Speeds below those given by

V – IaRa/Ф

are obtained by increasing the resistance in the armature circuit, where

n∝

V −Ia(Ra+R)/Ф

Since resistor R is in series with the armature, it carries the full armature current and results in
large power loss in large motors where a considerable speed reduction is required for long periods.

These methods of speed control are demonstrated in the following worked problem.

TRANSFOMER

An auto transformer is a transformer which has part of its winding common to the primary and
secondary

Circuits. Fig(a) shows the circuit for a double wound transformer and Fig(b) that for an auto
transformer. The latter shows that the secondary is actually part of the primary, the current in the
secondary being (I2−I1). Since the current is less in this section,the cross-sectional area of the
winding can be reduced,

which reduces the amount of material necessary.

253
.

3. Name and explain two types of a DC generator.

4. Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of 200V and has an
armature current of 30A on load. Assume the armature resistance is 0.30 , terminal voltage,

4. Name types of a DC motors

5. A 240V shunt motor takes a total current of 30A. If the field winding resistance Rf = 150_ and
the armature resistance Ra = 0.4_, determine (a) the current in the armature and (b) the back
e.m.f.= 28.4A

3.2.3.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific calculators

• Motor

• Generator

• Transformer

3.2.3.7 References

John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology fifth Edition

255
o John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology sixth Edition

o Watkins, A.J, Kitcher C (2009) Electrical Installation calculations Basic Eighth Elsevier
Ltd

o Linsley, T, (2011), Basic Electrical Installation Work Sixth Edition

o Kitcher, K,(2008) Practical Guide to Inspection, Testing and Certification of Electrical

Installations First Edition Elsevier Ltd

3.2.3.8 Response To Self-Assessment

2. The speed is varied either by varying the value of flux, , or by varying the value of Ra. The
former is achieved by using a variable resistor in series with the field winding, such a resistor is
called the shunt field regulator

3. ([a) Compound-wound generators

In the compound-wound generator two methods of connection are used, both having a mixture of
shunt and series windings, designed to combine the advantages of each.(a) shows what is termed a
long shunt compound generator,(b) shows short-shunt compound generator. The latter is the most
generally used form of d.c. generator

256
4. Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of 200V and has an
armature current of 30A on load. Assume the armature resistance is 0.30 , terminal voltage,

V = E − Ia Ra
= 200−(30)(0.30)
= 200−9 = 191volts.
4. Types of DC motors

i. Shunt-wound motor

ii. Series-wound motor

iii. Compound-wound motor

5. A 240V shunt motor takes a total current of 30A. If the field winding resistance Rf = 150_
and the armature resistance Ra = 0.4_, determine (a) the current in the armature and (b) the back
e.m.f.= 28.4A

258
3.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Earthing in Electrical Installations

3.2.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To apply earthing in Electrical Installations trainee is required to understand

Meaning of earthing, Terms in earthing, earthing systems, earthing points in electrical installation,

IEE regulations and Factors to consider in selecting an earthing system

3.2.4.2 Performance Standard

• Earthing types are identified as per established standards

• Earthing systems are identified as per established procedures

• Tests to determine the earthing system are performed as per established standards

• Test on an earthing system is performed in line with the IEE regulations

3.2.4.3 Information Sheet

259
Earthed Systems

Definition of terms

• Static Charge: The electricity generated when two dissimilar substances come into contact.
Conveyer belts are active producers of static electricity.

• Switching Surge: A transient wave of voltage in an electric circuit caused by the operation
of a switching device interrupting load current or fault current.

• Transient Overvoltage: The temporary overvoltage of short duration associated with the
operation of the switching device, a fault, a lightning stroke, or during arcing earth faults on the
unearthed system.

• System: An earthed system consists of all interconnected earthing connections in a specific

power system and is defined by its isolation from adjacent earthing systems. The isolation is
provided by transformers primary and secondary windings that are coupled only by magnetic
means. Thus, the system boundary is defined by the lack of a physical connection that is either
metallic or through a significantly high impedance. The limits and boundaries of earthing systems

In the earthed systems, at least one conductor or point (usually the middle wire or neutral point of
generators or transformers) is intentionally earthed, either solidly or through an impedance. The
earthed systems have multiple advantages:

• Greater safety;

• No excessive system over voltages that can occur on unearthed systems during arcing, resonant,
or near - resonant earth faults; and

• Easier detection and location of faults when they occur.

260
Purpose of System Earthing

System earthing or intentional connection of a phase or neutral conductor to earth is for the
purpose of controlling the voltage to earth within predictable limits. It also provides for a flow of
current that will allow detection of an undesired connection between the system conductors and the
earth, and which may initiate the operation of automatic devices to remove the source of voltage
from conductors with such undesired connections to earth. The American NEC prescribes certain
system earthing connections that must be made to be in compliance with the code. The control of
voltage to earth limits the voltage stress on the insulation of conductors so that insulation
performance can be predicted more readily. The control of voltage also allows for the reduction of
shock hazard to any living body who might come in contact with the live conductors.

Methods of System Neutral Earthing

The earthing of the system can be done by either solid earthing or earthing through an impedance
(reactive or resistive or earth - fault neutralizer)

Solid Earthed: The neutral point is connected directly through an adequate earth connection in
which no impedance is intentionally inserted. The direct neutral earthing is either distributed or
non-distributed.

Reactance Earthed: The neutral point is earthed through impedance, the principle element of which
is an inductive reactance.

261
TT Earthing System

In this system, the neutral is directly earthed as it is denoted by the first letter“ T ” and the exposed
conductive parts of the loads are directly earthed via a conductor of PE individually or altogether
as it is denoted by the second letter “ T ”

The earth of both neutral conductor and protective conductor may or may not be interconnected or
combined. On the other hand, all exposed conductive parts protected by the same protective device
should be connected to the same earth.

262
TN Earthing System

This system has directly earthed neutral, which is denoted by the first letter“ T ” while the exposed
conductive parts of the loads are connected via a PE conductor to the neutral conductor.

3.2.4.4 Learning Activities

• Identified earthing types as per established standards

• Identified earthing systems identified as per established procedures

• Identified tests to determine the earthing system performed as per established standards

263
• Performed test on an earthing system in line with the IEE regulations

3.2.4.5 Self-Assessment

1. What is a system

2. State three advantages of earthed system

3. Name methods of system neutral earthing

4. What is TN earthed

3.2.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Electrical installation tool kit

Multimeter/AVO meter

Wattmeter

Insulation resistance tester

Clamp meter

264
4. This system has directly earthed neutral, which is denoted by the first letter “T ” while
the exposed conductive parts of the loads are connected via a PE conductor to the neutral
conductor.

3.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Capacitance and Inductance

3.2.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To apply capacitance and inductance one is required to understand; Meaning of electrostatic field,
Sources of electrostatic field, Electric field strength and capacitance, Electric flux density,
Permittivity, Types capacitors, Magnetic circuits and Magnetic fields.

3.2.5.2 Performance Standard

• Sources of Electrostatic fields are identified as established procedures

• Dielectric materials are identified as per the established standards

• Calculations involving capacitor parameters are performed as per established standards

• Types of capacitors are identified as per established standards

• Concept of charge and electrostatic field is established as per established standards

• Calculations involving capacitors are performed as per established standards

• Concept of magnetic circuits is identified as per established procedure

Parameters

• Calculations involving inductors are performed as per the established procedures

266
3.2.5.3 Information Sheet

Electrostatic field

Fig. above represents two parallel metal plates, A and B, charged to different potentials. If an
electron that has a negative charge is placed between the plates, a force will act on the electron
tending to push it away from the negative plate B towards the positive plate, A. Similarly, a
positive charge would be acted on by a force tending to move it towards the negative plate. Any
region such as that shown between the plates in Fig. above, in which an electric charge experiences
a force, is called an electrostatic field. The direction of the field is defined as that of the force
acting on a positive charge placed in the field. the direction of the force is from the positive plate to
the negative plate. Such a field may be represented in magnitude and direction by lines of electric
force drawn between the charged surfaces. The closeness of the lines is an indication of the field
strength. Whenever a p.d. is established between two points, an electric field will always exist.

267
Fig(a) above shows a typical field pattern for an isolated point charge, and Fig(b) shows the field
pattern for adjacent charges of opposite polarity. Electric lines of force (often called electric flux
lines) are continuous and start and finish on point charges; also, the lines cannot cross each other.
When a charged body is placed close to an uncharged body, an induced charge of opposite sign
appears on the surface of the uncharged body. This is because lines of force from the charged body
terminate on its surface.

268
The concept of field lines or lines of force is used to illustrate the properties of an electric field.
However,

it should be remembered that they are only aids to the imagination.

The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged bodies is proportional to the
magnitude of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating
them, i.e.

force ∝ q1q2/d2

Capacitors

Every system of electrical conductors possesses capacitance. For example, there is capacitance
between the conductors of overhead transmission lines and also between the wires of a telephone
cable. In these examples the capacitance is undesirable but has to be accepted, minimized or
compensated for. There are other situations where capacitance is a desirable property.

Devices specially constructed to possess capacitance are called capacitors (or condensers, as they
used to be called). In its simplest form a capacitor consists of two plates which are separated by an
insulating material known as a dielectric. A capacitor has the ability to store a quantity of static
electricity.

The symbols for a fixed capacitor and a variable capacitor used in electrical circuit diagrams are
shown below

The charge Q stored in a capacitor is given by:

Q = I ×t coulombs

where I is the current in amperes and t the time in seconds.

269
Example

(a) Determine the p.d. across a 4Μf capacitor when charged with 5mC. (b) Find the charge on a 50
pF capacitor when the voltage applied to it is 2kV

Dielectric material

270
For a parallel plate capacitor, as shown below. experiments show that capacitance C is proportional
to

the area A of a plate, inversely proportional to the plate spacing d (i.e., the dielectric thickness) and
depends on the nature of the dielectric:

Capacitance, C = ε0εrA
d farads
Where ε0 = 8.85×10−12F/m (constant)
εr = relative permittivity
A = area of one of the plates, in m2, and
d = thickness of dielectric in m

271
Another method used to increase the capacitance is to interleave several plates as shown in Fig.(b).

Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with a capacitance nine times that of one pair of
plates.

If such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance C ∝ (n−1). Thus capacitance

C = ε0εrA(n−1) farads
d
The maximum amount of field strength that a dielectric can withstand is called the dielectric
strength of the material. Dielectric strength,

Em = Vm

Types of Capacitors

1. Variable air capacitors. These usually consist of two sets of metal plates (such as aluminium),
one

fixed, the other variable. The set of moving plates rotate on a spindle as shown by the end view of

272
As the moving plates are rotated through half a revolution, the meshing, and therefore the
capacitance,

Varies from a minimum to a maximum value. Variable air capacitors are used in radio and
electronic circuits where very low losses are required, or where a variable capacitance is needed.
The maximum

Value of such capacitors is between 500Pf and 1000pF.

2. Mica capacitors. A typical older type construction is shown below

Usually, the whole capacitor is impregnated with wax and placed in a Bakelite case. Mica is easily

obtained in thin sheets and is a good insulator. However, mica is expensive and is not used in
capacitors above about 0.2μF. A modified form of mica capacitor is the silvered mica type. The
mica is coated on both sides with a thin layer of silver which forms the plates. Capacitance is
stable and less likely to change with age. Such capacitors have a constant capacitance with change
273
of temperature, a high working voltage rating and along service life and are used in high frequency
circuits with fixed values of capacitance up to about 1000pF.

3. Paper capacitors. A typical paper capacitor is shown in Fig. below where the length of the roll

Corresponds to the capacitance required.

The whole is usually impregnated with oil or wax to exclude moisture, and then placed in a plastic

or aluminium container for protection. Paper capacitors are made in various working voltages up to
about 150kV and are used where loss is not very important. The maximum value of this type of
capacitor is between 500pF and 10μF.Disadvantages of paper capacitors include variation in
capacitance with temperature change and a shorter service life than most other types of capacitor

274
5. Plastic capacitors. Some plastic materials such as polystyrene and Teflon can be used as
dielectrics.

Construction is similar to the paper capacitor, but using a plastic film instead of paper. Plastic
capacitors operate well under conditions of high temperature, provide a precise value of
capacitance,

a very long service life and high reliability

6. Titanium oxide capacitors have a very high capacitance with a small physical size when used
at a low temperature.

7. Electrolytic capacitors. Construction is similar to the paper capacitor, with aluminium foil used
for the

Plates and with a thick absorbent material, such as paper, impregnated with an electrolyte
(ammonium

borate) separating the plates. The finished capacitor is usually assembled in an aluminium
container

and hermetically sealed. Its operation depends on the formation of a thin aluminium oxide layer on
the

positive plate by electrolytic action when a suitable direct potential is maintained between the
plates.

This oxide layer is very thin and forms the dielectric. (The absorbent paper between the plates is a

conductor and does not act as a dielectric.) Such capacitors must always be used on d.c. and must

be connected with the correct polarity; if this is not done the capacitor will be destroyed since the
oxide

275
Closer are the lines of magnetic flux and vice versa. Thus, a magnetic field has the property of
exerting a force, demonstrated in this case by causing the iron filings to move into the pattern
shown. The strength of the magnetic field decreases as we move away from the magnet. It should
be realized, of course, that the magnetic field is three-dimensional in its effect, and not acting in
one plane as appears to be the case in this experiment. If a compass is placed in the magnetic field
in various positions, the direction of the lines of flux may be determined by noting the direction of
the compass pointer.

The direction of a magnetic field at any point is taken as that in which the north-seeking pole of a
compass needle points when suspended in the field. The direction of a line of flux is from the north
pole to the south pole on the outside of the magnet and is then assumed to continue through the
magnet back to the point at which it emerged at the north pole. Thus, such lines of flux always
form complete closed loops or paths, they never intersect and always have a definite direction.

The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion can be demonstrated by using two bar magnets. In
fig. below with unlike poles adjacent, attraction takes place

277
Lines of flux are imagined to contract and the magnets try to pull together. The magnetic field is
strongest in between the two magnets, shown by the lines of flux being close together. In Fig (b),
with similar poles adjacent (i.e. two north poles), repulsion occurs, i.e. the two north poles try to
push each other apart, since magnetic flux lines running side by side in the same direction repel.

7.3 Magnetic

Magnetic Flux and flux density

Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force) produced by
magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is Ф

The unit of magnetic flux is the weber∗, Wb.

Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is perpendicular to
the direction of the flux:

Magnetic flux density = magnetic flux

278
(iv) The way the turns are arranged – a short, thick coil of wire has a higher inductance than a
long, thin one.

Two examples of practical inductors are shown below and the standard electrical circuit diagram

Symbols for air-cored and iron-cored inductors.

An iron-cored inductor is often called a choke since, when used in a.c. circuits, it has a choking
effect, limiting the current flowing through it.Inductance is often undesirable in a circuit. To reduce

280
inductance to a minimum the wire may be bent back on itself, as shown below, so that the
magnetizing effect of one conductor is neutralized by that of the adjacent conductor. The wire may
be coiled around an insulator, as shown, without increasing the inductance. Standard resistors may
be non-inductively wound in this manner.

Example

A flux of 25mWb links with a1500 turn coil when a current of 3A passes through the coil.
Calculate

(a) The inductance of the coil,

(b) The energy stored in the magnetic field and

(c) The average e.m.f. induced if the current falls to zero in 150ms.

281
3.2.5.4 Learning Activities

1. Identified sources of Electrostatic fields as established procedures

2. identified dielectric materials as per the established standards
3. performed calculations involving capacitor parameters as per established standards
4. identified types of capacitors as per established standards
5. established concept of charge and electrostatic field as per established standards
6. performed Calculations involving capacitors as per established standards
7. identified concept of magnetic circuits as per established procedure

Parameters

• performed calculations involving inductors as per established procedures.

282
2.

3. Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force) produced by
magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is Ф

The unit of magnetic flux is the weber∗, Wb.

Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is perpendicular to
the direction of the flux:

Magnetic flux density = magnetic flux

Area

The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. The unit of magnetic flux density is the tesla∗, T, where

1 T = 1Wb/m2. Hence

B = Ф/A tesla where A (m2) is the area

4.

(i) The number of turns of wire – the more turns the higher the inductance
(ii) The cross-sectional area of the coil of wire – the greater the cross-sectional area the higher
the inductance

284
 (iii)The presence of a magnetic core – when the coil is wound on an iron core the same current
sets up a more concentrated magnetic field and the inductance is increased
(iv) The way the turns are arranged – a short, thick coil of wire has a higher inductance than a
long, thin one.

5. Types of capacitors

● Variable air capacitor

● Mica capacitor
● Paper capacitor
● Plastic capacitor
● Ceramic capacitor

285
CHAPTER 4: TECHNICAL DRAWING
Unit of learning code: ENG/CU/EI/CC/04/4/A.

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Prepare and interpret Technical Drawings.

4.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit covers the competencies required to prepare and interpret technical drawings. It involves
competencies to select, use and maintain drawing equipment and materials. It also involves
producing plain geometry drawings, solid geometry drawings, orthographic drawings of
components and Electrical drawings.

4.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Use and maintenance of drawing equipment and materials

2. Produce plane geometry drawings
3. Produce solid geometry drawings.
4. Produce and orthographic drawings
5. Produce Electrical drawings

286
Set of Scales

Scales are used to make drawing of the objects to proportionate size desired. These are made of

Wood, steel or plastic. BIS recommends eight set-scales in plastic/cardboard with designations.

French Cures

French curves are available in different shapes shown below. First a series of points are plotted
along

the desired path and then the most suitable curve is made along the edge of the curve. A flexible

curve consists of a lead bar inside rubber which bends conveniently to draw a smooth curve
through any set of points.

289
Templates

These are aids used for drawing small features such as circles, arcs, triangular, square and other

shapes and symbols used in various science and engineering fields.

290
Pencils

Pencils with leads of different degrees of hardness or grades are available in the market. The
hardness or softness of the lead is indicated by 3H, 2H, H, HB, B, 2B, 3B, etc. The grade HB
denotes medium hardness ofl ead used for general purpose. The hardness increases as the value of
the numeral before the letter H increases. The lead becomes softer, as the value of the numeral
before B increases.

HB- Soft grade for Border lines, lettering and free sketching

H- Medium grade for Visible outlines, visible edges and boundary lines

2H - Hard grade for construction lines, dimension lines, leader lines, extension lines, Centre lines,
hatching lines and hidden lines.

Proper care and maintenance.

291
It is essential to take proper care of the drafting tools, materials, and equipment. Below are some
tips to properly use and take care of them.

a) Avoid dropping your tools and equipment.

b) Never use measuring tools in cutting paper
c) Wipe off the surface and edges of triangles and T-squares.
d) Sharpen and store your pencils properly after use
e) Find or create and organizer where you can hang your measuring tools.
f) Have a separate container for making tools.
g) Keep your drawing sheets in a plastic tube to protect them from a dust and dirt.
h) Never lend or borrow drafting tools and materials if may.

4.2.1.4 Learning Activities

1. Identified and gathered drawing equipment according to task requirements.

2. Identified and gathered drawing materials according to task requirements
3. Used and maintained drawing equipment as per manufacturer's instructions
4. Used drawing materials as per Workplace procedures
5. Disposed waste materials in accordance with workplace procedures and environment
legislations.
6. Used personal protective equipment according to occupational safety and health regulation

4.2.1.5 Self-Assessment

1.3 Name and give uses of Five drawing instruments.

1.4 What are the proper care and maintenance of drawing instruments.

4.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

a. Drawing room

292
 b. Drawing instruments e.g., T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
c. Drawing tables
d. Pencils, papers, erasers
e. Masking tapes

4.2.1.7 References

K.Venkata Reddy Engineering Drawing 2nd Edition

S.K Bhattacharya Electrical Engineering Drawing 2nd Edition

Kenneth Morling Geometric and Engineering Drawing 3rd Edition.

4.2.1.8 Response for Self-assessment

i. Divider-used to equally divide a line or space by trials and error.

ii. Protractor-It is a semi-circular tool used to measure or layout angle/arc.
iii. Compass- draws large arcs and circles in pencil or pen point.
iv. T-square-guides in drawing parallel horizontal lines
v. French curve-it is used as a guide in drawing irregular curved lines.

a. Avoid dropping your tools and equipment

b. Never use measuring tools in cutting paper
c. Wipe off the surface and edges of triangles and T-squares.
d. Sharpen and store your pencils properly after use
e. Find or create and organizer where you can hang your measuring tools.

293
Types of lines.

• Continuous thick line

This line is used to display the outline and edges of the main drawing, does with a pencil soften
than HB.

• Continuous thin line

This line is basically used for dimension, extension, projection and leader line. A harder pencil
should be used, such as a 2H pencil.

• Continuous thin line free hand line

This line is used to show short break or irregular boundaries.

• Continuous thin zigzag line

This line is used to show long break.

• Dashed line

This line is used to shown hidden edges of the main object

• Chain thin line long dotted

This line is used to represent the centre line for circles and arcs

• Chain thin with thick ends

This line is used to represent the location of a cutting plane

• Long thin dashed and double short dashed lines

This line is located in front of cutting planes, outlines of adjacent parts, censorial lines, and to state
centre of gravity.

295
Types of Angles

To construct 600

To construct 900

296
To construct 300

To construct 450

297
To bisect an angle

298
4.2.2.4 Learning Activities

1. Identified different types of lines used in drawing and their meanings according to standard
drawing conventions Constructed different types of geometric forms according to standard
conventions
2. Constructed different types of angles according to principles of geometry
3. Measured different types of angles using appropriate measuring tools
4. Bisected angles according to standard conventions

4.2.2.5 Self-Assessment

1. Name any five types of lines

2. Bisect 300 angle
3. Construct a parallel line

4.2.2.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

● Drawing room
● Drawing instruments e.g., T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
● Drawing tables
● Pencils, papers, erasers
● Masking tapes

4.2.2.7 References

K.Venkata Reddy Engineering Drawing 2nd Edition

S.K Bhattacharya Electrical Engineering Drawing 2nd Edition

300
Kenneth Morling Geometric and Engineering Drawing 3rd Edition

4.2.2.8 Response to Self-Assessment

1. Types of lines

• Continuous thick line

• Continuous thin line

• Dashed line

• Chain thin line long dotted

• Chain thin with thick ends

2.

301
4.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Produce Solid Geometry Drawings

4.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To produce solid geometry drawings, one is required to understand; Interpretation of sketches and
drawings of patterns, Sectioning of solids and Development and interpenetrations of solids.

4.2.3.2 Performance Standard

1. Drawings of patterns are interpreted according to standard conventions

2. Patterns are developed in accordance with standard conventions
3. Patterns are assembled as per standard conventions
4. Pattern assembly is interpreted as per standard conventions.

4.2.3.3 Information Sheet

Prism

The prism below shows how a square prism is unfolded and its development obtained. Note that
where there are corners in the undeveloped solid, these are shown as dotted lines in the
development.

303
Cylinders

If you painted the curved surface of a cylinder and, while the paint was wet, placed the cylinder on
a flat surface and then rolled it once, the pattern that the paint left on the flat surface would be the
development of the curved surface of the cylinder.

Figure below shows the shape that would evolve if the cylinder was cut obliquely at one end. The
length of the development would be π D , the circumference. The oblique face has been divided
into 12 equal parts and numbered. You can see where each number will touch the flat surface as the
cylinder is rolled.

305
Pictorial view of the development of a cylinder.

Pyramids

Figure below shows how the development of a pyramid is found. If a pyramid is tipped over so
that it lies on one of its sides and is then rolled so that each of its sides touches in turn, the

306
development is traced out. The development is formed within a circle whose radius is equal to the
true length of one of the corners of the pyramid

To develop the sides of the frustum of a square pyramid

The true length of a corner of the pyramid can be seen in the FE. An arc is drawn, radius equal to
this true length, centre the apex of the pyramid. A second arc is drawn, radius equal to the distance
from the apex of the cone to the beginning of the frustum, centre the apex of the cone. The width
of one side of the pyramid, measured at the base, is measured on the plan and this is stepped round
the larger arc four times

307
Cones

Figure below shows how if a cone is tipped over and then rolled it will trace out its development.
The development forms a sector of a circle whose radius is equal to the slant height of the cone.
The length of the arc of the sector is equal to the circumference of the base of the cone. If the base
of the cone is divided into 12 equal sectors that are numbered from 1 to 12,

the points where the numbers touch the flat surface as the cone is rolled can be seen.

308
To develop the frustum of a cone.

The plan and elevation of the cone are shown below. The plan is divided into 12 equal sectors. The
arc shown as dimension A is 1/12 of the circumference of the base of the cone.

309
4.2.3.4 Learning Activities

• Interpreted drawings of patterns according to standard conventions

• Developed patterns in accordance with standard conventions

• Assembled patterns as per standard conventions

• Interpreted pattern assembly as per standard conventions.

4.2.3.5 Self-Assessment

1. Develop the frustum of a cone that has been cut oblique

2. Develop the sides of a hexagonal frustum if the top has been cut obliquely

4.2.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

● Drawing room
● Drawing instruments e.g., T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
● Drawing tables
● Pencils, papers, erasers
● Masking tapes

310
4.2.3.7 References

K.Venkata Reddy Engineering Drawing 2nd Edition

S.K Bhattacharya Electrical Engineering Drawing 2nd Edition

Kenneth Morling Geometric and Engineering Drawing 3rd Edition

4.2.3.8 Response to self-assessment

1.

311
4.2.5.2 Performance Standard

1. Symbols and abbreviations are identified and their meaning interpreted according to
standard drawing conventions
2. First and third angle orthographic drawings are produced and interpreted in accordance
with the standard conventions
3. Orthographic elevations are dimensioned in accordance with standard conventions
4. Isometric drawings are produced and interpreted in accordance with standard
conventions
5. Assembly drawing is produced and interpreted in line with the operating standards

4.2.5.3 Information Sheet

Engineering drawings are always drawn in orthographic projection. For the presentation of detailed
drawings, this system has been found to be far superior to all others. The system has, however, the
disadvantage of being very difficult to understand by people not trained in its usage. It is always
essential that an engineer be able to communicate his ideas to anybody, particularly people who are
not engineers, and it is therefore an advantage to be able to draw using a system of projection that
is more easily understood. There are many systems of projection and this book deals with three:
isometric, oblique and orthographic projections. Isometric and oblique projections present the
more pictorial view of an object.

An isometric drawing of a regular hexagonal prism.

313
Circles and Curves Drawn in Isometric Projection

All of the faces of a cube are square. If a cube is drawn in isometric projection, each square side
becomes a rhombus. If a circle is drawn on the face of a cube, the circle will change shape when
the cube is drawn in isometric projection. Figure below shows how to plot the new shape of the
circle.

314
The circle is first drawn as a plane figure, and is then divided into an even number of equal strips.
The face of the cube is then divided into the same number of equal strips. Centre lines are added
and the measurement from the centre line of the circle to the point where strip 1 crosses the circle
is transferred from the plane drawing to the isometric drawing with a pair of dividers. This
measurement is applied above and below the centre line. This process is repeated for strips 2, 3,
etc.

The points that have been plotted should then be carefully joined together with a neat freehand
curve.

Cylinder cut obliquely.

Figure below shows a cylinder cut at 45 °. Two views of the cylinder have to be drawn: a plan
view and an elevation. The plan view is divided into strips and the positions of these strips are
projected onto the elevation. The base of the cylinder is drawn in isometric projection in the usual
way. Points1 to 20, where the strips cross the circle, are projected vertically upwards and the height
of the cylinder, measured from the base with dividers is transferred for each point in turn from the

315
elevation to the isometric view. These points are then carefully joined together with a neat
freehand curve.

316
Third angle orthographic projection

Figure below shows the same shaped block drawn in third angle projection. First draw the view
obtained by looking along the arrow marked FE. This gives you the FE. Now look along the arrow
marked EE 1 (which points from the left) and draw what you see to the left of the FE. This gives
you an EE. Now look along the arrow marked EE 2 (which points from the right) and draw what
you see to the right of the FE. This gives you another EE. Now look down onto the block, along
the arrow marked ‘ plan ’ and draw what you see above the FE. This gives the plan and its exact
position is determined by drawing lines from one of the EE at 45 ° .Note that with third angle
projection, what you see from the left you draw on the left, what you see from the right you draw
on the right and what you see from above you draw above.

First angle orthographic projection

317
Figure below shows the same block drawn in first angle projection. Again, first draw the view
obtained by looking along the arrow marked FE. This gives the FE. Now look along the arrow
marked EE 1 (which points from the left) and draw what you see to the right of the FE. This gives
you an EE. Now look along the arrow marked EE 2 (which points from the right) and draw what
you see to the left of the FE. This gives you another EE. Now look down on the block, along the
arrow marked ‘ plan ’ and draw what you see below the FE. This gives the plan and its exact
position is determined by drawing lines from one of the EE at 45 °.

4.2.5.4 Learning Activities

1. Identified symbols and abbreviations and their meaning interpreted according to

standard drawing conventions
2. Produced first and third angle orthographic drawings and interpreted in accordance with
the standard conventions
3. Dimensioned orthographic elevations in accordance with standard conventions
4. Produced isometric drawings and interpreted in accordance with standard conventions
5. Produced and interpreted assembly drawing in line with the operating standards

318
 Kenneth Morling Geometric and Engineering Drawing 3rd Edition

4.2.5.8 Response to self-assessment

1.7

1.8

321
322
4.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Produce Electrical Drawings

4.2.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To Produce Electrical drawings, one is required to have knowledge on; Electrical symbols and
abbreviations, meaning of electrical drawings, drawing of electrical diagrams and Interpretation of
electrical drawings.

4.2.5.2 Performance Standard

1. Electrical symbols and abbreviations are identified and their meaning interpreted according
to BS 3939
2. Electrical diagrams and drawings are developed as per established standards
3. Electrical drawings are produced in accordance with BS 3939
4. Electrical drawings and diagrams are interpreted as per established standards

4.2.5.3 Information Sheet

Types of Electrical drawing

Many kinds of drawing are used in electrical engineering in order to record different categories of
information. Technicians and technician engineers may have to produce only some of these types
of drawing, but they will need to understand all of them, and be able to extract information from
them. Circuit diagrams show the way in which the components in an electrical or electronic system
are connected together. When reading or drawing circuit diagrams it is important to remember two
points.

