24-06-2023

1 Unit I: Basics of Information 2

Technology
COMPUTER (20 marks)
APPLICATIONS
(Code 165)
CLASS IX

COMPUTER SYSTEM 3 COMPUTER SYSTEM 4

A computer is an electronic device  Computers are put to use for all sorts
that can perform a variety of of applications ranging from complex
operations in accordance with a set calculations in the field of frontline
of instructions called program. research, engineering simulations
down to teaching, printing books and
recreational games, etc.
 24-06-2023

FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF A 5 INPUT 6

COMPUTER SYSTEM
A computer has four functions  Itis responsible for providing the
Accept Data (Input) information in the computer and is
Processes Data (Processing)
performed by the Input unit.
Produces Result/Output (Output)
Stores Result (Storage)

OUTPUT 7 PROCESSING 8

 Itis responsible for displaying the  Itis responsible for carrying out the
data input to computer or the given instructions on given data.
processed data in human readable
form.
 24-06-2023

STORAGE 9 CHARACTERISTICS OF A 10

COMPUTER
 Itis responsible for storing any kind of
information permanently.

STRENGTH OF COMPUTERS 11 STRENGTH OF COMPUTERS 12

 Speed: Modern computers can  Accuracy: It can perform all the

execute millions of instructions in one calculations and comparisons
second. accurately.
 High storage capacity: Computers  Reliability: They are immune to
can store a large amount of tiredness and boredom or fatique.
information in very small space.
 24-06-2023

STRENGTH OF COMPUTERS 13 WEAKNESSES OF COMPUTERS 14

 Versatility:
They can perform  Lack of Decision-Making Power:
repetitive jobs efficiently. Computers cannot decide on their
own.
 IQ Zero: Computers need to be told
each and every step.

WEAKNESSES OF COMPUTERS 15 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER 16

SYSTEM
 NoHeuristics: Computers cannot
learn from past experience. They
commit the same error again.
 24-06-2023

CPU 17 CPU 18

 CPU is the brain of the computer.  It is also called the microprocessor or

 It controls and directs the internal simply the processor.
activities and actions of a computer.  It consists of three basic units.
 It does the entire ‘thinking’ and ALU
‘controlling’ in a processing action. Control Unit
Registers

CPU 19 ALU (ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT) 20

 Itperforms
Arithmetic operations which include
addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.
All logic operations which involve
comparisons.
 24-06-2023

ALU (ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT) 21 CONTROL UNIT 22

 Theresult of the various operations  This unit directs the entire computer
are stored in the registers or in system to carry out, or execute stored
memory or sent to output devices. program instructions.
 It executes one instruction at a time.

CONTROL UNIT 23 CONTROL UNIT 24

 TheCPU performs the following 4 steps in  The first 2 steps given above is called
executing an instruction. instruction time.
1. CU gets the instructions from memory  The last 2 instructions is called the execution
2. CU directs the necessary data to be time.
moved from the memory to ALU  The combination of these two is called a
3. ALU performs actual operation on data machine cycle.
4. Result is stored in memory or a register
 24-06-2023

REGISTERS 25 MEMORY IN A COMPUTER SYSTEM 26

 Alldata is temporarily stored in  Thereare broadly 2 types

registers during the execution of Main/ Primary/ Internal Memory
programs. Auxiliary/ Secondary/ External
 They offer very fast memory but very Memory
limited in size.

MAIN(PRIMARY) MEMORY 27 MAIN(PRIMARY) MEMORY 28

 Themain memory has 2 sub types:

ROM (Read Only memory)
RAM (Random Access Memory)
 24-06-2023

ROM 29 ROM 30

 Information once stored remains fixed  Small software called firmware are
 It can only be read and used often stored in ROM, to perform some
of the basic operations required to
 It contains a set of start-up instructions
operate hardware devices.
 Its contents remain stored even if
power is turned off

RAM 31 DIFFERENCE BETN RAM & ROM 32

 It is the memory that can be read RAM ROM

from as well as written to It allows reading & It allows only reading
writing
 It is volatile i.e., its contents are lost
when power is turned off It is Volatile It is non-volatile
Size is upto some GB Size is upto some MB
It is faster than ROM It is slower than RAM
 24-06-2023

SECONDARY MEMORY 33 HARD DISKS 34

 Theyare used to store large amount  HDD store information on one or more
of data permanently. circular platters (disks) which are
continually spinning.
 Information is recorded on the
surface of rotating disks by magnetic
heads as tiny magnetic spots.

COMPACT DISKS 35 COMPACT DISKS 36

 CDs are optical media.  Compact Disk is a digital optical disc

 It comes in various forms data storage format.
CD-ROM (CD Read only memory)  It utilizes an optical laser to read
microscopic pits on the aluminized
CD-R (CD Recordable)
layer of a polycarbonate disc.
CD-RW (CD Rewritable)
 Normal storage capacity is 700 MB.
 24-06-2023

DVD 37 DVD 38

 Digital Versatile Disc is an optical  It can transfer about 20 times as fast

storage device. as a CD-ROM.
 Single layer DVD has 4.7 GB storage.  It comes in 3 forms
 Dual layer DVD has storage capacity DVD-ROM
of 8.5 GB. DVD-R
DVD-RW

DVD 39 PEN DRIVES 40

 It is a small storage device which has

A DVD, also called Super Density Disk a built-in data storage.
(SD) can hold upto 17 GB of data
 It is called Flash memory, USB
memory, Key memory.
 24-06-2023

PEN DRIVES 41 PEN DRIVES 42

 Flashis a solid state memory i.e., it  Thefirst pen drive had a storage
has no moving parts unlike magnetic capacity of 8 MB.
storage devices, nor does it make use  Now in the market we find pen drive
of lasers unlike optical drives. where the storage capacity is 2 TB.

PEN DRIVES 43 MEMORY STICK 44

 Itis a type of removable memory

card that is connected to a computer
or other piece of electronic
equipment to copy and store
information.
 They are used as storage media for a
portable device.
 24-06-2023

I/O DEVICES 45 KEYBOARD 46

 The input devices are responsible for A keyboard contains a matrix of

accepting input i.e., data and switches which when pressed, sends
instructions from the user. a digital code to the computer that
 The output devices are responsible for determines which key has been
producing the output in user readable pressed.
form.

CONCEPT KEYBOARD 47 MOUSE 48

 Every
keys in a concept keyboard  The mouse is a pointing device that
have a specific dedicated function. points to a position on computer
screen.
 It controls movement of pointer on
screen.
 24-06-2023

SCANNER 49 SCANNER 50

A scanner is a device similar to a  Ithas many types

photocopier. Hand-held Scanners
 It creates an electronic form of the Flatbed Scanners
printed image, which can later be
Drum Scanners
manipulated, changed and modified.

HAND-HELD SCANNERS 51 FLATBED SCANNERS 52

 Theyare very small which can be  Theyare larger and more expensive
held in a hand. scanners but create higher quality
images.
 24-06-2023

DRUM SCANNERS 53 WEB CAM 54

 They are medium-size scanners with  Itis a video camera connected to a

a rolling drum. computer, allowing its images to be
 The sheet is fed through the scanners seen by Internet users.
so that the drum rolls over the entire  These days it is mainly used for Video
sheet to be scanned. conferencing programs.

MONITOR 55 MONITOR 56

 It is the screen of a PC.  The picture on a monitor is made up

 It is also known as the Visual Display of thousands of tiny coloured dots
Unit. called pixels.
 24-06-2023

TYPES OF MONITOR 57 CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) 58

 Itcontains an electron gun at the

back of the glass tube.
 This fires electrons at groups of
phosphor dots, which coat the inside
of the screen.
 When electrons strike the phosphor
dots they glow to give the colours.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) 59 THIN FILM TRANSISTOR (TFT) 60

 Liquid crystal is the material used to  It is a variant of LCD technology.

create each pixel on the screen.
 It can polarise light depending on the
electrical charge across it.
 24-06-2023

PLASMA MONITORS 61 PLASMA MONITORS 62

 Plasma monitors or PDP(Plasma  They are not popular because of their

Display Panels) are flat panel expense, weight, power consumption
displays. and size.
 It utilizes small cells containing  They have a long display life.
electrically charged ionized gases
across the face of a plasma display.

TOUCHSCREEN MONITORS 63 OLED MONITORS 64

 They are built by combining touch  Itstands for Organic Light Emitting
sensitive materials with a durable but Display.
sensitive outer material that protects  They are created from pushing an
the monitor from fingers. electronic current through organic
materials.
 24-06-2023

OLED MONITORS 65 PRINTER 66

 They are extremely thin and light and  It is a device that can print anything
offer the promise of portable, light- written or created on a PC.
weight displays that can be worn on  It is the most convenient and useful
things like clothing. method by which the computer can
 This technology is new and price is deliver information.
high.
 Life of OLED monitor is low.

PRINTER 67 IMPACT PRINTER 68

 There
are two types  Inthese printers, there is mechanical
Impact Printers contact between the print head and
paper.
Non-impact Printers
 Example: Dot matrix Printer
 24-06-2023

NON-IMPACT PRINTER 69 NON-IMPACT PRINTER 70

 In these printers, there is no  Some of the advantages are

mechanical contact between the High Speed
print head and paper.
Better print quality
 Example: Electromagnetic printers,
Thermal printers, Inkjet Printers, Laser
Printers, etc.

SOFTWARE 71 TYPES OF SOFTWARE 72

 Software
represents the set of  Thereare two categories of software
programs that govern the operation System Software
of a computer system and make the
Application Software
hardware run.
 24-06-2023

TYPES OF SOFTWARE 73 SYSTEM SOFTWARE 74

 The software that controls internal

computer operations viz. reading data
from input devices, transmitting processed
information to the output devices,
checking system components, converting
data/instructions to computer
understandable form etc. is known as
system software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE 75 OPERATING SYSTEM 76

 They are classified into  An operating system is a program which

Operating System acts as an interface between a user and
Language Processors
the hardware.
Device Drivers  It controls all other components of the
computer system.
Utilities
 It gets the right work done from the
hardware in an efficient manner.
 24-06-2023

LANGUAGE PROCESSOR 77 LANGUAGE PROCESSOR 78

 The computer does not understand any  The various language processors are
language other than its own machine Assembler
language (binary language).
Interpreter
 Language Processor processes any
Compiler
program written in Assembly Language or
High Level Language so as to make it
understandable to the computer.

ASSEMBLER 79 INTERPRETER 80

 Itconverts the program written in assembly  It converts a high level language program
language into machine language into machine language by converting and
executing it line by line.
 If there is any error in any line, it reports it at
the same time and program execution
cannot resume until the error is rectified
 24-06-2023

COMPILER 81 DEVICE DRIVERS 82

 Itconverts the entire high level language  It

provides the interface between the
program in one go and reports all the Operating System and the hardware.
errors of the program along with line
numbers.

UTILITIES 83 UTILITIES 84

 They are helpful programs that ensure the  Some important utilities are
smooth functioning of the computer.
 They are meant to assist the computer.
 They are specifically designed to help
manage and tune the computer hardware,
operating system or application software.
 24-06-2023

DISK/FOLDER/FILE MANAGEMENT SW 85 ANTIVIRUS SOFTWARE 86

 It organize and keep track of files and is  Itscans our disk for viruses and removes
better known as File Management them.
software.
 Windows Explorer is the default file
manager available in MS Windows.
 It lets us create a new file, edit an existing
file and save a file, etc.

ENCRYPTION/DECRYPTION SOFTWARE87 ENCRYPTION/DECRYPTION SOFTWARE88

 Encryption refers to the conversion of  Decryption is opposite of encryption i.e.,
electronic data into another form, converting cipher text to original form
encrypted form called cipher text, which using correct key.
cannot be easily understood by anyone
except authorized parties.
 Cipher text is a term used to refer to altered
data so as to make the data unintelligible
to unauthorized users.
 24-06-2023

ENCRYPTION/DECRYPTION SOFTWARE89 APPLICATION SOFTWARE 90

 Some popular encryption/decryption  These type of software pertains to one

software are LastPass, BitLocker, VeraCrypt, specific application.
7Zip, Symantec Endpoint Encryption, etc.  They enable computer to perform a
specific task.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE 91 GENERAL PURPOSE APPLN SW 92

 They
can be further subdivided into three  These software are designed to be used by
categories individual users in the manner it suits their
General Purpose Application Software needs and requirement.
Specific Purpose Application Software  They are also known as packages.

Customised Software/Bespoke Software

 24-06-2023

GENERAL PURPOSE APPLN SW 93 WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE 94

 Some major and most common categories  Itis an application program that allows
are entering, editing, formatting and printing
Word Processing Software text.
Spreadsheets  Popular word processors are MS Word,
Database Management systems Wordperfect, AbiWord, Writer, etc.
Graphics, Multimedia and presentation
applications

ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS 95 PRESENTATION SOFTWARE 96

 Itis a program that accepts data values in  They are used to create professional-
tabular form and allows users to looking visual aids for an audience.
manipulate/calculate/analyse data in the  They provide predefined backgrounds and
desired manner. sample page layouts to assists in the
 Popular spreadsheet software are Lotus, MS creation of computer driven slide shows.
Excel, Calc, Gnumeric, etc.  Some popular presentation software are
MS PowerPoint, Impress, etc.
 24-06-2023

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE97 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE98

 Database refers to a collection of logically  PopularDBMS packages are MS Access,
related data. Oracle, SQL Server, OpenOffice.org Base,
 A Database Management System (DBMS) etc.
is a computer program or collection of
computer programs that provides the
necessary tools to create and manipulate
the data in the database.

SPECIFIC PURPOSE APPLICATION 99 SPECIFIC PURPOSE APPLICATION 100

SOFTWARE SOFTWARE
 These types of software have to be  Some specific purpose application software
purchased directly from the manufacturer or are
a specialist firm. Accounting Management software
 These applications are designed to be used Reservation System
for specific tasks such as company payroll, HR Management software
stock control systems, appointment systems, Inventory Control system
etc. Billing system
 24-06-2023

MOBILE APPLICATIONS 101 MOBILE APPLICATIONS 102

 Itis a type of application software which are  They are available and downloadable from
specifically designed to run on a mobile online app collection stores such as Apple
device. Inc’s App Store or Google’s Play Store.
 They are designed to work with limited  Mobile apps can be games, utility apps,
resources such as limited memory, limited entertainment apps, social networking apps,
battery, limited screen size, etc. etc.

