Chapter 3: The Cell

THE CELL
• The cell is known as the structural and functional unit
of life as all living beings are formed of cells.
• There are trillion cells in the human body.
Cell Differentiation

Plasma Membrane
• Controls what moves in and out of the cell
• Selectively permeable
• Phospholipid bilayer
• Water-soluble “heads” form surfaces (hydrophilic)
• Water-insoluble “tails” form interior (hydrophobic)
• Permeable to lipid-soluble substances
• Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane

Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm is a thick solution that fills each cell and is
enclosed by the cell membrane.
• It is mainly composed of water, salts, and proteins.
• All of the organelles in eukaryotic cells, such as the
nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria, are
located in the cytoplasm.
The Basic Component of a Cell
Major parts include:
• Nucleus
contains DNA
• Cytoplasm
cellular contents between plasma membrane & nucleus
Nucleus
• Cell membrane
• A nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that contains
selective barrier
the cell's chromosomes.
• Pores in the nuclear membrane allow for the passage of : the RNA sequence is translated into a sequence of
molecules in and out of the nucleus. amino acids as the protein is formed. During translation,
the ribosome reads three bases (a codon) at a time from
Nuclear envelope
the RNA and translates them into one amino acid.
• Porous double membrane
This flow of information is unidirectional and
• Separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm irreversible.

Nucleolus Ribosome

• Dense collection of RNA and proteins • The ribosome is a complex molecule made of
ribosomal RNA molecules and proteins that form a
• Site of ribosome production factory for protein synthesis in cells.
Chromatin • The ribosome is responsible for translating encoded
• Fibers of DNA and proteins messages from messenger RNA molecules to synthesize
proteins from amino acids.
• Stores information for synthesis of proteins

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Connected, membrane-bound sacs, canals, and vesicle.
• Transport system
• Rough ER
Studded with ribosomes
• Smooth ER
• Lipid synthesis

The Central Dogma Added to proteins arriving from rough ER • Break down
of drugs
Replication
a double stranded nucleic acid is duplicated to give
identical copies. This process perpetuates the genetic
information.
Transcription
a DNA segment that constitutes a gene is read and
transcribed into a single stranded sequence of RNA. The
RNA moves from the nucleus into the cytoplasm.
Translation
 Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi apparatus
Stack of flattened, membranous sacs
Modifies, packages and delivers proteins
• Vesicles
Membranous sacs
Store substances

Centrosome
• Two rod-like centrioles
• Used to produce cilia and flagella
• Distributes chromosomes during cell division
Peroxisomes
• Enzyme-containing sacs
• Break down organic molecules
•Detoxifies alcohol

Mitochondria Lysosomes

• Mitochondria are membrane bound cell organelles that • Enzyme-containing sacs

generate most of the chemical energy needed to power
• Digest worn out cell parts or unwanted substances
the cell's biochemical reactions.
• Mitochondria contain their own small chromosomes.
Generally, mitochondrial DNA are inherited only from
the mother

Flagellum
• Long tail-like projection
• Provides motility to sperm
Cilia
• Short hair-like projections
• Propel substances on cell surface
Microfilaments and microtubules
• Thin rods and tubules
• Support cytoplasm
• Allows for movement of
• organelles

S Phase (Synthesis of DNA)

• In the S phase, DNA replication can proceed through
the mechanisms that result in the formation of identical
pairs of DNA molecules—sister chromatids—that are
firmly attached to the centromeric region. The
centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. The two
centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that orchestrates the movement of
chromosomes during mitosis.

The Cell Cycle G2 Phase (Second Gap)

• In the G2 phase, the cell replenishes its energy stores
and synthesizes proteins necessary for chromosome
manipulation. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and
the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for
the mitotic phase. There may be additional cell growth
during G2 . The final preparations for the mitotic phase
must be completed before the cell is able to enter the
first stage of mitosis.
What is the “G0” for?

Very active period 3 Phases are involved

• G1 phase, the cell grows
• S phase, the cell replicates DNA
• G2 phase, the cell is in preparation for cell division
G1 Phase (First Gap)
• During the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the
biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the building
blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins
as well as accumulating sufficient energy reserves to
complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the
nucleus.
G0 is now known to take different forms and occur for
multiple reasons. For example, most adult neuronal cells,
among the most metabolically active cells in the body, are
fully differentiated and reside in a terminal G0 phase.
Neurons reside in this state, not because of stochastic or
limited nutrient supply, but as a part of their
developmental program.

Meiosis and Fertilization

• Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number
of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces
four gamete cells. This process is required to produce egg
and sperm cells for sexual reproduction.
• Diploid (2n) → haploid (n)
• Sex cells divide to produce gametes (sperm or egg).
• Gametes have half the # of chromosomes.
• Occurs only in gonads (testes or ovaries).
Male: spermatogenesis
Female: oogenesis
• Meiosis is similar to mitosis with some chromosomal
differences.
MEIOSIS 1
• The first meiotic division consists of prolonged MEIOSIS II
prophase in which the homologous chromosomes come • In the second phase of the meiotic division, the haploid
in close contact with each other and exchange hereditary cell divides mitotically and results in four haploid cells.
material between them. This division is also known as the homotypic division.
• Similarly, in the first meiotic division, the reduction of • This division does not include the exchange of the
chromosome number takes place and, thus, two haploid genetic material and the reduction of the chromosome
cells are resulted by this division. number as in the first meiotic division.
• The first meiotic division is also known as the CELL DEATH
heterotypic division.
• Cell death is the event of a biological cell ceasing to
• Meiosis I consists of the following steps: carry out its functions. This may be the result of the
natural process of old cells dying and being replaced by Osmotic Pressure
new ones, or may result from such factors as disease,
ability of osmosis to generate enough pressure to move a
localized injury, or the death of the organism of which
volume of water
the cells are part.
Osmotic pressure increases as the concentration of
• Apoptosis - death of cells which occurs as a normal and
nonpermeable solutes increases
controlled part of an organism's growth or development.
• Isotonic – same osmotic pressure
Passive and Active Transport
• Hypertonic – higher osmotic pressure (water loss)
Active mechanisms require cell energy
• Hypotonic – lower osmotic pressure (water gain)
• Active transport
Filtration
• Endocytosis
• Filtration is another passive process of moving material
• Exocytosis
through a cell membrane. While diffusion and osmosis
• Transcytosis rely on concentration gradients, filtration uses a pressure
gradient. Molecules will move from an area of higher
Passive mechanisms do not require energy
pressure to an area of lower pressure. Filtration is
• Simple diffusion nonspecific.

• Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
• Filtration

Active Transport
• Active transport is the movement of dissolved
molecules into or out of a cell through the cell
membrane, from a region of lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration. The particles move
against the concentration gradient , using energy released
during respiration.
• Example would be the sodium potassium pump
 Endocytosis
• Cell engulfs a substance by forming a vesicle around
the substance
Three types:
• Pinocytosis – substance is mostly water
• Phagocytosis – substance is a solid
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis – requires the
substance to bind to a membrane-bound receptor

mRNA Vaccine Simple Diagram

Exocytosis
• Reverse of endocytosis
• Substances in a vesicle fuse with cell membrane
• Contents released outside the cell
• Release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells

Transcytosis
• Transcytosis is a type of transcellular transport in
which various macromolecules are transported across the
interior of a cell. Macromolecules are captured in
vesicles on one side of the cell, drawn across the cell,
and ejected on the other side