323
(l) The symbol used to represent each component depends only on its function, and has no relation
to its shape, size or electrical rating. (2) The symbols are placed on the drawing to make the
diagram as clear and easy to follow as possible. Their position bears no relationship to the layout
of the components in the corresponding equipment. In view of the increase in international trade in
electrical apparatus it is important to adhere wherever possible to internationally standard methods
of drawing circuit diagrams. This is because much British equipment is exported all over the
world, and in particular electronic apparatus may be made in one country, sold in another, and
require servicing in a third. Unfortunately there is not complete uniformity in the component
symbols used in all countries but the various national standards are steadily being brought into
agreement with the international standards recommended by the International Electro-technic
Commission set up for this purpose. The British standard for symbols is BS 3939: Symbols for
electronics and electrical diagrams.

Symbols for connection and connectors

324
Symbols for resistors and capacitors.

325
326
DRAWING CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

328
Although some circuit diagrams are prepared as a re~rd of a particular product, the majority are in:
tended as working drawings. These will be used for manufacturing the equipment they describe,
commissioning, or maintaining it. The main purpose, then, of the drawing is to communicate to the
reader the details of the circuit and the way in which it functions. Consequently, when preparing
the diagram a very important factor is the clarity with which it shows the circuit's function. This
must be given priority over a symmetrical appearance or a uniform spacing of symbols through the
drawing. The following points help to make the drawing easy to read. (1) The main signal path
should run from left to right. Inmost electronic equipment one or more inputs and outputs can be
identified and this layout is easy to implement. It becomes more difficult with some electrical
drawings; and power-station diagrams, for example, are often drawn with the main busbars near
the top of the drawing and the various feeds in and out drawn at right angles, that is, vertically up
and down the diagram. (2) D.C. power supply lines should be drawn horizontal, the most positive
line being at the top of the page and the rest in order of their potential, the most negative being at
the bottom. Where only one supply line is used this is sometimes drawn above the earth line even
when negative to it. For a small diagram involving linear signals this procedure is acceptable,
although not always easy to follow

Transistor pulse amplifier

329
However, with pulse or digital circuits it becomes extremely confusing when fault-finding with an
oscilloscope. This is because oscilloscopes are always built so that a positive-going signal moves
the beam upwards. Thus in figure above, with no input signal the transistor base is at the same
potential (earth) as the emitter and so the collector current is very small and the collector rises to
the same potential as the supply line, + 10 V. A positive-going signal, if the resistors are properly
chosen, will drive the base into conduction and saturate the transistor, causing it to conduct fully so
that the collector voltage falls to near earth potential. The two waveforms show the signal which
would be observed on an oscilloscope connected to input and output. It is much easier to relate
these signals and their polarities if the positive line is at the top of the drawing, as shown, than if it
were drawn below the earth line. On many maintenance manuals for apparatus concerned with
pulse waveforms, for example television receivers and oscilloscopes, the wave forms to be
expected at key points in the circuit are shown by the inset drawings. These are always drawn with
a positive upwards convention to agree with the manner in which oscilloscopes deflect.

EXAMPLES OF CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Circuit diagram for a tape recorder Figure below shows a three-stage directly coupled amplifier
which forms the first section of the recording chain for a tape-recorder. Since there are no
inter-stage capacitors the stages are connected directly from collector to base and to simplify the
layout each transistor is drawn higher on the page than the previous one. As there is a single
amplifying signal path the input is on the left and the output on the right.

330
Circuit diagram for X-deflection amplifier of an oscilloscope

331
Figure above shows the X-deflection amplifier of an oscilloscope used for serv1cmg and
fault-finding. The signal path here is somewhat more complicated as the single sawtooth input
wave form must generate two push-pull output signals to drive the two X-deflection plates. The
circuit has a degree of symmetry and comprises two transistors in each half of a 'long-tailed pair'.
The two emitter electrodes ofTR2 and TR4 are coupled via R6 (preset) and R7 (the front panel
'X-gain' control). The two circuits R3, TRI, TR2, R4 and R9, TR3, TR4, RIO are identical and
therefore they are drawn side by the side between the + 80 V and - 40 V lines. In this drawing the
convention of positive supply line at the top and negative supply line at the bottom is followed

332
5.2.5.5 Self-Assessment

1. Name types of Electrical drawing

2. Draw the symbols for a complete semiconductor’s devices

1.2.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

● Drawing room
● Drawing instruments e.g. T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
● Drawing tables
● Pencils, papers, eraser
● Masking tapes

4.2.5.7 References

K.Venkata Reddy Engineering Drawing 2nd Edition

S.K Bhattacharya Electrical Engineering Drawing 2nd Edition

Kenneth Morling Geometric and Engineering Drawing 3rd Edition

4.2.5.8 Response for self-assessment

1. Mechanical drawing

Symbolic drawing

Graphic and charts

334
2

Symbols for complete semiconductors devices

335
CORE UNTS

336
CHAPTER 5: PERFORMING ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Unit of learning code ENG/CU/EI/CR/01/4

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Perform Electrical Installation

5.1 Introduction

This unit describes the competencies required to enable trainee be able to exhibit competency in
the application of health, safety and environmental standards, preparation of working drawings,
Assembly of tools, equipment, materials and drawing instruments, and performing electrical
installation

5.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1 Apply health, safety and environmental standards

2 Prepare working drawings
3 Assemble tools, equipment, materials and drawing instruments
4 Perform electrical installation

337
 PPE is defined as all equipment designed to be worn, or held, to protect against a risk to health and
safety. This includes most types of protective clothing, and equipment such as eye, foot and head
protection, safety harnesses, life jackets and high visibility clothing. Under the Health and Safety
at Work Act, employers must provide free of charge any PPE and employees must make full and
proper use of it.
Safety and work habits
Safety is the behavior undertaken to prevent injury to people and damage to machines and
equipment. Many people are injured or killed in electrical accidents due to ignorance or
carelessness. There are various safety/protective wear that needs to be used in a work environment
Figure 1 Protective wear

1. Safety helmet-Protects head from falling objects

2. Goggles-protects eyes from flying objects and
excessive light
3. Ear muffles-Protects ears from excessive sound.
4. Dust coat/Overall- Protects personal clothing from
dirt
5. Hand gloves- Protects hands from injury.
6. Safety boots- Protects feet from falling objects.

Safe working habits

1. Handling of tools and equipment

All tools and equipment should be handled with care. They should be handled individually. They
should NEVER be stacked as a pile.
2. Handling of heavy loads
Always ask for assistance. Carry heavy loads with the back upright.

339
 5. Cutting tools should be sharpened from time to time.
6. Tools that require oiling should be oiled as planned.
Safety rules and regulations
1. Do not run in the workshop, always walk.
2. Work from marked work places.
3. Do not work on live circuits.
4. Always ensure the circuit is checked for correct functioning before connecting it to power.
5. Do not entertain horse play in the working area.
6. Clean the work area after the job is done.
7. All slippery floors should be cleaned/wiped.
8. Conceal all bare conductors.
9. When working with a ladder ensure it is properly supported.
10. Clear all pathways of any obstructions.

Dangers of electricity
1. Electric Shock
Electric shock is the passage of electricity in the human body. This can be due to getting in
contact with live wires. When a person gets into contact with a live wire and gets an electric
shock, the following steps should be followed to save the victim:
i. Use a dry insulator to remove the victim from electrical contact.
ii. Take the victim away from the place where the shock occurred.
iii. If the victim has stopped breathing lay he/she flat on the ground then apply first aid by
KISS OF LIFE method of artificial respiration as follows.
iv. Call for medical help

16
Figure 3 Kiss of life position

Steps of Kiss of life

1. Place a support below the neck and loosen the clothing.
2. Clear all air passages.
3. Pinch the nose and breathe into victim’s mouth until the chest rises.
4. Release the nose and let the air rush out.
5. Continue with this process until the victim breathes normally.
6. Take the victim to hospital for further medical checkup.
2. Electrical fire

Electrical fires can be caused by short circuits or loose connections. These fires cannot be put off
by water because water is a good conductor of electricity. The fire extinguisher used in case of
electrical fires include: carbon dioxide, dry sand, fire blanket, foam and dry powder. In the event of
the fire, raise alarm, switch OFF the circuit and use the correct fire extinguisher to put it off. In
case the fire is out of control use a designated exit route and escape. Always know the position of
fire extinguishers in the workshop. Read the instruction on how they are operated and use them on
the appropriate fires. Always know the position of emergency switches and use them in case of any
danger in the workshop.

17
Classes of Fire

1. Class A: Fires that involve solid flammables and dusts, such as wood, plastics, paper and
cardboard, fabric and textiles, and dusts such as grain dust and flour.
2. Class B: Fires that involve flammable liquids, such as gasoline, petroleum oil, paint, or diesel.
3. Class C: Fires that involve flammable gases, such as propane, butane, or methane.
4. Class D: Fires that involve combustible metals, such as magnesium, lithium, sodium,
potassium, titanium, or Aluminium.
5. Class F: Fires that involve cooking oils and fats, such as vegetable oil, sunflower oil, olive oil,
maize oil, lard, or butter (typically those used for deep-fat fryers).
6. Class E: These are electrical fires that involve live equipment and electrical sources

Types of fire extinguishers

1. Water Extinguishers

Water extinguishers are only suitable for class A fires, which means they
can fight fires that involve wood, cardboard, paper, plastics, fabric and
textiles, and other solid materials. Do not use water extinguishers on
burning fat and oil fires and electrical appliances.

18
 2. Dry water mist

These types of fire extinguishers will be solid red and will have the
words ‘water mist’ printed within a white rectangle. Dry water mist
extinguishers are unique in that they can extinguish almost all types of
fires

3. Foam Extinguishers

Foam extinguishers are identifiable by the word ‘foam’ printed within a cream
rectangle on their bodies. They are primarily water based but contain a
foaming agent, which has rapid flame knock-down and a blanketing effect. It
smothers the flames and seals vapour so that re-ignition cannot occur. They
are suitable for fighting class A and B fires. Warning: these should not be
used on any other fire classes, especially electrical fires.

4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers

These types of extinguishers can be identified by the text ‘carbon dioxide’

or ‘𝐶𝑂2‘printed in white on a black rectangle. They also have a distinct type

18
of hose. Carbon dioxide extinguishers are used for fighting class B and electrical fires – they
suffocate the fire by displacing oxygen in the air. They must never be used on hot cooking oil and fat
(class F) fires.

5. Wet Chemical Extinguishers

These types of fire extinguishers are identifiable by the words ‘wet

chemical’ printed across a yellow rectangle. It also has an extended hose
that you can hold and point at a given direction, which is useful when
fighting fires on a kitchen top. Wet chemical extinguishers are used for
fighting class F fires

First aid kit

First aid is the first treatment given to an accident victim before regular medical treatment is
obtained. It is important for one to familiarize oneself with basic first aid skills. The first aid kit is
a collection of supplies and equipment. The basic contents of the first aid kit includes; a pair of
scissors, pain killers, surgical spirits, eye drops, cotton wool, adhesive plasters, roller bandages,
petroleum jelly and sterilized dressings for use in giving first aid. All workshops should have a
first aid kit. It can be used to address cuts, burns and even breakage of bones.

2
Figure 4 First aid box

Holger-Nielsen method
Steps
1. Lay the casualty in a prone position on a flat surface.
2. Place the casualty’s hands one over the other under his forehead
3. The hand must be turned slightly on one side.
4. Nose and mouth must be unobstructed.
5. Place one knee with its inner side in line with the casualty’s cheek, a few inches from the
top of his head.
6. Place the other foot with the heel in line with the casualty’s elbow.
7. Place your hands on the casualty’s back on the lower part of the shoulders back, fingers
pointing at casualty’s feet.
8. Keeping the arms straight, rock forward gently until arms are vertical. The movement takes
seconds counting “one, two”. This pressure causes expiration
9. Then rock back counting, “three” for one second, and slide your hand past the casualty’s
shoulder until you can grab his upper arms near the elbows.
10. Rise and pull the arms until tension is felt for two seconds counting “four, five”.
11. Do not raise chest from ground. This movement causes inspiration.
12. Your hands should remain straight, count “six” for one second

20
Safety signs
Safety signs must be displayed in appropriate places where they are easily seen. Examples of
safety signs which MUST be clearly displayed and strictly observed are

5.2.1.4 Learning activities

Field/Visit to Kenya Red Cross Office

Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To establish first aid methods - Methods used for -Observe keenly methods of
resuscitation resuscitation
- First aid kits contents -Observe keenly contents of
first aid kit
-Take notes

21
Practical assignment
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To establish firefighting - Fire extinguishers types Participate in safety drills
techniques - Types of fire

5.2.1.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the dangers of electricity?
2. Explain the steps to be followed when rescuing a non-conscious victim of an electric shock
3. Name ANY FOUR types of fire extinguishers.
4. Explain why it is important to wear the following protective clothing in a work
environment:
i. Helmet
ii. Gloves
iii. Goggles
iv. Safety boots
v. Dust coat

5.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

The following resources are provided

i. An electrical installation company
ii. A functional Safety department.
iii. Computers
iv. Stationery
v. Lecture room
vi. Workshop
vii. Projector

21
 viii. Drawing equipment
ix. Workshop
x. Protective clothing

5.2.1.7 References
Donnely. (1980). Electrical Installation theory and practice.
Hyde. (1994). Electrical Installation Principles and practice.
ngari, c. k. (2019). electrical installations for artisan level 2. kenya literature bureau.
John Bird, (2007). Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology,
https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/2019-03/electrical_safety_manual.pdf
https://safetyculture.com/topics/electrical-hazards/

22
 5.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Prepare Working Drawings

5.2.2.1 Introduction

To prepare working drawings successfully, one requires the ability to read and interpret drawings
correctly to determine job requirements.

5.2.2.2 Performance Standard.

5.2.2.3 Information Sheet

Drawing Equipment and Materials

1. Equipment

S/ Types drawing equipment Application Recommended care

N
1. T-squares 1. T-squares are used to draw 1. Clean regularly
straight horizontal lines. 2. Tighten screws at
2. The head of the square, the cross joint to avoid
member, is placed along the left non-parallel lines
edge or the top of the drafting 3. Keep free from
table, while the square’s blade is wet areas or any
laid across the table’s top, over other liquids
the drawing paper.
3. The drafter slides the square up,
down or across on the table top,
as required by a design, always
keeping the flat side of the square
flush with the table top’s edge.
This action keeps the square’s
blade parallel to the table top’s
edges.

23
2. Set squares 1. There are 30/60, 45/90, & 4. Clean regularly
adjustable set squares for drawing 5. Tighten screws at
perpendicular and angled lines joints to avoid
2. The adjustable set square enables wrong angles (for
you to set the angle on the set adjustable set
square to anywhere between 0 ° squares)
and 90 °. 6. Keep free from
3. If you have an adjustable set wet areas or any
square you can manage without other liquids
the other two.
3. Drawing sets/ compass Compasses are drawing instruments 1. Clean regularly
that are primarily used to perform the 2. Tighten screws at
following tasks in geometry: joints to avoid
i. To draw a circle around a inaccuracies
point. 3. Keep free from
ii. To transfer distances wet areas or any
precisely. other liquids to
avoid corrosion
4. Drawing boards 1. They are used to draw parallel 1. Clean regularly
lines easily and precisely 2. Keep free from
2. The rulers/ Tee squares are used wet areas or any
to precisely determine straight other liquids to
lines and angles and are avoid corrosion
individually adjustable.
3. Technical drawing boards are
available in A4, A3, A2, A1 and
A0 size which are designed for
the corresponding paper formats.

24
5. Ruler
It’s used to measure dimensions and Clean regularly
draw straight lines

6. Rulers and scale rules 1. A scale rule is a scaled,

three-edged ruler which has six
different scales marked to its
sides. A typical combination for
building details is 1:20, 1:50, Clean regularly
1:100, 1:25, 1:75 and 1:125.
2. Today scale rulers are made of
plastic, formerly they were made
of hardwood.

2. Materials
S/N Drawing materials Uses and care Recommended
care
1. Pencils A pencil is an implement for
writing or drawing,

Most pencil cores are made of

1. Sharpen
graphite powder mixed with a clay
regularly.
binder. Graphite pencils
2. Keep away from
(traditionally known as 'lead
moist.
pencils') produce grey or black
marks that are easily erased.

B grade means the core has more

graphite, and will make a bolder,

25
 darker line, and also be a little
smudgier than a light pencil.

H grade means the core has more

clay, and will make a lighter, finer
line, and will be less smudgy than a
dark pencil.

You will need a selection of pencils.

A hard leaded pencil (3H) can be
used for light lines, a softer pencil
(H) for the outlines and an even
softer pencil (HB) for printing.
(More than one pencil of each grade
will save you from frequent
re-sharpening.)

2. Erasers
They are used to erase pencil marks
and lines. They assist in error
correction and maintaining neat
Keep clean
work.
Choose a good quality rubber, one
that does not smudge.
1. Clean regularly
2. Keep free from wet areas
3. Sharpeners

1. Sharpening of lead of 1. Avoid breakage

pencils 2. Keep clean
2. Keep free from wet areas

26
4. Drawing Paper Drawing paper sizes
1. Keep free from
The British Standard BS8888
wet areas
recommends that for normal
2. Package paper
practical purposes the area of the
in enclosed
largest sheet is one square meter and
covers to protect
the sides are in the ratio of 1:√2.
them from
The dimensions of the sheet are 841
direct sunlight
mm × 1189 mm.
3. Keep clean

5.

The best tape to use to hold paper

Keep away from
on the drawing board is masking
Masking tape moist
tape but metal drawing board clips
are easier to use.

Title block

The title block of a drawing, usually located on the bottom or lower right-hand corner, contains all
the information necessary to identify the drawing and to verify its validity. A title block is divided
into several areas as illustrated below.

The title block should lie within the drawing space such that, the location of it, containing the
identification of the drawing, is at the bottom right hand corner. This must be followed, both for
sheets positioned horizontally or vertically

The direction of viewing of the title block should correspond in general with that of the drawing.
The title block can have a maximum length of 170 mm although this may vary from type of
drawing to another

27
 Types of electrical drawings
1. Architectural drawings
These are drawings showing the building layout during its construction, the drawings consists of
i. Floor plan
ii. End and Front elevations
iii. Structural
The floor plans greatly assists the electrician to design the wiring systems. The legend and
additional information in the plans will also aid the electrician in knowing other useful
information like the floor finish, height and type of the ceiling e.t.c
2. Layout diagram
This is a diagram of a system showing the actual placement components including dimensions
from one component to the other.
3. Circuit diagram
This is a simplified conventional graphical representation of an electrical circuit. In a circuit
diagram, the arrangement of the components interconnections on the diagram does not
correspond to their physical locations in the finished device
4. Line diagram

28
 This is a one-line diagram or single-line diagram is a simplified notation for representing an
electrical system. The one-line diagram is similar to a block diagram except that electrical
elements such as switches, circuit breakers, transformers, and capacitors are shown by
standardized schematic symbols.
5. Pictorial diagram
This is a diagram that represents the elements of a system using abstract, graphic drawings or
realistic pictures.
6. Schematic diagram
This is a diagram that uses lines to represent the wires and symbols to represent components. It
is used to show how the circuit functions.
7. Wiring diagram (or pictorial)
This is a simplified conventional pictorial representation of an electrical circuit. It shows the
components of the circuit as simplified shapes, and how to make the connections between the
devices. A wiring diagram usually gives more information about the relative position and
arrangement of devices and terminals on the devices.

29
 Electrical Symbols
S/N Symbol Description S/N Symbol Description
1. One way, 1 gang 13. Consumer control
switch unit
2. One way, 2 gang 14. Distribution board
switch
3. One way, 3 gang 15. Indicator board
switch
4. Two way, 1 gang 16. Electric bell
switch
5. Two way, 2 gang 17. Buzzer
switch
6. Two way, 3 gang 18. Siren
switch
7. 19.
Cord operated switch Bell push

8. 20. Unswitched single

Intermediate switch socket outlet
9. Lighting switch 21. Switched single
socket outlet
10. Wall mounted switch 22. Unswitched Twin
socket outlet
11. Single Fluorescent 23. Switched Twin
fitting socket outlet
12. Twin Fluorescent 24. Bell transformer
fitting

8. Architectural Floor plan

30
The electrician uses the plan to come up with the following drawings:
i. Lighting scheme and its switching arrangement
ii. Power points and circuiting including call and alarms circuits
iii. Conduit runs, trunking systems and number of cables
iv. Single line diagram showing the system protection devices and load balance

Figure 5 Floor plan of a residential building

31
Figure 8 Call and alarm circuit layout diagram

Wiring diagram
This shows the exact cable runs for the electrical installation work to be carried out. It is an
interpretation of the layout diagram. Figure 9 is a wiring diagram of layout diagram of figure 7.
Note the interpretation of the various symbols.

Figure 9 Wiring diagram of figure 7

33
Figure 10 Wiring diagram for figure 8

5.2.2.4 Learning activities

Field/Visit to an electrical installation company
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To establish correct - Drawing instruments types -Observe keenly types of
preparation of working - Types of electrical drawings instruments
drawings - Observe keenly types of
drawings used.
-take notes

Practical assignment
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction

34
To establish correct - Drawing instruments types To participate in working
preparation of working - Types of electrical drawings drawings preparation
drawings

5.2.2.5 Self-Assessment
1. What is the difference between a layout and wiring diagram?
2. Name any two grading of drawing pencils
3. Sketch a combination pliers using free hand
4. Which of the following is not used in preparation of electrical working drawings?
A. Pliers
B. Pencil
C. Ruler
D. T-square

5. Given the floor plan of a residential building, design the lighting scheme and its switching
arrangement.

35
 5. Fill in the following table below

S/N Symbol Description

1.

2.
Siren
3.

4. Two way, 2 gang switch

5. Buzzer

6.

7.
Intermediate switch
8.

9. Consumer control unit

10. Twin Fluorescent fitting

5.2.2.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

The following resources are provided
i. An electrical installation company
ii. A functional Safety department.
iii. Computers

36
 iv. Stationery
v. Lecture room
vi. Workshop
vii. Projector
viii. Drawing equipment
ix. Drawing room

5.2.2.7 References
Donnely. (1980). Electrical Installation theory and practice.
Hyde. (1994). Electrical Installation Principles and practice.
ngari, c. k. (2019). electrical installations for artisan level 2. kenya literature bureau.
John Bird, (2007). Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology,
https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/2019-03/electrical_safety_manual.pdf
https://safetyculture.com/topics/electrical-hazards/

37
5.2.3 Learning outcome 3: Prepare Tools, Equipment & Materials

5.2.3.1 Introduction
To prepare tools, equipment and materials successfully, one requires to have knowledge in electrical
installation tools, equipment and materials, calibration of instruments, care and maintenance of
instruments.

5.2.3.2 Performance Standard

5.2.3.3 Information Sheet

Electrical installation tools, equipment and their use

Hammers

These are tools used in driving or pounding out nails they are made of hard steel,
wood, plastic or rubber.

Bending spring

This is a tool used for bending PVC conduits

Stock and die

This is a tool used for making threads on metallic conduits

Side cutter

This is a tool used for medium and big cables.

38
 Combination Pliers

These are made of metal with insulated handles. They are used for
cutting, twisting, bending, holding and gripping wires and cables

Screw driver

It has a cross/flat tip and is used to drive screws with cross/straight

slot heads.

Long nose pliers

This is used for cutting and holding wires. It made to reach tight space and
or small opening where other pliers cannot reach. It is also used in making
terminal loops of copper wires.
Wire stripper

A tool used for removing insulation from insulated cables.

Hacksaw

This is a tool used to cut metal conduit and armoured cable

Measuring tools

17
 To measure wire length and other items, the electrician
finds considerable use for measuring tools such as the
extension or zigzag rule, push-pull rule and a steel tape

Soldering equipment

In doing electric wiring, splices and taps (connections made to wire) should
be soldered, unless you use solderless connectors.

Drilling equipment

Drilling equipment is needed to make holes in building structure passages

of conduit sand wires

Ladders

The term ladder is generally taken to include step ladders and trestles.
The use of ladders for working above ground level is only acceptable
for access and work of short duration. It is advisable to inspect the
ladder before climbing it. It should be straight and firm. All rungs and
tie rods should be in position and there should be no cracks in the stiles. The ladder should not be
painted since the paint may be hiding defects. Extension ladders should be erected in the closed
position and extended one section at a time. Each section should overlap by at least the number of
rungs indicated below:
1. Ladders of up to 4.8 m length – 2 rungs overlap
2. Ladders of up to 6.0 m length – 3 rungs overlap

17
3. Ladder over 6.0 m length – 4 rungs overlap

Draw wire/Fish tape

This is a tool used for drawing cables in conduits

Electrical instrument checking and calibration

A digital Multimeter is used to measure voltage, current and resistance and can be used to measure
electrical continuity in a circuit. There are two types of Multimeter: digital and analogue.
Multimeter should be calibrated or adjusted to a known zero-value prior to use for accurate
readings.

Calibration of Multimeter
Electrical calibration refers to the process of verifying the performance of, or adjusting, any
instrument that measures or tests electrical parameters to maintain their accuracy. Electrical
calibration involves the use of precise devices that evaluate the performance of key properties for
other devices called units under test (UUTs).
Equipment that are not calibrated can result in the wrong decision being made which has the
potential for further damage to what the instrument was to be used for.
The fragile electronics within Multimeter are protected by a hard casing, which means they can
usually be stored in a toolbox. Multimeter do not require any deep cleaning - just wipe them down
with a damp (not wet) cloth, every now and then. Ensure your devices are fully functioning before
each use. Change batteries and fuses when necessary and consider removing the batteries if the
meter will not be used for an extended period of time.Many people do a field comparison check of
two meters, and call them "calibrated" if they give the same reading. This isn't calibration. It's
simply a field check. It can show you if there's a problem, but it can't show you which meter is
right. If both meters are out of calibration by the same amount and in the same direction, it won't
show you anything. Calibration typically requires a standard that has at least 10 times the accuracy

18
of the instrument under test. Calibration, in its purest sense, is the comparison of an instrument to a
known standard.
Two instruments, A and B, measure 100 V within 1 %. At 480 V, both are within tolerance. At 100
V input, A reads 99.1 V and B reads 100.9 V. But if you use B as your standard, A will appear to
be out of tolerance. However, if B is accurate to 0.1 %, then the most B will read at 100 V is 100.1
V. Now if you compare A to B, A is in tolerance. You can also see that A is at the low end of the
tolerance range. Modifying A to bring that reading up will presumably keep A from giving a false
reading as it experiences normal drift between calibrations.

Why Multimeter is calibrated

A digital Multimeter is one of the most commonly used pieces of test and measurement
instrumentation. Quality processes depend on its continual proper operation. However, time,
environment, and physical use (or abuses) change a digital multimeter’s characteristics. That’s why
it’s important to periodically calibrate or verify the performance of a digital multimeter.
A multimeter should be calibrated or adjusted to a known zero-value prior to use for accurate
readings.

How to calibrate a digital multimeter

1. Set the multimeter to the highest resistance range by turning the dial to the highest "ohm"
setting.
2. Touch the test probes of your digital multimeter together.
3. Press the calibration knob until the display reads "0" on the digital multimeter if you don't
see "0 ohms" initially.
Calibration may be required for the following reasons:
a) a new instrument
b) after an instrument has been repaired or modified
c) when a specified time period has elapsed
d) when a specified usage (operating hours) has elapsed
e) before and/or after a critical measurement
f) after an event, for example:

38
 i. after an instrument has been exposed to a shock, vibration, or physical damage,
which might potentially have compromised the integrity of its calibration
ii. sudden changes in weather
g) whenever observations appear questionable or instrument indications do not match the
output of surrogate instruments
h) As specified by a requirement, e.g., customer specification, instrument manufacturer
recommendation.

How to take care of your tools

Good tools can be quite an investment but only if you take good care of them, they'll return the
favour. Keeping your tools properly stored, cleaned, and maintained will save you time and money
and make your DIY endeavours that much more rewarding.
In keeping the tools and equipment, you need to work with the space you have. Maybe you hang
them on pegboards, maybe you store them in boxes, bags, or chests, or maybe you keep them in
drawers or on shelves in your shop. Whatever works for you is best.
Toolboxes also make for great tool storage, offering the primary advantage of portability. While
some people opt to store all their tools in toolboxes, for most, the toolbox is a way of carrying
around your most-used tools while leaving the bulk safely stored on pegboards, shelves, or
drawers.

Basic maintenance of electric tools

To ensure that your electric tools work properly, you must take proper care of them. A good
regimen of maintenance for your tools is one thing that you can do to make sure that the tool you
need is working when you need it.
a) Clean out the dust: To make sure that your electric tools are ready for use, keep them
clean and free of dust. The housing intake on your electric tools and the exhaust are
especially important areas to keep clean. Take some time to clean out the dust every once
in a while on your tools while they are sitting in storage.
b) Check the cords: Look for wear and tear on the power cords on your electric tools. There
can be damage to the insulation and you should keep an eye out for loose wires. This will

39
 ensure that your electric tool can get the power that it needs to function without an
accident. Wipe the cords down to keep them from becoming damaged from oil and grease.
The prongs on the cords should be examined as well. Make sure that the casing is intact
and the prongs are not loose.
c) Oil some electric tools: The electric tools in your toolbox that have a cutting surface
should be lightly oiled to prevent rust. Examine the cutting surface for rust to make sure
that your tools are kept in good condition.
d) Storing your tools: Keep your electric tools stored in their original cases and containers.
This will keep them free of dust and dirt while they are not being used.
PROPER STORAGE OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
The proper care and storage of tools and equipment are not only the concern of the
management but of the workers who use the equipment.
Importance of proper storage of tools and equipment
1. It is an important factor for safety and health as well as good business.
2. Improves appearance of general-shop and construction areas.
3. Reduces overall tool cost through maintenance.
4. This also ensures that tools are in good repair at hand.
5. Teaches workers principles of (tool) accountability.
Pointers to follow in storing tools and equipment:
1. Have a designated place for each kind of tools.
2. Label the storage cabinet or place correctly for immediate finding.
3. Store them near the point of use.
4. Wash and dry properly before storing.
5. Store knives properly when not in use with sharp edge down.
6. Put frequently used items in conveniently accessible locations.
7. Gather and secure electrical cords to prevent entanglement or snagging.
8. Cutting boards should be stored vertically to avoid moisture collection.
9. Metal equipment can be stacked on one another after drying such as storage dishes and
bowls.

40
10. Make sure the areas where you are storing the equipment are clean, dry and not
overcrowded.

Tool Box for Storing Tools

For keeping tools safe, secure, and organized one can use portable and stationary toolboxes, rolling
toolboxes, truck-mounted tool chests, and workbench/toolbox hybrids.