BASICS OF OPERATING SYSTEMS. 103 ROLE OF OPERATING SYSTEM 104

 Program execution
 Handling Input/Output operations
 Manipulation of file system
 Error detection and handling
 Resource allocation
 Accounting
 24-06-2023

ROLE OF OPERATING SYSTEM 105 OS – SHELL AND KERNAL 106

 Information and Resource Protection  Operating system has broadly two

 Providing user interface components:
Shell: It is responsible for interacting with the
users.
Kernel: It is responsible for interacting with
hardware.

SHELL 107 KERNEL 108

 Itacts as the interpreter which does the things:  It is the core part of an OS.
Get the commands/instructions from the user  It communicates with the actual hardware and
Translate the received commands/instructions managing resources, such as CPU and the
into machine language memory.
Pass the translated command to the kernel to
get it done.
 24-06-2023

TASKS OF KERNEL 109 MONOLITHIC KERNEL & MICROKERNEL

110

 Process management  If a single module of kernel carries out all tasks

 Device I/O management then such a kernel is called Monolithic kernel.
 Interrupt and event handling  If a kernel contains minimalistic module for
basic functions only and gets other services
 Memory management
done through separately written specialized
 Timer management software, then it is called microkernel.
 File system

DEVICE DRIVERS 111 WHY DEVICE DRIVER? 112

A device driver is a group of files that enable  Each hardware device installed on a computer
one or more hardware devices to communicate requires a different type of device driver or
with the computer’s operating system. hardware driver.
 The device driver provides specific instructions
to the operating system in order for the
hardware device to perform properly.
 24-06-2023

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM 113 OS BASED ON TYPES OF INTERFACES 114

 Single user OS  Command Line Interface

 Multiprogram OS  Interactive OS Interface
 Time sharing OS Graphical User Interface
 Real time OS Touchscreen Interface
 Multiprocessing OS
 Distributed OS

COMMONLY USED OS 115 COMMONLY USED OS 116

 Linux:It is the most famous free software that is  Solaris:

It is a free unix-based OS introduced by
available to all and anyone can freely use it, Sun Microsystem.
modify it and redistribute it.
 Windows: It dominate the world’s personal
computer market.
 Bharat Operating System Solutions (BOSS): It is
an Indian distribution of GNU/Linux.
 24-06-2023

MOBILE OPERATING SYSTEMS 117 COMPUTER NETWORKING 118

 Android  Computer networking refers to interconnected

 Symbian computing devices that can exchange data
and share resources with each other.
 Windows Phone
 These networked devices use a system of rules,
 Apple iOS
called communications protocols, to transmit
 RIM Blackberry OS information over physical or wireless
technologies.

COMPUTER NETWORKING 119 NEED FOR NETWORKING 120

A computer network is a collection of two or  Programs do not have to execute on a single

more computer systems that are linked system because of resource and load sharing.
together.  Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share
 A network connection can be established using printers, drives, and other peripherals.
either cable or wireless media. Hardware and  Reliability – If one machine fails, another can
software are used to connect computers and take its place.
tools in any network.
 Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or
computers)
 24-06-2023

NEED FOR NETWORKING 121 TYPES OF NETWORKS 122

 Communication (people living apart can work A computer network can be categorized by
together) their size. A computer network is mainly of four
 Information Access (remote information access, types:
access to the internet, e-mail, video PAN (Personal Area Network)
conferencing, and online shopping) LAN (Local Area Network)
 Entertainment that is interactive (online games, MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
videos, etc.)
WAN (Wide Area Network)

PAN 123 PAN 124

 It is a network arranged within an individual

person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
 Personal computer devices that are used to
develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player, tablets,
printers, digital camera, etc.
 24-06-2023

PAN 125 PAN 126

 There are two types of Personal Area Network:

 Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless
Personal Area Network is developed by
simply using wireless technologies such as
WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
 Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal
Area Network is created by using the USB.

LAN 127 LAN 128

 It is a group of computers connected to each  The data is transferred at an extremely faster

other in a small area such as building, office. rate in Local Area Network.
 It is used for connecting two or more personal  It provides higher security.
computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive
hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
 24-06-2023

LAN 129 MAN 130

 A metropolitan area network is a network that

covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a
larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to
the citizens and private industries.

MAN 131 MAN 132

 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each

other through a telephone exchange line.
 It has a higher range than Local Area
Network(LAN).
 24-06-2023

WAN 133 WAN 134

 It is a network that extends over a large  It is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries. geographical area such as states or countries.
 It is not limited to a single location, but it spans  It is not limited to a single location, but it spans
over a large geographical area through a over a large geographical area through a
telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite
links. links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the  The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the
world. world.

WAN 135 INTERNET 136

 The Internet is a larger network that allows

computer networks controlled by enterprises,
governments, colleges, and other
organizations all over the world to
communicate with one another.
 There is a tangle of cables, computers, data
centers, routers, servers, repeaters, satellites,
and Wi-Fi towers that allow digital data to go
around the world
 24-06-2023

INTERNET 137 ADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET 138

 It links millions of computers throughout the  Source of entertainment

world, creating a network in which any  Source of information
computer can talk with any other computer as
 E-Commerce
long as they are both linked to the Internet.
 Working from home, collaborating with others,
 The Internet is a global network of
and having access to a global workforce are
interconnected computers that communicate
all advantages.
and share information using a standardized
Internet Protocol Suite.  Keeps Updated

DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET 139 WIRED COMMUNICATION 140

 Time Wastage  The communication system in which we use

 Money Laundering cables, wires, or any physical media to transfer
data or information using electrical or optical
 Exposure to private data
signals is called a wired communication
 Harassment & threatening system.
 24-06-2023

WIRED COMMUNICATION 141 COMMUNICATION MEDIUM IN WIRED142

 Information is sent in form of electrical signals. CONNECTION
As now optical fibers are also being used for  Twisted pair cables
high-speed transmission, signals can also be in  Coaxial cables
the form of optical signals.  Fiber optic cables
 Implementation of a wired communication
system is less complex than a wireless
communication system.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 143 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 144

 The communication system in which there  An antenna is an essential part of wireless

exists no wire or physical medium between communication systems.
transmitter and receiver is called a wireless  Information is transmitted using
communication system. electromagnetic waves. The frequencies of
 Here, the information is transmitted with help of these waves are different for different
high-frequency electromagnetic waves as applications.
these waves do not require physical media to
propagate.
 24-06-2023

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 145 COMMON WIRELESS MEDIA 146

 To transmit a signal in form of an  Microwaves

electromagnetic wave for wireless  Radio waves
communication, the signal must be modulated
 Satellites
with a high-frequency signal.
 Bluetooth, etc

WIRED/WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 147 COMMON PROTOCOLS FOR WIRELESS148

 A wired communication system is very COMMUNICATION
effective in the short range and provides a  Common protocols used for wireless are
low-cost and good quality of the transmission  Bluetooth
of data in this range.
 WiFi
 For communicating with different areas around
the globe or over a long range, most of the
time, wireless communication is the optimal
solution. In modern communication, both
systems are used side-by-side.
 24-06-2023

BLUETOOTH 149 BLUETOOTH 150

 Bluetooth is a telecommunication industry  It connects desktop and laptop computers,

standard that outlines how mobile devices, PDAs, digital cameras, scanners, cellular
PCs, and other equipment can communicate phones, and printers over short distances.
wirelessly across short distances.  Bluetooth technology is based on radio waves
 This wireless technology allows Bluetooth-  Bluetooth also employs a common 2.4 GHz
enabled devices to communicate with one frequency
another.

BLUETOOTH 151 WI-FI 152

 The sole disadvantage of Bluetooth is that its  WiFi is a type of wireless networking that uses
range is restricted to 30 feet due to its high radio frequencies to send and receive data.
frequency.  WiFi allows users to connect to the Internet at
high speeds without the necessity of cables.
 WiFi stands for “wireless fidelity” and is a
phrase that is often used to refer to wireless
networking technologies.
 24-06-2023

WI-FI 153 CLOUD COMPUTING 154

 Wi-Fi protocol designates a specific frequency  It is a technology that uses remote servers on
range within 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz on which the internet to store, manage, and access
communication will take place on connected data online rather than local drives. The data
devices. can be anything such as files, images,
documents, audio, video, and more.

CLOUD COMPUTING 155 ADVANTAGES OF CLOUD COMPUTING

156

 Operations that we can do using cloud  Back-up and restore data

computing:
 Improved collaboration
 Developing new applications and services
 Excellent accessibility
 Storage, back up, and recovery of data
 Low maintenance cost
 Hosting blogs and websites
 Mobility
 Delivery of software on demand
 Unlimited storage capacity
 Analysis of data
 Data security
 Streaming videos and audios
 24-06-2023

DISADVANTAGES OF CLOUD 157 TYPES OF CLOUD COMPUTING 158

COMPUTING
 Internet Connectivity  There are broadly two types of clouds:
 Limited Control Public Cloud

 Security Private Cloud

PUBLIC CLOUD 159 PUBLIC CLOUD 160

 It refers to a cloud service where service  It refers to a cloud service where service
provider makes all resources available to public provider makes all resources available to public
over the internet. over the internet.
 Service provider serves resources such as virtual  Service provider serves resources such as virtual
machines, applications, storage, etc to the general machines, applications, storage, etc to the general
public over the internet. public over the internet.
 It may be free of cost or with minimal pay-per-  It may be free of cost or with minimal pay-per-
usage. usage.
 24-06-2023

PUBLIC CLOUD 161 PRIVATE CLOUD 162

 Itprovides web-based email, online office  Computing in which service provider does not
applications, storage, testing and development makes all resources public over the internet.
environments, etc.  It only supports connectivity over the private
 Data in public cloud are shared as per rule, network. It has only authentic users .
permission, and security.  It gives a high class of security.
 Examples of public cloud are Microsoft Azure,  Example: Microsoft KVM, HP, Red Hat & VMWare
Google Drive, Amazon cloud drive, iCloud, etc. etc.

PRIVATE CLOUD 163 MULTIMEDIA 164

 The infrastructure and services are maintained  It refers to combination of many types of media in
and deployed over a private network; hardware one application.
and software are dedicated only to a private  It is integration of text, drawings, still and moving
company. images(videos) graphics, audio, animation, and
 They are often used by government agencies, any other media in which any type of information
financial institutions, any organizations seeking can be expressed, stored, communicated, and
enhanced control over their environment. processed digitally.
 24-06-2023

MULTIMEDIA 165 MULTIMEDIA 166

 There are five components of multimedia.  Audio: It is any sound, whether it’s music,
 Text: Characters are used to form words, phrases, conversation, or something else. It is the most
and paragraphs in the text. serious aspect of multimedia.
 Graphics and Images: They are non-text  Video: It refers to the digitally recorded moving
information, such as a sketch, chart, or content that contains rapid progression of pictures
photograph. with attached sound and other effects.

MULTIMEDIA 167 THANK YOU 168

 Animation: Animation is the process of making a

still image appear to move. Digital animation can
be 2 dimension (2D) or 3 dimension (3D).
 24-06-2023

BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCOVERY OF CELL

 Robert Hooke discovered cell in 1665
 Primitive microscope b y Leeuwenhoek in 1674
 Robert Brown discovered nucleus in 1831
FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE  Purkinje coined the term protoplasm in 1839
 Schleiden (1838) and Schwann(1855) presented the cell
theory – It states that all the plants and animals are
composed of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of cell.
 Virchow (1855)further expanded by suggesting that all
cells arise from pre existing cells.
 Electron microscope discovered in 1940
 24-06-2023

CELL CELL MEMBRANE/PLASMA MEMBRANE

 It is the structural and functional unit of life. It is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the
 It consist of the following components – contents of cell from its external environment.
FUNCTIONS –
1) Cell membrane/ Plasma membrane.
i)It protects the inner content of the cell.
2) Protoplasm-
ii)It provides shape to the cells.
a) Nucleus
iii)It permits the entry and exit of selected materials only
b) Cytoplasm and Cell organelles hence called selectively permeable membrane.
iv) The flexibility of the plasma membrane enables the cell to
engulf in food and other material from its external
environment,such a process is called endocytosis

DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTION

 Diffusion is a process of movement of molecules from  There are three types of osmotic solutions ,they are
the region of higher concentration to the region of  1)HYPOTONIC SOLUTION-
lower concentration If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water
 Osmosis is a process of movement of water from the concentration that the cell, such a solution is called a Hypotonic
solution
region of higher concentration to the region of lower
when a cell is kept in hypotonic solution , the cell will swell
concentration across a selectively permeable
2) HYPERTONIC SOLUTION-
membrane
If the medium surrounding the cell has lower
concentration of water than the cell ,such a solution is
called hypertonic solution
When a cell is kept in hypertonic solution ,the cell will shrink
 24-06-2023

 3) ISOTONIC SOLUTION CELL WALL-

If the medium surrounding the cell has the same It is the outer rigid covering present outside the
concentration as the cell ,such a solution is called plasma membrane
isotonic solution It is present only in the plant cell, bacteria and fungi.
when a cell is kept in isotonic solution ,the cell will PLASMOLYSIS
remain unchanged
It is the phenomenon of shrinkage of the contents of the
cell away from its cell wall.