1. Rolling Toolboxes

Rolling toolboxes are larger for storing more tools, but they aren’t portable outside of your work
area. These are usually tall, upright storage containers with wheels on the bottom. They’ll have
large drawers for large tools, and smaller drawers on top for smaller tools.

2. Portable Toolboxes

Portable toolboxes are what most people think of when they think of tool storage. These boxes are
rectangular, open with a metal clasp or lock, and have a handle for carrying from one job to
another job. Most are made of heavy-duty plastic, metal, or canvas and have various compartments
tucked inside for storing the most common tools. They’re ideal for storing and transporting small,
hand-held tools like pliers, hammers, pliers, and screwdrivers.

3. Truck-Mounted Toolboxes

For large tools which are needed to be taken to job sites or projects, a truck-mounted toolbox is the
right storage. These are usually made of steel or some other type of indestructible metal, and are
mounted and bolted to the bed of a truck. The lid will lock so the tools remain secure. This type of
toolbox is best for storing and transporting large tools ladders

4. Stationary Toolboxes

Stationary toolboxes can hold a lot of tools, help keep them dry and secure, and organize your
work area. These will usually have wheels, but they’re only meant for initial placement of the tool
chest.

41
5.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Perform Electrical Installation

5.2.4.1 Introduction
To apply and adhere to safety successfully, one requires the ability to understand causes of
accidents and sources of danger, apply good housekeeping and apply first aid where necessary.

5.2.4.2 Performance Standard

5.2.4.3 Information Sheet

Meaning of terms
Circuit- an electric circuit is an arrangement of electrical conductors and associated devices for the
purpose of carrying electricity.
Live conductor- It is that conductor which carry current towards the appliance from the source.
Live- means that under working condition a difference in voltage exists between the conductor and
earth.
Neutral conductor- The conductor which carries current from the appliances to the source.
Earth- This is the conductive mass of the earth whose electric potential at any point is electrically
taken to be zero.
Earth conductor- The conductor that has the same potential with the earth.
Phase conductor-A conductor of an AC system for the transmission of electrical energy other than
a neutral.
Potential- The level of electric pressure.
Dead- At or about earth potential zero and disconnected from any live system.
Fuse- A device for opening a circuit by means of a fuse element designed to melt when excess
current flows.
Insulation- suitable non-conducting material enclosing or surrounding or supporting a conductor.
Switch- A mechanical device for making and breaking non-automatically a circuit carrying current.
Consumer intake point-This is the point where the electricity power supplier terminates the service
line to the consumer’s premises. It is commonly known as a meter box or power house.

Conductor
44
A conductor is a material which offers a low resistance to a flow of electric current.
Conductors for everyday use must
a) Have low electrical resistance
b) Be mechanically strong and flexible
c) Be relatively cheap.
Silver is a better conductor than copper but it is too expensive for practical purposes. Other
examples of conductors are aluminium, brass, and iron.

Types of Conductors

The most common electrical conductors used are copper and aluminium. Copper conductors are
formed from a block of copper which is cold-drawn through a set of dies until the desired cross-
sectional area is obtained. Aluminium wire is also drawn from a solid block

Characteristics of Aluminium and Copper as Conductors

Aluminium Copper

Smaller weight for similar resistance and Can easily be drawn into wires
current-carrying capacity

Easier to machine Has better electrical and thermal

conductivity

Greater current density because of larger Has greater mechanical strength

surface

High resistivity (2.845µΩ-cm) Is corrosion resistant

Light in weight Has high scrap value

Easy to joint

Lower resistivity (1.78 µΩ-cm)

45
This is cable which is made up of two or more insulated conductors. Multi-core cable is sheathed in
a protective covering— for example, tough rubber for tough rubber-sheathed cables (t.r.s.) and
p.v.c. for plastic cables.
Tough-Rubber-Sheathed (t.r.s.) Cable.
This is made of specially toughened rubber which is resistant to acids and alkalies.
Polychloroprene (p.c.p. or neoprene) Cable.
Uses an insulation somewhat similar to that of t.r.s. but capable of withstanding most weather
conditions and particularly direct sunlight.
Heat-resisting, Oil-resisting and Flame-retardant (h.o.f.r.) Cables.
These cables are used in conditions damaging to P.V.C. cables such as high temperature and oil.
The resistant qualities are developed by a vulcansing (or curing) process which forms an elastomer
capable of withstanding tough conditions and still retaining its flexibility.

COMPARISON OF T.R.S. AND P.V.C. CABLE

t.r.s. Cable p.v.c. Cable
Affected by oil and water Largely unaffected by oil, water, and corrosive
chemicals
More flexible Hardens at low temperatures and softens at high
temperatures
Must be protected against direct Does not support combustion
sunlight

The maximum operating temperature for both rubber PVC insulated cables is 45°C.

Flexible cable
The I.E.E. Regulations define a flexible cable as: "A cable consisting of one or more cores, each
containing a group of wires, the diameters of the wires and the construction of the cable being
such as to afford flexibility."
Flexible cord
A flexible cord is defined as: "A flexible cable in which the cross-sectional area of each
conductor does not exceed 4 mm2".
Twisted Twin Flex Cable

47
This is made up of a multi-strand tinned-copper conductor with silicon rubber insulation.
Application: lighting flex.

Figure 12 Twisted twin flex.

Circular Flex. The rubber-insulated cores are formed into a circular section with cotton worming
and contained in a cotton braiding.
Applications: connections to household appliances (iron boxes, kettles, etc.)
Circular Flex, Rubber Sheathed
This flex is also packed with jute or cotton to form a circular cross-section but an outer sheath of
rubber replaces the cotton braiding.
Applications: vacuum cleaner and portable drill leads (3-core).

Figure 13 Circular flex, rubber sheathed.

Workshop (or Industrial) Flex

This flex is similar in construction to the above, but has the addition of a compounded braiding.
Application: connections to industrial lighting.

Figure 14 Workshop (or industrial) flex.

Permissible Voltage Drop in Cable.

Voltage drop is an essential feature in the calculation of cable size. Low voltage at the consumer’s
equipment leads to the inefficient operation of lighting, power equipment, and heating appliances.

48
The maximum voltage drop allowed between the consumer’s terminals and any point in the
installation is 2-5 per cent of the voltage supplied by the Electricity Supply Authority, including
motor circuits.

Voltage Drop and the I.E.E. Tables.

The I.E.E. tables state the voltage drop across a section of cable when maximum current is
flowing through it. If the current is halved, the voltage drop will also be halved. For example a 4
mm2 twin-core cable has a current rating of 24A and a-voltage drop 10 mV per ampere per meter.
If the current is halved (to 12 A) the voltage drop will be halved to 5 mV per ampere per meter.
Cable Sizes: Use of I.E.E. Tables
The I.E.E. Regulations contain comprehensive information regarding the current-carrying
capacity of cables under certain conditions.
These tables supply:
(a) Cross-sectional area, number, and diameter of conductors;
(b) Type of insulation;
(c) Length of run for 1V drop;
(d) Current rating (a.c. and d.c.), for either single or bunched.
The following terms are used in the I.E.E. tables:
(a) Ambient temperature
(b) Rating factor.
Ambient Temperature. This is the temperature of the air surrounding the conductor. The current
rating of a cable is decreased as the temperature of the surrounding air increases, and this changed
current-carrying capacity can be calculated by using the relevant rating factor.
Rating Factor.
This is a number, without units, which is multiplied with the current to find the new
current-carrying capacity as the operating conditions of the cable change. For example, a
twin-core 10 mm2 (7/1.35 mm) PVC cable will carry a maximum current of 40 A at an ambient
temperature of 25 °C, but if the ambient temperature is increased to 65 °C the maximum current
allowed will now be:

49
There are two basic methods of joining electrical conductors: (a) mechanical joints; and (b)
soldered joints.
Mechanical Jointing.
This is done by using connector blocks. These consist of one-way or multi-way brass terminal
blocks enshrouded with porcelain or plastic insulation. The connector must be capable of
containing all the strands of the conductor.
Another method, usually used with larger cables, is mechanical crimping. This is done by placing
a sleeve over the conductors to be jointed and crimping (squeezing) the connection with a manual
or hydraulically operated crimping jack.
Soldered Joints.
Materials required: pliers, sharp knife, soldering bit, flux, blowlamp (or butane gas cylinder),
solder, PVC. tape and black insulating tape.
Soldering Bit. Every joint which is made by twisting strands together must be soldered. Where a
lot of single-core jointing is being carried out, it is often convenient to use a heavy bit which has a
slot filed in it to take cables. The soldering bit should be heated until a green flame appears and
must always be kept clean. Always' tin' the bit with flux and solder before using. Flux. The
purpose of the flux is to remove the oxide film from the surface of the conductor and prevent it
from re-forming.
Blowlamp. This should be operated as follows:

1. The lamp should not be more than two-thirds full.

2. Leave the valve open when starting.
3. Start lamp with small rag dipped in methylated spirits.
4. When the lamp is hot, the valve should be closed and the pump operated.
5. The pump forces the paraffin through the heated vaporizing tube and out of the nozzle
where it is ignited under pressure.
6. The blowlamp should be played against an asbestos sheet until the flame is fully
established.
Solder. Two basic types of solder are used in electrical work: fine solder (tinman's solder), which
is 60 parts tin and 40 parts lead, and plumber's metal, which is 30 parts tin and 70 parts lead. Fine
solder melts more easily, as tin has a lower melting point than lead, and so it is commonly used

51
 1. Strip insulation back about 5 cm.

2. Tin the socket.

3. Smear both the socket and the bared conductor with flux.
4. Fit the socket to the conductor. The socket should be a hammer fit.
If the socket is too large, the conductor can be enlarged with a tinned- wire binding or. Better
still, by pressing a strand of cable into the centers of the conductor.
5 Play the blowlamp in the top of the socket until the heat has penetrated the conductor, and
then apply a stick of solder to the lip of the socket. The completed connection should have
a rim of solder showing round the lip the socket; this can be done by applying plumber’s
metal as the joint is cooling
6 When the termination is cooled, cut back damaged insulation and apply pvc or cambric
tape
7 Tape is used to replace insulation which has been removed prior to jointing
Do not attempt to cool a soldered joint by pouring water over it. This can lead to an
effect joint known as a dry joint. Never smooth the joint with a file but use a dry cloth
before it sets.

Figure 16 Section through soldered socket

Through joint
This joint is made by using mechanical connectors, compressor ferrules or grip-type (weak back)
soldered sleeves.
The completed joint is wrapped with PVC tap. The joint can further be protected by the use of a
cold pouring of resin compound to fill the protection box.

53
Figure 17 Straight-through joint using weak-backed ferrule

Straight-through joint using weak-backed ferrule

A weak-backed ferrule is a tubular piece of tinned-copper opened along the top and weakened at
the bottom thus allowing it to be closed or opened easily.
Procedure of making the joint
1. Strip insulation back from both conductors.
2. Clean and tin ferrule
3. Place ferrule on cable. Butt cables together before tightening the ferrule
4. Wind small pieces of cloth at each end of the ferrule to contain the molten metal
5. Solder the connection
6. Remove damaged insulation and apply tape.
Tee (breeches) Joint
This joint is used to tee-off a service from an armoured cable. The weak-backed ferrule is often
used. Mechanical connectors or compression ferrule can also be used

Figure 18 Tee (breeches) joint

54
Armoured cable
This cable is used where there is a likelihood of the insulation or conductor being subjected to
mechanical damage. This can occur when the cable is run underground.
There are two main types of armoured cables:
a) Paper insulated lead covered steel wire or steel tape armoured cables, abbreviated as
P.I.L.C.S.W.A. and P.I.L.C.S.T.A cables respectively
b) P.V.C.armoured cable
P.I.L.C.S.W.A.
The cable has the following parts
(a) An inner core of jute used to keep the cable circular.
(b) Copper or aluminium conductors insulated with mineral oil-impregnated paper.
(c) A lead sheath which contains the insulation and is also used as an earth continuity
conductor
(d) Jute bedding tape impregnated with bitumen that protects the lead from armoring
(e) Galvanized steel wire (one layer) or steel tape (two layers).
(f) Bitumen impregnated jute serving
Termination of P.I.L.C.S.W.A. cable
1. Place binder 1m from end of cable
2. Remove serving to this point
3. Bend steel wire armoring back until it is clear to lead sheath
4. Remove about 13cm of lead sheath and clean the remainder
5. Place brass gland on cable, leaving approximately 10cm of lead sheath showing.
Wedge gland with wood to keep it central on cable
6. Use plumber’s metal to plumb the joint
7. Clean galvanized wire paraffin rag and shape the wire over the plumb
8. Clamp wires on the gland and bolt the gland on sealing chamber
9. Cut back paper insulation on conductors and make through-joint to V.R.I conductors,
using weak-back ferrule
10. Assemble sealing chamber and pour in hot bitumen to seal oil-impregnated paper
against moisture

55
 P.V.C. Armoured Cable
This is made up of p.v.c insulated cores packed with p.v.c. to give a circular cross section.
An outer p.v.c. sheath covers the galvanized steel wire.

Figure 19 P.V.C Armoured cable

Termination of P.V.C. armoured cable

The following must be taken into consideration when terminating
(a) P.V.C. must be protected from heat
(b) P.V.C. tapes must be used for insulating the conductors
(c) Care must be taken when clamping and cleaning the galvanized wire so that it is not
broken as it is the sole earth continuity conductor
(d) The temperature of the hot pouring compound should not melt the p.v.c. insulation of
conductors. Dip a piece of scrap p.v.c. into the compound before pouring to test the
temperature.
Mineral Insulated Metal Sheathed (M.I.M.S.) Cable
This cable consists of three parts. These are:
Copper or aluminium conductors
Each core consists of a single copper conductor. Common core numbers are 1,2,3,4 and 7
Insulation
The insulation between the cores is magnesium oxide. It can withstand high temperatures but is
absorbent to moisture
Outer sheath
Is a seamless copper or aluminium tube
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF M.I.M.S. CABLE

56
Advantages Disadvantages

Heat resistant. Can withstand temperatures up Expensive

to 2500C

The sheath provides an excellent earth Termination takes time

continuity conductor

Is mechanically strong must be protected Has greater voltage drop per metre at the same
against shape edges current rating

High current density

Does not deteriorate with age

WIRING SYSTEM

As defined in level one, a wiring system is a system of cables, accessories and protective devices
that make a complete electrical system is premises (domestic, commercial or industrial).

Conduit installations

A conduit is a tube, channel or pipe in which insulated conductors are contained. The conduit, in
effect, replaces the PVC outer sheath of a cable, providing mechanical protection for the insulated
conductors. A conduit installation can be rewired easily or altered at any time, and this flexibility,
coupled with mechanical protection, makes conduit installations popular for commercial and
industrial applications. There are three types of conduit used in electrical installation work: steel,
PVC and flexible.

Steel Conduit Wiring System

Steel conduits are made to a specification defined by BS 4568 and are either heavy gauge welded
or solid drawn. Heavy gauge is made from a sheet of steel welded along the seam to form a tube
and is used for most electrical installation work. Solid drawn conduit is a seamless tube which is
much more expensive and only used for special gas-tight, explosion-proof or flameproof

57
installations. Conduit is supplied in 3.75 m lengths. Steel conduit system offers the highest
mechanical protection of all the wiring systems. They are available in the diameters of 16mm,
20mm, 25mm, and 32mm. The most commonly used is 20mm. Steel conduits come in varieties.
These include; welded, solid drawn, black enamel and galvanized. Welded conduit has a welded
seam along its entire length. This seam is almost invisible as the whole conduit is usually painted.
It is the cheapest type of steel conduit. Solid drawn conduit is seamless and is used in situations
where the installation is required to be gas tight and flame proof, for instance at petrol stations.
Black enamel is a paint that is applied in most conduits. Galvanised steel conduits are used where
dampness or steam is present. Conduit boxes make a major part of the system. They are made of
steel with knock-outs for conduit entry. The boxes accommodate switches, socket outlets and other
accessories. Metal conduits are threaded with stocks and dies and bent using special bending
machines. The metal conduit is also utilized as the CPC and, therefore, all connections must be
screwed up tightly and all burrs removed so that cables will not be damaged as they are drawn into
the conduit. Metal conduits containing a.c. circuits must contain phase and neutral conductors in
the same conduit to prevent eddy currents fl owing, which would result in the metal conduit
becoming hot (Regulations 521.5.2, 522.8.1 and 522.8.11).

Tools

Apart from the electrician’s ordinary tools such as rule, hacksaw, hammer, screwdrivers and pliers,
it is necessary to have stocks and dies, file or reamer, bending machine and a pipe vice. For 16mm
and 20mm conduit, the small stocks are available, but for 25mm and 32mm the medium stocks
should be used. Stocks and dies for threading conduits should be clean, sharp and well lubricated,
and should be rotated with a firm and steady movement. To get the best results stocks and dies
should be of the self-clearing pattern to prevent soft swarf from clogging the chasers. Worn out
dies and guides should always be replaced when showing signs of wear, otherwise the
workmanship will suffer as a result of bad threads. Ratchet operated stocks and dies are available
which are useful for the larger thread sizes and there are also powered conduit threading machines
which offer certain advantages on a conduit installation where considerable amount of large
conduit is being installed.

58
Conduit Bending

Regulations require that the minimum radius of a bend should be 2.5 times the outside diameter of
the conduit. A pipe bender machine or a wooden block is used for bending. Before installation, all
ends of conduits threaded conduits have to be fully installed before cables are drawn into them.
Running couplers are used to join two conduits together

Conduit cutting

Conduit should be cut with a hacksaw. The ends of all conduits must be carefully reamed inside
the bore with a file, or reamer to be certain that no sharp edges are left which might cause damage
to the conductors when they are being drawn in. The reaming should be carried out after the
threading has been completed.

Checking Conduits for obstructions

When the length of conduit has been removed from the pipe vice, it is advisable to look through
the bore to ensure that there are no obstructions. Some foreign objects such as stones may have
entered the conduit during storage. If such obstructions are not detected before installation of the
conduit considerable difficulty may be experienced when the conductors are being drawn in.

Fixing Conduits on Masonry or Wooden Surfaces

59
The method employed for fixing a conduit depends upon what the conduit has to be fixed on to.
Some of the methods include

1) Distance Saddles

Distance saddles are most commonly used and are fixed

by means of screwing into the wall or other surfaces.
They are designed to space conduits approximately
10mm from the wall or ceiling. Distance saddles are
generally made of malleable cast iron.

2) Spacer Bar Saddles

These are ordinary saddles mounted on a spacing plate.

The spacing plate is approximately of the same
thickness as the switches, sockets and other conduit
fittings and therefore, serves to keep the conduit straight
where it leaves these fittings. The purpose of the spacer
bar saddle is to prevent the conduit from making contact with the plaster and cement walls and
ceilings which could result in corrosion of the conduit.

3) Ordinary Saddles

60
These saddles are not extensively used. Fixing is by means of two screws. They provide a secure
fixing and should be spaced not more than 1.3m apart.

4) Multiple Saddles

These are used where two or more conduits follow the same route. The proper method is for the
conduits to be spaced so that when they enter conduit fittings there is no need to set the conduit.
An alternative means of running two or more conduits together is to stagger the saddle positions,
allowing the conduits to be placed closer together.

PVC Conduit

PVC conduit used on typical electrical installations is heavy gauge standard impact tube
manufactured to BS 4607. The conduit size and range of fittings are the same as those available for
metal conduit. PVC conduit is most often joined by placing the end of the conduit into the
appropriate fitting and fixing with a PVC solvent adhesive. PVC conduit can be bent by hand using
a bending spring of the same diameter as the inside of the conduit. The spring is pushed into the
conduit to the point of the intended bend and the conduit then bent over the knee. The spring
ensures that the conduit keeps its circular shape. In cold weather, a little warmth applied to the
point of the intended bend often helps to achieve a more successful bend.

The advantages of a PVC conduit system are that it may be installed much more quickly than steel
conduit and is non-corrosive, but it does not have the mechanical strength of steel conduit. Since
PVC conduit is an insulator it cannot be used as the CPC and a separate earth conductor must be
run to every outlet. It is not suitable for installations subjected to temperatures below 25°C or
above 60°C. Where luminaires are suspended from PVC conduit boxes, precautions must be taken
to ensure that the lamp does not raise the box temperature or that the mass of the luminaire
supported by each box does not exceed the maximum recommended by the manufacturer (IEE
Regulations 522.1 and 522.2). PVC conduit also expands much more than metal conduit and so
long runs require an expansion coupling to allow for conduit movement and help to prevent
distortion during temperature changes. All conduit installations must be erected first before any
wiring is installed (IEE Regulation 522.8.2). The radius of all bends in conduit must not cause the
cables to suffer damage, and therefore the minimum radius of bends given in Table 4E of the On

61
Site Guide applies (IEE Regulation 522.8.3). All conduits should terminate in a box or fitting and
meet the boxes or fittings at right angles. Any unused conduit-box entries should be blanked off
and all boxes covered with a box lid, fitting or accessory to provide complete enclosure of the
conduit system. Conduit runs should be separate from other services, unless intentionally bonded,
to prevent arcing occurring from a faulty circuit within the conduit, which might cause the pipe of
another service to become punctured. Cables should be fed into the conduit in a manner which
prevents any cable crossing over and becoming twisted inside the conduit. The cable insulation
must not be damaged on the metal edges of the draw-in box. Cables can be pulled in on a draw
wire if the run is a long one. The draw wire itself may be drawn in on a fish tape, which is a thin
spring steel or plastic tape. A limit must be placed on the number of bends between boxes in a
conduit run and the number of cables which may be drawn into a conduit to prevent the cables
being strained during wiring.
Flexible Conduit
Flexible conduit manufactured to BS 731-1: 1993 is made of interlinked metal spirals often
covered with a PVC sleeving. The tubing must not be relied upon to provide a continuous earth
path and, consequently, a separate CPC must be run either inside or outside the flexible tube
(Regulation 543.2.1). Flexible conduit is used for the final connection to motors so that the
vibrations of the motor are not transmitted throughout the electrical installation and to allow for
modifications to be made to the final motor position and drive belt adjustments.

Conduit runs to outlets in walls

Sockets near skirting level should preferably be fed from the floor above rather than the floor
below.
When the conduit is run to a switch and other positions in walls it is usually run in a chase in the
wall. These chases must be deep enough to allow at least 10mm of cement and plaster covering.
Steel conduits buried in plaster should be given a coat of protective paint, or should be galvanised if
the extra cost is justified. Make sure that the plaster is finished neatly round the outside edges of
flush switch and socket boxes; otherwise the cover plates may not conceal any deficiencies in the
plaster finish. When installing flush boxes before plastering, it is advisable to stuff the boxes with
paper to prevent their being filled with plaster.

62
Space factor
Regulations require that for groups of mixed diameter cables, a space factor of 40% should not be
exceeded. This means that only 40% of the conduit diameter should be used.
Other relevant regulations

1. There should not be more than two, 900 bends in one conduit run.
2. All conductors of alternating current circuit should be contained in the same conduit. This
is to prevent out of balance magnetic fields from setting up eddy currents.
3. The steel conduit can be used as an earth continuity conductor. Therefore no separate earth
conductor is required.

Installation of steel wire armoured cable

These cables are used extensively for main cables and distribution circuits and also for circuit
wiring in industrial installations. The cables consist of multi-core pvc sheath and steel wire
armouring (SWA) and pvc sheathed overall.

Important Consideration

● Thermo-plastic insulation will sustain serious damage if subjected to temperatures over 700 C
for a prolonged period, therefore proper protection against sustained overloads is required.
● The insulation will harden, and become brittle in temperatures, below 10 C, therefore the
cables should not be installed or handled when temperatures are approaching freezing,
otherwise the insulation may tend to split

Termination of Armoured Cable.

An armoured cable also known as steel wire armoured (SWA) cable is designed to carry power for
underground systems. The steel wires are used to provide mechanical protection and serve as earth
conductors.

The cable gland used for terminating an armoured cable is as shown in figure 20 below.

63
 The outer seal nut makes a metal to metal contact with the gland body or
The outer seal nut cannot be further tightened because it is fully engaged.

Cable tray installations

Cable tray is a sheet-steel channel with multiple holes. The most common finish is hot-dipped
galvanized but PVC-coated tray is also available. It is used extensively on large industrial and
commercial installations for sup-porting MI and SWA cables which are laid on the cable tray and
secured with cable ties through the tray holes. Cable tray should be adequately supported during
installation by brackets which are appropriate for the particular installation. The tray should be
bolted to the brackets with round-headed bolts and nuts, with the round head inside the tray so that
cables drawn along the tray are not damaged. The tray is supplied in standard widths from 50 to
900 mm, and a wide range of bends, tees and reducers is available. The tray can also be bent using
a cable tray bending machine to create bends such as that shown in figure 21. The installed tray
should be securely bolted with round-headed bolts where lengths or accessories are attached, so
that there is a continuous earth path which may be bonded to an electrical earth. The whole tray
should provide a firm support for the cables and therefore the tray fixings must be capable of
supporting the weight of both the tray and cables.

Figure 21 Cable tray with bends.

65
Metallic cable trays
The trays provide a safe open solution for routing cables and wires.
Cable trays can be mounted onto a wall or suspended from a ceiling to
provide a track that allows cables and wires to be routed around a
building in an easily maintainable manner. Often made of galvanized
or stainless steel cable trays not only provide a perfect cable
management solution but also look aesthetically pleasing in any environment. Cable trays are
available in three types, from light duty through to heavy duty; each system is supported by a fully
integrated range of time saving fixings and fittings Suitable for installations in retail, industrial and
offshore environments.
Trunking installations
A trunking is an enclosure provided for the protection of cables which is normally square or
rectangular in cross-section, having one removable side. Trunking may be thought of as a more
accessible conduit system and for industrial and commercial installations it is replacing the larger
conduit sizes. A trunking system can have great flexibility when used in con-junction with conduit;
the trunking forms the background or framework for the installation, with conduits running from
the trunking to the point controlling the current-using apparatus. When an alteration or extension is
required it is easy to drill a hole in the side of the trunking and run a conduit to the new point. The
new wiring can then be drawn through the new conduit and the existing trunking to the supply
point Trunking is supplied in 3 m lengths and various cross-sections measured in millimeters from
50 50 up to 300 150. Most trunking is available in either steel or plastic.
Metallic Trunking
Metallic trunking is formed from mild steel sheet, coated with grey or silver enamel paint for
internal use or a hot-dipped galvanized coating where damp conditions might be encountered and
made to a specification defined by BS EN 500 85. A wide range of accessories is available, such as
45° bends, 90° bends, Tee and four-way junctions, for speedy on-site assembly. Alternatively,
bends may be fabricated in lengths of trunking, as shown in Figure 22. This may be necessary or
more convenient if a bend or set is non-standard, but it does take more time to fabricate bends than
merely to bolt on standard accessories.

67
 Figure 22 Trunking bends
When fabricating bends the trunking should be supported with wooden blocks for sawing
and fi ling, in order to prevent the sheet-steel vibrating or becoming deformed. Fish plates
must be made and riveted or bolted to the trunking to form a solid and secure bend. When
manufactured bends are used, the continuity of the earth path must be ensured across the
joint by making all fixing screw connections very tight, or fitting a separate copper strap
between the trunking and the standard bend. If an earth continuity test on the trunking is
found to be unsatisfactory, an insulated CPC must be installed inside the trunking. The size
of the protective conductor will be determined by the largest cable contained in the trunking
as per the IEE Regulations. If the circuit conductors are less than 16 mm 2, then a 16 mm
2
CPC will be required.

Non-Metallic Trunking

Trunking and trunking accessories are also available in high-impact PVC. The accessories
are usually secured to the lengths of trunking with a PVC solvent adhesive. PVC trunking,
like PVC conduit, is easy to install and is non-corrosive. A separate CPC will need to be
installed and non-metallic trunking may require more frequent fixings because it is less rigid
than metallic trunking. All trunking fixings should use round-headed screws to prevent

68
damage to cables since the thin sheet construction makes it impossible to countersink screw
heads.

Mini-Trunking

Mini-trunking is very small PVC trunking, ideal for surface wiring in domestic and
commercial installations such as offices. The trunking has a cross-section of16 × 16 𝑚𝑚,
25 × 16 𝑚𝑚, 38 × 16 𝑚𝑚 or 38 × 25 𝑚𝑚 and is ideal for switch drops or for housing
auxiliary circuits such as telephone or audio equipment wiring. The modern square look in
switches and socket outlets is complemented by the mini-trunking which is very easy to
install (see Figure 23).

Figure 23 Typical installation of skirting trunking and mini-trunking.

Skirting Trunking
Skirting trunking is a trunking manufactured from PVC or steel and in the shape of a skirting board
is frequently used in commercial buildings such as hospitals, laboratories and offices. The trunking
is fitted around the walls of a room at either the skirting board level or at the working surface level
and contains the wiring for socket outlets and telephone points which are mounted on the lid, as
shown in Figure 23. Where any trunking passes through walls, partitions, ceilings or floors, short
lengths of lid should be fitted so that the remainder of the lid may be removed later without
difficulty. Any damage to the structure of the buildings must be made good with mortar, plaster or
concrete in order to prevent the spread of fire. Fire barriers must be fitted inside the trunking every

69
5 m, or at every floor level or room dividing wall, if this is a shorter distance. Where trunking is
installed vertically, the installed conductors must be supported so that the maximum unsupported
length of non-sheathed cable does not exceed 5 m. PVC insulated cables are usually drawn into an
erected conduit installation or laid into an erected trunking installation. Where a cable enclosure
greater than 32 mm is required because of the number or size of the conductors, it is generally
more economical and convenient to use trunking.

Final Circuits

Definition
A final sub-circuit is an outgoing circuit connected to a distribution board and intended to supply
electrical energy to current-using apparatus, either directly or through socket outlets or fused
spur-boxes.
Examples of final sub-circuits includes; lighting, socket-outlets, cooker and water heater. A final
sub-circuit originates from the consumer control unit (CCU) or distribution board (DB). Each final
sub-circuit is protected by an appropriate fuse or circuit breaker mounted in the consumer control
unit.
IEE Regulations
i) Where an installation comprises more than one final sub-circuit, each shall be connected to a
separate way in a distribution board.
ii) The wiring of each final sub-circuit shall be electrically separate from that of every other
final sub-circuit.to facilitate disconnection of each final sub-circuit for testing.
iii) Every final sub circuit shall have means of protection against excess current
iv) The neutral conductor shall never be connected in the same order as that in which the live
conductors are connected to the fuses or circuit breakers.
v) The neutral conductor shall never be connected to fuses, switches or circuit breakers.
Requirements for the consumer intake point
The IEE regulations requires that, every consumer’s installation shall be adequately controlled by a
switchgear readily accessible to the consumer which shall incorporate-
i) Means of isolating all the conductors of the installation of the premises from the supply.

70
 ii) Means of excess current protection.
iii) Means of earth leakage protection.

Sequence of control
The sequence of the equipment forming the switchgear required shall be such that the means of
isolation follows the consumer’s terminals without the intervention of any other apparatus as
shown in figure 24

Figure 24 Sequence of control

Figure 25 Single line diagram for the equipment at the consumer intake point

71
Figure 26 Circuit diagram for the equipment at the consumer intake point

Meter boxes can be mounted on the wooden /masonry surfaces or chased walls. When mounting a
meter box, make sure that it is at the correct height which is reachable by a person standing on the
ground. This is to make it easily accessible for energy meter reading, any repairs and replacements.

I.E.E regulations
i) Every consumer’s installation shall have a means of isolation
ii) Every consumer’s installation shall have a means of excess current protection.
iii) Every consumer’s installation shall have a means of earth leakage protection.
iv) Where a consumer’s installation comprises installation in two or more detached buildings,
separate means of isolation shall be provided.
v) Every means of excess current protection shall be suitable for the maximum short-circuit
current attainable.
Need For Switching
i. Used to put a circuit in use or out of use.
ii. Emergency switching.
iii. Isolating a circuit from the supply for maintenance.
Types of switches
1. Single pole switch
2. Double pole switch
3. Triple pole switch.
I.E.E regulation on switches

72
 i) All single pole switches should always be connected in the live (phase) conductor only.
ii) Fuses shall also be inserted in the live only.

Types of single pole switches

1. One-way switch - This has one path only for current.

2. Two-way switch - This has two alternative paths for current (change over switch).

3. Intermediate switch – This has two double alternative current paths.

Switching of lighting points

One-way switching.
In the one-way switching, the lamp or set of lamps is switched from one particular point. An
example is the switching at the entry of a room with one entry only.

Figure 27 Layout of one room with one-way switching arrangement.

The ON and OFF control of the lighting point is only at one position.

73
Figure 28 Schematic diagram showing one-way switch controlling one lamp.

Figure 29 One way switching using a joint box

Two – Way Switching

Where it becomes necessary to have the lamp or set of lamps switched from two separate
positions. An example is a long corridor or in a room with two entries.

Figure 30 Layout of two-way switching arrangement.

The ON and OFF control of the lighting point is from two positions.

74
Figure 31 Schematic diagram showing two-way switch controlling lighting point.

Figure 32 Two way switching using a joint box

Intermediate switching
This is used in conjunction with the Two-way switching where the switching of the lamps is from
more than two points. All the other points of switching between the two two-way switches will be
fitted with intermediate switches. An example of lamp controlled from THREE positions is shown
in figure 33.

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Figure 33. Intermediate switching

Figure 34 Intermediate switching using a joint box

Note
A lamp or set of lamps may be controlled from any number of positions provided we have 2
two-way switches and the rest of the switches been intermediate
Types of circuit connections
1. Series connection
2. Parallel connection
Series Connection

76
The current using equipment are connected in series or one after the other. One end of the
equipment is connected to the other end (End to End) in series connection, the current flowing is
the same and the voltage a cross each equipment will depend on the rating and its resistance

Figure 35 Series connection

The supply voltage is dropped individually across each lamp and depending on the ratings the
voltage across each equipment will vary but the current flowing through all the equipment is the
same. That is, if two lamps of equal resistance are connected in series to a 240 𝑉 supply, the
voltage which will appear across each lamp will be 120 𝑉 and the current will be the same in all
lamps

N.B
The lamps in above example may not produce light or be dim because the light produced is equal
to
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉2/𝑅
And, V is below rated voltage
For a series connection to work, all lamps have to be good working condition in order to provide
continuity of the circuit.
Disadvantages of series
1. If one lamp blows, all lamps go off.
2. Lamps will be dim ( will not produce enough light) or may fail to light
3. Not reliable- Therefore for practical purposes series circuits are not used

77
Parallel connection
This is the most common arrangement for lighting circuits. All lamps are connected across the
supply and each lamp receives the supply voltage a cross it. Each lamp can be controlled
separately. If one lamp blows out, all the other will continue working.

Figure 36 Parallel connection

Note:
If separately controlled, all switches are to be connected in the live conductor and that no wire
goes directly to the lamp bypassing the switch.

Figure 37. Separately controlled lamps

Advantages of parallel
i) All lamps receives rated voltage

78
 ii) All lamps are bright
iii) If one lamp fails , other will not be affected
iv) Lamps can be controlled individually ( separately)

Looping-In System
Looping-in of wires helps in saving materials and provides a clean piece of work. Looping – in
can be done at:
i) Switches
ii) Lamp Holders
iii) Junction Boxes
iv) Ceiling Roses
If more than one lamp are to be switched from the same switch, it becomes cheaper to loop-in at
the lamp holder for the second lamp. Figure 38 shows the theoretical diagram of a final sub-circuit
of seven lamps, two controlled separately by 1-way switches, three controlled as a group by a
1-way switch, and two controlled by a 1-way switch. If the circuit were to be wired exactly as in
the diagram, a large number of joints would be necessary. Figure 39 shows the same circuit as
wired by the looping-in system. No joints are required except dry twisted joints in the terminals of
the two-plate ceiling roses and of the single-pole one-way switches.

Figure 38 Control of lamps

79
Figure 39 Looping in system

Looping in from a switch.

Figure 40 looping in from switch

In this system the Live to switch S2 is normally looped from S1.

Looping-in from a three plate ceiling rose

Figure 41. Looping in from ceiling rose

80
A ceiling rose must not be connected in such a manner that one that one terminal remains alive
when the associated switch is OFF, unless that terminal cannot be touched when the ceiling rose is
partially dismantled to allow flexible cord replacement.
Looping-in at Junction Boxes
In this method, all the circuit wires are brought to a common Box and distributed to the switches,
ceiling roses, lamp holder’s e.t.c.
This method of lopping in is only used where there are few lamps and more so where there is
service wiring using twin core cables.

Figure 42 Looping in at joint box

Colour identification of cables

Single phase
Live - Red
Neutral- Black
Earth - Green or green /yellow
Three Phase
L1 - Red - phase
L2 - yellow - phase
L3 - blue - phase
Neutral- black

Size of cables and rating of protective devices

Cables are manufactured in different sizes and compositions and each is designed to carry a
maximum amount of current. The current a cable can carry are given in the I.E.E Regulation tables

81
of current ratings. For lighting circuits the cable commonly used is the 1𝑚𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 1. 5 𝑚𝑚2 which is
rated 18A depending on the type of cable. The most common cable used is single core and Twin
flat and Twin with earth. Most lighting circuits will be rated at either 5A or 10A because most
switches are rated 5A or 10A.

The I.E.E Regulations gives the protective ratings of different types of lamps as shown below.
Type of Holder Maximum Rating of fuse or Circuit Breaker.
Small Bayonet type 5A
Small Edison –type screw 5A
Bayonet type 15A
Bi- pin type 15A

I.E.E Regulations on switches

1. Every switch or Circuit Breaker the purpose of which is not obvious shall be labeled to
indicate the apparatus it controls.
2. All single pole switches shall be always connected to the live conductor.
3. Every switch or other electric control shall be placed so as to be out of reach of a person in
contact with bath, shower unit etc.
4. In a two wire installation connected to a supply having neither pole connected with the earth,
switch or circuit breaker shall be of double pole linked type and the fuses shall be installed in
both poles.
5. In a two wire installation connected to a supply having one pole earthed, switches shall be
connected in the live conductor only.

Power Circuits

Final power sub-circuits

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A final power sub-circuit is a circuit that allows electrical appliances to access electrical power.
All final sub-circuits must be electrically separate that is there must be no “bunching” of neutral
conductors. All neutral conductors must be connected at the distribution board in the same order as
the line conductors.
Socket Outlet
A socket outlet is a device provided with female contacts which is intended to be fitted with the
fixed wiring and intended to receive a plug. A device with protected current carrying contacts
intended to be mounted in a fixed position and permanently connected to a fixed wiring of a an
installation to enable the connection to it of a flexible cord or flexible cable by means of a plug, or
is an accessory with 3 terminals marked L- live, N- Neutral and E – Earth fitted with the fixed
wiring ready to receive a plug.
Plug

This is a device intended for connection to a fixed cord or flexible cable which can be engaged
manually with a socket outlet and which has current carrying contact pins which may be exposed
when not engaged. Socket outlet will be wired such that the terminal marked L will receive the live
wire, the terminal marked N will receive the Neutral and the one marked E will receive the earth
wire. Socket outlets must be installed in a place to wait for a plug but not the vice-versa

Note;
Sometimes the earth terminal is marked with the Earth symbol
There are two ways in which socket outlets may be wired
1. Radial circuit
2. Ring circuit
Radial Circuit
A radial circuit is a circuit in which the live, neutral and earth conductor start from the
distribution board to sockets connected in series and terminate at the last socket.
83
Figure 43. Layout diagram of a radial circuit

2
There are various types of electric bells including the single stroke bell, the trembles, the buzzer
and a continuously ringing bell, but all depend on the attraction exerted by the electromagnet or a
soft iron armature.
i) Single stroke bell

Figure 46 Single stroke bell

Construction
The bell is made up of two coils wound up with insulated copper wire on an insulated bobbin.
The bobbins are slipped on to a U-shaped soft iron core and the magnetic circuit is completed by
a soft-iron strip riveted to a spring-loaded armature. The striker is attached to the armature.

Operation.

1. the push-button is pressed

2. Current passes through the coil.
3. The coil is magnetized.
4. The soft-iron strip on the armature is attracted towards the coil.
5. The armature carries a striker which hits the gong.

5
 5. The armature carries a striker which hits the gong.
6. The gong produces audible sound.
7. When the circuit is broken the coil becomes demagnetized and the spring pulls the
armature back into its original position.
8. The cycle is then repeated, giving a continual make-and-break action.

Continuous ringing bell

Figure 48 Continuous ringing bell

Construction
The continuous ringing bell differs in construction from the trembler bell in that a small lever is
placed below the contact screw. This level drops automatically on the first stroke of the bell, and
as it drop it shorts out the bell-push, thus causing the bell to ring continuously until the lever is
reset by the cord. Confusion can arise in the drawing of this circuit if the operation of the lever is
not understood.
Operation.
1. When the bell –push is operated the coils become an electromagnet and the armature is
drawn towards them.
2. The lever drops on the first stroke and shorts the push.

7
 3. The bell now operates as a trembler bell.
4. To stop the bell, pull the cord, thus resetting the lever.

iii) The Buzzer

The buzzer is a trembler bell without a striker and gong. The principle of operation is
similar to that of the trembler bell, however, the sound it produces is like the buzz of a
bee.

Figure 49 Buzzer

Bell Indicators
These are devices used to indicate the location where the bell is being rang by showing in the
indicator board. These indicators coils are connected in series with the bell Indicator boards are
situated at places where the intended person can access it. For example, it can be situated in the
nurses’ office to show when a patient is in need. During bell circuit installation comprising more
than one bell push buttons operating the same bell, it is necessary to include an indicator board
which will show from which push button the bell has been rung. There are three types of bell
indicators.
1) Pendulum
2) Electrical replacement.
3) Mechanical replacement.

1. Pendulum type

8
In the pendulum type there are movements similar to that of the single stroke bell where a soft
iron armature carrying a flag is pivoted at its end in front of an electromagnet. The coils of which
are in series with the push concerned .When the push button is pressed, the electromagnet
attracts the armature. When press the button is released, the electromagnet is demagnetized
releasing the armature .The armature starts to swing in a pendulum motion before resting.
Disadvantages
i. When the person called happens to be away from the indicator board when the bell rings,
the pendulum may stop swinging by he/she comes back.
ii. There may be confusion if more than one push buttons are pressed almost at the same
time.
2. Electrical replacement type
In this arrangement, the element consists of two electromagnets, one of which is in series with
the bell circuit. The second coil is connected in the replacement circuit. The armature is pivoted
at its center about which it will rock. The flag arm is attached to the armature. When the current
flows through the alarm circuit, one end of the armature is attracted, causing the flag to
overbalance and fall to one side. To restore the flag, the current is passed through the
replacement coil, which restores the flag to its original position.

3. Mechanical replacement type

Has an armature which is attracted by the electromagnet to show the flag in its appropriate space
in the screen or window of the indicator board. The flag remains in this position even though the
bell push button is released until it is reset by a lever that is pushed or turned around by hand.
Relays
This is an electrical device such that current flowing through it in one circuit can switch ON and
OFF current in a second circuit.
Construction
Basic parts and functions of electromechanical relays include:
1. Frame: Heavy-duty frame that contains and supports the parts of the relay.
2. Coil: Wire is wound around a metal core. The coil of wire causes an electromagnetic field.

9
Figure 52 Bell circuit wiring diagram

ELECTRIC WATER HEATERS

12
Figure 53. Water heater layout diagram.

There are two basic types of electric water heaters;

(a) The free outlet or non- pressure-type (N.P.T) and
(b) The pressure type.
Free Outlet Water Heater
Both types of water heater operate on the principle that water, when heated, becomes less dense
(lighter) and rises. An immersion heater element is fitted at the bottom of the tank or vertically
(through the center) so that all the water in the tank will be heated. The immersion heater will
only heat the water above it. But in the free outlet type cold water is fed into the tank through an
inlet valve. When this valve is opened, the incoming cold water pushes the less dense hot water
in to the outlet pipe.
Construction

Figure 54 Free outlet water heater

Figure 54 shows the construction details of free outlet water heater. This type of water heater
consists of a tinned-copper tank insulated against heat loss by a granulated cork or grass fiber
lagging. The inlet valve is fitted with a baffle plate to keep the incoming cold water at the tank.
The outlet pipe has an anti-drip syphon which is fitted to prevent the outlet from dripping when
the inlet valve is closed. The heating element is composed of a nichrome wire spiral encased in a

13
plated copper tube and insulated with a refractory (heat- resistant) material. The thermostat is
used to control the temperature of the water in the tank.

Operation of the Thermostat

Figure 55 Water heater thermostat

The thermostat must be connected in the phase conductor.

The sequence of operation thermostat is as follows
● The heat from the water heats a brass tube, causing it to expand.
● An invar (non-expanding) rod is fixed at the end of the tube
● The movement of the brass tube draws the invar rod away from the contacts, breaking the
heater circuit
● The point at which the contacts open is determined by the pressure on the contacts; an
adjustable screw allows variations in the operating temperatures (generally 430C to 820C).

Pressure Type Water Heater

14
 Figure 56 Pressure type water heater

In this type, the hot water tank is fed from a cold water cistern placed above it. The water
supplying the cistern is controlled by a ball-valve. When hot water is drawn off the hot water
tank (or cylinder) the cistern replenishes it and the ball-valve comes into operation to refill the
cistern. In this way a constant pressure (or head) of water is kept on the hot water system.

Difference between pressure and free outlet types.

The free outlet type is controlled by one valve on the inlet side, and the pressure type is designed
to supply one or more outlets on the hot water side.
Tank-less water heaters (Instantaneous)
These are water heaters that instantly heat water as it flows through the device, and do not retain
any water internally except what is in the heat exchanger coil.
Copper heat exchangers are preferred in these units due to their high thermal conductivity and
ease of fabrication.
Advantages
1. Plenty continuous flow of hot water
2. Plenty energy savings
Disadvantage
1. High initial cost
Operation

15
The heater is normally in the OFF position, but is equipped with flow sensors which will be
activated when water flows through them. A feedback loop is used to bring water to the desired
temperature. The water circulates through the copper heat exchanger and is heated by gas or
electricity. Since there is no storage tank of hot water, the heater provides continuous supply of
hot water.
Electric shower heads
In this type, an electric heating element is placed in shower heads to instantly heat water as it
flows through. These self-heating shower heads are specialized point-of-use Tank-less water
heaters and are widely used in some countries including Kenya.

Figure. 57 Electric shower head

Electrical Machines

Electrical machines play an important role in industry as well as in our day to day life. They are
used in power plants to generate electrical power and in industry to provide mechanical work,
such as in steel mills, textile mills and paper mills
Alternating Current Motors
Motors that are designed to operate on alternating current are called alternating current motors.
They convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Alternating current motors are the most
widely used type of motors because, all the generated electrical energy is in the form of
alternating current. In addition, ac motors are simple in design, rugged in construction and
require little maintenance.

16
All ac motors basically consist of a stationary part called the stator, a rotating part called the
rotor and two end shields that house the bearings the rotor. The design of the rotor and the
manner in which current is made to flow through it determines the classification of the motor and
its performance characteristics. The stator contains windings which when connected to an
alternating current source, creates a rotating magnetic field. At the same time a magnetic field is
created in the rotor by electromagnetic induction which is similar to transformer action. The
attraction between the stator and rotor fields causes the rotor field to follow the rotating stator
field.Ac motors are particularly suitable for constant speed applications. However, variable speed
motors are also manufactured. Alternating current motors operate on the either single-phase or
three-phase supply.

Basic parts of ac motors

All ac motors have similar parts, with the exception of modifications or additions of special parts
to a particular type of motor. AC motors essentially consist of:
(a) Frame: The frame is made of steel and it is the part into which the stator is pressed.
(b) Stator: The stator is made of a cylindrical core consisting of tightly held together steel
laminations, with longitudinal slots around the inner circumference which firmly hold the
stator coil windings.
Stator: During the manufacture of some stators, the windings are first wound into the stator slots
and properly connected. The wound stator is then dipped into insulating vanish, baked and
finally pressed into the frame. Figure 58 shows a completely wound stator and frame of an
induction motor before assembly. In other words, the stator is first pressed into the frame and
thereafter, individual wires of the coil are wound into the slots, as shown in figure 59. The
completely wound stator is then dipped into insulating vanish and baked. Stator windings are
made of copper wires

17
Figure 58. Completely wound stator before the core is pressed into the frame

Figure 59. Partially wound stator after the core is pressed into the frame.

Rotor: There are two common types of rotors: the wound rotor and the squirrel-cage rotor. The
wound rotor consists of a cylindrical core of steel laminations with longitudinal slots around the
circumference. The slots hold coils of insulated copper wires which form the rotor windings. The
ends of the windings are connected to slip rings in the three-phase motors and to commutator
machines in single-phase repulsion and universal motors.
The squirrel-cage rotor consists of laminated cylindrical steel core with slots around its surface,
but instead of holding coils of insulated copper wire, it is embedded with uninsulated large bars
of copper or Aluminium conductors. The bars are short –circuited by brazing or welding them to
end rings, made of identical material. If the structure formed by the bars and rings were to be
viewed outside the core, it resembles a squirrel cage, and hence the name squirrel-cage rotor as
illustrated in figure 60. In some rotors, however, the bars and rings are made of one piece of cast
Aluminium. The rotor is always mounted on a high-grade steel shaft.

18
Figure 60 Squirrel-cage rotor

The rotor also carries cooling fans at both ends. These are important because a rise in
temperature inside the motor lowers the motor output and in case of excessive temperatures, the
insulation of the conductors would burn causing short circuits and fires.
End shields: The two end shields are made of cast steel and bolted to the frame. The end
shields house the bearings. The purpose of the bearings is to support the weight of the rotor and
to keep the rotor centered within the stator so that as it rotates, friction is minimized and also
ensure that it does not strike or rub the stator core.

Single-phase motors
Single-phase ac motors are designed to operate from a single-phase ac supply. They are usually
fractional kilowatt motors and are termed small motors. However, some single-phase motors are
of 15kw and above and are manufactured for special applications. Single-phase motors are
commonly found in house hold appliances such as refrigerators, food mixers, fans, vacuum
cleaners and washing machines. They are also found in agricultural, commercial and industrial
applications. Single-phase motors are small in size, robust in construction cheap easy to maintain
and particularly useful where only the single-phase ac supply is available. Single-phase motors
are divided into three classes:

i. Synchronous motors
ii. Induction motors
iii. Universal motors
The synchronous motor has a constant speed and is not self-starting. There are four types of
single –phase induction motors, all named according to the method of starting them. The four in
19
order of their increasing starting torque are: shaded pole, resistance start, capacitor start and
repulsion motor. The universal motor also known as series motor, operates on either direct
current or single-phase alternating current.
Single-phase synchronous motors.
The single-phase synchronous motor is usually used in timing devices such as wall clocks. It is
very small in size and produces a small torque. It has a two-pole stator and the rotor is simply a
slotted steel disk or a pile of disks bolted together but insulated from each other.
Operation
The stator contains two poles with their windings connected in series but in such a manner that
the poles are of different polarities as shown in figure 55 (a). When single phase current is
applied to the stator during the first alteration, the current increases from zero to maximum then
falls to zero as shown in figure 61 (b). During the same period the pole pieces are magnetized
and say, A becomes a north pole and B a south pole. The magnetic field so produced, varies in
strength in similar pattern as the current. During the next alteration, the current changes direction
and the polarity of the poles reverses; A becomes a South Pole and B a north pole. The magnetic
field is said to be oscillating.

Figure 61 (a) Stator showing the two poles (b) Single- phase series motor

The change in magnetic field induces a voltage and therefore current in the rotor. This process is
similar to induction in secondary winding of a transformer. The induced currents in the
transformer create a magnetic field which always opposes the field causing it (Lenz’s law). This
means that a N-stator pole will produce a N-pole field and a S-pole stator pole, a S-pole field.
The polarity of the rotor field changes at the frequency of the alternating current in the stator
20
field. Since these changes are simultaneous, the rotor field pulsates and does not produce a
torque. The rotor does not therefore rotate.
If the rotor is caused to rotate by applying an external force, it cuts the magnetic field of the
stator. This induces current in the rotor which creates a rotor magnetic field. The pulsating stator
magnetic field interacts with the rotor field. Since the induced field is always of the same
polarity as the one creating it, and like poles repel, the rotor poles are repelled causing the rotor
to rotate. The induced voltage causes induced currents which in turn create a magnetic field in
the rotor. This voltage is produced in the following two ways;
(a) The alternating magnetic field of the stator cuts the rotor conductors and induces the rotor
voltage. Since the action is similar to induction of secondary voltage in transformers, this
kind of induced voltage is called transformer emf.
(b) As the rotor rotates, its conductors cut, or are cut by the rotating magnetic field and this
induces voltage in the rotor. Voltage induced this way is called speed emf.
It is the combined effect of these alternating emf’s which produces the torque that causes the
rotor to turn. This applies to all induction motors. The rotor will rotate in either clockwise or
anticlockwise direction depending on the direction of the external force applied. Once the rotor
has started to rotate, it accelerates until it reaches the synchronous speed. The speed of the
rotating field is called the synchronous speed and it depends on the frequency of the supply
voltage. The synchronous speed inn r.p.m is calculated by multiplying the frequency of the ac
input by 60 (number of seconds per minute) and dividing the product by the number of pairs of
poles in the motor

𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 60× 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑟𝑝𝑚

Suppose a motor has 8 poles and is connected to 240v, 50Hz line. Its synchronous speed will be;
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = (60𝑥 50)/4 = 750 𝑟𝑝𝑚.

The actual speed of the rotor is less than the synchronous speed. If the rotor was to rotate at the
same speed as the rotating speed, it would not cut the field, no current would be induced and
hence no magnetic field would be created in it, and consequently no torque would be produced.
For the rotor to sustain motion, there must be some difference the synchronous speed and the

21
actual speed. The difference in speed is called SLIP. Slip is expressed as a percentage of
synchronous speed. In single-phase synchronous motors, it is less than 4% and for practical
purposes, the motor is considered to rotate at synchronous speed.

Resistance- start induction run motor (split-phase)

The resistance start, induction run motor is also referred to as split-phase motor. The main parts
of the motor are frame, stator, squirrel-cage rotor, two end shields and a centrifugal switch
mounted on the rotor shaft. Figure 62 shows parts of a disassembled resistance-start induction
run motor.

Figure 62 Parts of a disassembled resistance-start induction-run motor.

22
Figure 63. Split-phase motor.

Capacitor Start Motors.

There are two types of capacitor start motors, namely the capacitor start-induction run and
capacitor start-capacitor run. The main difference between the two is that in the former, the
starting winding and the capacitor are disconnected from the circuit when the motor attains 75%
of the rated speed, while in the latter, the starting winding is permanently connected in the
circuit.
Capacitor start-induction run motor
In this type of motor, a capacitor is connected in series with the starting winding as shown in
figure 64. An electrolytic capacitor is commonly used.

Figure 64. Connection of a capacitor-start induction-start run motor direction.

23
Figure 65. Single-phase capacitor start induction run.

Electrolytic capacitors have short duty service, and are easily damaged by frequent surge
currents.
Therefore, the capacitor start-induction run motor is suitable for situations which require
relatively few starts in a short period of time. Many manufacturers recommend that the motors be
started less than 20 times in an hour.

Operation
The running winding of this motor is embedded in iron and therefore highly inductive. A
capacitor of suitable size connected in the starting winding, causes a considerable phase
difference between the currents in the two windings. The phase difference between these two
currents gives the motor a high starting torque. It runs efficiently with fairly good power factor
and its starting torque can be as high as three times its full load torque. It is essentially a constant
speed machine and is used for light industrial work, office and domestic applications where
better starting torque is required.

Capacitor start - Capacitor run motor

(i) Single-Capacitor Motor

24
(c) The two end shields that house the bearings which support the rotor and the shaft
(d) The frame, whose purpose is to securely hold the stator core to which end-shields are bolted.
The construction of repulsion motors differs from split phase motors in that they have a
wound rotor and the stator has only one type of field winding

Types of repulsion motors

There are three types of repulsion motors; these are the repulsion start- repulsion run motor,
repulsion-start induction run and the repulsion induction motor. They are all reversible and have
excellent starting torque.
(a) Repulsion Start-Repulsion run motor. This is the basic repulsion motor. Its speed can be
varied by changing the value of the supply voltage. If all the mechanical load is removed, the
motor will accelerate to a dangerous high speed called runaway speed. It is therefore used on
permanent loads such as elevators.
(b) Repulsion Start-Induction run motor. This motor has a centrifugal device in the rotor. When
the motor has attained approximately 75% of its rated speed, the centrifugal device passes a
short-circuiting ring into the commutator, which short-circuits the commutator segments and
current no longer flows through the brushes. The motor then runs as an induction motor. The
motor has excellent starting torque and is reversible. The motor is used in commercial
refrigerators, compressors and pumps.
(c) Repulsion-Induction motor. This type of repulsion motor has a squirrel cage winding on the
rotor under the regular wound winding, as shown in figure 69. The added winding is
inductive and serves to limit the no-load speed when the motor speeds above the synchronous
speed. The motor has fairly constant speed from no-load speed because of the squirrel-cage
winding. The motor does not have a centrifugal switch and therefore needs little maintenance
and repairs. It starts as a repulsion motor and runs as an induction motor.

27
Universal motor, also known as the series motor, is designed to operate on either single-phase
alternating current or direct current. Figure 71 illustrates the main parts of the motor.

Figure 71 the main parts of a universal motor

The frame is made of cast Aluminium, cast iron or rolled steel. Two end shields, made of steel,
serve the same purpose as in other motors. The stator is made of steel laminations securely held
together and bolted to the frame. The rotor consists of a cylindrical core of steel laminations with
longitudinal slots into which insulated copper windings are wound. The windings are wound in
such a way that they create two opposite poles in the stator. The rotor windings are connected to
commutator segments. Two carbon brushes ride on the commutator, and are connected to the
field winding.

Operation
Stator and rotor windings are connected in series as shown in figure 72.

29
Figure 72 Series connected of field and rotor windings of a universal motor

When the motor is connected to single phase ac supply, the same amount of current flows
through both the field and rotor windings because they are in series. By the method of
connections, the magnetic field set up in the rotor will have the same polarity as the poles close
to it. The two like poles will repel and produce torque, and the rotor therefore rotates, this is
similar to torque production in a repulsion motor.
Universal motors are variable speed motors. The speed depends on the voltage applied and the
load. The motor has very high starting torque. They are widely used in portable commercial such
as saws, drills, grinders and sanders, domestic appliances such as food mixers, sewing machines
and vacuum cleaners. They usually cause radio and TV interference because of sparking at the
brushes. To obtain variable speeds, control rheostats, impedance coils tapped windings or
centrifugal devices are used. The motors may achieve excessive high speeds and therefore they
are normally started and operated with the load connected. The direction of rotation is changed
by reversing either the field or armature connections

5.2.4.4 Learning activities

Field/Visit to an electrical Installation company
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction

To establish types of final - Wiring systems used -Take notes

circuits used during installation - Types of final circuits -Observe keenly types of
works final circuits
- Observe keenly types of
final circuits

30
Practical Assignment
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction

To experience and learn real - Tools used Participate in real electrical

electrical installation works - Procedures followed installation work

5.2.4.5 Self-Assessment
1. What is a final power circuit?
2. Describe Consumer intake point
3. What are the requirements of a consumer intake point?
4. With the aid of a diagram, describe ring power circuit.

5. Which of the following is not part of a domestic consumer control unit?

A. Neutral block
B. Battery
C. Double pole switch
D. Earthing block/ terminal
6. When carrying out electrical installation work in a storey building, the
following are safety measures to be observed except?
A. Wearing of fitting suit with a proper neck tie
B. Putting on helmets
C. Wearing of safety boots
D. Using properly insulated tools
7. A domestic consumer is usually supplied with a single-phase supply, what is
the approximate value of supply voltage in this case?
A. 415v
B. 400v
C. 240v
D. 110v
31
5.2.4.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

5.2.4.6 References
Donnely. (1980). Electrical Installation theory and practice.
Hyde. (1994). Electrical Installation Principles and practice.
ngari, c. k. (2019). electrical installations for artisan level 2. kenya literature bureau.
John Bird, (2007). Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology,
https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/2019-03/electrical_safety_manual.pdf
https://safetyculture.com/topics/electrical-hazards/

5.2.4.7 Answers to Self-Assessment

Apply and Adhere to Safety

1. Dangers of electricity
● Electric shock
● Electrical burns
● Fire
2. When a person gets into contact with a live wire and gets an electric shock, the following
steps should be followed to save the victim:
i. Use a dry insulator to remove the victim from electrical contact.
ii. Take the victim away from the place where the shock occurred.
iii. If the victim has stopped breathing lay he/she flat on the ground then apply first
aid by KISS OF LIFE method of artificial respiration as follows.
iv. Call for medical help
3. FOUR types of fire extinguishers.
i. Dry water mist
ii. Foam Extinguishers
iii. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers
iv. Wet Chemical Extinguishers
4. Importance of wearing the following protective clothing in a work environment:

32
 i. Helmet – To prevent head injury
ii. Gloves – To prevent hands from injuries/electric shock
iii. Goggles – to prevent eyes from injury
iv. Safety boots – To prevent foot injuries from sharp objects
v. Dust coat – To prevent soiling of inner clothing and injuries from rotating
machines

Prepare working Drawings

1. A layout diagram shows the components position while a wiring diagram shows the
actual wiring of the same components.
2. HB, 2H, 3H, H, B
3. Sketch of combination pliers

4. A

5. Lighting scheme and its switching arrangement.

33
6.