PROTOPLASM
 The entire content of the cell bounded by the plasma
membrane is called protoplasm.
It consist of ---i) Nucleus
ii ) Cytoplasm
 24-06-2023

NUCLEUS
It is a dense protoplasmic structure that contains the iv) Chromatin Reticulum-It is along thread like
hereditary materials . structure that contains the hereditary information for
It consist of the following parts namely inheritance of characters from parents to the next
i) Nuclear membrane-It is a double layered generation in the form of DNA(Deoxy Ribo Nucleic
membrane that separate the content of the nucleus from acid).
the cytoplasm. It is porous to allow the transfer to GENE- A functional segment of DNA is called gene.
materials from inside the nucleus to its outside. CHROMOSOME-At the time of cell division the
ii)Nucleoplasm –It is a dense structure that has the chromatin reticulum becomes highly condensed
chromatin and nucleolus suspended in it . thick and rod like structures these are called as
iii) Nucleolus-It is a rounded structure present chromosomes.
inside the nucleus .It is the site for ribosome formation. 

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS CYTOPLASM

i) It controls all the activities of the cell hence called  The entire components of the cell bounded by plasma
Director of cell. membrane excluding the nucleus is called the
ii) It is responsible for transmission of information cytoplasm.
from parents to offspring .  It contains many specialised cell organelles.
iii) It is also the site for ribosome formation.  Cell organelles- They are the small structures
iv) It plays a central role in cell division (cellular specialised to perform specific cellular structures .
reproduction).  eg. Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
Lysosome,Mitochondria,Plastids.etc
 24-06-2023

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

It is a large network of membrane bound tubes and
sheets and vesicles.
It is of two types
i) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ((RER)
ribosomes present on its surface hence called rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
ii) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum(SER)
Ribosomes absent on its surface hence called smooth .

FUNCTIONS OF ER MITOCHONDRIA
i) RER is the site for protein synthesis. It is a double membrane bound organelle. The outer
ii) SER synthesises lipids or fat molecules
membrane is porous while the inner membrane is deeply
Protein synthesised by RER and lipids synthesised by SER is
used in building the cell membrane and this process is called folded inwards to form Cristae. Cristae increase the
MEMBRANE BIOGENESIS surface area for ATP generating chemical reactions.
iii) It serves as a channels for the transport of materials FUNCTIONS ;
between various regions of the cytoplasm of between the
cytoplasm and the nucleus. i) It is the site for Aerobic respiration
iv)Itt serves as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface ii) It provide energy in the form of ATP( Adenosine tri
for some of the biochemical activities of the cell.
v) In the liver cells of the vertebrates phosphate)
ER detoxify many poisons and drugs. ATP is known as energy currency of cell.
 24-06-2023

MITOCHONDRIA PLASTIDS
They are the large organelles found only in the plant cell
They are of two types
i) CHROMOPLAST- They are the coloured plastids
responsible for giving colours to fruits and vegetables .
ii) LEUCOPLAST-They are colourless plastids
responsible for storing of food materials .such as starch,
oils and protein granules.

CHLOROPLAST CHLOROPLAST
Chromoplast containing the green pigment chlorophyll
are called chloroplast .
Chloroplast is a double membrane bound organelle. The
inside of the chloroplast is divisible in two parts namely
i) a colourless matrix called stroma
ii)a membranous system called grana
Each grana/granum consist of stacks of membrane
bound flattened structures called Thylakoids
.Chlorophyll pigments are present on the surface of the
thylakoids.
 24-06-2023

FUNCTIONS OF PLASTIDS GOLGI APPARATUS

i)Choloroplast is the site for photosynthesis.
ii) Chromoplast is responsible for giving colours to
flowers and fruits.
iii) Leucoplast take part in storage of food(
protein,fats,starch)
Mitochondria and Chloroplast have their own genetic
material (DNA) and Ribosomes .therefore They are able
to make their own protein. Hence they are called as semi
autonomous organelle.

GOLGI APPARATUS/GOLGI BODY VACUOLE

 It is an organelle consisting of membrane bound sacs,
tubules and vesicles.
 It was first discovered by Camillo Golgi
 FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI BODY
 i)It is responsible for transport of material synthesised
near ER to various part of the cells.
 ii) It is also responsible for storage,modification and
packaging of products in vesicles.
 iii) Complex sugars are made from simple sugars in
the Golgi Body
 24-06-2023

VACUOLES PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

It is a membrane bound storage sac containing solid or
liquid contents.
The covering membrane of the sap vacuole is called
tonoplast.
The fluid content of the vacuole is called cell sap.
FUNCTIONS-
i) It provides turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
ii) In plants it sores the food like amino acids,sugars,various
organic acids and some proteins
iii) In Amoeba,digestion of food occurs in the food vacuole
iv) It plays an important role s in expelling excess water and
some wastes from the cell

TYPES OF CELL
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
i) It is generally smaller in
 EUKARYOTIC CELL PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
i) It is generally bigger in
size(1-10 um) size(5-100um) i) Cell wall present i)Cell wall absent
ii)Nucleus without well ii)nucleus with well defined ii) plastids present ii)Plastids absent
defined nuclear membrane nuclear membrane.
such a nucleus is called iii) vacoules large ,single iii)Vacuoles small ,many
iii)two or more chromosomes and centrally placed in the and not placed at the
NUCLEOID present
iii)Chromosome single cell centre of the cell.
iv)Membrane bound
iv)Membrane bound cell organelles present iv)nucleus present at the iv)Nucleus present at the
organelles are absent. periphery centre
v)Nucleolus present
v)Nucleolus absent
Eg. Plants ,animals and fungi v)plant cells are generally v)Animal cells are
Eg ,Bacteria and
BGA(cyanobacteria) larger in size generally smaller in size sss
 24-06-2023

CELL DIVISION
It is a process by which a parent cell divides to form
daughter cells.
It is of two types
i) MITOSIS
ii) MEIOSIS

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
i) It is a type of cell division i) It is a type of cell division  Smallest organelle-Ribosome
in which the daughter cells in which the daughter cells  Largest cell organelle in plants-plastid
have the same number of have half the chromosome
 Largest cell organelle in plant –Mitochondria
chromosomes number .
 Smallest cell-PPLO(Pleuro Pneumonia like organism)
ii) It occurs in the non ii) It occurs in the
reproducing cells (somatic reproducing cells (germ  Largest cell- ostrich egg .
cells) cells)
 24-06-2023

TISSUE
 Tissues are the group of cells having common
origin, similar in structure, shape, size and
performing the same function

TISSUES

37 38

39 40
 24-06-2023

Types of meristematic tissue

MERISTEMATIC
TISSUE/MERISTEMS
 It is a plant tissue consisting of rapidly dividing cells
.
 the cells are called meristematic cellS.
 the cells are very active and the power of cell
division.
 Cell wall thin and have consist of cellulose.
 Nucleus large and prominent.
 Cells have dense cytoplasm.
 vacuoles are absent.

41 42

TYPES OF MERISTEMATIC TISSUE PERMANENT TISSUE

 Depending on the region where they are present,  The meristematic cells take a specific role and lose
Meristematic tissues are classified as the ability to divide and form a permanent tissue.
 1)Apical meristem –it is present at the growing  The process of taking up a definite shape ,size and
tips of stems and roots .It increases the length of
structure and function is called cell differentiation
roots and stems
 2)Lateral meristem-It occurs on the sides of both  Cells have defenite , size and function.
roots and stems.it increases the girth of stems and  Cell wall may be thick or thincells may be living or
roots dead.
 3)Intercalary meristem-it is located near the  Cells have lost the power of cell division.
nodes ,base of leaves and base of internode.It
helps in the growth of leaves and internodes.
43 44
 24-06-2023

TYPES OF PERMANENT TISSUE

1)SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE
SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE IS OF THREE
TYPES
1)Parenchyma
2)Collenchyma
3)sclerenchyma

45 46

PARENCHYMA COLLENCHYMA
CHARACTERISTICS:- CHARACTERISTICS:-
i)It consist of relatively unspecialized cells with thin cell walls. i)They are present in the leaf stalks below the epidermis
ii)The cells are living. and leaf midribs.
iii)Cells are loosely arranged with intercellular spaces between them. ii)The cells are living.
iv)They are found in all parts of the plants. iii)Cells are elongated and irregularly thickened at the
Functions:- corners .
i)The main function of the parenchyma is to store the food . iii)There is very little intercellular space.
ii)In aquatic plants large air cavities are present in parenchyma to provide
buoyancy to plants such parenchyma are called AERENCHYMA. FUNCTIONS:-
iii)In some situations chlorophyll pigments are present in parenchyma i)It provides flexibility to the plant parts.
such parenchyma is called as CHLORENCHYMA . Chlorenchyma
ii)It provides mechanical strength to plants
perform photosynthesis
47 48
 24-06-2023

SCLERENCHYMA COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE

CHARACTERISTICS:- They are permanent tissue which consist of
i)The cells are dead.
ii)The cells are long and narrow
more than one type of cells.
iii)cell walls are evenly thickened due to deposition of lignin. It is of two types
iv)Cells are compactly arranged without intercellular spaces 1) XYLEM
v)The tissue is present in stems around vascular bundles , in veins
of leaves , hard covering of seeds and nuts. 2)PHLOEM

FUNCTIONS:-
i)The main function is to provide mechanical strength. Xylem and phloem are called CONDUCTING
ii)It provides a protective covering to nuts and seeds . TISSUE or VASCULAR TISSUE .They join
iii)It gives commercial fibres. together to form the VASCULAR BUNDLE
49 50

51 52
 24-06-2023

XYLEM PHLOEM
It consist of the following components It is the complex permanent tissue responsible for
conduction of prepared food
1)Tracheids
It consist of four components
2)vessels 1)sieve tubes
3)xylem parenchyma 2)companion cells
4)xylem fibre 3)phloem parenchyma
Tracheids and vessels are responsible for vertical 4) phloem fiber
transportation of water and minerals. Xylem fibres are Sieve tubes transport food in two way direction ie. Upward
and downward direction.
mainly supportive in nature.Xylem parenchyma stores
food and transport water and minerals in sideways. Phloem fibre provides strength.
Phloem parenchyma stores food and transport food sideways.
53 54

ANIMAL TISSUE

55 56
 24-06-2023

EPITHELIAL TISSUE /EPITHELIUM TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE

It is a fundamental tissue covering all the body parts On the basis of arrangement of layers ,It is of two types-
,organs and cavities within the body i) Simple epithelial tissue-This tissue is made up of
CHARACTERISTICS- single layer of cells.
i) cells are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet. ii) Stratified/compound Epithelium-This tissue is
ii) They have only a small amount of cementing material made up of more than one layer of cells.s
between them and almost no intercellular space.
Iv)All epithelium is usually separated from the
underlying tissue by an extra cellular fibrous membrane .

57 58

On the basis of cell shapes

It is divided into three types- 2.COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL TISSUE
1.SQUAMOUS EPITHELIAL
2.COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL The cells are tall and pillar like and compactly
3.CUBOIDAL EPITHELIAL arranged.
They are present in the area where secretion and
i)Squamous epithelial-Cells are thin ,flat and fit absorption occurs eg. lining of intestine.
together like the tiles of the floor. In some area ,the columnar epithelial is provided
It may be –
with cilia such are called ciliated columnar epithelium.
a) Simple Squamous epithelial
eg.respiratory tract.
eg.lining of the mouth,oesophagus
b)Stratified squamous epithelial tissue
eg.skin

59 60
 24-06-2023

3.CUBOIDAL EPITHELIAL TISSUE

The cells are cube shaped and compactly arranged.
It is present in the lining of the kidney tubules and ducts
of salivary glands .

Sometimes a portion of the epithelial tissue fold inward,

and a multicellular gland is formed .such epithelium are
called glandular epithelium.

61 62

CONNECTIVE TISSUE 1.Connective Tissue Proper

It is the most abundant tissue of the animal body. In this tissue, the matrix is jelly like .
The cells are found scattered in the matrix. It is of four types-i) Areolar
On the basis of the nature of the matrix, the ii) Adipose
connective tissue is of 3 types iii) Tendon
i) Connective tissue proper. iv) Ligament
ii)skeletal tissue.
iii) vascular tissue.

63 64
 24-06-2023

TENDON LIGAMENT
AREOLAR TISSUE – It fills the space inside the organs,
supports internal organs and helps in repair of tissue. i)It is a fibrous tissue i)The tissue is strong
It is found between the skin and muscles, around with great strength but very flexible
blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow. but with limited
flexibility.
ii)It binds muscle to ii) It binds bone to
ADIPOSE TISSUE -It is found below the skin and
bone bone
between internal organs.
It is responsible for storage of fats and acts as
insulator.

65 66

2.SKELETAL TISSUE BONE CARTILAGE

i)It is hard and i)It is comparatively soft
It is a connective tissue in which the matrix is solid . inflexible. and flexible .
ii)The hard matrix is ii) The solid matrix is
It is of two types –i) Bones composed of calcium composed of sugars and
ii) Cartilage and phosphorus
compounds. protein.
iii) Bone cell are called Iii) cartilage cells are
osteocytes. called chondrocytes
iv) It forms the iv)It provide support and
framework that flexibility to different
supports the body.It also body parts ..It smoothens
anchors the muscles bone surfaces at joints
and supports the main
organs of the body

67 68
 24-06-2023

VASCULAR/FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

The matrix is liquid
 RBC(white blood cells) is red in colour due to the
It is of two types-i) Blood
presence of a red pigment called Haemoglobin.
ii) Lymph
 It is responsible for transport of Oxygen.
BLOOD- It is a red fluid connective tissue ,It  WBC(white blood cells ) Helps to fight infection .
consist of -i) Plasma (matrix)
 Platelets helps in clotting of blood.
ii) corpuscles / cells
Plasma contains 90-92% of water and
remaining 8-10% are inorganic and organic
substances, hormones,digested
foods,nitrogenous waste and co2 etc.
69 70

MUSCULAR TISSUES
It is a contractile tissue which possesses contractile
which contract and relax to cause movement in the
body.
The cells of the muscles are called muscle fibre.
IN the muscle fibre the plasma membrane fuse with the
basement membrane to form sarcolemma.
Contractile elements of muscle fibres are called
myofibrils s

71 72
 24-06-2023

NERVOUS TISSUE

It is a tissue specialised for reception , integration and

transmitting of stimuli very rapidly from one place to
another within the body.
Nervous tissue and its connective tissue cells aggregate
to form brain,spinal cord and nerves.
The cells of nervous tissue are called nerve cells or
neurons.

73 74

NERVE CELL/NEURON
A neuron consist of –
i)Cell body /Cyton which has nucleus and a cytoplasm
called neuroplasm.
ii) Dendrites –they are small branched structure arising
from the cell body .It receives the impulse and transmit
it to the e cyton .
iii) Axon- It is the long hair like process arising from the
cyton,,The axon terminates into nerve ending .

75 76
 24-06-2023

SYNAPSE- It is a meeting point of two neuron

formed between the dendrites of one neuron
and nerve ending of another neuron .
Nerve impulse-The signal that passes along the
nerve fibre is called nerve impulse .
FUNCTIONS-
i)It provide response to all type of stimuli thus
enabling the animals to move rapidly in
response to stimuli .
It coordinates the functioning of all body parts

77
 24-06-2023

Matter
Everything in this universe are made up of matter. CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICLES OF MATTER
 Anything that has mass and occupy space (volume) is known as 1. Particles of matter have space between them:- Dissolution of sugar in water
matter. does not increase the volume is because, the particles of sugar occupying
Physical nature of matter the space between the particles of liquid.
a) Matter is made up of particles:- matter is not continuous as it seems
but it is made up of particles. e.g. when we dissolved salt/sugar in 2. Particles of matter are continuously moving:- Particles possess kinetic energy
water, the water level does not rise. It is because the particles of and are continuously moving e.g. diffusion of particles of incenses stick.
salt/sugar get into the spaces between particles of water
b) Particles of matter are very small:- the particles of matter are very
small such that one crystal of salt contain thousands of salt particles. 3. Particles of matter attract each other:-the force of attraction keeps the
e.g. a drop of ink will give colour even on repeated dilution though particle together . The strength of this force of attraction is inversely
the colour becomes light. proportional to the distances between the particles.

States of Matter
States of matter are
 Diffusion :- The process of intermixing of particles on their own is 1) Solid 2)Liquid 3) Gas 4)Plasma and 5) Bose-
known as diffusion. Diffusion is faster when the kinetic energy is high. Einstein Condensate.
 The Solid State:-
1) Definite shape
 Kinetic Energy :- The energy possess by a moving particle is known 2) Rigid (tendency to maintain their shapes)
as kinetic energy. As the temperature rises the kinetic energy of the 3) Distinct boundaries and fixed volumes
particle increased.
4) Negligible compressibility
5) Can not flow
6) Particles are tightly packed
 24-06-2023

States of Matter
States of Matter Gases State: -
1) Indefinite shape
Liquid State:- 2) Indefinite volume
1) Indefinite shape 3) Highly compressible
2) Not rigid 4) Fluid
3) Definite volume 5) Particles are far apart
4) Less compressible
5) Can flow (fluid)  Particles of gas move randomly in all possible direction in which the
6) Particles are loosely packed(easier diffusion) particles hit each other and also the walls of the container. This
force exerted by the gas particles per unit area cause pressure of
the gas.

Change of state Change of state

In melting of ice (a solid substance), the temperature remain unchange after
Temperature and pressure determine the state of a substance, whether it will
reaching the melting point till all the ice melt. This hidden heat (the heat
be solid, liquid or gas.
absorbed by ice without showing any rise in temperature) is known as latent
When heat is supply to solid substances, the kinetic energy of the particles heat. The heat is used in changing the state by overcoming the force of
increase and start vibrating. The energy supplied by the heat overcomes the attraction between the particles. The same case happened in changing a
forces of attraction and the particles are separated. Thus the solid becomes liquid substance into gas (boiling)also.
liquid.
The amount of heat energy required to change 1Kg of a solid substance into
The temperature at which a solid substance change to liquid at atmospheric liquid substance at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the
pressure is called its melting point. e.g. ice melt into water at 273.16 K or 0oC. latent heat of fusion.
The melting point of a solid is an indication of the strength of the force of Due to latent heat of vapourisation steam have extra energy than water at
attraction between its particle. the same temperature.
 24-06-2023

Change of State Evaporation

The process of changing a solid substance directly into gas without changing
into liquid state is called sublimation. e.g. a piece of camphor change into gas
on heating. The surface phenomenon in which a liquid substance change into vapour at
A gas can be converted into liquid or solid by applying pressure and reducing any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.
temperature. Factors Affecting Evaporation:-
Dry ice(solid carbon dioxide) are stored under high pressure. if it is kept in 1) Surface area: larger the surface area higher the rate of evaporation
normal pressure it convert into gas.
2) Temperature: higher the temperature higher the rate of evaporation
Liquid
3) Wind Speed: faster the wind speed higher the rate of evaporation
4) Humidity: more the humidity lesser the rate of evaporation.

sublimation
Solid Gas
Deposition/sublimation

Is Matter Around Us Pure

The surface phenomenon in which a liquid substance change into Matter
vapour at any temperature below its boiling point is called
evaporation.
Factors Affecting Evaporation:- Impure
Pure (mixture)
1) Surface area: larger the surface area higher the rate of evaporation
2) Temperature: higher the temperature higher the rate of
evaporation
3) Wind Speed: faster the wind speed higher the rate of evaporation Element Compound Homogeneous Heterogeneous
mixture mixture
4) Humidity: more the humidity lesser the rate of evaporation.

Non Inorganic Solution

Metals Organic Suspension
Metals e.g. e.g. salt Colloid
e.g. e.g. e.g. sand and
e.g. Sodium solution , e.g. milk
Iron Alcohol water mixture
Sulphur chloride tap water
 24-06-2023

Differences between homogeneous and

Mixture hetrogeneous mixture
Pure substances: Those substances which are made up of
only one kind of particle are called pure substances. e.g.
Water, Iron, Oxygen Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture
Mixture : Those substances which compose of two or more
1. Non uniform composition.
kind of particles/two or more pure substances are called 1. Uniform composition.
mixture. e.g. salt solution, milk, air etc. 2. Mixture is unstable.
2. Mixture is stable.
Mixture can be broadly classify into two i.e. 3. Leave residue on filtration.
3. Do not leave residue on
1. homogeneous mixture filtration.
2. heterogeneous mixture 4. Shows Tyndall effect
4. Do not show Tyndall effect

Solution Solution
 The components of solution are solvent and solute.
Properties of solution  Solvent :- The larger component of solution that
Homogeneous mixture dissolve the other component in it.
Particles are smaller than 1 nanometre (10-9 metre) in  Solute :- The smaller component of solution that is
diameter. dissolved in the solvent.
Because of small particle size, solution do not scatter Some examples of solution are
Examples of solution State of Solvent State of solute
light passing through it. So the path of light is not
Air Gas Gas
visible.(do not show Tyndall effect)
Soda Drink Liquid Gas
Solution is stable.
Lemonade Liquid Liquid
Particles of solution can not be separated by
filtration. Tincture Iodine Liquid Solid

Alloy Solid Solid

 24-06-2023

Concentration of a solution Example : A solution contains 40 g of common salt in 320 g of water.

Calculate the concentration in terms of mass by mass percentage of
the solution.
The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution Solution:
at a given temperature is called its solubility.
Mass of solute (salt) = 40 g
The amount of solute present in a given amount of solution Mass of solvent (water) = 320 g
is called concentration of solution. We know,
The concentration of a solution can be express in Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent
Mass of Solute = 40 g + 320 g
Mass X 100 = 360 g
• 1. Mass by mass percentage of a solution = of Solution
Mass of solute
Mass of Solute Mass percentage of solution = ×100
2. Mass by volume percentage of a solution = X 100 Mass of solution
Volume of Solution
40
Volume of Solute = ×100
3. Volume by volume percentage of a solution = X 100 360
Volume of Solution
=11.1%

Suspension and Colloidal solution Colloid

Properties of a Suspension Properties of a colloid
Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture. A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be
The particles of a suspension can be seen by the naked individually seen by naked eyes.
eye. Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing
The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light through it and make its path visible. (shows Tyndall effect)
passing through it and make its path visible. (shows They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a
colloid is quite stable.
Tyndall effect)
They cannot be separated from the mixture by the process
The solute particles settle down when a suspension is of filtration. But, centrifugation can be used to separate the
left undisturbed, that is, a suspension is unstable. colloidal particles.
• Tyndall Effect : The phenomenon of scattering of light by the
The particles can be separated from the mixture by the particles in a medium which makes visible a beam of light
process of filtration. passing through it. It is observed when sunlight passes
through canopy of dense forest.
The components of a colloidal solution are the dispersed
phase and the dispersion medium.
 24-06-2023

The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a Crystallisation

colloid form the dispersed phase.
Crystallisation is a process that separates a pure solid in
The component in which the dispersed phase is the form of its crystals from a solution.
suspended is known as the dispersing medium.
Dispersed Dispersed Type Examples Crystallisation technique is better than simple evaporation
phase Medium technique as –
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog , Cloud , Mist
i) some solids decompose or some, like sugar, may get
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke , Automobile exhaust charred on heating to dryness.
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream ii) some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution
even after filtration. On evaporation these contaminate
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, Face Cream
the solid.
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of Magnesia , Mud
Applications
Gas Solid Foam Foam , Rubber , Sponge , Pumice i) Purification of salt that we get from sea water.
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly , Cheese, Butter ii) Separation of crystals of alum (phitkari) from impure
samples.
Solid Solid Solid Sol Coloured gemstone , Milky glass

Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical changes :- Those changes that involved the
changes only in the physical properties (such as state,
shape, size etc) without changing the chemical
composition are known as physical change. e.g. boiling of
water, cutting of paper etc.
Chemical changes :- The process in which there is
Steps for purification of water are formation of new substance with different properties are
i) sedimentation known as chemical changes. e.g. burning of wood,
ii) loading changing of milk into curd.
iii) filtration The process that involve chemical change is known as
iv) aeration chemical reaction.
v) chlorination
 24-06-2023

Elements
An element as a basic form of matter that cannot be broken
down into simpler substances by chemical reactions.
Elements can be normally divided into metals, non-metals
and metalloids.
Elements have intermediate properties between those of
metals and non-metals are called metalloids; examples are
boron, silicon, germanium etc.
Ninety-two elements are naturally occurring and the rest are
manmade.
Eleven elements are in gaseous state at room temperature.
Two elements are liquid at room temperature–mercury and
bromine.
Elements, gallium and cesium become liquid at a
temperature slightly above room temperature (303 K).
 Beehive Chapter 1

The Fun They Had

SUMMARY

• Tommy finds a real book from an attic that has been printed on paper.
• According to Margie’s grandfather, all books were printed on paper.
• They found the old book crinkled with yellow pages and it seemed funny to them to find all the
letters at the same place as when read the first time.
• Tommy thinks it was a waste to have a book printed on paper. Once read, the book is left
ignored or just thrown away.
• Tommy thinks TV screens are better as they have a million books and it is better for more stuff
and would never be thrown away.
• Margie hates school. Now even more as she has not been performing well in her geography
test.
• Margie has problems about learning her geography lessons from her mechanical teacher so
her mother calls the county inspector to rebuild her lessons.
• The county inspector says that Margie’s progress is satisfactory. He says it was not her fault
that she scored very less in geography. The geography sector was a little above her level. He
adjusted it to a 10 year old level.
• Margie is surprised to know that back in the older days a ‘man’ would be the teacher. He would
teach the children different things, ask questions and give the homework too.
• Tommy says that teachers didn’t live in the house and the kids went to a special building to
learn and all the children of the same group were given the same knowledge and taught the
same things.
• Margie thinks about the time when teachers were people. She thinks about how much fun it
would be for all the children in the neighbourhood to go to same place together everyday and
learn the same things and help each other in homework.

Question and Answers.

1. How old are Margie and Tommy?

Ans: Margie is eleven and Tommy is thirteen year old.

2. What did Margie write in her diary?

Ans: Margie wrote, “ Today Tommy found a real book.”

3. Had Margie seen a book before?

Ans: No, Margie had never seen a real book before.

4. What things about the book did she find strange?

Ans: Margie found it strange that the words printed on a book stood still instead of moving the way they
did on screen. She also found it odd that the words on the page always remained the same as the first
time they were read. Besides the idea that someone would write a book about schools was itself strange
for Margie.

5. What do you think a telebook is?

Ans: A book that can be displayed on a screen is called a telebook.

6. Where was Margie’s school? Did she have any classmates?

Ans: Margie’s school was in her home itself right next to her bedroom. No, she did not have any
classmates.

Page 1 of 3
7. What subjects did Margie and Tommy learn?

Ans: Margie and Tommy learned geography, history and arithmetic.

II. Answer the following with reference to the story.

“ I wouldn’t throw it away.”

(i) Who says these words?

Ans: Tommy said these words.

(ii) What does “it” refer to?

Ans: “ It” refers to the television screen in which words were printed on
paper. He thought that after reading such books, one would have to throw away his textbooks.

(iii) What is it being compared with by the speaker?

Ans: Tommy is comparing the television screen to the real books in earlier times in which words printed
on paper. He thought after reading such books one would have to throw them away. However he would
never have to throw away his textbooks.

“Sure they had a teacher, but it wasn’t a regular teacher. It was a man.”

(i) Who does they refer to?

Ans: They refer to the students who studied in the old kind of schools centuries before the time the story
is set in.

(ii) What does “ regular” mean?

Ans: Here ‘regular’ refers to the mechanical teachers that Tommy and Margie had.

(iii) What is it contrasted with?

Ans: The mechanical teacher is contrasted with the teacher of the earlier times who was a human being.

III Answer each of these questions in a short paragraph(about 30 words)

(i) What kind of teachers did Margie and Tommy have?

Ans: Margie and Tommy had mechanical teachers. They were large and black and ugly. They had large
black screens on which all the lessons were shown and Questions were asked.

(ii)Why did Margie’s mother send for the county Inspector?

Ans: Margie had been given many tests in geography by the mechanical teacher, but there was no
improvement in her performance. It only kept getting worse. It is for this reason that Margie’s mother
sent for the county Inspector to find out why this was happening.

(iii)What did he do?