S/N Symbol Description

11. Push button

12.
Siren
13.
Unswitched Twin socket outlet
14. Two-way, 2 gang switch

15. Buzzer

16.
Cord operated switch

17.

34
 Intermediate switch
18. Wall mounted switch

19. Consumer control unit

20. Twin Fluorescent fitting

Prepare Tools, Equipment & Materials

1. Tools used in electrical installation work (any four)

i. Combination pliers
ii. Long nose pliers
iii. Hacksaw
iv. File
v. Stock and die
vi. Fish/draw wire
vii. Screw driver
viii. Measuring tape
ix. Ladder
x. Drilling machine
xi. Bench vice
xii. Reamer
2. How to calibrate a digital multimeter
(a) Set the multimeter to the highest resistance range by turning the dial to the highest "ohm"
setting.
(b) Touch the test probes of your digital multimeter together.
(c) Press the calibration knob until the display reads "0" on the digital multimeter if you
don't see "0 ohms" initially.
3. Importance of calibrating multimeter.
A digital Multimeter is one of the most commonly used pieces of test and measurement
instrumentation. Quality processes depend on its continual proper operation. However, time,

35
 environment, and physical use (or abuses) change a digital multimeter’s characteristics.
That’s why it’s important to periodically calibrate or verify the performance of a digital
multimeter. A multimeter should be calibrated or adjusted to a known zero-value prior to use
for accurate readings.
4. B
5. B
6. Tools used in break down maintenance
i. Ladder
ii. Hammer
iii. Pliers
iv. Screw drivers e.t.c

Perform electrical Installation

1. Final power circuit

A final power sub-circuit is a circuit that allows electrical appliances to access electrical
power.
All final sub-circuits must be electrically separate that is there must be no “bunching” of
neutral conductors.
2. Consumer intake point
This is the point where the electricity power supplier terminates the service line to the
consumer’s premises. It is commonly known as a meter box or power house.
3. Requirements of a consumer intake point?
The IEE regulations requires that, every consumer’s installation shall be adequately
controlled by a switchgear readily accessible to the consumer which shall incorporate-
i) Means of isolating all the conductors of the installation of the premises from the supply.
ii) Means of excess current protection.
iii) Means of earth leakage protection.
4. Ring power circuit.

36
 A ring circuit is defined in the I.E.E. Regulations as “ a final sub-circuit in which the
current-carrying and the earth-continuity conductors are connected in the form of a loop,
both ends of which are connected to a single way in a distribution board or its equivalent.

Advantages of a ring circuit over a Radial circuit

i. There is total safety in ring circuit than in Radial for the circuit is in form of a ring
ii. An open circuit point in the Ring circuit will not affect any other socket in the system
This is because there are two paths of current and is one path is open the current will
flow through the other
iii. Smaller sizes of cables may be used in Ring than in a Radial. This is because the Ring
has two parallel current paths
iv. More loads may be fed or connected to a Ring circuit than a Radial circuit of the same
capacity
Disadvantages of Ring over Radial
i. More cables lengths requires in a Ring than in Radial therefore becomes more
expensive
ii. It consumes more time to install a Ring circuit than Radial because more cables has to
be installed.

37
 5. Glow type method of starting a fluorescent lamp

i. The glow type

● The starter contains of a small bulb filled helium gas and containing two contacts, one
contact is mounted on a bi-metallic strip. The two contacts are normally open such that when
the mains supply is switched ON, full mains voltage is applied to the starter contacts.
● This causes a glow discharge which warms the bimetallic strip which eventually bends
closing the starter contacts.
● Once the starter contacts closes, full heating current flows through the lamp electrodes.
After sometime the bimetallic strip cools to open the circuit thus striking the lamp. A tiny
capacitor is connected across the starter switch to suppress radio interference
7. B
8. A
9. C

38
 CHAPTER 6: TESTING OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
Unit of learning code: ENG/CU/EI/CR/03/4/A

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard; Perform Testing of Electrical

Installation

6.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit covers the competencies required to carry out inspection and testing of an electrical
installation. It covers testing activities starting from verifying the installed fittings and
accessories, identifying the type of tests, carrying out the tests and issuing test certificates.

6.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Conduct physical inspection

2. Identify the test to be carried out and test equipment

3. Perform the test

4. Issue installation test and wiring certificates

39
 6.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Conduct Physical Inspection

Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to carry out Visual
inspection, checking of physical condition, Firmness, Fitting points of the installation as per the
established procedures and standards, and identified as per as-built drawings.

6.2.1.1 Performance Standard

Visual inspection is carried out.

Fitting points and equipment are identified as per as-built drawings.

Physical condition of the installation is checked as per established standards.

Firmness of the installation is checked as per the established standards.

6.2.1.2 Information Sheet

Definitions

Inspection. Examination of an electrical installation using all available means to ascertain

correct selection and proper installation of electrical equipment.

Inspection and Testing

Periodic inspection and testing of internal wiring installations is necessary. Internal wiring
should be checked every year for safe operations.

While carrying out inspection and testing of internal wiring installations, following points should
be checked:

Incoming Service Line termination

Check and ensure the following:

1. Service line coming in to the premises is properly terminated and brought in

2. Check for fuse wire rating on each of the phases so as to ensure it is of correct rating

3. Check for wire sizes to be of correct size to carry the required current

1
 4. Check for Earthing to be properly maintained at the service line side

Main Switch Board

A main switch board exists at the point of termination of service line. Supply is provided through
this board in to the premises.

a) Ensure that the main switch board is closer to the point of supply in the premises
b) Check for fuses / circuit breakers used of adequate sizes for all phases
c) Check for correct ON/OFF working of Main Switch. A main switch plays a very
important role as it helps to switch off the complete supply of the premises in case of
emergency / repairs. It should always be in good working condition.
d) Check for any mechanical faults in switching operations that might cause it to remain
continuously in ON state. This may be problematic in emergency cases when the
electrician wants to switch the supply off
e) Ensure that the Switch board assembly is well covered to protect against rain / weather
conditions
f) Inspect to see that you are clearly able to trace the neutral and earthing wires in different
color
g) Inspect the electricity meter connections are properly fastened

Internal Wiring Circuits

Internal Wiring Circuits are to be checked for following points:

i. Ensure that each circuit branching out of Main Switch board has a connected load of not more
than 800 watts or 10 points
ii. Test for Insulation resistance of conductor and earth to be as per IEC specifications
iii. Electrical resistance from connection with Earth electrode should not be more than one ohm
iv. Ensure metallic covering of iron clad switches, distribution boards are properly earthed
v. Test that that leakage current is less than 1/5,000 of maximum supply current.
General Content Inspection Checklist

1. Connection of conductors: Are terminations electrically and mechanically sound? Is insulation

and sheathing removed only to a minimum to allow satisfactory termination?

2
2. Identification of conductors: Are conductors correctly identified in accordance with the
Regulations?
3. Routing of cables: Are cables installed such that account is taken of external influences such as
mechanical damage, corrosion, heat, etc.?
4. Conductor selection: Are conductors selected for current carrying capacity and voltage drop in
accordance with the design?
5. Connection of single pole devices: Are single pole protective and switching devices connected in
the line conductor only?
6. Accessories and equipment: Are all accessories and items of equipment correctly connected?
7. Thermal effects: Are fire barriers present where required and protection against thermal effects
provided?
8. Protection against shock: What methods have been used to attain both basic protection and fault
protection?
9. Mutual detrimental influence: Are wiring systems installed such that they can have no harmful
effect on non-electrical systems, or those systems of different currents or voltages are segregated
where necessary?
10. Isolation and switching: Are there appropriate devices for isolation and switching correctly
located and installed?
11. Under voltage: Where under voltage may give rise for concern, are there protective devices
present?
12. Labeling: Are all protective devices, switches (where necessary) and terminals correctly labeled?
13. External influences: Have all items of equipment and protective measures been selected in
accordance with the appropriate external influences?
14. Access: Are all means of access to switchgear and equipment adequate?
15. Notices and signs: Are danger notices and warning signs present?
16. Diagrams: Are diagrams, instructions and similar information relating to the installation
available?
17. Erection methods: Have all wiring systems, accessories and Equipment been selected and
installed in accordance with the requirements of the Regulations, and are fixings for equipment
adequate for the environment?

3
● The selection of equipment and protective measures appropriate to external influences the
correct identification of the circuits, overcurrent protective devices, switches, terminals,
et cetera

● The presence of diagrams, warning notices, or similar information

● The adequacy of the conductor connections

● The presence and adequacy of protective conductors, including equipotential bonding

● The accessibility of the equipment for convenience of operation, identification, and

maintenance

● In practice, Electrical installation inspection means checking the following items:

● Firmness of the accessories

● Correct color coding of cables.

● Maintenance points in place

● Good workmanship

● Separate circuits

● Adequate number of circuits

● Adequate number of socket-outlets

● All circuits suitably identified

● A suitable main switch provided

● Main breakers to interrupt all live conductors

● Main earthing terminal provided

● Correct fuses or circuit breakers installed

● All connections secure/loose connections

5
 ● Condition of accessories and fitting i.e. whether damaged or not

● The installation earthed in accordance with national standards

● Primary equipotential bonding connects services and other extraneous conductive parts to
the primary earth facility

● Supplementary bonding has been provided in all bath and shower rooms

● The following items must be checked concerning protection against direct contact:

● Insulation of live parts

● Enclosures have a suitable degree of protection appropriate to external influences

● Enclosures have unused entries blanked off where necessary

Importance of Electrical installation Inspection

There are many reasons behind the necessity of getting an electrical inspection done. Some of the
most common ones are:

● Protection against possible surges: This is a common phenomenon in different regions,

especially when there is a storm. Electrical surges can not only ruin your appliances, but can also
create short circuits in your house. When the inspection is being done, the inspector will check
for different points in the wiring that can cause this type of mishap.

● Fire: Many a times it has been seen that an electrical short circuit has been the reason behind a
fire breakout in a house. These short circuits are caused by different loose wires in the meter or
in the cabling itself. During the inspection, the inspector can easily recognize these faults and ask
you to rectify them.

● Shocks: Imagine touching an electronic appliance and immediately experiencing a surging

electric current in your body. Although the impact may not be that disastrous; however, this
could lead to other mishaps easily. Apart from this, the body current in an electronic appliance

6
can easily hamper its performance or can render it completely non-workable. An electrical
inspector can catch these faults in the wiring in time to rectify them.

6.2.1.4 Learning activities

Learning activity 1

Given an electrical installation premises, Check the Physical condition of the installation as per
established standards. Use the following Observation Checklist to check the conditions.
Table 1.1: Observation checklist Learning activity 1

Observation Checklist
Items to be evaluated Available/Done Correct Incorrect Comment

Connection of Conductors

Identification of Conductors

Routing of Cables

Conductor Selection

Connection of single pole

devices
Accessories and equipment
selection
Thermal effects considered

Protection against shock

Isolation and switching:

Labeling

External influences

Accessibility

7
Notices and signs

Learning activity 2

You are assigned to identify the following electrical protective devices in an electrical
installation for an inspection. Perform visual inspection on the devices.
Record your observations against the following checklist in table 1.2

8
Table 1.2: Observation Checklist activity 2

Observation checklist
Items Area of observation Yes No
Circuit breaker Presence breakages
Presence of contacts
Presence of fasteners
Double pole switch Presence of breakages
Presence of contacts
Triple pole switch with neutral Presence of breakages
Presence of contacts
Presence of fasteners
Isolator switch Presence of breakages
Presence of contacts
Presence of fasteners

6.2.1.5 Self-assessment: Learning Outcome 1

1. When a certificate is issued for Initial Verification purposes, for the certificate to be valid
it MUST be accompanied by?

A. inspection tick-sheet

B. schedules of inspections and test results

C. test results sheet

D. Part 'P' certificate

2. Indicate three main areas, about which you would require information, in order correctly to
carry out an initial verification of a new installation.
3. State three human senses that could be used during an inspection of an installation.
4. Apart from wear and tear state three areas of investigation that you would consider when
carrying out a periodic inspection and test of an installation.
5. An Electrical Installation Certificate should be accompanied by signed documentation
regarding three stages of an installation. What are these stages?

9
 6.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
Tools
Phase Tester
Screw drivers

Equipment
● Test instruments
⮚ Continuity tester (ohmmeter)
⮚ Insulation resistance tester
⮚ Earth loop impedance tester
⮚ Test lamp
Materials and supplies

● BS 7671
● Guidance Note 3
● The On-site Guide.
● Stationery
● Wiring certificates
Reference materials

● BS 7671
● Guidance Note 3
● The On-site Guide.
● Manufacturers’ manuals
● Relevant catalogues
● IEE regulations
● Standards
● County by-laws
● Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)
● National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) regulations
● National Construction Authority (NCA) regulations

10
● IEE tables

6.2.1.7 Reference
IEE Wiring Regulations: Inspection, Testing and Certification Sixth Edition Brian Scaddan,
IEng, MIET

https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/inspection-electrical-installations-home-1
https://www.dfliq.net/blog/electrical-inspection-a-detailed-overview

11
 6.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Identify the test to be carried out and test equipment

6.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to identify installation to be tested, test points,
test parameters and their expected values as per the established standards, appropriate test equipment as per the tests to
carry out. In addition, it also specifies the content of competence required on checking the specifications and
functionality of test equipment, preparation and safe storage for easy access in accordance with established procedure.

6.2.2.3 Performance Standard

i. The installation to be tested is identified per established standards
ii. Test points are identified as per established standards
iii. Test parameters and their expected values are identified as per established standards
iv. Appropriate Test equipment are identified as per the tests to carried out
v. Test equipment are checked for appropriate specifications and functionality
vi. Test equipment are prepared and stored for safe and easy access in accordance with established
procedure

6.2.2.4 Information Sheet

Testing

Implementation of measures in an electrical installation by which its effectiveness is proved.

Reasons of electrical installation testing

1. To ensure that people and goods are kept safe and are protected in the event of a fault.
2. Facilitates preventive maintenance of installations, preventing serious faults which might prove expensive (production
shutdown, etc.).
3. To guarantee people's safety with regard to these installations and the electrical
4. Equipment connected to them, standards have naturally been developed and updated to take changes into account.
Purpose of Electrical Installation Testing

1
 All new completed electrical installation should be tested before connection to the supply. The purpose of the
electrical installation condition report and testing is to provide, as far as is reasonably practicable:
i. To ensure that the installation is technically sound and free from any possible short circuits, etc.
ii. To know the cause of failure of a particular circuit or circuits or equipment and to locate the exact position of break
down.
iii. To ensure that it is free from faults and is as per electricity rules.
iv. These tests will receive the attention of the owner before any possible undue damage occurs. i.e. to confirm that the
installation is not damaged or deteriorated.
v. For the safety of persons and livestock.

vi. Protection against damage by fire and heat.

Types of tests

The IEE Regulations indicate a preferred sequence of tests and state that if, due to a defect, compliance cannot be
achieved, the defect should be rectified and the test sequence started from the beginning. The tests for ‘Site applied
insulation’, ‘Protection by separation’, and ‘Insulation of non-conducting floors and walls’ all require specialist high
voltage equipment and in consequence will not be discussed here.

The sequence of tests for an initial inspection and test is as follows:

1. Continuity of protective conductor’s tests.

2. Continuity of ring final circuit conductor’s tests.

3. Insulation resistance tests.

4. Protection by barriers or enclosures.

5. Polarity tests.

6. Earth electrode resistance.

7. Earth fault loop impedance.

8. Additional protection (RCDs).

2
 is an example of where testing needs to be carried out during the erection process and before final connections and
bonding are in place.

Table 1.2: Resistance (Ω) of Copper Conductors at 20°C

CSA(mm2) Lenth (m)

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

1.0 0.09 0.18 0.27 0.36 0.45 0.54 0.63 0.72 0.82 0.90

1.5 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.30 0.36 0.42 0.48 0.55 0.61

2.5 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.37

4.0 0.023 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.21 0.23

6.0 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.16

10.0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10

16.0 0.006 0.01 0.02 0.023 0.03 0.034 0.04 0.05 0.051 0.06

25.0 0.004 0.007 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.022 0.026 0.03 0.033 0.04

35.0 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.01 0.013 0.016 0.019 0.02 0.024 0.03

If conduit, trunking or SWA is used as the cpc, then the verifier has the option of first inspecting the cpcs (circuit
protective conductors) along its length for soundness then conducting the long-lead resistance test.

4
Continuity of ring final circuit conductors

The requirement of this test is that each conductor of the ring is continuous. It is, however, not sufficient to simply
connect an ohmmeter, a bell, etc., to the ends of each conductor and obtain a reading or a sound. So, what is wrong with
this procedure? A problem arises if an interconnection exists between sockets on the ring, and there is a break in the
ring beyond that interconnection. From Figure 1.2 it will be seen that a simple resistance or bell test will indicate
continuity via the interconnection.

However, owing to the break, sockets 4–11 are supplied by the spur from socket 12, not a healthy situation. So how can
one test to identify interconnections? There are three methods of conducting such a test.

Two are based on the principle that resistance changes with a change in length or CSA; the other, predominantly used,
relies on the fact that the resistance measured across any diameter of a circular loop of conductor is the same. Let us
now consider the first two.

Figure 1.1: Ring circuit with interconnection

5
Figure 1.2: End to end conductor resistance.

Figure 1.3: Doubled over end to end conductor resistance.

Method 1

If we were to take a length of conductor XYZ and measure the resistance between its ends (Figure 1.3), then double it
over at Y, join X and Z, and measure the resistance between XZ and Y (Figure 1.4), we would find that the value was
approximately a quarter of the original. This is because the length of the conductor is halved and hence so is the
resistance, and the CSA is doubled and so the resistance is halved again.

In order to apply this principle to a ring final circuit, it is necessary to know the position of the socket nearest the
mid-point of the ring.

The test procedure is then as follows for each of the conductors of the ring:

1. Measure the resistance of the ring conductor under test between its ends before completing the ring in the fuse
board. Record this value, say R1.

2. Complete the ring.

6
3. Using long test leads, measure between the completed ends and the corresponding terminal at the socket nearest the
mid-point of the ring. Record this value, say R2. (The completed ends correspond to point XZ in Figure 2. and the
mid-point to Y.)

4. Measure the resistance of the test leads, say R3, and subtract this value from R2, i.e. R2−R3=R4 say.

5. A comparison between R1 and R4 should reveal, if the ring is healthy, that R4 is approximately a quarter of R1.

Method 2

The second method tests two ring circuit conductors at once, and is based on the following. Take two conductors XYZ
and ABC and measure their resistances (Figure 1.5). Then double them both over, join the ends XZ and AC and the
mid-points YB, and measure the resistance between XZ and AC (Figure 2.6)

This value should be a quarter of that for XYZ plus a quarter of that for ABC. If both conductors are of the same length
and CSA, the resultant value would be half that for either of the original resistances. Applied to a ring final circuit, the
test procedure is as follows:

1. Measure the resistance of both line and neutral conductors before completion of the ring. They should both be the
same value, say R1.

2. Complete the ring for both conductors, and bridge together line and neutral at the mid-point socket (this corresponds
to point YB in Figure 1.6).

Now measure between the completed line and neutral ends in the fuse board (points XZ and AC in Figure 1.6).

Record this value, say R2.

7
 2. Join one line and one neutral conductor of opposite legs of the ring.

3. Obtain a resistance reading between the other line and neutral (Figure 1.8). (A record of this value is important.)

4. Join these last two conductors (Figure 1.9).

Figure 1.6: Resistance across diameter of circle of conductor.

Figure 1.7: End to end double loop resistance.

9
Figure1. 8: Both ends cross connected.

5. Measure the resistance value between L and N at each socket on the ring. All values should be the same,
approximately a quarter of the reading in (3) above.

The test is now repeated but the neutral conductors are replaced by the cpcs. If the cable is twin with cpc, the cpc size
will be smaller than the line conductor, and although the readings at each socket will be substantially the same, there
will be a slight increase in values towards the Centre of the ring, decreasing back towards the start. The highest reading
represents R1+R2 for the ring.

The basic principle of this method is that the resistance measured between any two points, equidistant around a closed
loop of conductor, will be the same.

Such a loop is formed by the line and neutral conductors of a ring final circuit (Figure 2.0). Let the resistance of
conductors be as shown. R measured between L and N on socket A will be:

0.2+0.5+0.3+0.4+0.1+0.3 2
2
= 2
= 1Ω

R measured between L and N at B will be :

0.3+0.2+0.5+0.2+0.3+0.4+0.1 2
2
= 2
= 1Ω

10
Hence all sockets on the ring will give a reading of 1Ω between L and N.

If there were a break in the ring in, say, the neutral conductor, all measurements would have been 2, incorrectly
indicating to the tester that the ring was continuous. Hence the relevance of step 3 in the test procedure, which at least
indicates that there is a continuous L–N loop, even if an interconnection exists.

Figure 2.1 shows a healthy ring with interconnection. Here is an example that shows the slight difference between
measurements on the line/cpc test. Consider a 30m ring final circuit wired in 2.5mm2 with a 1.5mm2 cpc. Figure 2.2
illustrates this arrangement when cross-connected for test purposes.

11
Figure 9: Equidistant loop measurements.

Figure 10: Healthy ring circuits with an interconnection.

12
Figure 11: Ring with 2.5mm2 line and 1.5mm2 cpc.

From the resistance tables, 1.5mm2 conductor is seen to have a resistance of 12.1mΩ/m, and 2.5mm2, 7.27mΩ/m. This
gives the resistance from X to A as 15×12.1/1000=0.1815Ω and from X to B as 15×7.27/1000=0.109.

The same values apply from Y to A and Y to B. So measuring across X and Y we have 2×0.1815=0.363, in parallel
with 2×0.109= [(0.363×0.218)/(0.363+0.218)]Ω (product over sum)=0.137Ω. Measuring across A and B (the
mid-point) gives 0.1815+0.109=0.29Ω, in parallel with the same value, i.e. 0.29Ω, which gives 0.29/2=0.145Ω. While
there is a difference of 0.008Ω the amount is too small to suggest any faults on the ring. Note: If the line–neutral and
line–cpc tests prove satisfactory this is also an indication that the polarity at each socket outlet is correct.

Protection by barriers or enclosures

If an enclosure/barrier is used to house or obscure live parts, and is not a factory-built assembly, it must be ascertained
whether or not it complies with the requirements of the IP codes IP2X or IPXXB, or IP4X or IPXXD. For IP2X or
IPXXB, the test is made using the British Standard Finger, which is connected in series with a lamp and a supply of not
less than 40V and not more than 50V. The test finger is pushed into or behind the enclosure/barrier and the lamp should
not light (Figure 2.3).

The test for IP4X or IPXXD is made with a 1.0mm diameter wire with its end cut at right angles to its length. The wire
should not enter the enclosure to conform to IP4X. It may enter for 100 mm without touching live parts to conform to
IPXXD.

13
Insulation resistance

An insulation resistance tester, which is a high resistance ohmmeter, is used for this test.

Clearly with voltages of these levels, there are certain precautions to be taken prior to the test being carried out.

Persons should be warned, and sensitive electronic equipment disconnected or unplugged.

A common example of this is the dimmer switch. Also, as many accessories have indicator lamps, and items of
equipment such as fluorescent fittings have capacitors fitted, these should be disconnected as they will give rise to false
readings. The test procedure is as follows: Poles to earth (Figure 2.4)

1. Isolate supply.

2. Ensure that all protective devices are in place and all switches are closed.

3. Link all poles of the supply together (where appropriate).

4. Test between the linked poles and earth.

Figure2.4:Test between live conductors and earth

14
 .

Figure 12: Test between live conductors.

Between poles (Figure 2.5)

1. As previous test.

2. As previous test.

3. Remove all lamps, equipment, etc.

4. Test between poles.

Test results on disconnected equipment should conform to the relevant British Standard for that equipment. In the
absence of a British Standard, the minimum value is 0.5MΩ. For small installations, the tests are performed on the
whole system, whereas for larger complex types, the installation may be sub-divided into sections and tests performed
on each section.

The reason for this is that as conductor insulation and the circuits they supply are all in parallel, a test on the whole of a
large installation would produce pessimistically low readings even though no faults exist. Although for standard
400V/230V installations the minimum value of insulation resistance is 1MΩ, a reading of less than 2MΩ should give
rise to some concern. Circuits should be tested individually to locate the source/s of such a low reading.

Polarity

It is required that all fuses and single-pole devices such as single-pole circuit breakers and switches are connected in
the line conductor only. It is further required that the center contact of Edison screw lamp holders be connected to the

15
Figure 13: Polarity test if done separately to method 3 ring tests.

Figure 14: Polarity on ES lamp holder.

17
 It is a requirement of the Regulations that for a TT system, exposed conductive parts must be connected via protective
conductors to an earth electrode, and that the protection is by either an RCD or an overcurrent device, the RCD being
preferred. Conditional on this is the requirement that the product of the sum of the resistances of the earth electrode and
protective conductors, and the operating current of the protective device, shall not exceed 50V, i.e. Ra×Ia≤50V. (Ra is
the sum of the resistances of the earth electrode and the protective conductors connecting it to the exposed conductive
part.) Clearly then, there is a need to measure the resistance of the earth electrode. This may be done in either of two
ways.

Method 1

Based on the principle of the potential divider (Figure 2.9,), an earth resistance tester is used together with test and
auxiliary electrodes spaced as shown in Figure 3.0. This spacing ensures that resistance areas do not overlap.

The method of test is as follows:

1. Place the current electrode (C2) away from the electrode under test, approximately 10 times its length, i.e. 30m for a
3m rod.

2. Place the potential electrode mid-way.

3. Connect test instrument as shown.

Figure 16: Potential divider.

19
Figure 17: Positions of test electrodes.

4. Record resistance value.

5. Move the potential electrode approximately 6m either side of the mid-position, and record these two readings.

6. Take an average of these three readings (this is the earth electrode resistance). Three readings obtained from an earth
electrode resistance test were 181Ω, 185Ω and 179Ω. What is the value of the electrode resistance?

181+185+179
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 3
= 181. 67Ω

For TT systems the result of this test will indicate compliance if the product of the electrode resistance and the
operating current of the overcurrent device does not exceed 50V.

Method 2

On TT systems protected by an RCD, a loop impedance tester is used and effectively measures Ze, which is taken as
the earth electrode resistance.

20
External loop impedance Ze

This is carried out by connecting an earth fault loop impedance tester between the supply line conductor and the
earthing conductor at the intake position with the earthing conductors disconnected.

This ensures that parallel resistance paths will not affect the reading. Wherever possible the installation should be
isolated from the supply during the test. If this is not possible then all circuits should be isolated. When the test is
completed reconnect the earthing conductor.

Earth fault loop impedance Zs

This has to be measured in order to ensure that protective devices will operate in the specified time under fault
conditions. As the value of (R1+R2) Ω for a particular circuit will have already been established, Zs may be found by
simply adding the R1+R2 value to Ze.

Alternatively, it may be measured directly at the extremity of a particular circuit. Whichever method is used, the value
obtained will need to be corrected to compensate for ambient and conductor operating temperatures before a
comparison is made with the tabulated values of Zs in the Regulations.

Note: All main protective and supplementary bonding must be in place during this test.

Additional protection

Residual current devices

Only the basic type of RCD will be considered here. Clearly, such devices must operate to their specification; an RCD
tester will establish this. As with loop impedance testing, care must be taken when conducting this test as an intentional
earth fault is created in the installation.

In consequence, a loop impedance test must be conducted first to confirm that an earth path exists or the RCD test
could prove dangerous. It is important to know why an RCD has been installed as this has direct effect on the tests
performed. The tests are as follows:

1. With the tester set to the RCD rating, half the rated current is passed through the device. It should not trip.

2. With full rated current passed through the device, it should trip within 200ms (300ms for RCBOs).

21
 3. For RCDs having a residual current rating of 30mA or less, a test current of 5×IΔn should be applied and the device
should operate in 40ms or less.

4. All RCDs have a test button which should be operated to ensure the integrity of the tripping mechanism. It does not
check any part of the earthing arrangements or the device’s sensitivity. As part of the visual inspection, it should be
verified that a notice, indicating that the device should be tested via the test button quarterly, is on or adjacent to the
RCD.

There seems to be a popular misconception regarding the ratings and uses of RCDs in that they are the panacea for all
electrical ills and the only useful rating is 30mA!

Firstly, RCDs are not fail-safe devices; they are electromechanical in operation and can malfunction. Secondly, general
purpose RCDs are manufactured in ratings from 5mA to 1000mA (30mA, 100mA, 300mA and 500mA being the most
popular) and have many uses. The following list indicates residual current ratings and uses as mentioned in BS 7671.

Requirements for RCD protection

30mA

● All socket outlets rated at not more than 20A and for un-supervised general use.

● Mobile equipment rated at not more than 32A for use outdoors.

● All circuits in a bath/shower room.

● Preferred for all circuits in a TT system.

● All cables installed less than 50mm from the surface of a wall or partition (in the safe zones) if the installation is
un-supervised, and also at any depth if the construction of the wall or partition includes metallic parts.

● In zones 0, 1 and 2 of swimming pool locations.

● All circuits in a location containing saunas, etc.

● Socket outlet final circuits not exceeding 32A in agricultural locations.

22
 ● Circuits supplying Class II equipment in restrictive conductive locations.

● Each socket outlet in caravan parks and marinas and final circuit for houseboats.

● All socket outlet circuits rated not more than 32A for show stands, etc.

● All socket outlet circuits rated not more than 32A for construction sites (where reduced low voltage, etc. is not
used).

● All socket outlets supplying equipment outside mobile or transportable units.

● All circuits in caravans.

● All circuits in circuses, etc.

● A circuit supplying Class II heating equipment for floor and ceiling heating systems.

500mA

● Any circuit supplying one or more socket outlets of rating exceeding

● 32A, on a construction site.

300mA

● At the origin of a temporary supply to circuses, etc.