Ans: He slowed down the mechanical teacher’s speed upto average 10 year old level. The mechanical
teacher’s speed was controlled.

(iv)Why was Margie doing badly in Geography? What did the County Inspector do to help her?

Ans: Because mechanical teacher was very fast in displaying the questionnaire. The county inspector
adjusted its speed upto an average ten year level. Its speed was controlled. He assured Margie’s mother
that Margie’s progress was satisfactory.

Page 2 of 3
(v)What had once happened to Tommy’s teacher?

Ans: Tommy’s teacher was taken away for nearly a month because the History sector had blanked out
completely. Tommy relaxed and enjoyed while it was taken away.

(vi)Did Margie have regular days and hours for school? If so, why?

Ans: Yes Margie had regular days and hours at school. Her mother said little girls learned better if they
learned at regular hours.

(vii)How does Tommy describe the old kind of school?

Ans: Tommy said old kind of school as a special building where all kids studied together. There were
hundreds of students studying and playing together in an open yard.

Answer each of these questions in two or three paragraphs (100- 150 words)

(i) What are the main features of the mechanical teachers and the schoolrooms that Margie and
Tommy have in the story?

Ans: Margie and Tommy had mechanical teachers. They had large black screens on which all the
lessons were shown and questions were asked. They had a slot in which students had to put their
homework and test papers. They had to write their answers in punch code and the mechanical teacher
calculated the marks immediately. Their schools were in their rooms itself. Margie’s school was right
next to her bedroom. The mechanical teacher always turned on at the same time every day except
Saturdays and Sundays because her mother said that little girls learned better when they learned at
regular hours.

Page 3 of 3
 24-06-2023

CLASS-IX
Topic: The Road Not Taken
HUININGSUMBAM NONIDA DEVI
Poet: Robert Frost
TGT- ENGLISH
CLASSES- 9

Robert Frost: The Road Not Taken

"The Road Not Taken" is a narrative poem by Robert Frost, first published in the
August 1915 issue of The Atlantic Monthly, and later published as the first poem in Summary:
the collection Mountain Interval of 1916. It describes the dilemma of a person standing at a road with diversion. This diversion
symbolizes real life situations. Sometimes, in life too there comes times when we have to
Four of Robert Frost's characteristics as a poet are: he writes about New England take tough decisions. We could not decide what is right or wrong for us. Ultimately we have
farm life, he finds deeper meaning in ordinary things, he gives beautiful and unique to choose one road which will lead to our future.
descriptions of nature, and his poems often examine someone's personality or
character traits. The important message that the poet wants to give is that the choice that we make has an
impact on our future and if we make a wrong choice, we regret it but cannot go back on it.
So, we must be wise while making choices.
 24-06-2023

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

Major Themes of the Poem
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
 The poem comprises hesitation and confusing situation of the minds of people about what they
may face when standing on the verge of making choices. It is because life is full of choices, and And looked down one as far as I could
the choices we make, define the whole course of our lives. To where it bent in the undergrowth;

 Similarly, the narrator faces a situation during his travel. He finds two roads at a point where he
 The poem signifies a situation where the poet was walking down a road that had a diversion. He had to
has to choose one and must abide by his choice. He thinks he may come back one day to travel on
choose between the two paths. Since he was a single person, he could choose only one of the two
the other road.
paths. The wood was yellow which represents a world full of people who have been residing for many
years.
 However, he also has a feeling that his choice will confront him with new adventures and  The poet kept standing at that fork and looked at the paths very carefully. He looked as far as he could.
challenges. Though there is some regret over his choice, he realizes that the things he has Before moving forward on one path, he wants to understand how it was. Was it suitable for him to walk
encountered and the places he has visited, because of this path, have made all the difference in on it or not? He was able to see the path till from where it got curved. However, afterward it was
his life. covered with trees and thus was hidden. He wanted to understand the advantages and disadvantages
of the paths. The same happens in life too. We have to make decisions thinking about its good and bad
consequences in the future.

Then took the other , just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim, And both that morning equally lay
Because it was grassy and wanted wear; In leaves no step had trodden black.
Though as for that the passing there Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Had worn them really about the same. Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
 The poet looked at one path for a long time to decide whether its good or not for him. Then I doubted if I should ever come back.
he takes the alternative path as he feels that the paths are equally good. He feels that the path
he chose was better for him. The path was grassy which depicted that it was walked over by  The poet says that the two paths looked similar that morning. Both were having leaves on them. No
fewer people and also, it was ‘wanted wear’. one stepped on that and thus they were green. He decided to move forward on one path and keep
the other for another day. Although he knew that he would not be able to return back as one path
 It depicted that the path was unused. However, as he walks on the path for some distance, he
would lead to another. This happens in life too. We make a decision and move forward in that
realizes that both the paths were similarly worn out. Even in our life, every decision has its direction. We think that we would get a chance to start over again if we fail. But that does not
own good and bad consequences. We might think we are in a better position than the others happen.
but it is not the reality.
 24-06-2023

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence; Difficult words:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I –
I took the one less travelled by, Diverged: separated
And that has made all the difference. Undergrowth: dense growth of plants
Just as fair: as good as the other
 The poet says that sometime in the future he will take a deep breath and tell that once in a lifetime he had to
Grassy: unused
take a tough decision. He was standing at a division of two roads. Both looked to him equally well. Thus, he
decides to move forward on the road which fewer people took. As a result, it has made him what he is today. Wanted wear: had not been used
That one decision shaped his future.
Sigh: take a deep breadth
 Similarly, in the future, when we grow up and then we have to say that once upon a time when you were in
your youth, you have to take tough decisions. The choice made by you had made you what you are today.
Thus, the article of the poem, the road not taken summary gives a very strong message to the people. It tells
us to be careful in making decisions in life. One should be very wise and careful while making choices as
our choices shape our future. Also, once we make a decision, it is very difficult to change and start again.
One bad decision could make us regret it throughout life. All this depends on the choices we make today.

Poetic devices
 Alliteration: It is referred to the multiple repetitions of a consonant which happens to be the
 Metaphor – A Metaphor primarily refers to a comparison in between two very unlikely things. This first letter of multiple words. This repetition takes place multiple times in close syllables within
device is used to bring about the resemblance between two things that are known to be completely the same group of words. This technique is actually used by the poet to guide the reader’s
different from each other. However, the comparison stated in such cases is absolutely direct and is attention towards a single part of the text. This technique also adds a sense of rhythm to the
not hidden, and does not need to be assumed. But such comparisons are very different from a writing as the same sound is repeated over and over again to represent a particular connotation.
simile.
Example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers
Example: If music be the food of love, play on.

 Symbolism: It is a literary device that uses symbols, be they words, people, marks, locations, or
 Personification – Personification is another very interesting poetic device that is used to give an abstract ideas to represent something beyond the literal meaning.
animal, an idea or a particular thing a human-like characteristic. When any non-human object is
Example: The color white stands for purity, black represents evil, roses stand for romance, a
defined as a human being, the entire concept is referred to as personification. This device makes
butterfly symbolizes transformation
any writing very impactful and interesting.
Example: She did not realize that opportunity was knocking at her door.

 Simile – A simile refers to different types of direct comparisons which are made in literary texts. It
puts forward the difference between two things that have no similarity with each other. Words like
“like” or “as” are used to draw comparisons.
Example: During the house fire, my Dad was as brave as a lion.
 24-06-2023

Poetic Devices in The Road Not Taken  Personification: Robert Frost personified the road in the third line of the second
stanza. Here, it is stated “Because it was grassy and wanted wear” as if the road
 Rhyme scheme: abaab cdccd efeef ghggh
is human and that it wants to wear and tear.
 Metaphor: There are many metaphors in the poem, like road, fork in the road and yellow
 Alliteration: Repetition of 'f' sound in 'first' and 'for‘ in 3rd stanza.
woods. The road in the poem is the metaphor for life, while the fork on the road symbolically
represents the choices we make to determine the course of our lives. Similarly, yellow woods
are the metaphor of making decisions during the hard times of a person’s life. These
metaphors used in this poem emphasize the importance of the different decisions we make in
different situations and their impacts on our lives.
 Imagery: Imagery is used to make the readers feel things through their five senses. The poet
has used images of the sense of sights, such as leaves and yellowwoods. These images help
readers actually to perceive things they are reading. The image of the road helps readers to
visualize the road providing a navigation route to the travel.
 Simile: A simile is a device used to compare things with familiar things to let the readers
know it easily. There is one simile used in the second stanza as “as just as fair”. It shows how
the poet has linked the road less taken to the easy way through life.

Recapitulation
Home –Work
1. Where does the traveler find himself? What problem does he face? Have you ever had to make a difficult choice ( or do you think you will have difficult choices
to make)? How will you make the choice ( for what reasons)?
2. Discuss what these phrases mean to you.
i. a yellow wood,
ii. it was grassy and wanted wear
iii. the passing there
iv. leaves no steps had trodden black
v. how way leads on to way
 24-06-2023

1. India – Size and Location

Location and size India and the world
• India is a vast country covering 3.28 million • India has a central location between the East
sq.km. and West Asia.
• It extends between latitudes 8 °4’ N and 37 °6’ N • It has the largest coastline on the Indian
and longitudes 68 °7’ E and 97 °25’ E. ocean.
• It has a land boundary of about 15,200km and • The countries larger than India are Russia,
the total length of the coastline is 7,516.6km. Canada, USA, China, Brazil and Australia.
• India’s land routes have contributed in the
• The Standard Meridian of India (82° 30’ E) is
exchange of ideas and commodities since
passing through Mirzapur of Uttar Pradesh. ancient time.

India’s neighbours 2. Physical Features of India

• India has mountain, plain, desert, plateau and
• India occupies an important strategic position island.
in South Asia. • The peninsula part of India is the oldest part of
• She has 28 states and 9 union Territories. the country.
• Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, • Tethys sea was a great geosyncline which was
Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives located before formation of present Himalayan
mountains.
are our neighbouring countries.
• The Himalayan mountains form an unstable
• Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk zone.
Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.
 24-06-2023

Major physiographic divisions –(A) Major physiographic divisions-(B)

• There are six physiographic divisions in India. • The Northern plain is formed by the Indus, the
• The Himalayas represent the highest Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
mountains in the world. • The plain covers 7 lakh square kilometres.
• The Himalayas have three parallel ranges like • There are four regions in this plain based on
the Great or Inner Himalayas or the Himadri,
Lesser Himalayas or Himachal and Shiwaliks. the variations in relief features like bhabar,
terai, bhangar and khadar.
• Some highest peaks of the Himalayas are
Mount Everest, Mount K2, Kanchenjunga, • Khadar is younger alluvium and it is very
Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parbat, etc. fertile.

Major physiographic divisions-(C) Major physiographic divisions-(D)

• The Peninsular plateau is composed of the • The Indian desert is an undulating sandy plain.
crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. • Barchans are crescent shaped sand dunes.
• The plateau has two broad divisions like the • There are two coastal plains such as the
Central Highlands and the Deccan plateau. western coast and the eastern coast.
• The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats • The Andaman and Nicobar islands are in the
surround the Deccan plateau. Bay of Bengal.
• The plateau has black soil.
 पाठ का नाम – धूल (रामविलास शमाा)

पाठ की रूपरे खा :- प्रस्तुत पाठ ‘धल

ू ’ के लेखक प्रगततशील आलोचना के सशक्त हस्ताक्षर रामविलास शमाा है । यह
ू की महहमा एिं कहात्‍्य, उपलब्धता एिं उपयोगगता का बखान करता है । यह धल
पाठ धल ू के भौततक-रासायतनक महत्‍ि
के साथ-साथ सांस्कृततक महत्‍ि को भी प्रततपाहित करता है । लेखक को ि:ु ख है कक नगरीय सभ्यता न तो धूल के इस
महत्‍ि को समझती है और न ही इसके सौन्िया को पहचान पाती है ।
 अन्य पाठ्य सामग्री, WEB SITES & YOU TUBE
 24-06-2023

Natural number (N):1,2,3,4,5,……..

1 2

whole numbers(W):0,1,2,3,4,5,…..

Integers (Z): -∞….,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3…. ∞

 Rational numbers (Q): A number ‘r’ is called a

rational number, if it can be written in the form p/q ,
where p and q are integers and q 0.
 There are infinitely many rational numbers
between any two given rational numbers.

Irrational Numbers A number ‘s’ is called irrational, if it cannot be

3 4
written in the form p/q, where p and q are integers and q 0.
2, 3, 15,, p, 0.10110111011110...

Real Numbers the collection of all rational numbers and irrational numbers
together make up what we call the collection of real numbers (R)

Every real number is represented by a unique point on the number

line. Also, every point on the number line represents a unique real
number.
 24-06-2023

Real Numbers and their Decimal Expansions 5 6

7 8

The decimal expansion of rational numbers have only two choices: either they are terminating or non-terminating recurring.
 24-06-2023

9 10

Representing Real Numbers on the Representing Real Numbers on the

Number Line by using successive 11 12
Number Line by using semi circle
magnification
 24-06-2023

Operations on Real Numbers 13 14

15 16
 24-06-2023

17 18

19 20
 24-06-2023

21 22

23 24
 24-06-2023

25 26

27 28
 24-06-2023

2 29 30

X = 2/3

31 32
 24-06-2023

33 34

35 36
 24-06-2023

37 38

39 40
 24-06-2023

41 42

43 44
 24-06-2023

45 46

47 48
 24-06-2023

49 50

51 52
 24-06-2023

53
A polynomial is an expression consisting of variables and coefficients,
that involves only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and non-negative integer exponentiation of variables.

Notation
The polynomial function is denoted by P(x) where x
represents the variable. For example, P(x) = x2-5x+11.If the
variable is denoted by a, then the function will be P(a)
 24-06-2023

Constant polynomials: constant numbers are called constant Zero(s) of a polynomial is/are the value(s) of
polynomials variable that cause the polynomial to = 0
zero polynomial: 0 is called zero polynomial

The highest power of the variable in a

polynomial as the degree of the polynomial

The degree of a non-zero constant polynomial is

zero.
Zero polynomial has no term so no degree for
zero polynomial
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

Notation
The polynomial function is denoted by P(x) where x
represents the variable. For example, P(x) = x2-5x+11.If the
A polynomial is an expression consisting of variables and coefficients, variable is denoted by a, then the function will be P(a)
that involves only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and non-negative integer exponentiation of variables.

Constant polynomials: constant numbers are called constant

polynomials

zero polynomial: 0 is called zero polynomial

The highest power of the variable in a

polynomial as the degree of the polynomial

The degree of a non-zero constant polynomial is

zero.
Zero polynomial has no term so no degree for
zero polynomial
 24-06-2023

Zero(s) of a polynomial is/are the value(s) of

variable that cause the polynomial to = 0
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

Thank You
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

CARTESIAN PLAIN
 24-06-2023

Ordered pair:
Whenever we write the co-ordinates of a point, first we
write the x- co-ordinate, and then we write the y-co-
ordinate. Suppose a and b is a pair of two numbers which is
listed in a specific order then the co-ordinates (a, b) are
called the ordered pair.
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

Solution:
To describe the position of a table lamp placed on the table, let us consider
the table lamp as P and the table as a plane.
Now choose two perpendicular edges of the table as the axes OX and OY.
Measure the perpendicular distance ‘a’ cm of P (lamp) from OY. Measure the
perpendicular distance ‘b’ cm of P (lamp) from OX.
Thus, the position of the table lamp P is described by the ordered pair (a, b).
 24-06-2023

Solution:
(i) A unique cross street as shown by the point A(4, 3).
(ii) A unique cross street as shown by the point B(3,4).
The two cross streets are uniquely found because of the two reference lines we have
used for locating them.

Solution:
(i) The horizontal line: x – axis and the
vertical line: y – axis.
(ii) Each part is called “Quadrant”.
(iii) Origin
 24-06-2023

solution:
From the figure, we have
(i) The coordinates of B are (-5,2).
(ii) The coordinates of C are (5, -5).
(iii) The point E is identified by the coordinates (-3,-5).
(iv) The point G is identified by the coordinates (2,-4).
(v) The abscissa of the point D is 6.
(vi) The ordinate of the point H is -3.
(vii) The coordinates of the point L are (0,5).
(viii) The coordinates of the point M are (-3,0).

Solution:
The point (-2, 4) is having negative abscissa and positive ordinate.
∴ (-2,4) lies in the 2nd quadrant.
The point (3, -1) is having positive abscissa and negative ordinate.
∴ (3, -1) lies in the 4th quadrant.
The point (-1, 0) is having negative abscissa and zero ordinate.
∴ The point (-1, 0) lies on the negative x-axis.
The point (1, 2) is having the abscissa as well as ordinate positive.
∴ Point (1,2) lies in the 1st quadrant.
The point (-3, -5) is having the abscissa as well as ordinate negative.
∴ Point (-3, -5) lies in the 3rd quadrant.
These points are plotted in the Cartesian plane as shown in the
following figure as A(-2, 4); B(3, -1); C(-l, 0); D(l, 2) and E (-3, -5).
 24-06-2023

THANK YOU
 24-06-2023

What is a Linear Equations in two variables?

An equation of the form ax+by+c = 0,

where a, b and c are real numbers,
such that a and b are not both zero, is
called a linear equation in two
variables.

A linear equation in two variables has infinitely many The graph of y = a is a straight line parallel to the x-
solutions axis
The graph of every linear equation in two variables is a
straight line. An equation of the type y = mx represents a line
passing through the origin.
X = 0 is the equation of the y-axis.
Every point on the graph of a linear equation in
Y= 0 is the equation of the x-axis. two variables is a solution of the linear equation.
Moreover, every solution of the linear equation is
a point on the graph of the linear equation.
The graph of x = a is a straight line parallel to the y-
axis
 24-06-2023

How to find a solution from the graph of a linear equation in 2

How to find a solution of a linear equation in 2 variables? variables?

Step 1 : Assume any value of one of the two variables. Step1:Select any point on the line in the graph.
Step 2 : Put this value in the equation to get a linear equation Step 2:Draw a vertical line from the point to intersect the x-
in one variable. axis.
Step 3 : Solve the equation obtained in step 2 to find the
Step 3:Note the point where it intersects the x-axis.
value of the second variable
Step4:Draw a horizontal line from the point to intersect the
Step 4 : The two values (from Step 1 and Step 4) are a
y-axis.
solution of the linear equation.
Step5:Note the point where it intersects the y-axis.
Step 5 : Note that we always write the x-value first when
writing the solution as a pair. Step6:A solution of the equation is x, y .Here x is obtained
in step 3 and y in step 5.
Step 6: Repeat the process if you want to get another solution

How to draw the graph of a linear equation in 2 variables?

24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

SOLUTION
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

THANK YOU
 24-06-2023

GEOMETRY

GEO METREIN

Earth To measure

EUCLID’S  Geometry originated in Egypt as an art of Earth measurement

 Euclid (325 BCE-265 BCE): The Father of Geometry

GEOMETRY  The first Egyptian mathematician who initiated a new way of

thinking the study of geometry.
Introduced the method of proving a geometrical result by
deductive reasoning based upon previously proved result &
some self evident specific assumptions called axioms.

Euclid’s Axioms &

Euclid’s Definitions
Euclid has listed 23 definitions in Book-1 of the ‘Elements’; a few are :
Postulates
 A point is that which has no part.
Euclid assumed certain properties which are actually
 A line is breadth less length. obvious universal truths & divided them into two types:

 The ends of a line are points. Axioms - the assumptions used throughout
mathematics & not specifically linked to geometry.
 A straight line is a line which lies evenly with the points on itself.

 A surface is that which has length & breadth only. Postulates – the assumptions specific to geometry.

 The edges of a surface are lines.

 A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on
itself.
 24-06-2023

Euclid’s Axioms
Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to The whole is greater than the part.
one another. i.e. If A > B then there exists C such that A = B +
i.e. If A = C & B = C, then A = B. C.
Here A, B & C are same kind of things. Here B is a part of A & therefore A is greater
If equals are added to equals, the whole are equal than B.
i.e. If A = B & C = D, then A + C = B + D
Also A = B then this implies that A + C = B + C. Things which are double of the same things are
 If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders equal to one another.
are equal.
 Things which coinside with one another are equal to
one another. The things are halves of the same things are
equal to one another.

Axiom 5.1: given two distinct points, there Euclid’s Five Postulates
is a unique line that passes through them.
 Postulate 1: A straight line may be drawn from any one point to
Consistent: a system of axioms is called any other point.
consistent, if it is impossible to deduce from Axiom: given two distinct points, there is a unique line that
these axioms a statement that contradicts passes through them.
any axiom or previously proved statement.
Theorems or propositions - proved statements,  Postulate 2: A terminated line can be produced indefinitely.

 Postulate 3: A circle can be drawn with any centre and any

Theorem 5.1: Two distinct lines cannot have more
radius.
than one point in common.

 Postulate 4: All right angles are equal to one another.

 24-06-2023

Equivalent version of Euclid’s

fifth postulate
 Postulate 5: If a straight line falling on two
straight lines makes the interior angles on the same There are several equivalent versions of fifth postulate;
side of it taken together less than two right angles, then one of them is ‘Playfair’s axiom’(a Scottish
the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on mathematician in 1729) as stated below:
that side on which the sum of angles is less than two
right angles.
For every line l and for every point p not lying on l, there
exists a unique line m passing through p & parallel to l.

p
m

l
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

Thank you
 24-06-2023

Reference point : It is a fixed point or an object from

CHAPTER : 8 which change in position of an object is measured.
Class: IX
Sub: Physics Physical quantity: A physical quantity is a physical
Topic: Introduction on motion property of the material that can be measured or
quantified. Example – Mass, length, time, temperature,
Force, velocity etc.
MOTION
Scalar quantity Vs. vector quantity:
Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Motion : If an object changes its position with
respect to a fixed point or an object, the object is 1. A scalar quantity is defined 1. A vector quantity is defined as
said to be in motion. That fixed point or object is as the physical quantity that the physical quantity that has both
called reference point. has only magnitude. magnitude as well as direction.
2. Example : Mass, Time, 2. Example : Force, Weight,
Temperature etc. Velocity etc.
1 2

Assignment:

Q.1 Define the term physical quantity with any two

examples.
The states of rest and
Q.2 Differentiate between scalar quantity and vector
motion relative only.
quantity. A house is at rest w.r.t. other house but it is in motion from outside
the earth.

3 4
 24-06-2023

Describing motion Describing motion

Concept of distance and displacement
• Distance • Displacement • Distance • Displacement
1. The length of the 1. The shortest distance 2. It is a scalar quantity. 1. It is a vector quantity.
actual path travelled between the initial position 3. It can never be negative and 2. It can be positive, zero or
by the object during and final position zero. negative.
motion.
A A
A B A B

5 6

Numerical problem
Describing motion • Q. An object is moving in a circle of radius 21m.
Calculate the distance and displacement (i) when it
• Distance • Displacement completes half the circle. (ii) when it completes one
4. Its SI unit is meter. 4. Its SI unit is meter. full circle.
5. It can be equal to or 5. It can be equal to or • Soln :- (i)Distance = × 2𝜋𝑟 = × 2 × × 21m =
more than the magnitude less than the magnitude
66m
of displacement of distance.
Displacement = 2r = 42m
(ii) Distance =2 𝜋𝑟=2 × × 21𝑚 = 132m
Displacement = 0 (as final position coincides with
The distance and the magnitude of displacement are the initial position)
equal when the object moves in a straight path.

7 8
 24-06-2023

Difference between speed and

Assignment
velocity
Q.1Differentiate between distance and displacement. Speed Velocity
1. It is defined as the 1. It is defined as the
Q.2 A body travels a distance of 15m from A to B and then rate of change of rate of change of
moves a distance of 20m at right angle to AB. Calculate the distance. displacement.
total distance travelled and the displacement. 2. Speed = 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 2. Velocity = 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
3.It is a scalar quantity. 3.It is a vector quantity.
Q.3 A particle is moving in a circle of diameter 5m.
Calculate the distance covered and the displacement when it 4. It can never be 4. It can be positive, zero
completes 3 revolutions. negative or zero. or negative.
5. Its SI unit is ms-1 . 5. Its SI unit is ms-1 .
9 10

Types of speed Types of speed

• Uniform speed: An object is said to be in uniform • Average speed: Average speed is defined as the ratio
speed when the object covers equal distance in equal of total distance travelled by an object to the total
time intervals. time taken by the object.
A 10m B 10m C 10m D Vav = total distance travelled
total time taken
Speed
0 of the object2s 4s 6s
A to B = B to C = C to D = A to D = 5 m/s = Constant • Instantaneous speed: When an object is in motion,
• Non-uniform speed: An object is said to be in non- then the speed of that object at any instant of time is
uniform speed when the object covers a different known as Instantaneous speed.
distance in equal intervals of times. Example : The speed of the vehicle shown by its
speedometer at that instant of time is
A 10m B 14m C 20m D Instantaneous speed
0 2s 4s 6s 11 12
 24-06-2023

Numerical problem Assignment

Q. Alex swims in a 90m long pool. He covers 180m in Q.1 Differentiate between speed and velocity.
one minute by swimming from one end to the other
and back along the same straight path. Find the Q.2 A body can have average velocity zero but not zero
average speed and average velocity of Alex. average speed. Explain.
Soln : Total distance travelled = 180m
Total time taken = 1min = 60s Q.3 A train travels 20 km at a uniform speed of 60 km/hr and
the next 20 km at a uniform speed of 80 km/hr. Calculate its
Average speed = total distance travelled average speed.
total time taken
= = 3 m/s
Q.4 Suresh, while driving to school, computes the average
Average velocity = total displacement speed for his trip to be 20 km/hr. On his return trip along the
total time taken
= 0 (as the displacement is 0) same route, there is less traffic and the average speed is 30
13
km/hr. What is the average speed for his entire trip? 14

Velocity and Acceleration Velocity and Acceleration

Velocity : Velocity of a body is the speed of the body Non-uniform or variable velocity : If a body covers unequal
in a particular direction. distance in a particular direction in equal interval of time or
i.e. Velocity = Speed + direction the direction of motion changes, the body is said to be in
non-uniform velocity.
40 km/hr + direction 40 km/hr
A B
Uniform velocity or constant velocity
If a body covers equal distance in equal interval of C 40 km/hr B
time in a particular direction, the body is said to be in Average velocity
uniform or constant velocity. The average velocity of an object is its total
displacement divided by the total time taken.