● Where there is a risk of fire due to storage of combustible materials.

● All circuits (except socket outlets) in agricultural locations.

100mA

● Socket outlets of rating exceeding 32A in agricultural locations.

Where loop impedance values cannot be met, RCDs of an appropriate

rating can be installed. Their rating can be determined from

23
 I Δ n = 50 / Zs where IΔn is the rated operating current of the device, 50 is the touch voltage and Zs is the measured
loop impedance.

Prospective fault current

A PFC tester, usually incorporated with a loop impedance tester, is used for this. When testing at the intake position,
probes and/or clips will be needed and hence great care needs to be taken when connecting to live terminals, etc.
Measurements are taken between L and N, and L and E and the highest value recorded. For three phase supplies, the
line to line.

PFC is determined from multiplying the L to N reading by √3 (1.732) or more simply by 2.

Phase sequence

For multi-phase circuits, e.g. supplies to three-phase motors, etc., it is important to check that the phase sequence is
correct to ensure correct direction of rotation. A phase sequence instrument is used which is basically a small
three-phase motor.

Functional testing

Tests on assemblies

These are carried out on a switchgear, interlock, control gear, etc., to ensure that they are mounted and installed
according to the Requirements of the 17th Edition.

Voltage drop

There may be occasions when verification of voltage drop is required.

This would be achieved by calculation or by reference to charts or tables.

Periodic inspection and testing

After an installation has had an initial verification and been put into service, there is a requirement for regular periodic
verification to take place. In some cases where, for example, a Local Authority is involved, the interval between tests is
mandatory. In other cases, the interval is only a recommendation. For example, the recommended time between tests on
domestic installations is 10 years, whereas places of public entertainment have a mandatory interval of one year.

24
 Clearly, periodic tests may prove difficult, as premises are usually occupied and in full service, and hence careful
planning and consultation are needed in order to minimize any disruption. A thorough visual inspection should be
undertaken first, as this will indicate to the experienced inspector the depth to which he or she needs to go with the
instrument tests, and an even more rigorous investigation may be required if drawings/design data are not available.

The visual inspection will need to take into account such items as safety, wear and tear, corrosion, signs of overloading,
mechanical damage, etc.

In many instances, a sample of items inspected may be taken, for example a minimum of 10% of switching devices
may be taken. If, however, the sample indicates considerable deterioration then all items must be inspected.

The test sequence where relevant and where possible should be the same as that for an initial verification. This is not
essential: As with visual inspection, sample tests may be made, usually 10%, with the proviso that this is increased in
the event of faults being found.

In the light of previous comments regarding sampling, it is clear that periodic verification is subjective, varying from
installation to installation. It is also more dangerous and difficult and hence requires the inspector to have considerable
experience. Accurate and coherent records must be made and given to the person/s ordering the work. Such
records/reports must indicate any departures from or non-compliances with the Regulations, any restrictions in the
testing procedure, any dangerous situations, etc.; if the installation was erected according to an earlier edition of the
Regulations, it should be tested as far as possible to the requirements of the 17th Edition, and a note made to this effect
on the test report.

It should be noted that if an installation is effectively supervised in normal use, then Periodic Inspection and Testing
can be replaced by regular maintenance by skilled persons. This would only apply to, say, factory installations where
there are permanent maintenance staff.

25
Identification and specification of test equipment

Testing instruments

In order to fulfill the basic requirements for testing to BS 7671, the following instruments are needed:

1. A low-resistance ohmmeter (continuity tester).

2. An insulation resistance tester.

3. A loop impedance tester.

4. A residual current device (RCD) tester.

5. A prospective fault current (PFC) tester.

6. An approved test lamp or voltage indicator.

7. A proving unit.

8. An earth electrode resistance tester.

Many instrument manufacturers have developed dual or multifunction instruments; hence it is quite common to have
continuity and insulation resistance in one unit, loop impedance and PFC in one unit, loop impedance, PFC and RCD
tests in one unit, etc.

However, regardless of the various combinations, let us take a closer look at the individual test instrument
requirements.

Low-resistance ohmmeters/continuity testers

Bells, buzzers, simple multimeters, etc., will all indicate whether or not a circuit is continuous, but will not show the
difference between the resistance of, say, a 10 m length of 10 mm2conductor and a 10 m length of 1 mm2 conductor.

I use this example as an illustration, as it is based on a real experience of testing the continuity of a 10 mm2main
protective bonding conductor between gas and water services. The services, some 10 m apart, were at either ends of a
domestic premise.

26
 The 10 mm2 conductor, connected to both services, disappeared under the floor and a measurement between both ends
indicated a resistance higher than expected.

Further investigation revealed that just under the floor at each end, the 10 mm2 conductor had been terminated in a
connector block and the joint between the two, about 8 m, had been wired with a 1 mm2 conductor. Only a
milli-ohmmeter would have detected such a fault.

Insulation resistance testers

An insulation resistance test is the correct term for this form of testing, not a megger test as megger is a manufacturer’s
trade name, not the name of the test.

A low-resistance ohmmeter should have a no-load source voltage of between 4 and

24 V, and be capable of delivering an A.C or D.C short circuit voltage of not less than 200 mA. It should have a
resolution (i.e. a detectable difference in resistance) of at least 0.01 m Ω.

An insulation resistance tester must be capable of delivering 1 mA when the required test voltage is applied across the
minimum acceptable value of insulation resistance.

Hence, an instrument selected for use on a low-voltage (50 V ac–1000 V ac) system should be capable of delivering 1
mA at 500 V across a resistance of 1 M Ω.

Loop impedance tester

This instrument functions by creating, in effect, an earth fault for a brief moment, and is connected to the circuit via a
plug or by ‘flying leads ’connected separately to line, neutral and earth.

The instrument should only allow an earth fault to exist for a maximum of 40 ms, and a resolution of 0.01 Ω is
adequate for circuits up to 50 A. Above this circuit rating, the ohmic values become too small to give such accuracy
using a standard instrument, and more specialized equipment may be required.

RCD tester

27
 Usually connected by the use of a plug, although ‘ flying leads ’are needed for non-socket outlet circuits, this
instrument allows a range of out-of-balance currents to flow through the RCD to cause its operation within specified
time limits.

The test instrument should not be operated for longer than 2 s, and it should have a 10 per cent accuracy across the
full range of test currents.

The instrument should only allow an earth fault to exist for a maximum of 40 ms, and a resolution of 0.01 Ω is
adequate for circuits up to 50 A. Above this circuit rating, the ohmic values become too small to give such accuracy
using a standard instrument, and more specialized equipment may be required.

Earth electrode resistance tester

This is a 3 or 4 terminal, battery powered, resistance tester.

PFC tester

Normally one half of a dual loop impedance/PFC tester, this instrument measures the prospective line-neutral fault
current at the point of measurement using the same leads as for loop impedance.

Approved test lamp or voltage indicator

A flexible cord with a lamp attached is not an approved device, nor for that matter is the ubiquitous ‘testascope ’or
‘neon screwdriver’, which encourages the passage of current, at low voltage, through the body!

A typical approved test lamp is as shown in Figure 3.1.

28
Calibration of test equipment

Calibration for test equipment is done to ensure that your instruments always perform as expected.

Calibration of measuring test equipment or electrical test equipment such as data loggers, multimeters, oscilloscopes,
power supplies or tachometers is required to ensure that your measuring instruments always perform according to
expected specifications and standards.

Purpose of Calibration

To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other instruments and to determine the accuracy of the
instrument i.e. that it can be trusted for its observed/displayed measured value.

Importance of calibration for industry

● To ensure that products are manufactured to specifications.

● To demonstrate that the industry operates a quality system and technically competent and are able to generate
technically valid results.
● To increase quality & value of product.
● The calibrated measuring instruments (working standards) have the assurance of an unbroken chain of
national/international measuring standards

A standard preventative maintenance service on all instruments

● Pre-service calibration checks are taken

● The equipment is checked internally for any damage, loose electrical connections or foreign material. The cover/s are
refitted after all practical foreign material is removed.
● The instrument is then checked externally for damage, inoperative switches, frozen leveling feet or poorly adjusted tare
bars. Any old and excess stickers are removed and the housing is cleaned as necessary Corner load, linearity and
calibration errors are corrected to obtain optimum performance
● A service sticker is attached to the Instruments which includes the Service and Calibration Report numbers, date the
instrument was serviced and when the next preventative maintenance service is recommended

http://nunesinstruments.com/calibration.htm

30
 6.2.2.7 Self-assessment: Learning Outcome 2
1. Identify the type of instrument that would be used to measure leakage current in a circuit.

A. voltmeter

B. test lamp

C. Voltage tester

D. clamp meter

2. Before carrying out an Insulation Resistance test on a lighting circuit, its essential to...

A. ensure all light switches are in the off position

B. link the line and cpc in the CCU

C. disconnect the earthing conductor

D. remove all loads from the circuit

3. Continuity of protective conductors (R2) tests are carried out using

A. a volt meter

B. a low ohms meter

C. an insulation resistance tester

D. a continuity tester

4. State the overall effect on Insulation Resistance if twice as many circuits are added to an existing consumers unit
(CCU).

A. Insulation Resistance would remain the same

B. Insulation Resistance would increase

C. Insulation Resistance would decrease

D. Insulation Resistance would be be 200M Ohms

5. Where is a live polarity check carried out to verify that the supply to an installation is correct?

33
 A. at the end of any installed circuit

B. at the end of every circuit

C. at the mains intake position

D. at any socket outlet

6. During a test on an installation, the following readings were obtained: 20 MΩ; 8 kA; 22 ms. List the instruments which
gave these readings.
7. List the first three tests that should be carried out during an initial verification on a new domestic installation.
8. The test for the continuity of a cpc in a radial circuit feeding one socket outlet uses a temporary link and a
milliohmmeter, state:
a) where the temporary link is connected.
b) Where the milli-ohmmeter is connected.
c) What the meter reading represents.
9. List three precautions to be taken prior to commencing an insulation resistance test on an installation.
10. List three reasons for conducting a dead polarity test on an installation.
11. Figure 2 shows the layout of the electrical installation in a new detached garage. You are to carry out an initial
verification of that installation.
(a) What documentation/information will you require in order to carry out the verification?
(b) Where should it be located?
(c) What particularly important details regarding this installation should have been included on such documentation?
(d) What consideration should be given to the existing installation from which this new installation is fed?

34
 ⮚ Facilitates preventive maintenance of installations, preventing serious faults which might prove expensive
(production shutdown, etc.).
⮚ To guarantee people's safety with regard to these installations and the electrical
⮚ Equipment connected to them, standards have naturally been developed and updated to take changes into account.

The electrical testing is divided into 2 parts:

1. Visual inspection to guarantee that the installation complies with the safety requirements (presence of an earth
electrode, protective devices, etc.) and does not show any visible evidence of damage.

2. Measurements/Tests

Types of Electrical Installation Tests

The tests should be made on a new electrical installation before it is switched on to the mains are as under:

1. Insulation resistance test between installation and earth.

2. Insulation resistance test between conductors.
3. Testing of polarity.
4. Testing of earth continuity paths.
5. Earth resistance test.
6. Continuity test
7. Earth loop impedance test
Insulation Resistance Test between Installation and Earth

This test is performed to know the standard of insulation of wires and cables used in the installation.

It also ensures that the insulation is sufficient enough to avoid any possible leakage of current to earth.

The leakage of the current to earth should not exceed 0.02% of the full load current.

38
Before performing insulation resistance test between installation and earth the conditions to be fulfilled for the position of
the main switch, fuses, switches, and other points should be as under:-
● Main switch in OFF position, fuses beyond the main switch should be in position, all switches in ON position.
● All lamps and other equipment should be in their position.
For testing the whole installation, the test is conducted on the main switch. A testing set known as megger is used for the
test. It is a special form of the ohmmeter.

To perform this test, the phase and the neutral is short-circuited temporarily at any suitable point as shown in Figure
below;

Figure 3.2: Insulation Resistance Test between Installation and Earth

● The ‘L’ (line terminal) of the megger is connected to the short circuit point in the main switch and the earth terminal
marked (E) is connected to earth continuity conductor or some good earth point near-by.

The handle of the tester is turned at a high speed so that sufficient testing voltage is produced. The reading on the dial
39
 of the megger is noted.

The insulation resistance thus measured should not be less than 0.5 MΩ on a firm, sound and fixed wiring.
If the insulation resistance is below this value, the wiring section giving that value should be rewired or checked
thoroughly until the required value is obtained.
Insulation Resistance Test between Wiring Conductors

To ensure that the insulation of the cables or wires is not damaged and there is no leakage between them, this test is
performed.

Before performing this test, the position of the main switch, fuses, switches, etc. should be as follows:

● Main switch in OFF position,

● All switches in ON position,
● All lamps and other appliances should be removed,
● Fuses beyond the main switch should be in position.

40
 If the switch is connected to the neutral wire then the connected appliance will get phase even if the switch is in
OFF position and remain alive.

There is absolutely no difference in the functioning of the switch in either case, but from the safety point of view to
avoid shock, etc. the phase should always be given through the switch and neutral direct to the point.

The simple method of conducting the polarity test is by using a test lamp.

Before performing this test the position of the main switch, fuses, switches, etc. should be as under main switch in ON
position, all switches in OFF position, all lamps and other appliances should be removed.

Figure 3.4: Polarity Test in House Wiring

42
 One end of the test lamp is connected to earth wire and the other end to the incoming terminal of the switch.
If the lamp lights, it indicates that the switch is connected to phase wire, otherwise to neutral wire.

Earth Continuity Test of Electrical Installation

To perform this test with the help of megger, the main switch is opened, the main fuses are withdrawn, all the switches are
made ON and all the lamps are put in position.

The ‘L’ (line terminal) of the megger is connected to the phase conductor in the main switch and ‘E’ (earth terminal) of the
megger is connected to an earth point.

Figure 3.5: Earth Continuity Test of Electrical Installation

In this test, megger should indicate a resistance value between 0.5 and 1 mega ohm.

In this case, if earthing of all the metallic parts and the earth wire will be in good condition, a sufficient amount of current
will flow through test circuit and megger will show a reading up to 1 MΩ.

If it will be in bad condition then it will offer high resistance to the current. As a result, a very low quantity of current will
flow and megger will show a reading more than 1 MΩ.

Therefore, if the megger shows a high reading (more than 1 MΩ), it means that the main switch or conduit is not

43
 properly earthed or the earth wire is broken somewhere requiring correction.

Earth Resistance Test

Resistance of earth is the resistance between infinite earth and earth electrode. This depends upon mainly three factors
1. The resistance of the electrode itself,
2. The contact resistance between electrode surface and soil,
3. The resistivity of soil between the electrode and infinite earth.
https://www.electrical4u.com/resistance-of-earth/#:~:text=%20Resistance%20of%20Earth%20%201%20The%
20resistance,between%20the%20electrode%20and%20infinite%20earth.%20More%20

Test Methods for Measuring Earth Resistance

There are six basic test methods to measure earth resistance

1. Four Point Method (Wenner Method)
2. Three-terminal Method (Fall-of-potential Method / 68.1 % Method))
3. Two-point Method (Dead Earth Method)
4. Clamp-on test method
5. Slope Method

(1) Four Point Method (Wenner Method):

▪ This method is the most commonly used for measuring soil resistivity,
Required Equipment:
▪ Earth Tester (4 Terminal)
▪ 4 No’s of Electrodes (Spike)
▪ 4 No’s of Insulated Wires
▪ Hammer
▪ Measuring Tap
Connections:
First, isolate the grounding electrode under measurement by disconnecting it from the rest of the system.

44
Earth tester set has four terminals, two current terminals marked C1 and C2 and two potential terminals marked P1 and
P2.
P1 = Green lead, C1 = Black lead, P2 = Yellow lead, C2 = Red lead
In this method, four small-sized electrodes are driven into the soil at the same depth and equal distance from one
another in a straight line.
The distance between earth electrodes should be at least 20 times greater than the electrode depth in ground.
Example, if the depth of each earth electrode is 1 foot then the distance between electrodes is greater than 20 feet.
The earth electrode under measurement is connected to C1 Terminal of Earth Tester.
Drive another potential Earth terminal (P1) at depth of 6 to 12 inches from some distance at C1 Earth Electrode and
connect to P1 Terminal of Earth Tester by insulted wire.

Drive another potential Earth terminal (P2) at depth of 6 to 12 inches from some distance at P1 Earth Electrode and
connect to P2 Terminal of Earth Tester by insulted wire.

Drive another Current Electrode (C2) at depth of 6 to 12 inches from some distance at P2 Earth Electrode and connect
to C2 Terminal of Earth Tester by insulted wire.
Connect the ground tester as shown in the picture.

45
Figure 3.6: Four-point earth resistance testing method

Testing Procedure:
Press START and read out the resistance value. This is the actual value of the ground Resistance of the electrode under
test.
Record the reading on the Field Sheet at the appropriate location. If the reading is not stable or displays an error
indication, double check the connections. For some meters, the RANGE and TEST CURRENT settings may be
changed until a combination that provides a stable reading without error indications is reached.
The Earthing Tester has basically Constant Current generator which injects current into the earth between the two
current terminals C1 (E) and C2 (H).
The potential probes P1 & P2 detect the voltage ΔV (a function of the resistance) due to the current injected in the earth
by the current terminals C1 & C2.
The test set measures both the current and the voltage and internally calculates and then displays the resistance. R=V/I
If this ground electrode is in parallel or series with other ground rods, the resistance value is the total value of all
resistances.

46
Ground resistance measurements are often corrupted by the existence of ground currents and their harmonics. To
prevent this, it is advisable to use Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) System. This automatically selects the testing
frequency with the least amount of noise enabling you to get a clear reading.
Repeat above steps by increasing spacing between each electrode at equal distance and measure earth resistance value.
Average the all readings
An effective way of decreasing the electrode resistance to ground is by pouring water around it. The addition of
moisture is insignificant for the reading; it will only achieve a better electrical connection and will not influence the
overall results. Also, a longer probe or multiple probes (within a short distance) may help.
Application:
It is advisable for Medium or Large electrode System.
It is use for Multiple Depth Testing
Advantage:
This is most accurate Method.
It is Quick, easy method.
Extremely reliable conforms to IEEE 81;
Disadvantage:
There need to turn off the equipment power or disconnect the earth electrode.
One major drawback to this method is that it requires a large distance for measurement.
This distance can range up to 2,000 feet or more for ground systems covering a large area or of very low resistance.
Time consuming and labor intensive

2) Three Point (Fall-of-potential) Method.

The Fall-of-Potential method or Three-Terminal method is the most common way to measure earth electrode system
resistance, but it requires special procedures when used to measure large electrode systems
There are three basic fall-of-potential test method.
Full fall-of-Potential: A number of tests are made at different spaces of Potential Probe “P” and the resistance curve is
plotted.
Simplified Fall-of-Potential: Three measurements are made at defined distance of Potential Probe”P” and mathematical
calculations are used to determine the resistance.

47
 Figure 3.7: Three Point (Fall-of-potential) Method

Testing Procedure:
▪ Press START and read out the resistance value. This is the actual value of the ground electrode under test.
▪ Move the potential electrode 10 feet farther away from the electrode and make a second Measurement.
▪ Move the potential probe 10 feet closer to the electrode and make a third measurement.
▪ If the three measurements agree with each other within a few percent of their average, then the average of the three
measurements may be used as the electrode resistance.
▪ If the three measurements disagree by more than a few percent from their average, then additional measurement
procedures are required.

49
▪ The electrode center location seldom is known. In this case, at least three sets of measurements are made, each with the
current probe a different distance from the electrode, preferably in different directions.
▪ When space is not available and it prevent measurements in different directions, suitable measurements can be made by
moving the current probe in a line away from or closer to the electrode.
▪ For example, the measurement may be made with the current probe located 200, 300 and 400 feet along a line from the
electrode.
▪ Each set of measurements involves placing the current probe and then moving the potential probe in 10 feet increments
toward or away from the electrode.
▪ The starting point is not critical but should be 20 to 30 feet from the electrode connection point, in which case the
potential probe is moved in 10 feet increments toward the current probe, or 20 to 30 feet from the current probe, in
which case the potential probe is moved in 10 feet increments back toward the electrode.
▪ The spacing between successive potential probe locations is not particularly critical, and does not have to be 10 feet, as
long as the measurements are taken at equal intervals along a line between the electrode connection and the current
probe.
▪ Larger spacing means quicker measurements with fewer data points. Smaller spacing means more data points with
slower measurements.
▪ Once all measurements have been made, the data is plotted with the distance from the electrode on the horizontal scale
and the measured resistance on the vertical scale.
Importance of Position of Current Electrode (C2):

▪ Fall-of-Potential measurements are based on the distance of the current and potential probes from the center of the
electrode under test.
▪ For highest degree of accuracy, it is necessary that the probe is placed outside the sphere of influence of the ground
electrode under test and the auxiliary earth.
▪ If we Place Current Electrode (C2) too near to Earth Electrode (C1) then the sphere of influence, the effective areas of
resistance will overlap and invalidate measurements taken.
▪ For the accurate results and to ensure that the ground stakes are outside the spheres of influence.
▪ Reposition the inner Potation Electrode (P1) 1meter in either direction and take a fresh measurement. If there is a
significant change in the reading (30 %), we need to increase the distance between the ground rod under test, the inner

50
 stake (probe) and the outer stake (auxiliary ground) until the measured values remain fairly constant when repositioning
the inner stake (probe).
▪ The best distance for the current probe is at least 10 to 20 times the largest dimension of the electrode.
▪ Because measurement results are often distorted by underground pieces of metal, underground aquifers, etc. so re
measurements are done by changing axis of earth spike by 90 degrees, by changing the depth and distance several
times, these results can be a suitable ground resistance system.
The table is a guide for appropriately setting the probe (inner stake) and auxiliary ground (outer stake).

51
 Table 3: Appropriately setting the probe (inner stake) and auxiliary ground (outer stake).

Distance of Probe Distance to the Distance to the

Depth of the ground inner stake outer stake
electrode
2m 15 m 25 m
3m 20 m 30 m
6m 25 m 40 m
10 m 30 m 50 m

Application:
▪ It is advisable for High Electrical Load.
▪ It is suitable for small and medium electrodes system (1 or 2 rods/plates).
▪ It is useful for homogeneous Soil
Advantage:
▪ The three-point method is the most reliable test method;
▪ This test is the most suitable test for large grounding systems.
▪ Three-terminal is the quicker and simpler, with one less lead to string Spacing for Current Probe
Disadvantage:
▪ Individual ground electrodes must be disconnected from the system to be measured.
▪ It is extremely time consuming and labor intensive.
▪ There are situations where disconnection is not possible.
▪ Knowledge of location of center probe is necessary
▪ Time consuming and labor intensive Ineffective if the electrical center is unknown.
▪ If less measurements are being made then less accurate than full Fall of Potential

61.8% Rule:

52
▪ It is proven that the actual electrode resistance is measured when the potential probe is located 61.8% of the distance
between the center of the electrode and the current probe. For example, if the current probe is located 400 feet from the
electrode center, then the resistance can be measured with the potential probe located 61.8% x 400 = 247 feet from the
electrode center.
▪ The 61.8% measurement point assumes the current and potential probes are located in a straight line and the soil is
homogeneous (same type of soil surrounding the electrode area and to a depth equal to 10 times the largest electrode
dimension).
▪ The 61.8% measurement point still provides suitable accuracy for most measurements.

Figure 3.8: 61.8% method

▪ Suppose, the distance of Current Spike from Earth Electrode D = 60 ft, Then, distance of Potential Spike would be 62
% of D = 0.62D i.e. 0.62 x 60 ft = 37 ft.
Application:
▪ It is suitable for small and medium electrodes system.
▪ It is useful for homogeneous Soil
Advantage:
▪ Simplest to carry out.
▪ Required minimum calculation;
▪ Fewest number of test probe moves.
Disadvantage:
53
▪ Soil must be homogeneous.
▪ Less accurate
▪ Susceptible for non-homogeneous soil

Tests of protective devices

● Fuses / Circuit-breakers
To check the specifications of the protective devices such as fuses or circuit breakers, a fault loop impedance
measurement is carried out to calculate the corresponding short-circuit current. A visual inspection can then be used to
check that the sizing is correct.

● Residual current devices (RCDs)

RCDs, which detect earth leakage currents, can be tested using two methods:

● The basic test, also called a pulse test, which determines the trip time (in milliseconds)
● The step test, which determines the trip time and trip current, thus detecting any RCD ageing.
Fault finding

This is not an exact science as faults in electrical systems can be many, varied and difficult to locate. What we can state
however, are the main symptoms of electrical faults, these are:

▪ Loss of Supply
▪ Fire
▪ Shock.
Table 1.4 indicates such symptoms, their possible common causes and the action to be taken. Column 2 illustrates, in
general terms, the possible causes of faults. Table 1.5 summarizes these in more detail. Many faults are easily located,
many are not, in all cases observe the following general procedure whenever possible:

1 Determine the nature/symptom of the problem.

2 Ask client/personnel for their recollections: how, when and where the problem occurred (this can save so much time).
3 Carry out relevant visual and instrument checks to locate the fault.
4 Rectify if possible.
5 Re-test.

54
6 Re-instate system.

55
Table 4: Indicates Symptoms, possible common causes and the action to be taken

Symptom Possible common Cause Diagnosis Action

Complete 1. Fault on suppliers( 1. Check adjacent 1. Contact REC

loss of REC) main properties are also 2. Contact REC
supply cable/equipment OFF 3. Contact REC
2. Fault on service cable 2. Check adjacent 4. Switch back on
3. Main fuse or CB properties are ON 5. Re- set, if it
operated 3. Check adjacent trips, then
4. Main DB switch OFF properties are ON switch off all
5. Main RCD operated CB’s re-set and
4. Visual check turn on each CB
until one causes
5. Visual check the main RCD
to operate. This
is likely faulty
circuit
Loss of 1. Circuit fuse or CB 1. Visual check 1. Replace OR
supply to a operated 2. Check fuse/CB are re-set as
circuit 2. Conduct broken or out OK operation may
of terminal be due to an
overload. If
protection still
operates, do
NOT reset until
fault has been
found, usually
56
 by carrying out
insulation test
2. Locate faulty
out visual
check/
continuity
Fire/ 1. Overloaded cable 1. 1,2 &3 visual check 3. 1,2 &3 turn off
burning 2. Damaged insulation and smell supply, to
3. Water in circuit(s)
fitting/accessories investigate fuse
and cable sizes,
check for water
ingress,
damaged
insulation,
visually and
using an
insulation
resistance tester
Electric 1. Exposed live part 1. Use of an approved 1. Turn off supply
shock 2. Insulation breakdown voltage indicator to circuit(s)
3. Earthing and bonding between exposed check visually
inadequate and/or extraneous for covers
4. Appliances incorrectly conductive parts missing etc.
wired or damaged and 2. Carry out
with inappropriate insulation
fusing resistance and
5. Incorrect polarity in polarity tests on
accessories circuit and

57
 cables, and
establish that all
Earthing and
bonding is in
place and all
protective
devices are
suitable for
disconnection
times

Table 5: Summary of table 1.4 in more detail.

General cause Detail

Insulation breakdown 1. Damage by installer

2. Damage by other trades
3. Damage by user (misuse, nails in walls, etc.
4. 4. overloading

Fuse, circuit breaker or Residual Current Device 1. Short circuit caused by:
operating instantly circuit is switched on a) Damaged insulation
b) Crossed polarity at terminations
c) Water penetration in joint box’s seal, gland etc.
2. Faulty appliances

58
 Fuse or Circuit breaker operating regularly after a 1. Overload caused by too many loads on a circuit,
period of time. or machinery stalling or with too much
mechanical load
2. Slight water penetration or general dampness

Fuse or Circuit breaker operates with no apparent Transient over voltage caused by switching
fault surges, motor starting etc

6.2.3.4 Learning activities

Learning Activity 1

Do the activity at home or during vacant time

1. Perform an insulation resistance test on an electrical installation in your institution

Learning Activity 2

By the guidance of your trainer, perform the following tests on an existing electrical installation circuit:

i. Polarity test
ii. Earth test
iii. Insulation resistance test
iv. Ring continuity test
v. Earth loop impedance test

59
61
 Equipment
● Test instruments
⮚ Continuity tester (ohmmeter)
⮚ Insulation resistance tester
⮚ Earth loop impedance tester
⮚ Test lamp
Materials and supplies materials

● BS 7671
● Guidance Note 3
● The On-site Guide.
● Stationery
● Wiring certificates
References

● Manufacturers’ manuals
● Relevant catalogues
● IEE regulations
● Standards
● County by-laws
● Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)
● National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) regulations
● National Construction Authority (NCA) regulations
● IEE tables
Reference materials

● Standards
● County by-laws
● Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)
● National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) regulations
● National Construction Authority (NCA) regulations
● IEE tables

62
 6.2.3.7 Reference
IEE Wiring Regulations: Inspection, Testing and Certification Sixth Edition Brian Scaddan, IEng, MIET

https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/inspection-electrical-installations-home-1

https://www.dfliq.net/blog/electrical-inspection-a-detailed-overview/

https://www.yourelectricalguide.com/2019/10/new-electrical-installation-house-wiring-testing-methods.html

https://www.electrical4u.com/resistance-of-earth/#:~:text=%20Resistance%20of%20Earth%20%201%20The%20resist
ance,between%20the%20electrode%20and%20infinite%20earth.%20More%20

63
 Whatever the case, the original must be given to the person ordering the work, and a duplicate retained by the
contractor.
One important aspect of an EIC is the recommended interval between inspections.
This should be evaluated by the designer and will depend on the type of installation and its usage. In some cases, the
time interval is mandatory, especially where environments are subject to use by the public.

The IEE Guidance Note 3 give recommended maximum frequencies between inspections.
A PIR is very similar in part to an EIC in respect of details of the installation, i.e. maximum demand, type of earthing
system, Ze, etc.
The rest of the form deals with the extent and limitations of the inspection and test, recommendations, and a summary
of the installation.

The record of the extent and limitations of the inspection is very important. It must be agreed with the client or other
third party exactly what parts of the installation will be covered by the report and those that will not. The interval until
the next test is determined by the inspector.
With regard to the schedule of test results, test values should be recorded unadjusted, any compensation for
temperature, etc., being made after the testing is completed.