A 40 km/hr B ## Vav =
15 16
 24-06-2023

Velocity and Acceleration Velocity and Acceleration

# when the velocity changes in equal amount with time. Concept of acceleration:
The acceleration of a moving body is defined as the
Vav = , where u = initial velocity rate of change of velocity of the body.
v = final velocity Mathematically :

** The velocity of a body can be changed - Acceleration(a) = Rate of change of velocity

(a) By changing the speed of the body. `=
(b) By changing the direction of motion of the # Its SI Unit is m/sec2.
body.
# It is a vector quantity.
(c) By changing both, the speed and direction of
motion.
17 18

Velocity and Acceleration Assignment

Mathematical expression of acceleration: Q.1 What is the acceleration of a body?

t = time taken
A B Q.2 What are the condition in which a body has
u = initial velocity v = final velocity changed its velocity?
# Change in velocity = Final velocity – Initial velocity = v – u
Q.3 A bus changes its speed from 60 km/hr to
# Time taken = t 80 km/hr in 5 sec. Find the acceleration of the
bus.
Acceleration(a) =

a =
19 20
 24-06-2023

Acceleration Acceleration
• Acceleration is a vector quantity. (ii) Acceleration, a = +ve
• The value of acceleration may be Zero, Positive or negative. A t B
(i) Acceleration, a = 0 u v
a
When the velocity of a body increases with time, v > 𝑢.
Therefore, v – u = +ve
t
v i.e. a = = = +𝑣𝑒
u Acceleration of an object is positive if its direction is the
When a body is moving along a straight line with a uniform same as that of the direction of the motion of the object.
velocity (i.e. u = v), change in its velocity, v – u = 0.
i.e. a = = 0
Eg : When a body is drooped, Its velocity goes on increasing.
21 22

Acceleration Types of acceleration

(ii) Acceleration, a = -ve Uniform acceleration Non-uniform acceleration
A t B When velocity of the body When velocity of the body
u v moving along a straight line moving along a straight line
a changes by equal amount in changes by unequal amount in
When the velocity of a body decreases with time, v < 𝑢. equal interval of time, it is said equal interval of time, it is said
Therefore, v – u = -ve to have uniform acceleration. to have non-uniform acceleration.
i.e. a = = = −𝑣𝑒 10m/s
0m/s 10m/s 20m/s 30m/s 0m/s 40m/s 90m/s
Acceleration of an object is negative if its direction is A B A B
0s 2s 4s 6s 0s 2s 4s 6s
against the direction of the motion of the object. Negative
acceleration is also called retardation. Acceleration in the first 2s = 5m/s2
Acceleration, a = 5m/s2 = constant in the next 2s = 10m/s2
Eg : When a body is thrown vertically upwards, Its velocity and in the last 2s = 25m/s2
goes on decreasing. 23
Here, acceleration is non-uniform. 24
 24-06-2023

Numerical Problem Assignment

Q. A car travelling at 36km/h speeds upto 72km/h in 5 seconds. Q.1 The acceleration of a body is zero, what is the nature of
What is its acceleration? If the same car stops in 20 seconds, its motion?
what is the retardation?
Soln : (i) In the first case, u = 36km/h = 10m/s
v = 72km/hr = 20m/s Q.2 What is meant by the term retardation? And also write
t = 5s an example of it.
Therefore, a = = m/s2 = 2 m/s2
Q.3 A scooter acquires a velocity of 36km/h in 10 seconds
just after the start. It takes 20 seconds to stop. Calculate the
(ii) In the second case, u = 72km/h = 20 m/s
acceleration in two cases.
v = 0 m/s and t = 20 s
Therefore, a = = m/s2 = m/s2 = - 1 m/s2
25 26

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF MOTION

DISTANCE – TIME GRAPH
(c) When the body is in (d) When the body is in
DISTANCE – TIME GRAPH (b) When the body is in
non-uniform motion. non-uniform motion.
(a) When the body is at rest. uniform motion (i) With increasing speed (ii) With decreasing speed
Y Y Y
Y
20 20 s3
Distance (m)

Distance (m)

s2
Distance (m)

Distance (m)
10 10 s3 s1

5 5
s2
s1
0 2 4 6 8 X 0 2 4 6 8 X
0 2 4 6 8 X 0 X
Time (s) Time (s) 2 4 6 8
27 Time (s) Time (s) 28
 24-06-2023

DISTANCE – TIME GRAPH VELOCITY – TIME GRAPH

Slope of a D-T graph Slope of a graph :- It is given by the (a) When the body is moving (a) When the body is moving
ratio of change in value of Y to the with a uniform velocity. with a uniform acceleration.
change in value of X Y Y
Y

Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)
B Slope of a D-T graph :- The slope of a
s2 20 20
Distance (m)

D-T graph is equal to the speed of the

object. 10
10
A Slope = 5
s1 5
=
s s 0
0 t1 t2 X = 2 1 0 2 4 6 8 X 2 4 6 8 X
t2 − t1
Time (s) = Speed Time (s) Time (s)
29 Acceleration = 0 Acceleration = constant 30

IMPORTANCE OF V-T GRAPH

VELOCITY – TIME GRAPH
1. Slope of a V-T graph of a uniformly accelerated body is equal to its
(a) When the body is moving (a) When the body is moving with
acceleration. Y
with a uniform ratardation. a non-uniform acceleration.
Y Y B

Velocity (m/s)
Slope = v
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)

20 =
v3 v u v u
10 = t − t = t = a A
2 1 u
where, t = t2 − t1
5 v2 D C
v1 0 t1 t2 X
0 0 X Time (s)
2 4 6 8 X 2 4 6 8
2. The distance travelled by a uniformly accelerated body in a certain
Time (s) Time (s)
interval of time is given by the area under the V-T graph.
Acceleration = -ve Acceleration = variable 31 Distance travelled = area trapezium ABCD 32
 24-06-2023

Assignment Equations of motion

Q.1 Draw the D-T graph of following situations. Equations of motion :- When a body is moving along a
straight line with uniform acceleration, a set of equation can
(a) The body is at rest. established between velocity of the body, acceleration of the
(b) The acceleration of the body is equal to zero. body and the distance travelled by the body in a particular
time. These equations are called equations of motion.
Q.2 What is the physical quantity that is represented by the There are three equations of motion represented as :
slope of the V-T graph. 1. v = u + at Velocity-time relation

Q.3 What is the physical quantity that is represented by the 2. s = ut + at2 Position-time relation
area under the V-T graph. 3. 2as = v2 − u2 Position-velocity relation
Where u = initial velocity (at t = 0), v = final velocity (after time t),
33
a = uniform acceleration of the body, s = distance travelled in time t. 34

Derivation of equations motion by Derivation of equations motion by

graphical methods graphical methods
1. Derivation of v = u + at Y 2.Derivation of s = ut + at2 Y
In the given V-T graph of
In the given V-T graph of D B uniformly accelerated motion, D B
uniformly accelerated motion, v u = OA = initial velocity at t = 0,
v

Velocity
Velocity

u = OA = initial velocity at t = 0, v = OD = final velocity at time = t,

v = OD = final velocity at time = t a = uniform acceleration and
And a = uniform acceleration. s = distance travelled in time t
u A Then we know that u A
Then we know that C Distanced = area of trapezium ABCO C
Acceleration = slope of the graph 0 s = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 0
t X t X
Or a = = Time Or s = (OA + BC) × OC Time
Or a = or at = v − u or s = (u + v) × t = (u + u +at) × t ∵ v = u + at
Or v = u + at 35
Or s = ut + at2 36
 24-06-2023

Derivation of equations motion by Uniform circular motion

graphical methods Uniform circular motion:- When a body travels equal
3.Derivation of 2as = v2 − u2 distances in equal intervals of time, over a circular path, the
Y
In the given V-T graph of motion of the body is said to be uniform circular motion.
uniformly accelerated motion, D B
u = OA = initial velocity at t = 0,
v
Eg:- (a) Apiece of stone tied to a thread and rotated in a circle

Velocity
v = OD = final velocity at time = t,
with uniform speed.
a = uniform acceleration and
s = distance travelled in time t
Then we know that u A (b) The motion of all artificial satellites around the Earth is
Distanced = area of trapezium ABCO C uniform circular motion.
s = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 0 X
t
Or s = (OA + BC) × OC Time (c)The tip of a second’s hand of a clock exhibits uniform circular
v2 − u 2 ∵ v = u + at motion.
or s = (u + v) × =
Or t =
Or 2as = v2 − u2 37 38

Uniform circular motion Uniform circular motion

To calculate speed of the body in uniform circular motion. *In uniform circular motion, only
the speed of the body is constant. But v
Let r = radius of the circular path
the direction of motion of the body is a
n = number of rounds travelled by the body F v
changing continuously. Therefore,
t = time taken by the body to travel n r Thread a
rounds in the circular path velocity of the body in uniform circular
C motion is changing continuously. Hence C F
v = Speed of the body in uniform circular
motion uniform circular motion is an
accelerated motion.
Total distance travelled by the body = n × circumference of the circle
= n × 2𝜋𝑟 = 2n𝜋𝑟 • The direction of motion at any instant of time is along the
∴ speed = tangent to the circular path at that instant.
2n 𝜋 𝑟 • The direction of acceleration is perpendicular to the
or v = direction of motion.
39 40
 24-06-2023

Assignment Numerical problems based on

Q.1 Derive graphically the equation of motion for s = ut + at2
equations of motion
of a body moving with uniform acceleration. Q.1 A car accelerates uniformly from 18 km/h to 36 km/h in 5 second.
Calculate the distance covered by the car in that time.
Q.2 Calculate the speed of tip minute hand of a clock whose Soln :- Here, u = 18 km/h =
×
𝑚/𝑠 = 5 m/s
×
length is 7 cm. ×
v = 36 km/h = 𝑚/𝑠 = 10 m/s
×
t=5s
Q.3 Explain why uniform circular motion is an accelerated
Thus, v = u + at or a =
motion.
∴ a = m/s2 = 1 m/s2
Q.4 An artificial satellite is moving in a circular orbit of radius Then, by using s = ut + at2
42250 km. Calculate its speed if it takes 24 hours to revolve s =(5×5+ × 1 × 52 )m
around the Earth.
s = 37.5m
41 42

Numerical problems based on Numerical problems based on

equations of motion equations of motion
Q.2 The brakes applied to a bus produce an acceleration of 6m/s2 in the Q.3 A stone is thrown in a vertically upward direction with a velocity of
opposite direction to the motion. If the bus takes 2 s to stop after the 5 m/s. If the acceleration of the stone during its motion is 10 m/s2 in the
application of brakes, calculate the distance it travels during this time. downward direction, what will be the height attained by the stone and
how much time will it take to reach ther?
Soln :- Here, acceleration, a = - 6 m/s2
v=0 , t = 2s Soln :- Here, initial velocity, u = 5 m/s, Acceleration, a = - 10 m/s2
From, v = u + at Time taken, t = ?, Final velocity at the highest point, v = 0
or u = v − at Height attained = distance travelled, s = ?
u = 0 - (-6) × 2 m = 12 m v2 – u2 02 – 52 –
From, 2as = v2 – u2 , s = = m = m
Then, by using, 2as = v2 – u2 ×( )
v2 – u2 ∴ s = 1.25m
or s = Then, by using, v = u + at
02 – 122
or s = m = m Or t = = s
( )
∴ s = 12 m ∴ t = 0.5s
43 44
 24-06-2023

Assignment cum problems for practice CHAPTER : 9

Q.1 A train starting from rest moves with a uniform acceleration of Forces and laws of motion
0.2 m/s2 for 5 minutes. Calculate the speed acquired and the
Force :- It is defined as an external effort acting on a body in the form of push or pull. Eg.
distance travelled in this time. Kicking a ball.
Effects of force :- 1. A force may change the state of rest or motion of a body.
Q.2 A ball is gently dropped from a height of 10 m. If its velocity
increases uniformly at the rate of 10 m/s2 , with what velocity
will it strike the ground? After what time will it strike the ground?
u=0 u
F
Q.3 An object starting from rest travels 20m in first 2 s and 160 m in F
next 4 s. What will be the velocity after 7 s from the start? u=0 t v u t v=0
Fig. Change in state of rest Fig. Change in state of motion
Q.4 A car starts from rest and moves along a straight line with 2. A force can change the speed of a body.
constant acceleration 5 m/s2 for 8 seconds. If it then continues with
F
constant velocity, What distance will the car covers in 12 seconds
since it started from the rest? 45
u t v
46

Effects of force Balanced and unbalanced force

3. A force may change the direction of a moving body. Resultant force :- The sum of all the forces acting on a body is called
the net or resultant force.
F2
In the given figure, the resultant force (F) is
F1 F3
given by A
u
F F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 F4

4. A force may change the size and shape of a body.

F1
For example, in the given figure,
F = F1 + F2 F1 = 10N
A
F2 = 9N
or F = 10N + (−9N)
or F = 1N
F2
47 48
 24-06-2023

Balanced and unbalanced force Assignment

Balanced Forced Unbalanced Force
A. Differentiate between balanced force and unbalanced
1. If the resultant of all the forces 1. If the resultant of all the forces force with an appropriate example.
acting on a body is zero, the acting on a body is not zero, the
forces are called balanced forces are called unbalanced
forces. forces.
B. What are the common effects of force, explain with
i.e. F = F1+ F2 + F3 + …… = 0 i.e. F = F1+ F2 + F3 + …… ≠ 0 examples?
2. If a body is under balanced 2. If a body is under unbalanced
forces, it may be at rest or in forces, it is in non-uniform C. Can balanced forces stop a moving body?
uniform motion. motion.
3. If a body is under balanced 3. If a body is under unbalanced D. Name the unbalanced forced that stops a ball rolling on
forces, its acceleration is equal forces, its acceleration is equal the ground.
to zero. to zero.
Eg. In a tug of war, the rope does Eg. A ball set rolling on the ground
49 50
not move in any direction. stops after sometime.

Newton’s Laws of motion Forces and laws of motion

Examples of inertia :-
Newton’s first law of motion states that :-‘An
object remains in a state of rest or in uniform i) If a coin placed on a
motion in a straight line unless some external playing card over a tumbler
unbalance force is applied on the object to is flicked with the finger,
due to inertia of rest, the
change that state. coin falls down into the
tumbler.
Inertia :- The natural tendency of objects to
ii) If a striker hits a pile of
remain in a state of rest or in uniform motion is coins on a carrom board,
called inertia. the lowest coin moves out
This is why the first law of motion is also and due to inertia of rest,
the other coins does not
known as the law of inertia.
51 fall down. 52
 24-06-2023

Forces and laws of motion Forces and laws of motion

iii) When we travel in a car 6) Inertia and Mass :-
and the driver applies the A body at rest continues to be at rest and a body in
brakes suddenly, we tend to motion continues to be in motion. This property of a
fall forward due to inertia of body is called its inertia.
motion.
‘The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia.’
iv) When we are standing in
a bus and the bus begins to
move suddenly, we tend to
fall backward because our
feet in contact with the floor 2500 kg
moves forward but the
upper part of the body
continues to remain at rest
due to inertia of rest. 53 54

Forces and laws of motion Newton’s Laws of motion

Types of inertia Momentum of a body :-
The momentum of a body is the
i) Inertia of rest : It is the product of its mass and velocity.
inability of a body to change Momentum = mass x velocity
itself, its state of rest. p = mv

ii) Inertia of motion : It is the where p is the momentum of a body

inability of a body to change m is the mass of the body
itself, its state of motion. v is the velocity of the body
If a body is at rest its velocity is zero and so its
iii) Inertia of direction : It is the momentum is also zero.
inability of a body to change The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second or
itself, its direction of motion. kg m/s or kg ms-1
55 56
 24-06-2023

Newton’s Laws of motion Newton’s second law of motion

Newton’s second law of motion states that :- ‘ The
Momentum of a body depends on the following factors.
rate of change of linear momentum of a body is directly
a) Mass of the body proportional to the external force applied, and change in
b) Velocity of the body momentum takes place in the direction of applied force.'
Mathematical formulation of Second law of motion :-
Eg :- A truck moving at a very low speed can kill a person
standing in its path because of the heavy mass of the truck. A A
A bullet of small mass when fired from a gun can kill F
m a m
a person because of the large velocity of the bullet.
u t v
So the quantity motion possessed by the body depends
upon its mass and velocity.
In the above figure, an object of mass m is moving
along a straight line with initial velocity u and is
accelerated to velocity v in time t by applying a force F,
then
57 58

Newton’s Laws of motion Applications Newton’s Second law of

A
Motion
B
F 1. A fielder pulls his hand backward;
m a m while catching a cricket ball coming
u t v with a great speed.
Initial momentum, p1 = mu Final momentum, p2 = mv
Change in momentum, p2 – p1 = mv – mu = m (v – u )
∴ External force applied (F) ∝ Rate of change of momentum 2. For athletes of long and
change of momentum high jump, sand bed or
Or F ∝ cushioned bed is provided at
time
m (v – u ) the place of landing.
Or F ∝
t (v – u ) 3. Seat belts in a car are
∵a =
Or F ∝ ma t provided to prevent the passenger
where k is a proportionality
Or F = km a from getting thrown in the
constant = 1
∴ F = ma direction of motion in case of
The SI unit of Force is newton ( N = kgm/s2 = kgms-2 ). 59
sudden braking or any accident. 60
 24-06-2023

Newton’s first law of motion is a special Assignment

case of Newton’s second law of motion
Q.1 What is the physical quantity that measures the inertia of a
According to Newton’s second law of motion’ body?
mv – mu Q.2 Write any two applications inertia of motion.
F =
t
Or F × t = mv – mu ------------ (i) Q.3 What is meant by momentum of a body? Is it a scalar or a
When no external force is applied, F = 0 vector? What is its unit?
From eqn. (i), mv – mu = 0 Q.4 In “ high jump” event, the athletes are made to fall on a
Or, mv = mu cushioned bed. Why?
∴ v = u Q.5 State the Newton’ second law of motion and derive the
This shows that the body will continue to move with the same relation F = ma, where the symbols have their usual meaning.
uniform velocity when no external force is applied on the body.
This is the Newton’s first law of motion. Q.6 A constant force acts on an object of mass 5kg for a
duration of 2 s. It increases the object’s velocity from 3 m/s to
7 m/s. Find the magnitude of the applied force. Now if the force
61 were applied for a duration of 5 s, what would be the final velocity? 62

10) Newton’s third law of motion :- Examples of action and reaction :-

i) When a bullet is fired from a gun, it exerts a forward force
Newton’s third law of motion states that :- ‘To every action there is (action) on the bullet and the bullet exerts an equal and opposite
an equal and opposite reaction and they act on two different bodies.’ force on the gun (reaction) and the gun recoils.
To prove that action and reaction are equal and opposite :- Accelerating force
Recoil force
Take two spring balances A and B connected together. Fix the spring on the bullet
on the gun
balance B to a rigid support. When a force is applied by pulling the free
end of the spring balance A, both the spring balances show the same Action
readings. This shows that the force exerted by the spring balance A on Reaction
B is equal but opposite in direction to the force exerted by spring
balance B on A . The force exerted by the spring balance A on B is
ii) When a sailor jumps out of a boat, he exerts a backward
action and the force exerted by the spring balance B on A is reaction. force of the boat (action) and the boat exerts an equal and
opposite force on the sailor (reaction) and the sailor jumps
forward.

63 64
 24-06-2023

iii) When an air filled balloon is 11) Conservation of momentum :-

released, the force of the air
The Law of conservation of momemtum states that :-
coming out of the balloon
(action) exerts an equal and ‘For two or more bodies in an isolated system acting upon
opposite force on the balloon each other, the sum of momenta before collision is equal
(reaction) and it moves to the sum of momenta after collision provided there is no
upward. external unbalanced forces acting on them.’
Or
For two or more bodies in an isolated system acting upon each
iv) When a rocket is fired, the other, their total momentum remains constant unless an external
force of the burning gases force is applied. Therefore, momentum can neither be created nor
coming out (action) exerts an destroyed.
equal and opposite force on the
rocket (reaction) and it moves mA mB mA mB
upward.
A B A B A B vB
uA uB vA
FBA
Before collision FAB After collision
65 66

𝒎𝑨𝒗𝑨 𝒎𝑨𝒖𝑨
To prove the law of conservation momentum in a system of FBA = Rate of change of momentum of ball A = – -------(i)
𝒕
collision of two bodies on which no external forces is acting.
mBvB –mBuB
FAB = Rate of change of momentum of ball B = -------- (ii)
mA mB mA mB
𝒕

According to Newton’s third law of motion the force FAB

A B uB A B A vA B vB exerted by ball A on ball B is equal and opposite to the
uA
force FBA exerted by ball B on ball A.
FBA After collision
Before collision FAB ∴ FAB = - FBA
If two balls A and B of masses mA and mB are travelling in mBvB –mBuB 𝐦 𝐯 𝐦 𝐮
Or, = − 𝐀 𝐀– 𝐀 𝐀
𝐭
a straight line with initial velocities uA and uB and if uA > uB, Or, mBvB − mBuB = − ( mAvA − mAuA )
the two balls will collide with each other. During collision
at a time t, ball A exerts a force FAB on ball B and ball B Or, mBvB − mBuB = − mAvA + mAuA
exerts a force FBA on ball A. If vA and vB are the Or, mBvB + mAvA = mAuA + mBuB
velocities of balls A and B after collision, Or, mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
The momenta of ball A before and after collision are mAuA
and mAvA and the momenta of ball B before and after Momentum of the two balls before collision is equal to the
67 momentum of the two balls after collision. 68
collision are mBuB and mBvB.
 24-06-2023

Application of law of conservation of momentum

3. Recoiling of Gun
1. The flying of rockets and jet planes The When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun recoils, i.e. the
gun moves backwards through a small distance, giving jerk
rocket fuel burns are pushed the exhaust
gases downwards, and due to this, the to the shoulder of the gunman.
rocket gets pushed upwards.
Recoil force Accelerating force
on the gun on the bullet
mg mb
2. The moving of motorboats Motorboats
also work on the same principle, it pushes vb
the water backwards and gets pushed
Recoil velocity of gun, vg
forwards in reaction to conserve
momentum.

69 70

The velocity of recoil Solved Problems

Recoil velocity is the backward velocity experienced by a shooter when Q.1 A 10 g bullet is shot from a 5 kg gun with a velocity of 400 m/s.
one shoots a bullet. Due to the recoil velocity the shooter experiences a
What is the speed of recoil of the gun?
backward jerk. The recoil velocity is the result of conservation of linear
momentum of the system. Soln. :- Here, mass of bullet, mb = 10 g = 10 × 10-3 kg = 10-2 kg
In the given figure, Recoil Accelerating mass of bullet, mg = 5 kg, Velocity of bullet, vb = 400 m/s
force on the
mb = mass of bullet force on m bullet mb Speed of recoil of gun, vg = ?
g
the gun
Mg = mass of gun m 10−2 × 400
v g = - mb v b = - 5 m/s = - 0.8 m/s
Vb = velocity of bullet vb g
Vg = Recoil velocity of gun Q.2 A truck of mass 2500 kg moving at 15 m/s collides with a car of mass
Recoil velocity of gun, vg 1000 kg moving at 5 m/s in the opposite direction. With what velocity
Before firing, both gun and bullet are at rest. would the two move together?
∴ Total momentum before firing = 0
Soln.:- Here, mass of truck, m1=2500 kg and its initial velocity u1=15 m/s
And Total momentum of bullet and gun on firing = mb vb + mg vg
Mass of car, m2=1000 kg and its initial velocity u2= - 5 m/s
Then, applying law of conservation of momentum
mb v b + m g v g = 0 or, m g v g = - mb v b Let v = the combined velocity of the two, then applying the law of
conservation of momentum, we get
mb
∴ vg = - m vb 71 m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v 72
g
 24-06-2023

2500 × 15 + 1000(-5) = (2500 + 1000) v Assignments

Or, 37500 - 5000 = 3500 v Q.1 A bullet of mass 20 gram moving with a velocity of 300 m/s
Or, v =
32500
= 9.3 m/s
gets embedded in a freely suspended wooden block of mass 880
3500 gram. What is the velocity acquired by the block ?
Q.3 A stone of mass 500 g is thrown with a velocity of 20 m/s across the
frozen surface of a lake. It comes to rest after travelling a distance of Q.2 A boy of mass 60kg running at 3 m/s jumps on to a trolley of
0.1km. Calculate force of friction between the stone and frozen surface mass 140 kg moving with a velocity of 1.5 m/s in the same
of lake. direction. What is their common velocity ?
Soln.:- Here, m = 500 g = 0.5 kg, u = 20 m/s, v = 0 Q.3 A bullet of mass 10 g travelling with a velocity of 150 𝑚𝑠
and s = 0.1 km = 100 m, F = ? strikes a stationery wooden block and comes to rest in 0.03 s.
From, 2as = v2 – u2 Calculate the distance of penetration of the bullet into the block.
Also, calculate the magnitude of the force exerted by the wooden
2a(100) = 0 – 202 block on the bullet.
400
Or, a = -
200
= - 2 m/s2 Q.4 How much momentum will a dumb-bell of mass 10 kg transfer
to the floor if it falls from a height of 80 cm? Take its downward
∴ F = ma = 0.5 × (- 2 )N = - 1 N
73 acceleration to be 10 𝑚⁄𝑠 . 74

Assignments

Q.5 A hockey ball of mass 200g travelling from west to east at 10

m/s is struck by a hockey stick. As a result, the ball gets turned
back and now has a speed of 5 m/s. If the ball and hockey stick
were in contact for 0.2 s, calculate
(i) initial and final momentum of the ball (ii) rate of change of
momentum of the ball
(iii) force exerted by hockey stick on the ball.

75
 24-06-2023

Chapter 1 Roots of Democracy-

What Is Democracy?
Why Democracy?
 24-06-2023

● Military Coup in 1999 led by General Parvez Musharraf.

● He became self proclaimed “Chief Executive of the
Country”after uprooting democratically elected
government.
● He changed his designation to President and in 2002
held a referendum in the country that granted him five
year extension.
 24-06-2023

ELECTIONS
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

GOVERNMENT

ZANU - PF

Zimbabwe African National

Union - Patriotic Front
 24-06-2023

FEATURES OF DEMOCRACY

● ELECTED LEADER MAKES

FINAL DECISIONS.

● ELECTIONS MUST BE FREE

AND FAIR.
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

punjab himalayas
 24-06-2023

POVERTY AS A CHALLENGE
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

Why do we need a Constitution?

● Every country drafts its own constitution.

● A constitution of a nation is the set of the
written laws accepted by the people living
together in a country
● It generates trust and coordination.

● It specifies how a government should be Making of the Indian Constitution

function. ★ Making of the constitution for a huge and diverse
country like India was not an easy affair.
● It lays down the limit on the power of the ★ Change of people status from subjects to citizens.
government. ★ The country was born through the partition based on
● It expresses the aspirations of the religious differences.
★ The princely states were left to decide whether to
people about creating a good society.
merge with India or Pakistan or to remain
independent.
★ The makers of the constitution had anxieties about
the present and the future of the country.
 24-06-2023

The path to constitution

● The national movement of India was not merely a struggle
against a foreign rule.
● It was also to rejuvenate the country and to transform the
society as well as the politics.
● The past experience under colonial rule helped India to set up
its own institutions.
● Many leaders were inspired by the ideals of French
Revolution, the practice of parliamentary democracy in Britain,
bill of rights in USA.
● They incorporated some good points of constitutions of these
in the Indian Constitution.
 24-06-2023

The Constituent Assembly

● The drafting of the Constitution was done by the elected

representatives called the Constituent Assembly.
● It's first meeting was held in December 1946.
● The Constituent Assembly was also divided into
Constituent of India and that of Pakistan.
● There were 299 members that in Indian Constituent
Assembly.
● The Assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November
1949 but came into effect on 26 January 1950.

Why should we accept the Constitution made this ● The Assembly reprinted members from
Assembly more than fifty years ago?
● No large social group and political party has ever different language groups, castes,
questioned the legitimacy of the constitution itself. classes, religions and occupation.
● The Constituent Assembly represents the people of ● Several rounds of thorough discussion
India.
● It's members were elected by the members of the were taken.
existing Provincial Legislatures. ● More than two thousands amendment
● Though dominated by the Indian National Congress,
it includes varieties of opinion and political groups.
were considered.
 24-06-2023

● Members delibrated 114 days spread over 3

years.
● Every spoken words in the Assembly has
been recorded, preserved and printed in 12
bulky volumes.
These are called ‘Constituent Assembly
Debates’.
● These are use to interpret the meaning of the
constitution.
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

The Dream and the Promise

The dreams and the Jawaharlal Nehru famous
promises: • Mahatma Gandhi speech at the stock of
in his magazine Young India midnight on August 15,1947
in 1931, spelt out what he He stated when the world sleep, India will
wanted the Constitution to awake to life and freedom. Freedom and
do…. power brings responsibilities, Service of
India means service of the millions who
suffer, the ambition of the greatest man of
our generation has been to wipe every tear
from every eye.
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

SOCIALISM IN EUROPE
AND THE RUSSIAN
REVOLUTION
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
24-06-2023
 24-06-2023

THANK YOU Thank you