Any alterations or additions to an installation will be subject to the issue of an EIC, except where the addition is, say, a
single point added to an existing circuit, and then the work is subject to the issue of an MEIWC.
Summary

1. The addition of points to existing circuits requires an MEIWC.

2. A new installation or an addition or alteration that comprises new circuits requires an EIC.
3. An existing installation requires a PIR.
Note
Points (2) and (3) must be accompanied by a schedule of test results and a schedule of inspections.
As the client/customer is to receive the originals of any certification, it is important that all relevant details are
completed correctly

65
 This ensures that future inspectors are aware of the installation details and test results which may indicate a slow
progressive deterioration in some or all of the installation.
These certificates, etc., could also form part of a ‘sellers pack’ when a client wishes to sell a property.

The following is a general guide to completing the necessary documentation and should be read in conjunction with the
examples given in BS 7671 and the IEE Guidance Note 3.

Types of electrical wiring certificates

1. Electrical Installation Completion Certificate

2. Minor Electrical Installation Works Certificate
Minor Electrical Installation Works Certificate

This certificate should be made out and signed or otherwise authenticated by a skilled person in respect of the design,
construction, and inspection and testing of the minor Electrical Installation work.

A Minor Electrical Installation Works Certificate will indicate the responsibility for design, construction, inspection and
testing of the work described on the certificate.

The Minor Electrical Installation Works Certificate is intended to be used for additions and alterations to an installation
that do not extend to the provision of a new circuit.

Examples include the addition of socket-outlets or lighting points to an existing circuit, the relocation of a light switch
etc.

This Certificate may also be used for the replacement of equipment such as accessories or luminaires, but not for the
replacement of distribution boards or similar items.

Appropriate inspection and testing, however, should always be carried out irrespective of the extent of the work
undertaken.

66
Issuance of the Minor Electrical Installation Works Certificate

This Certificate is normally issued to confirm that the electrical installation work to which it relates has been designed,
constructed, inspected and tested in accordance with British Standard 7671 (the IET Wiring Regulations).

The person ordering the work receives and the contractor retains a duplicate.

An 'original' Certificate or a copy of it, you should be passed, to the owner.

A separate Certificate should be issued for each existing circuit on which minor works have been carried out.

This Certificate is not appropriate if the contractor requested, undertakes more extensive installation work, for which
you should be issued an Electrical Installation Certificate.

The Certificate should be retained in a safe place and be shown to any person inspecting or undertaking further work on
the electrical installation in the future.

If you later vacate the property, this Certificate will demonstrate to the new owner that the minor electrical installation
work carried out complied with the requirements of British Standard 7671 at the time the Certificate was issued

Electrical installation completion certificate

This certificate should be made out and signed or otherwise authenticated by a skilled person or persons in respect of
the design, construction, inspection and testing of the work.

Electrical Installation Certificates indicates the responsibility for design, construction, inspection and testing, whether
in relation to new work or further work on an existing installation.

Issuance of electrical installation certificate

The Electrical Installation Certificate is to be used only for the initial certification of a new installation or for an addition
or alteration to an existing installation where new circuits have been introduced, or the replacement of a consumer
unit/distribution board.

67
 It is not to be used for a Periodic Inspection, for which an Electrical Installation Condition Report form should be used.

For an addition or alteration which does not extend to the introduction of new circuits, a Minor Electrical Installation
Works Certificate may be used.

The 'original' Certificate is to be issued to the person ordering the work (Regulation 644.4). A duplicate should be
retained by the contractor.

1. This Certificate is only valid if accompanied by the Schedule of Inspections and the Schedule(s) of Test Results.
2. The signatures appended are those of the persons authorized by the companies executing the work of design,
construction, inspection and testing respectively. A signatory authorized to certify more than one category of work
should sign in each of the appropriate places.
3. The time interval recommended before the first periodic inspection must be inserted. The proposed date for the next
inspection should take into consideration the frequency and quality of maintenance that the installation can reasonably
be expected to receive during its intended life, and the period should be agreed between the designer, installer and other
relevant parties.
4. The page numbers for each of the Schedule of Inspections and the Schedule(s) of Test Results should be indicated,
together with the total number of sheets involved.
5. The maximum prospective value of fault current recorded should be the greater of either the prospective value of
short-circuit current or the prospective value of earth fault current.
Electrical installation certificate

This safety Certificate is issued to confirm that the electrical installation work to which it relates has been designed,
constructed, inspected and tested in accordance with British Standard 7671 (the IET Wiring Regulations).

The person ordering the work receives and the contractor retains a duplicate.

An 'original' Certificate or a copy of it, you should be passed, to the owner.

The “original” Certificate should be retained in a safe place and be shown to any person inspecting or undertaking
further work on the electrical installation in the future.

68
Client: ……………………………………………………Contractor: ………………….…………………

Physical Address: ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Make: ………………… Model: …………………. No. of Ports: ……….………

Visited by certification committee: Date: …………………….. Time: …………………………

Serial PARTICULARS OF THE

No. INSTALLATION YES NO
MANDATORY
REQUIREMENTS

(A) The Main Terminal Equipment

1. The main terminal equipment has been Type approved
2. The main terminal equipment has been properly accommodated in a spacious easily
accessible area with proper ventilation
3. The main equipment has been properly mounted or fixed
4. The main terminal equipment cabinet has been properly closed except during maintenance
5. The main terminal equipment earth wire has been properly connected with the correct
colour code.
6. The main terminal equipment earth has not been commoned to commercial power earth

(B) Power provision and facilities

1. Power cable properly clipped, trunked or cleated
2. Power cable has not been jointed
3. Power fail facility has been provided
4. Power fail facility extensions have been installed and are functional
5. The equipment room has been provided with at least one 13 amps socket.
6. Power has not been supplied through a multi socket extension cable
7. Power socket has been reserved for the terminal equipment only
8. All power connections needing protection have been fitted with the correct fuses
9. Power fail back-up (Generator or Battery has been provided and is functional
10. Correct separation between the power and communications cables has been
observed to avoid power infringement

(c) Internal Wiring

1. The main discase has been provided and well fixed on the wall
2. The main discase has been properly closed
3. The main discase has been properly earthed
4. Terminated pairs on discases have been well done and soldered where necessary
3. All Line Jack Units (LJUs) have been properly fixed on the wall
4. All LJUs have been properly closed

70
5. LJUs are accessible for maintenance purposes
6. Trunkings have been provided for all Telecommunications Cables
7. Telecommunications Cables and wires with no trunking have been properly fixed and
stapled
8. Trunking has been provided between the main equipment and discase
9. There are no dry or open joints on the PVC internal cables
10. Dropwires have not been used for internal wiring
(d) Block Wiring

Serial PARTICULARS OF THE

No. INSTALLATION YES

1. The local internal distribution point or the main distribution frame (MDF) is
accommodated in a spacious easily accessible room.
2. The room has adequate natural or electrical lighting
3. The lead in cable ducts at the MDF have been well sealed to stop water and rodents from
entering the room
4. The distribution cables are well formed and laced inside the MDF room
5. The terminations at the MDF have been properly done and soldered
6. The terminations at the discases have been properly done and soldered
7. Lockable access to risers is provided for every floor with adequate electrical lighting
8. Conduits leaving for various rooms, flats and offices are as per specifications and
originate from the local MDF/DP room
9. The cables are well formed, laced and well-fixed along the cable risers
10. Labeling and sign writing has been done where necessary
11. Discases, block terminals or box connections are fitted at suitable accessible areas on
every floor
12. All discases and sub-discases have been properly earthed
13. The main MDF earth has been well provided at the correct value of 0-2 ohms
14. The current wiring distribution diagrams are kept securely in DP/MDF room.

(e) General Issues

1. Installation and Commissioning manuals for the installation have been provided
2. The installation work has been provided according to the submitted drawings and
approved drawings
3. Access to the premises has been allowed
4. Access to the equipment and the wiring has been allowed
5. The client has moved from the premises where the equipment was initially installed
6. The equipment has been recovered or interchanged after an operational problem
7. The certification team was able to locate the premises
8. The maintenance contractor is prompt after calls in case of any problem
71
 B. the clerk-of-works

C. the owner

D. the local council

3. When a certificate is issued for Initial Verification purposes, for the certificate to be
valid it MUST be accompanied by?

A. test results sheet

B. schedules of inspections and test results

C. inspection tick-sheet

D. Part 'P' certificate

4. An electrical installation certificate for a new installation will require THREE

signatories, Identify one of these signatories.

A. the owner

B. the designer

C. the local authority

D. the site manager

6. When the installation of a new circuit to an existing installation has been completed,
the inspector will issue?

A. a condition report

B. a schedule of the tests completed

C. a minor-works certificate

D. an initial verification certificate

7. Identify the non-statutory document that details the construction and safe use of
electrical test instruments and equipment.

A. HSE guidance note GS38

B. Electricity at Work regulations

C. BS7671 On-site guide

73
 D. Electrical Regulations book

5. _________ document deals with inspection, testing and certification

6. For an addition or alteration of Electrical Installation Works. Which Certificate may

be used?

7. Who issues the certificate of a new electrical installation?

8. Which certificate is normally issued after an inspection and testing of a new

installation?

6.2.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

● Continuity tester (ohmmeter)
● Insulation resistance tester
● Earth loop impedance tester
● Test lamp
Materials and supplies

▪ A template form for periodic inspection courtesy of IET

▪ A Template form of model Electrical Installation Certificate courtesy of IET
▪ A Template form of A Model Minor Electrical Installation Works Certificate
Courtesy of IET
▪ BS7671
Get the template forms from:

1. https://electrical.theiet.org/media/2209/bs-76712018-model-forms-minor-electr
ical-installation-works-certificate.pdf

74
 2. https://electrical.theiet.org/media/2387/bs-767122018-model-forms-electrical-i
nstallation-certificate.pdf

Reference materials

● Standards
● County by-laws
● Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)
● National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) regulations
● National Construction Authority (NCA) regulations
● IEE tables

6.2.4.7 Reference
IEE Wiring Regulations: Inspection, Testing and Certification Sixth Edition Brian
Scaddan, IEng, MIET

https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/inspection-electrical-installations-home-1

https://www.dfliq.net/blog/electrical-inspection-a-detailed-overview/

75
 6.2.5 Sample Response to Self-Assessment

6.2.5.1 Responses for Self-assessment: Learning Outcome 1

1. B
2. Visual
Touch

Smell

3. To ensure safety of persons and livestock

To ensure protection from fire and heat

To ensure that the installation is not damaged so as to impair safety

To ensure that the installation is not defective and complies with current
regulations

4. Design
Construction
Inspection and testing

76
 6.2.5.2 Responses for Self-assessment: Learning Outcome 2
1. D
2. D
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. Insulation Resistance Tester
Prospective Short Circuit Current Tester
RCD Tester

7. Continuity Of Protective Conductors

Continuity Of Ring Final Circuit Conductors
Insulation Resistance

8.
a) Between L and E at the consumer unit
b) Between L and E at the socket outlet
c) This value is (R 1+ R 2) for the circuit.

9. check on existence of electronic equipment

● check there are no neon’s, capacitors, etc., in circuit

● all switches closed and accessories equipment removed

● no danger to persons or livestock by conducting the test

10. all single pole devices in line conductor only

center contact of Edison screw lamp holders in line conductor
● All accessories correctly connected.

11.

77
(a) The results of the assessment of general characteristics sections 311, 312 and
313, and diagrams, charts and similar information regarding the installation (5
marks)

(b) In or adjacent to the distribution board (3 marks)

(c) Reference to the electronic door sensor and the PIR controlled external
luminaires as these could be vulnerable to a typical test (3 marks)

(d) Maximum demand, rating of consumer unit, earthing and bonding

arrangements, capacity of main protective device, etc. (4 marks)

78
 6.2.5.3 Responses for Self-assessment: Learning Outcome 3

1. C
2. A
3. (a)

(i) 0.4 Ω
(ii) 0.4 Ω
(iii) (R 1+ R 2) for the ring
4.
(a) Increases
(b) Increases
(c) Decreases

79
 6.2.5.4 Responses for Self-assessment: Learning Outcome 4
1. D
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. D
6. A
7. To ensure accessories, etc., to relevant standard
To ensure compliance with BS 7671
To ensure no damage that may cause danger

4.

(a) The Electricity at Work Regulations

(b) BS 7671

Guidance Note 3

The On-site Guide.

8. BS7671
9. Minor Electrical Installation Works Certificate
10. Contractor
11. Electrical Installation Certificate

80
CHAPTER 7: ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE

Unit of learning code ENG/CU/EI/CR/03/4/A

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Perform Electrical System
Breakdown Maintenance

7.1 Introduction
This unit describes the competencies required to enable trainee be able to exhibit
competency in the application of health, safety and environmental standards, prepare of
working drawings, assemble tools, equipment, materials and drawing instruments, and
perform electrical installation

7.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1 Identify system failure
2 Troubleshoot cause of failure
3 Repair the installation
4 Test the repaired system

7.2.1 learning outcome 1: Identify System Failure

7.2.1.1 Introduction
To perform breakdown maintenance successfully, one requires the ability to obtain
information about the failure from the user, refer to manuals for the system and do visual
inspection to identify system failure to identify test points.

7.2.1.2 Information Sheet

Breakdown maintenance
This is a type of maintenance that involves repairing a broken down machine or system
after its continued use until it completely breaks down. For example, this type of
maintenance would occur if you wait until a machine stops working before fixing it. This
is one of several common maintenance types.

Types of Maintenance

81
 1. Corrective model: Arising breakdown repair applied to the least critical equipment.
2. Conditional model: The corrective model plus tests to determine the next action
steps, used with equipment that is unlikely to fail.
3. Systematic model: Includes tasks done regardless of the condition of the equipment,
measurements and tests to determine potential issues, and repair of identified faults.
This model is used for equipment that is moderately available and important. These
tasks, however, do not need to be done on a fixed schedule.
4. High-availability model: Used for equipment for which failure would be
catastrophic, including items with above 90 percent of availability and resultant high
production costs and demand. Often, no time can be allotted to stop this machine for
preventive, corrective, or systematic maintenance. For this reason, it requires
predictive maintenance techniques along with an equipment shut down for a complete
overhaul at least once a year. This type of model is commonly used for continuously
rotating equipment, power production turbines, high-temperature furnaces, and
reaction tanks or reactor deposits.
Additional Maintenance Considerations
Maintenance plans must account for both legal regulations about maintenance and
specialized knowledge or resources required to perform the maintenance in question.
Legal maintenance requirements typically apply to equipment that has the potential to
harm people or the environment and outline specific tests, tasks, and inspections that
must be included in the maintenance plan. Examples include:
1. Pressurized equipment and devices
2. High- and medium-voltage installations
3. Lifts
4. Fire prevention facilities and equipment
5. Chemical storage tanks.
Maintenance must be a competent electrician.

Breakdown Maintenance:

83
Breakdown maintenance is maintenance performed on a piece of equipment that has
broken down, faulted, or otherwise cannot be operated. The goal of breakdown
maintenance is to fix something that has malfunctioned. To the contrary, preventive
maintenance is performed in order to keep something running.
Sometimes breakdown maintenance is performed because of an unplanned event. For
example, if a critical piece of machinery breaks, the maintenance is performed because of
the imminent need for that machine to operate again. However, breakdown maintenance
can be planned for in advance, which is what we might call “good” breakdown
maintenance.
Breakdown maintenance workflow

Figure 1 Breakdown maintenance flow chart

There are two types of breakdown maintenance:

1. planned and
2. Unplanned.
84
Planned breakdown maintenance
Planned breakdown maintenance means that the organization is prepared for a breakdown
and even expects it to happen. The equipment runs until it breaks, which initiates a run to
failure (RTF) trigger. While RTF triggers can be unplanned, breakdown maintenance
plans use RTF as a way of lowering the cost of maintenance.
This kind of plan needs to be rigorously documented and controlled. Employees should
be clear on exactly which parts will break down and which parts will be maintained
normally via preventive maintenance. Without these checks, a breakdown maintenance
plan can be exploited or run awry.
Unplanned breakdown maintenance
Unplanned breakdown maintenance, on the other hand, occurs when a piece of equipment
fails or breaks unexpectedly—also called an unplanned downtime event. While some
facilities may not utilize a planned breakdown maintenance plan, nearly every facility
needs resources in place for unplanned breakdown maintenance. After all, every piece of
equipment will break or fault at some point in its life.
Examples of breakdown maintenance
Breakdown maintenance is unique in its applications because it cannot be used with
certain industries or products, especially ones that involve health and safety. This means
that breakdown maintenance is most frequently used when parts are inexpensive or
nonessential.
Here are some examples in which breakdown maintenance is applicable:
1. Equipment can’t be repaired at all (inaccessible, designed to not be repaired)
2. Asset consists of inexpensive or easy-to-replace parts
3. Non-critical pieces of equipment (like hand tools)
4. Objects/equipment that are disposable or meant to be replaced at the end of their
lifespan
5. Short-life assets (batteries, high flow pumps)
As you can see from these examples, breakdown maintenance becomes viable when
there’s no inherent safety risk to letting a part or piece of equipment break. As an

85
Machine checks
Various instruments are required to perform checks on machines and equipment, either
when the supply is on and they are in operation, or when the supply is off and the
machines are at standstill. Instruments required will include an insulation tester,
continuity tester, doctor tester, feeler gauge, spring balance, and straight edges and string
lines.

Instruments required for supply-off checks

Insulation tester

This is also referred to as a megger. This is an instrument

which produces a d.c. output of 500 V which is sufficient
test voltage for machines operating on supplies up to 650
V. Tests can be applied to check the insulation values
between connections, terminal and windings connected to
different poles, or between these and the exposed
metalwork of the equipment. Circuit diagrams, or electrical knowledge of the plant is
required to ensure that there are no connections which would lead to false values being
obtained. The minimum insulation value should be around 1MΩ, although if the machine
is damp, it may need drying out to obtain this figure
Continuity tester
This is a meter used to check the actual ohmic values of
the windings of a machine, or resistance values of starting
or speed control equipment. Again, detailed knowledge is
required to ensure that there are no parallel paths when the
equipment is fully connected which would lead to false
low values being obtained, or is any alternative circuit is

87
connected across (in parallel ) with an open circuit winding.
Ductor tester
This is a device for the measure of very low resistance values which are not practical to
read on the continuity tester that is, small fractions of an ohm, may be 0.01Ω or so. The
tester circulates a heavy current and measures the millivolt (mV) drop across the
resistance path. If a doctor is not available, this form of test can be carried out using a
heavy current supply, such as a car battery and connecting an ammeter in series with a
voltmeter across in parallel with the resistance path to be measured.
𝑉
𝑅= 𝐼
Ω

For example, if on such a test, the current in the circuit is 60A and the millivoltmeter
reads 30 mV, the resistance would be 0.0005 Ω, a very difficult value to read directly on
an ohmmeter. This instrument is used for the measurement of heavy current armature
windings of d.c machines, the copper bars in the rotor of a squirrel-cage motor, or the
joints and terminations on busbar and heavy-current cable installations.

Feeler gauges
These are sets of long, parallel blades ranging in thickness
from 0.0254 mm, up to around 0.762mm. They are used
for checking air gaps between the rotor and stator core of
rotating machines, to give an indication of the amount of
wear in the bearings. If the bearings are not worn, the readings will be the same all
around the circumference. If they are worn, the gap at the top will be higher than that at
the bottom. If the difference is large, new bearings will be required to prevent ‘fouling’
between the cores on rotation.
Note: On machines which are almost enclosed, inspection covers at 90o are positioned
on the ‘end covers’ of the motor frame to enable the air gap to be checked.

Spring balance

88
This is used to check the tension on contacts and on brush gear of machines and
equipment. The brush is hooked to the balance, gently pulled away from the slip ring or
commutator and the tension value read on the scale. It can then be compared with the
manufacturer’s instructions

Straight edge and string lines

These are used to check horizontal and lateral alignments.

Instruments required for supply-on checks

Voltmeter

This is a meter designed to measure voltages at the supply

and at different points on the switchgear and the machines.
These can be compared with the manufacturer’s data or
against the readings of similar machines

Approved test lamp

This is another method of testing for the presence of supply or voltage although is does
not indicate the actual value.
Test lamps must be of the standard- approved type which contain the necessary safety
current-limited device, such as resistors and fuses, so that in the event of a fault, there

89
is no risk of an explosion. They are shrouded with insulation to prevent electric shock
while in use.

Ammeter

This meter is used to check the value of the current in

the supply conductors and in the various circuits of
switchgear and machines, to compare with
manufacturer’s data, nameplate details, etc. Ordinary
ammeter do, of course, need to have the circuit
disconnected and then be connected in series. This is
where the clip-on type ammeter is of advantage.

When checking current consumption of machines, in some cases the start current may
be up to eight to ten times the full load value, so be sure of the ammeter range and
allow the motor to run up to speed.

Multi-test instruments

Current, voltage, insulation and resistance continuity values can

all be measured by one instrument which has all the necessary
scales and ranges. These are selected as required by the use of a
multi-position switch, or a set of outlet sockets. The instrument
contains a battery to provide the current flow to measure
resistance on the continuity range, plus a power-pack to step the
voltage to 500V d.c. for the insulation tests. It is known as the
Electrician’s Universal Meter.

90
 Dismantling of standard electrical machines
1. Clean excess dirt, oil, grease, etc from surfaces.
2. Depending on the weight and size of the machine, place it in a suitable position on floor
stand or work bench
3. Any sign of rust on parts to be removed should be sprayed with release fluid
4. Withdraw the key from pinion coupling pulley etc. and then withdraw pinion, etc . See
figure 1 for these operations.
5. Undo nuts from end cover bolts and mark the positions of covers relatives to stator frame.
6. Examine for type of bearings, it may need removal of oil rings on the sleeve type.
7. Remove end covers which will leave ball or roller type bearing on the shaft.
8. Remove rotor or armature from stator. On large machines this may heed lifting gear or two
people, one at each of the shaft.
9. If the motor is fitted with a commutator or slip rings, try to leave these in position on the
shaft.

Note ; when the withdrawal screw is fully

tightened and there is no movement of
coupling, etc. a sharp (shock) blow with
hammer on the screw head will ‘shock it
‘and should produce movement.
Figure 2 Motor coupling pinion or pulley withdrawal tool.

These operations now leave the machine available for cleaning, inspection and maintenance. To
assemble the machine reverse the above steps.

91
 Figure 3 Parts of a disassembled motor.

Inspection of machinery and control gear

All electrical machinery and control gear should be inspected and tested at regular intervals.
The frequency of the inspections will depend on the type of equipment and conditions under
which it operates. A record of each inspection, together with test results should be kept for
future reference.
The inspection of electrical machinery falls into two categories- mechanical and electrical.
Mechanical inspection
1. Visibly check the machine for mechanical damage
2. Check the machine for correct alignment to ensure that no undue stresses are imposed to the
bearings
3. Check the air gap (where possible) with feeler gauges.
4. Check the mechanical operation of switchgear and control gear, paying particular attention to
contact condition and pressure
5. If starters are fitted with dash-pots, check the grade and level of the oil
6. In the case of any oil-immersed equipment, check that the oil level is correct and the oil is clean
Electrical inspection
1. Check all connections on machinery and control gear, taking note of the condition of the wiring
2. Carry out protective conductor continuity and insulation resistance tests
3. Check fuses for correct rating and also check that any motor-overload current settings are correct
4. Run machinery, listening for knocks, strange noises, etc, and check that all equipment in the circuit
is functioning correctly
16
D.C machines – inspection and maintenance
Owing to their more complex construction, d.c. machines require more frequent maintenance than
the common types of a.c. motors. On d.c. machines, the important points to check are the running
condition, yoke and field windings, brushes, brush holders, brush springs, armature assembly,
bearings, shaft, connection, wiring and insulation.
Running condition
With machine running, check for excessive noise and sparking at the brushes.
Yoke and field windings
With machine isolated from the supply, check that the yoke and field windings are in good
condition
Brushes and brush holders
Check that the brushes and brush holders are in good condition and the brushes move freely in
their holders. Brushes worn to half their original length should be preplaced, and the new brushes
properly bedded in with brush-bedding tape or fine sandpaper.

Brush springs
Check that the brush springs are in good condition that spring pressure is adequate and even on all
brushes. A small spring balance may be used for this.
Armature assembly
Check that the coils are in good condition and held securely at the commutator end by their bands.
Check the commutator for concentricity, irregularities and cleanliness. Dirt may be removed with a
commutator brush, and fine sandpaper will remove slight roughness. Emery cloth must not be used
for this purpose as it leaves a greasy film on the commutator. If the commutator is badly worn or
eccentric it must be skimmed on a lathe or on a special skimming machine, after which the
insulation between the segments may have to be cut back.
Bearings
Check bearings as for as possible for condition and correct lubrication.
Shaft
Check the shaft for concentricity and general condition

17
Connections and wiring
Check that all connections are tight and that wiring is in good condition with no signs of heat
damage.

D.C machine faults

Symptoms Tests

Starter of the d.c. motor 1. Check that the overload trip is not stuck in the operated position

will not hold in ‘ON and that remote ‘stop’ buttons; etc, are not operated

’position although the 2. Test ‘no-volt coil’ for short or open circuit
3. In the case of series motors, or starter where the no-volt coil is
motor starts correctly
not in series with a shunt winding, check the no-volts coil circuit
for continuity
Excessive sparking at 1. Check brush-gear for correction tension, brushes sticking in

commutator holders etc

2. Check polarity of interpoles, if fitted
3. Test the armature windings for short on open-circuits
D.C generator fails to 1. May be due to loss of residual magnetism; ‘flash’ using a

excite suitable battery

2. Check that the rotation of the armature is in the correct direction
and that field connections have not been reversed.
3. Check field and armature circuits for open or short -circuits

A.C motor faults

Symptoms Tests

Motor completely dead 1. Check the voltage at the isolator and motor terminals

Contactor starter does not 1. Check that overload trips limit trips interlocks and remote

operate although supply at stop buttons are not operated and that the starter controls are

isolator is correct correctly set to the start position

18
 2. Test continuity of the contactor coil and its associated circuits
Fuses blow or overload 1. Check that the motor is free to rotate

trips operate when any 2. Check that the starter is being operated correctly

attempts is made to start 3. Test insulation resistance

the motor
Single –phase motor hums 1. Check that the motor is free to rotate (particularly for small

but refuses to start size motors)

2. Test continuity of main and starting windings and of the
centrifugal switch or starting relay
3. Test that the supply is actually reaching the starting winding
via the capacitor, if fitted.

7.2.1.3 Learning activities

Field/Visit to an established electrical workshop
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To establish sources failure ● Failed systems ● Take notes
● Methods used to identify ● Observe keenly methods
failures used to identify failed
system

Practical assignment
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To acquire skills in system ● Failed systems Participate in the process
failures identification ● Methods used to identify
failures

7.2.1.4 Self - Assessment

1. As an Electrical Installation Technician, what is one rule you should always follow
when working on electric or electronic equipment?
A. Power source
B. Safety first
19
 C. Location of equipment
D. Required tools
2. As an Electrical Installation Technician, what should you do to the power supply when working on
an electrical system?
A. Close and tag the circuit breakers and main switches
B. Open and tag the circuit breakers
C. Open and tag the circuit breakers and main switches
D. Open and tag the main switches
3. What is failure of equipment?
4. What are the benefits of maintenance?
5. Which human senses that can be used during an inspection of an installation?
6. Apart from wear and tear, what are three other areas of investigation that you would consider when
carrying out a periodic inspection and test of an installation?
7. Describe breakdown maintenance
8. What are the two categories of machinery inspection?

7.2.1.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

The following resources are provided
i. An electrical installation company
ii. A functional Safety department.
iii. Computers
iv. Stationery
v. Lecture room
vi. Workshop
vii. Projector
viii. Drawing equipment
ix. Workshop
x. Protective clothing

7.2.1.6 References
Donnely. (1980). Electrical Installation theory and practice.
Hyde. (1994). Electrical Installation Principles and practice.
Ngari, c. k. (2019). Electrical installations for artisan level 2. Kenya literature bureau.

20
https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/maintenance-management-of-electr

https://www.onupkeep.com/learning/maintenance-types/breakdown-mainten

21
restore the circuit to normal operation again. The following are some common installation defects
and omissions which eventually lead to fault;
1. The provision of double-pole fusing on two wire systems with one pole permanently earthed. This
frequently occurs with final circuit distribution boards when the main and/or sub main control
equipment is single-pole and solid neutral.
2. Fuse protection not related to the current rating of cables to be protected, this is very often due to the
equipment manufactures fitting the fuse-carriers with a fuse-element of maximum rating for the
fuse-units in the equipment.to locate the fault
3. Connecting boxes for sheathed- wiring systems placed in inaccessible positions in roof voids and
beneath floors. Indiscriminate bunching of too many cable using screw-on or inadequate connections
4. Insufficient protection provided for sheathed wiring, e.g. to switch positions and on joints in roof voids
5. Incorrect use of materials, not resistant against corrosion, in damp situations(e.g. enameled conduit and
accessories and plain steel fixing screws)
6. Inadequate of complete omission of segregation between cables and/or connections, housed within a
common enclosure, supplying systems for extra low voltage; or telecommunication and power and/or
lighting operating at a voltage in excess of extra-low voltage.
7. Insufficient attention given in cleaning ends of conduit and/or providing, omission of bushings to
prevent abrasion of cables at tapped entries, particularly at switch positions.
8. Insufficient precautions taken against the entry of water to duct and/or trucking systems, particularly
where installed within the floor
9. Incorrect use of PVC insulated and/or a sheathed cables and flexible cords, instead of heat-resistant
type, for connections to immersion heaters, thermal storage block heaters e.t.c.
10. Incorrect use of braided and twisted flexible cord for bathroom pendant fittings and similar situations
subject to damp or condensation.
11. The incorrect use of accessories apparatus or appliances inappropriate for the operating conditions of
the situation in which they are require to function. This often applies to agricultural and farm
institutions.
12. Installation of cable of insufficient capacity to carry the starting current of motors, causing excessive
volt drop.
13. Incorrect rating of fuse element to give protection to the cable supplying this motor.
There are many approaches in trouble shooting Electrical installations. Among them is the
procedure outlined below:
Step 1: Observe

23
3 Simple short circuit i. Breakdown in insulation
ii. Poor workmanship
4 Cut or damaged extension i. Mishandling
cord ii. Manufacturers defects
5 Flickering or dimming i. This could be a sign of a poor connection and can lead to
lights eventual arcing
ii. Loose/corroded connections making intermittent contact that
could result in sparking, overheating, and fire.
6 Light bulbs burn out You may have a loose connection in the socket or circuit or worn
frequently out insulation causing overheating.
7 Dead socket outlets i. Dead socket outlets can result from a tripped poor connection
(and possible arcing)
ii. A tripped breaker due to excessive heat buildup resulting in
melted wires or outlets.

Common Faults in an Electric Iron

S/N Fault Probable causes
i. Blown fuse
ii. Broken conductor
1 Iron does not heat up when connected to iii. Damaged thermostat
electrical power iv. Broken coil
v. Broken shunt resistor
2 Sole plate gives shock when touched Loose earth connection
3 Pilot light is OFF but iron operates normally Burnt bulb
4 Iron stuck ON (overheats), no temperature Thermostat stuck ON
control.

Electric Cooker

Figure 5. Circuit Diagram of an Electric Cooker

Electric oven

26
 Figure 6. Circuit Diagram of Electric Oven

Common faults in an Electric Cooker and Electric oven

S/N Fault Probable causes
1 Coil does not heat up 1. Burnt/broken coil
2. Faulty thermostat
3. Broken cables
2 Temperature control not possible Thermostat stuck or closed
3 Base plate gives shock Live wire touching base plate and loose/ broken earth
wire

Electric Kettle

An electric kettle has a coil and thermostat as the main components.

Common faults in an Electric Kettle

S/N Fault Probable causes
1 Coil does not heat up 1. Burnt/broken coil
2. Faulty thermostat
3. Broken cables
2 Temperature control not possible Thermostat stuck or closed
3 Kettle gives shock Live wire touching kettle and loose/ broken earth wire

27
 Motor operated appliances
Many domestic appliances use electric motors for operation. They include:
1. Hand drill
2. Food mixers
3. Fruit blenders
4. Hair driers
5. Refrigerators
6. Air conditioners
7. Washing machines
8. Air fans
9. Vacuum cleaners
The most common motor used is the A.C. series motor (universal motor). This motor runs on both
AC and DC.

Figure 7. Circuit diagram of Universal motor

Common Faults in Electric Motors

S/N Fault Probable causes
1. Excessive vibration Uneven foundations defective rotor unbalance
1. Excessive load, foreign matter in the air gap or cooling circuit,
2. Frame heating excessive ambient temperature.
2. Partial short circuit in windings
1. Broken wires
3. Motor is dead 2. Blown fuse
3. Field open
4. Brushes disconnected
1. Too much grease.
2. Too little grease
4. Heating of bearings 3. Incorrect assembly.
4. Bearing overloaded
1. Excessive load
5 Brushes heating 2. Brushes not bedding or sticking in holders
3. Incorrect grade of brushes

1. Supply failure (either single phase or complete loss of power)

6. No rotation 2. Inefficient torque
3. Reversed phase

21
 1. Running single phase excessive load
7. Steady electrical hum 2. Reversed phase
3. Uneven airgap
8. Mechanical noise 1. Foreign matter in airgap or damaged bearings.
2. Misaligned coupling
9. Pulsating electrical hum 1. Defective rotor
2. Defective wound rotor. Loose connection, partial short circuit e.t.c

Phase Tester
Is used to identify or test a live conductor or the presence or voltage in a circuit

Figure 8. Phase Tester

Ohmmeter
The ohmmeter is used to determine continuity in a circuit. It establishes the whether a conductor is
broken or continuous. The circuit must not have power when continuity is being determined by an
ohmmeter.
Insulation Resistance Tester
Insulation resistance tester is used to measure the resistance between conductors and resistance is
the insulation.
General Procedure for Repair
1. Carry out visual inspection.
The appliance is physically inspected for any breakage or damage or burns. Correct the
defect and test to see if the appliance is in good order.
2. Carry out continuity test and insulation resistance test.
Use a circuit diagram to carry out continuity test. If a fault is detected move to step 3.
3. Dismantle the appliance
As you dismantle mark the parts that go together for easier assembly. Clean the parts and
trace where the fault is occurred by carrying out electrical measurements.
4. Repair the appliance
Once the fault has been identified, replace or repair the faulty component.
5. Assemble the appliance

22
 Assemble the appliance to its original form. Follow the reverse process of dismantling.
6. Test the appliance
Carry out the physical tests to ensure the joints are firm and that there are no loose
conductors that can cause short circuit.
Carry out electrical tests to ensure to ensure continuity and good insulation resistance.
Connect the appliance to power to test its working.

7.2.1.5 Learning activities

Field/Visit to an established electrical workshop
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To establish techniques used ● Failed systems ● Take notes
in troubleshooting ● Readings ● Observe keenly
techniques used in
troubleshooting

Practical assignment
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To acquire skills in electrical ● Failed systems Participate in the process
equipment troubleshooting ● Instruments

7.2.2.4 Self - Assessment

1. What types of common faults interrupt power through a circuit?
A. Intact wiring, loose terminals, faulty relays, and faulty switches
B. Broken wiring, loose terminals, faulty relays, and faulty switches
C. Broken wiring, tight terminals, faulty relays, and faulty switches
D. Intact wiring, tight terminals, faulty relays, and faulty switches
2. A piece of equipment must be tested after being repaired, what is the purpose of testing it?
A. Ensure technician skills are adequate
B. Ensure future maintenance will not be required
C. Ensure operators can properly operate equipment

23
 D. Ensure system works properly
3. An electrical circuit needs to be tested for voltage, how would you connect a digital multimeter to
that circuit?
A. Connect in series
B. Connect in parallel
C. Connect in parallel-series
D. Connect in phase
4. As an Electrical Installation Technician, what test do you perform to find an open circuit?
A. Continuity test
B. Resistance test
C. Voltage check
D. Ohm test
5. As an Electrical Installation Technician, what are the two important things to do when
faced with equipment which is not functioning properly?
6. During troubleshooting of electrical equipment, what are some of the safety tips to be
observed?
7. Explain the following terms used in fault diagnosis.
i. Replacement time
ii. Checkout time
8. Outline the general procedure for repair

7.2.2.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

The following resources are provided
i. An electrical installation company
ii. A functional Safety department.
iii. Computers
iv. Stationery
v. Lecture room
vi. Workshop
vii. Projector
viii. Drawing equipment
ix. Workshop

24
 This is a tool used for bending PVC conduits

Stock and die

This is a tool used for making threads on metallic conduits

Side cutter

This is a tool used for medium and big cables.

Combination Pliers

These are made of metal with insulated handles. They are used for cutting, twisting, bending, holding
and gripping wires and cables

Screw driver

16
 It has a cross/flat tip and is used to drive screws with cross/straight slot heads.
Long nose pliers

This is used for cutting and holding wires. It made to reach tight space and or small opening where
other pliers cannot reach. It is also used in making terminal loops of copper wires.
Wire stripper

A tool used for removing insulation from insulated cables.

Hacksaw

This is a tool used to cut metal conduit and armoured cable

Measuring tools

To measure wire length and other items, the electrician finds considerable use for measuring
tools such as the extension or zigzag rule, push-pull rule and a steel tape

17
Soldering equipment

In doing electric wiring, splices and taps (connections made to wire) should be soldered, unless
you use solderless connectors.
Drilling equipment

Drilling equipment is needed to make holes in building structure passages of conduit sand wires
Ladders

The term ladder is generally taken to include step ladders and trestles. The use of ladders for
working above ground level is only acceptable for access and work of short duration. It is
advisable to inspect the ladder before climbing it. It should be straight and firm. All rungs and tie
rods should be in position and there should be no cracks in the stiles. The ladder should not be
painted since the paint may be hiding defects. Extension ladders should be erected in the closed
position and extended one section at a time. Each section should overlap by at least the number of
rungs indicated below:
1. Ladder up to 4.8 m length – 2 rungs overlap
2. Ladder up to 6.0 m length – 3 rungs overlap
3. Ladder over 6.0 m length – 4 rungs overlap
Draw wire/Fish tape

18
This is a tool used for drawing cables in conduits

36
Electrical instrument checking and calibration
A digital Multimeter is used to measure voltage, current and resistance and can be used to
measure electrical continuity in a circuit. There are two types of Multimeter: digital and
analogue. Multimeter should be calibrated or adjusted to a known zero-value prior to use for
accurate readings.

Calibration of Multimeter
Electrical calibration refers to the process of verifying the performance of, or adjusting, any
instrument that measures or tests electrical parameters to maintain their accuracy. Electrical
calibration involves the use of precise devices that evaluate the performance of key properties for
other devices called units under test (UUTs).
Equipment that are not calibrated can result in the wrong decision being made which has the
potential for further damage to what the instrument was to be used for.
The fragile electronics within Multimeter are protected by a hard casing, which means they can
usually be stored in a toolbox.
Multimeter do not require any deep cleaning - just wipe them down with a damp (not wet) cloth,
every now and then. Ensure your devices are fully functioning before each use. Change batteries
and fuses when necessary and consider removing the batteries if the meter will not be used for an
extended period of time.
Many people do a field comparison check of two meters, and call them "calibrated" if they give
the same reading. This isn't calibration. It's simply a field check. It can show you if there's a
problem, but it can't show you which meter is right. If both meters are out of calibration by the
same amount and in the same direction, it won't show you anything. Calibration typically
requires a standard that has at least 10 times the accuracy of the instrument under test.
Calibration, in its purest sense, is the comparison of an instrument to a known standard.
Two instruments, A and B, measure 100 V within 1 %. At 480 V, both are within tolerance. At
100 V input, A reads 99.1 V and B reads 100.9 V. But if you use B as your standard, A will
appear to be out of tolerance. However, if B is accurate to 0.1 %, then the most B will read at 100

32
 grease. The prongs on the cords should be examined as well. Make sure that the casing
is intact and the prongs are not loose.
c) Oil some electric tools: The electric tools in your toolbox that have a cutting surface
should be lightly oiled to prevent rust. Examine the cutting surface for rust to make sure
that your tools are kept in good condition.
d) Storing your tools: Keep your electric tools stored in their original cases and containers.
This will keep them free of dust and dirt while they are not being used.

7.2.3.3 Learning activities

Field/Visit to an established electrical workshop
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To establish tools, equipment i. Tools i. Take notes
and materials preparation ii. Equipment ii. Keenly observe tools
techniques iii. Materials handling
iii. Keenly observe tools
storage

Practical assignment
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To acquire skills in tools, i. Tools i. Participate in the
equipment and materials ii. Equipment process
preparation techniques iii. Materials ii. Handle tools properly
iii. Store tools properly

4. 7elf - Assessment
1. As an Electrical Installation Technician, what test do you perform to find an open circuit?
A. Resistance test
B. Continuity test
C. Voltage check
D. Ohm test
2.One of the following is the most accurate instrument used for testing insulation resistance,
which one is it?
A. Growler

35
 B. Megohmmeter
C. Ohmmeter
D. Tachometer
3. List any four tools used in break down maintenance
4. Describe safe the usage of ladder during maintenance of an electrical system
5. Explain the basic maintenance procedure of electric tools
6. Explain why a multimeter is calibrated
7. Why is calibration required?

7.2.3.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

The following resources are provided
i. An electrical installation company
ii. A functional Safety department.
iii. Computers
iv. Stationery
v. Lecture room
vi. Workshop
vii. Projector
viii. Drawing equipment
ix. Workshop
x. Protective clothing

7.2.3.6 References
Donnely. (1980). Electrical Installation theory and practice.
Hyde. (1994). Electrical Installation Principles and practice.
ngari, c. k. (2019). electrical installations for artisan level 2. kenya literature bureau.
https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/maintenance-management-of-electr

https://www.onupkeep.com/learning/maintenance-types/breakdown-mainten

36
7.2.4 leaning outcome 4: Repair the Installation

7.2.4.1 Introduction

To repair the system successfully, one requires the ability to observe safety precautions are as per
OSHA, repair system in accordance with maintenance manual, use tools and equipment for
repair and record repair activities according to the established procedure.

7.2.4.2 Information Sheet

Remedy of common faults in an installation
S/N Problem Probable cause Action to be taken
1 Loose top plug i. Defects in manufacture Turn off the breaker. Double check for
ii. Overheating inside voltage to the outlet

2 Broken light i. Mechanical blow Turn off the circuit breaker then use a
switch ii. Defects in manufacture flathead screwdriver to remove the
faceplate. Test the two wires connected
to the screw for electricity.
3 Simple short i. Breakdown in Reset the breaker. Repeated
circuit insulation occurrences with the same appliance
ii. Poor workmanship indicate it’s the appliance – not the
electrical system.
4 Cut or damaged i. Mishandling Unplug both ends. Cut off the old plug.
extension cord ii. Manufacturers defects Gently score and peel back the
insulation jacket, twist them and crew
them into the back of the plug. Then
close the plug and secure the wires.
5 Flickering or i. This could be a sign of a Put off the light and troubleshoot the
dimming lights poor connection and can problem
lead to eventual arcing
ii. Loose/corroded
connections making
intermittent contact that
could result in sparking,
overheating, and fire.

37
 iv. This may be due to misalignment of the
drive, excessive end thrust imposed on
4. Heating of motor or too much belt tension. Take
bearings appropriate steps to reduce the load on
bearing.
i. Excessive load i. Reduce load
ii. Brushes not bedding ii. Carefully rebend or clean brushes and
5 Brushes heating or sticking in holders adjust pressure
iii. Incorrect grade of iii. Ensure brushes used are those specified
brushes by the motor manufacturer

i. Supply failure (either i. Disconnect motor immediately with a

single phase or single-phase fault serious overloading
complete loss of and burnout may rapidly occur. Ensure
power) correct supply is restored to motor
ii. Inefficient torque terminals.
6. No rotation
iii. Reversed phase ii. Check starting torque required and
compare with motor rating, taking into
account type of starter in use. Change to
larger motor or to different type of
starter.
iii. Check and correct connections in turn
i. Running single phase i. Check if all supply lines are live with
excessive load balanced voltage. Compare line current
ii. Reversed phase with that given on motor name plate.
7. Steady electrical iii. Uneven airgap Reduce load or change to larger motor.
ii. Check and correct connections in turn
hum
iii. Check airgap with feelers. If because of
worn bearings, fit new ones
i. Foreign matter in i. Check airgap, dismantle rotor and clean,
airgap or damaged check with a listening stick. If
bearings. confirmed, try rotating outer face of
8. Mechanical noise ii. Misaligned coupling bearing 180o. If still unsatisfactory fit
new bearing.
ii. Check coupling gap and realign
i. Defective rotor i. Check speed at full load. If it is low and
ii. Defective wound if there is a periodic swing of current
rotor. Loose when running, a defective rotor is
connection, partial indicated and the matter should be
short circuit e.t.c referred to the manufacturer.

40
Page intentionally blank

32
 Remedy of Faults in Fluorescent lamps
Faulty lamp Faulty starter Faulty choke Faulty p.f capacitor Faulty wiring or circuit

Bro M L L C A S I I O E S W O E S W F S C L E C W N
A ken e o i o i h n n p a h r p a h r a h o o a r r o
i elec r w f n r or t c e r o o e r o o u o m o r o o s
r trod c e e t l t- e o n t r n n t r n l r p s t s n u
If trouble is encountered, l e or u m e a e ci r r - h t g c h t g t t o e h s g p
first look below for e lam r i x c a rc n r c f - t i f c c d – n c o e s p
symptoms a p y s p t k ui a e i a c y r a i c i c e o n d u l
k cap d s i s o te l c r u i p c u r a s i n n w w p y
o e i r s r d f t c l r e u l c p c r t n i i p o
r f o e t o su a t u t c o i t u a h c s e r r l r
c i n d u p p u y i u r t i c a u w c i i y f
r c c e pr l p t i t s t i r i r t n n v u
a i k n es t e e t a t g t o i g g o s
c e t c so d e p a e e n o i l e
k n o i r w d p n r d g n n t b
e t g r i t i c e l l t a l
d e c n u n e s a y w g o
t t u d r g i m c o e w
u h i i n s p o - n
b e t n s t h n l
e r f g o o n a
a r l e m
u d c p
l e t u
t r e n
d i
t
s

A lamp does not attempt to x 0 x x x x x x X X X 0

start; no glow from ends
B Lamp flashes on and off x 0 X X X X X x x
C Lamp ends glow steadily 0 0 0 x X x
but lamp does not start

33
D Faint glow at one end of x x
lamp
E Lamp lights but is dim X x x
F Lamp takes excessive time x X X x x x x x x
to start
G Premature end-blackening x x x X X X X x
of lamp
H Choke overheats X X X X X x
I Supply fuse blown or lamp X X X X X X x
electrodes fused
J Low power factor X X x
K Excessive radio o x X x
interference
When possible faults has been LAMP STARTER CHOKE CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
located, make these tests to find Check lamp in good circuit and if Check operation of starter in good Check insulation Check, is possible Check circuit against wiring diagram,
which component is faulty proved faulty replace with a new lamp; circuit and if found faulty, fit new resistance, continuity ,insulation resistance examine all connections and terminal.
see note below replacement. and, if possible, and capacitance, Check fuses supply voltage and, if
impedance. Make sure measure value of possible, insulation resistance of
tapping and rating are discharge resistor complete fitting.
correct

34
This page is intentionally blank

32
The purpose of this test is to check the phase conductor is taken through the fuse and switch to the
appliance the reason for this test is to ensure that the neutral wire is earthed at the supply
authority’s substation.
The Neutral must never be broken by a fuse or switch.
Preparation for the test
1. Supply OFF
2. Lamps and appliances OUT
3. All switches OFF
4. Neutral links IN
5. Fuses OUT
Instrument used: Ohmmeter or Bell set

Figure 9 Verification of polarity test

Reading: Zero Ohms on Ohmmeter

NB – This test should not be carried out on a LIVE installation.
Effectiveness of earthing tests
The purpose of this test is:-
i. To measure the resistance of the earth continuity conductor.
ii. To check that the earth continuity heavy leakage currents.
iii. To ensure that the earth electrode is effectively connected to the general mass of earth.

36
Earth Continuity
Earth continuity is making sure that should there be an electrical fault, all exposed metalwork in a
building is bonded together and connected to the earth block in the consumer unit, leaking the
current to earth and automatically disconnecting the supply. An earth continuity test will verify
that exposed metalwork in a building is bonded together and connected to the earthing block in the
consumer unit.
The ohmmeter leads are connected between the points being tested, between simultaneously
accessible conductive parts e.g. pipe works, sinks etc. This test will verify that the conductor is
sound.

Earth fault loop test

Figure 10 Earth fault loop test

The earth fault loop is the path which the leakage current will take back to the supply transformer
when there is an earth leakage in an installation. The path is as shown below.
The test must be carried out on a new or largely modified installations where earth-leakage
protection relies on the operation of fuses or excess current circuit – breakers.
1. The leakage current flows from the faulty conductor into the earth continuity conductor.
2. It then flows along the earth continuity conductor to the earthing lead.
3. The earthing lead carries the current to the earth electrode.

37
 4. The leakage current now takes the shortest path back to the earthed neutral of the supply
transformer.
The purpose of this test is to show that the earth fault loop is capable of carrying heavy leakage
currents so that the protective gear (e.g. fuses) will operate when leakages occur between the line
conductor and the earthed metalwork of the installation.
Apparatus: Line-earth loop tester (Megger).

Method
The Line-earth loop tester, operating on fall mains voltage, passes a short duration current of
approximately 20A from the line conductor, through the consumer’s earth continuity conductor
and the earth return path to the neutral of the supply transformer. This instrument measures the
value of the loop in Ohms.
Readings
The minimum permissible reading depends on the operating conditions but the two main factors
are:-
Operating current of fuse or circuit breaker protecting circuit.
Supply voltage.

Example
If the circuit fuse operated at 50A and the supply voltage is 240V then the resistance of the earth
240 𝑉
fault loop must not be more than 60 𝐴
= 4Ω . If the resistance is higher than this value the

fuse will not open under serious fault conditions.

38
 Figure 11 Circuit of megger line-earth loop tester

Factors determining resistance of earth fault loop are as follows.

1. The continuity of the metallic circuit up to the earth electrode (the earth continuity conductor and the
earthing lead).
2. The resistance of the body of earth surrounding the earth electrode.
Earthing Lead – The minimum size of copper earthing lead is 1mm2. The earthing lead
connecting an earth–leakage circuit-breaker to an earth electrode need not exceed 2.5mm2. The
earthing lead should be protected against mechanical damage and corrosion and the clamp used for
connecting the earth lead to the earth electrode should be non-ferrous and should be accessible for
inspection.
The resistance area is the name given to the resistance of the body of earth surrounding the earth
electrode.
The resistance area is measured using
1. An alternating current (at a maximum pressure of 40V) is connected between the main earth
electrode A and an auxiliary electrode B, placed about 30m from A. An ammeter is placed in series
with the supply to measure the current through the circuit.
2. A second auxiliary electrode C is placed between A and B and the voltage (potential difference) is
measured between A and C. the resistance of the resistance area is found by taking various
readings from point A towards point B. Outside the resistance area the resistance is constant .

39
 Figure 12 Resistance area measurement

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶

𝑅= 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

Insulation Tests
The purpose of the insulation resistance test is to make sure that there is no possibility of leakage
currents flowing between insulated conductors and also to make sure that there is no leakage of
current between the conductors of the installation and ‘the general mass of earth.
Earth Insulation Resistance Test

40
 Figure 13 Insulation resistance test.

If the reading obtained is less than the minimum allowed, then the installation must be sub-divided
to isolate the faulty circuit.
Between Poles Test
The purpose of the between poles test is to make sure that there are no short circuit or
low-resistance connections between the ‘live’ conductors in the installation.
Preparations for Test
1. Supply OFF
2. Lamps OUT; appliances OFF
3. All switches ON; all fuses and neutral links IN

Test Instrument
Insulation resistance tester (e.g. megger). The test should be carried out at the nearest possible
point to the supply Authority’s equipment.
Method
Connect insulation resistance tester between phase and neutral
Readings
The minimum readings required are similar to those for the earth insulation resistance test on the
same installation.
Test of Ring Circuit Continuity

42
On completion of a ring circuit installation a test, similar to that carried out to check the
verification of polarity, must be carried out to ensure the continuity of all time, neutral and earth
continuity conductors throughout the ring circuit. This test is carried at the point of connection in
the distribution fuse board prior to the completion and connection of the ring circuit conductors.
Tests to be carried out are given below
1. Verification of polarity – Used to check that phase wire is switched and fused. Reading on
ohmmeter or bell set-zero or continuity.
2. Earthing tests – To ensure that the metalwork of the installation is ‘effectively connected to the
general mass of earth’.
(a). testing earth continuity conductor. Maximum reading, 0.5 Ω.
(b). Testing earth fault loop impedance by current injection. Reading determined by setting of
protective equipment.
(c). testing effectiveness of earth electrode. Reading determined by setting of protective equipment.
3. Insulation tests (a) between poles (b). Earth insulation resistance (between all conductors and earth).
4. Ring circuit should be tested with ohmmeter or bell set for continuity of ring.
Commissioning

After completion of the installation, it is the duty of the contractor to now hand over the completed
building to the owner. This is achieved by filling in details of the installation on completion
certificate and handing it over to owner and a copy to the supply authority.

Completion Certificate.

Upon completion of new installation or a major extension on existing installation and inspection
and testing has been carried out. The contractor the contractor should issue out a completion
certificate. The certificate gives details of the installation including the name and address of the
customer number of appliances, method of earthing and readings of the tests carried out. The
certificate states that the installation has been carried out in accordance with the I.E.E regulations
and also recommends periodic inspection and testing.

Inspection Certificate.

After an installation has been re-inspected and tested as recommended in the completion certificate
on specified date an inspection certificate is completed and handed on to the consumer. The

43
certificate contains more details than the completion certificate since it gives full range of tests of
the installation

7.2.5.3 Learning activities

Field/Visit to an established electrical workshop
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To establish techniques used ● Instruments ● Take notes
in testing an installation ● Readings ● Note instruments used
● Note measurement
values.

Practical assignment
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To acquire skills in testing an ● Instruments Participate in the process
electrical installation ● Readings

7.2.5.4 Self -Assessment

1. The picture below shows one of the instruments used by electrical artisans in their daily activities,
What is the name of the instrument?

A. Tester
B. Earth loop tester
C. Multimeter
D. Voltmeter

44
 2. What is the test voltage used when performing an insulation resistance test on a 230V
system?
A. 50V
B. 500V
C. 24V
D. 250V
3. Who is supposed to carry out periodic testing on an existing installation?
A. Energy regulatory commission.
B. Competent Person
C. Kenya power
D. Building inspector
4. What is the purpose of testing a repaired Installation?
5. What are the main tests to be carried out on a complete electrical installation
6. With the aid of a diagram describe verification of polarity test
7. Describe what is an inspection certificate

7.2.5.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

The following resources are provided
i. An electrical installation company
ii. A functional Safety department.
iii. Computers
iv. Stationery
v. Lecture room
vi. Workshop
vii. Projector
viii. Drawing equipment
ix. Workshop
x. Protective clothing

7.2.5.6 References
Donnely. (1980). Electrical Installation theory and practice.
Hyde. (1994). Electrical Installation Principles and practice.
ngari, c. k. (2019). electrical installations for artisan level 2. kenya literature bureau.
https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/maintenance-management-of-electr

45
 ● Wear all required personal protective equipment. In the event of equipment failure or
accident contact, your personal protective equipment may save your life.
7. Explain the following terms used in fault diagnosis.
Replacement time - this involves removal of the faulty, followed by connection and wiring,
as appropriate of a replacement.
Checkout time - this involves verifying that the fault condition no longer exists and that the
system is operational.
8. Outline the general procedure for repair
i. Carry out visual inspection.
ii. Carry out continuity test and insulation resistance test.
iii. Dismantle the appliance
iv. Repair the appliance
v. Assemble the appliance
vi. Test the appliance

7.2.6.3 Prepare list of tools, Equipment & Materials

1. B
2.B
3. List any four tools used in break down maintenance
i. Ladder
ii. Hammer
iii. Pliers
iv. Screw drivers e.t.c
4. Describe safe the usage of ladder during maintenance of an electrical system
The term ladder is generally taken to include step ladders and trestles. The use of ladders for
working above ground level is only acceptable for access and work of short duration. It is
advisable to inspect the ladder before climbing it. It should be straight and firm. All rungs
and tie rods should be in position and there should be no cracks in the stiles. The ladder
should not be painted since the paint may be hiding defects. Extension ladders should be
erected in the closed position and extended one section at a time. Each section should
overlap by at least the number of rungs indicated below:
1. Ladder up to 4.8 m length – 2 rungs overlap
2. Ladder up to 6.0 m length – 3 rungs overlap

48
 3. Ladder over 6.0 m length – 4 rungs overlap

5. Explain the basic maintenance procedure of electric tools

To ensure that your electric tools work properly, you must take proper care of them. A good
regimen of maintenance for your tools is one thing that you can do to make sure that the tool
you need is working when you need it.
a) Clean out the dust: To make sure that your electric tools are ready for use, keep them
clean and free of dust. The housing intake on your electric tools and the exhaust are
especially important areas to keep clean. Take some time to clean out the dust every
once in a while on your tools while they are sitting in storage.
b) Check the cords: Look for wear and tear on the power cords on your electric tools.
There can be damage to the insulation and you should keep an eye out for loose wires.
This will ensure that your electric tool can get the power that it needs to function
without an accident. Wipe the cords down to keep them from becoming damaged from
oil and grease. The prongs on the cords should be examined as well. Make sure that the
casing is intact and the prongs are not loose.
c) Oil some electric tools: The electric tools in your toolbox that have a cutting surface
should be lightly oiled to prevent rust. Examine the cutting surface for rust to make sure
that your tools are kept in good condition.
d) Storing your tools: Keep your electric tools stored in their original cases and
containers. This will keep them free of dust and dirt while they are not being used.
6. Why Multimeter is calibrated
A digital Multimeter is one of the most commonly used pieces of test and measurement
instrumentation. Quality processes depend on its continual proper operation. However, time,
environment, and physical use (or abuses) change a digital multimeter’s characteristics. That’s why
it’s important to periodically calibrate or verify the performance of a digital multimeter. A
multimeter should be calibrated or adjusted to a known zero-value prior to use for accurate
readings.
7. Why is calibration required?
Calibration may be required for the following reasons:
a) a new instrument

49
 b) after an instrument has been repaired or modified
c) when a specified time period has elapsed
d) when a specified usage (operating hours) has elapsed
e) before and/or after a critical measurement
f) after an event, for example:
iii. after an instrument has been exposed to a shock, vibration, or physical damage,
which might potentially have compromised the integrity of its calibration
iv. sudden changes in weather
g) whenever observations appear questionable or instrument indications do not match
the output of surrogate instruments
h) As specified by a requirement, e.g., customer specification, instrument manufacturer
recommendation.

7.2.6.4 Repair the Installation

1. A
2. A
3. B
4. D
5. State possible cause and remedy for the following faults in an electrical installation
(a) Dead socket outlets
(b) Flickering or dimming lights
(c) Light bulbs burn out frequently
(a) Dead socket outlets can result from a tripped poor connection (and possible arcing), a tripped
breaker due to excessive heat buildup resulting in melted wires or outlets. Replace the damaged
socket outlet, carry out rewiring if the cables are damaged
(b) This could be a sign of a poor connection and can lead to eventual arcing
Loose/corroded connections making intermittent contact that could result in sparking,
overheating, and fire. Put off the light and fix these problems

50
 (c) You may have a loose connection in the socket or circuit or worn out insulation causing
overheating. Open the lamp holder and identify the problem then fix it.

7.2.6.5 Test the Repaired System

1. C
2. B
3. B
4. What is the purpose of testing a repaired Installation?
The reason for testing an installation is to detect faults before dangerous situations arise.
Factors which the installation must be protected against are:-
i. Earth leakage and danger of electric shock
ii. Excess current
iii. Moisture and corrosion
5. What are the main tests to be carried out on a complete electrical installation?
1. Verification of polarity test
2. Effectiveness of earthing test
3. Ring circuit continuity test
4. Insulation resistance test
5. Earth fault loop impedance test
6. With the aid of a diagram describe verification of polarity test
The purpose of this test is to check the phase conductor is taken through the fuse and switch to
the appliance the reason for this test is to ensure that the neutral wire is earthed at the supply
authority’s substation.
The Neutral must never be broken by a fuse or switch.
Preparation for the test
1. Supply OFF
2. Lamps and appliances OUT

2
 3. All switches OFF
4. Neutral links IN
5. Fuses OUT
Instrument used: Ohmmeter or Bell set
7. Describe what an inspection certificate is.
After an installation has been re-inspected and tested as recommended in the completion
certificate on specified date an inspection certificate is completed and handed on to the
consumer. The certificate contains more details than the completion certificate since it gives
full range of tests of the installation

Reading: Zero Ohms on Ohmmeter

This test should not be carried out on a LIVE installation.